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THE

CALIFORNIA FRUITS

AND

HOW TO GROW THEM

A MANUAL OF METHODS WHICH HAVE
YIELDED GREATEST SUCCESS, WITH THE
LISTS OF VARIETIES BEST ADAPTED TO
THE DIFFERENT DISTRICTS OF THE STATE

BY

EDWARD J. WICKSON,

Professor of Horticulture Emeritus in the College of Agriculture of the University
of California; Horticulturist of the Agricultural Experiment Station; Author of
“California Vegetables in Garden and Field,” “California Garden Flowers, Shrubs,
Trees and Vines,’’ ‘‘One Thousand Questions in California Agriculture Answered,”’
and “Second Thousand Questions in California Agriculture Answered’; Editor of
the Pacific Rural Press.

The branch here bends beneath the weighty pear,
And verdant olives flourish round the year;
The balmy Spirit of the Western gale
Eternal breathes on fruits untaught to fail;

hy Each dropping pear a following pear supplies.
On apples, apples; figs on figs arise.
The same mild season gives the blooms to blow,

The buds to harden, and the fruits to grow.
—Pope’s Hom. Odys. Bk. VII.

EIGHTH EDITION—Fully Revised

SAN FRANCISCO, CAL,

PACIFIC RURAL PRESS
NINETEEN HUNDRED NINETEEN

Copyright, 1919,
By E. J. Wickson and Pacific Rural Press.
Published, September, 1919.

OCT 22 1919

©Ci.A535644 ma 3

PREFACE

The Seventh Edition of this treatise has shared the
good fortune of its immediate predecessors in meeting a
public demand which covered the available supply much
sooner than anticipated. Because of the desirability of
keeping the work abreast of the progress of a constantly
changing and developing industry, the publishers have
assumed the burden of resetting the type for each edition,
resisting the temptation of greater profit which would
attend reprinting from plates with minimum revision.
Therefore this edition is wholly set anew—the eighth op-
portunity for free revision which the writer has enjoyed
during the publication of the work, which has reached a
total of twenty-two thousand copies since the appearance
of the first edition in 1889.

Of the quality of the book, it does not become the writer
to speak, but he may express his satisfaction at its popu-
larity. Its circulation may be cited as a testimonial of its
suitability for service in the building up of the fruit in-
dustries, and the demand for it may be regarded as rather
unique, when it is remembered that the book deals exclu-
sively with the fruit growing of a single State which is
only one, although it be the greatest, of the agricultural
interests of that State. The demand for the book is an
exponent of the continued activity in California fruit
planting, and its sale abroad indicates the fact that the
outside world is watching California’s fruit development,
and desires to know the methods by which a product with
a commercial valuation of more.than $225,000,000 was

’ secured in 1918. :

The writer repeats the request which he has made in
earlier editions that all readers whose observation and
work teach them any better way than he has described in
this book shall share with him the advantages of such
greater wisdom.

EDWARD J. WICKSON.

University of California,
Berkeley, August, 1919.

Chapter.

XVI
XVII
XVIII
XIX
XX
XXI
XXII
XXIII
XXIV

CONTENTS

PART ONE: GENERAL.

The Climate of California and Its Modifications.

Why the California Climate Favors the Growth of Fruit.
The Fruit Soils of California.

The Wild Fruits of California.

The California Mission Fruits.

California’s Leadership in American Fruit Industries.

PART TWO: CULTURAL.

Clearing the Land for Fruit.

The Nursery.

Budding and Grafting.

Preparation for Planting.

Planting of Trees.

Pruning Trees and Thinning Fruit.
Cultivation.

Fertilizers for Trees and Vines.

Irrigation of Fruit Trees and Vines.

PART THREE: ORCHARD FRUITS.

Commercial Fruit Varieties.
The Apple.

The Apricot.

The Cherry.

The Peach.

The Nectarine.

The Pear.

Plums and Prunes.

The Quince.

Chapter.
XXV
XXVI
XXVII
XXVIII

XXIX
XXX
XXXI
XXXII
XXXII
XXXIV
XXXV

XXXVI

XXXVII
XXXVIII
XXXIX

XL

XLI
XLII
XLIII
XLIV

XLV

PART FOUR: THE GRAPE

The Grape Industry.
Propagating and Planting Vines.
Pruning and Care of the Vine.

Grape Varieties in California

PART FIVE: SEMI-TROFICAL FRUITS.

The Date.

The Fig.

The Olive.

The Orange.

The Pomelo or Grape Fruit.
The Lemon.

Minor Semi-Tropical Fruits.

FART SIX: SMALL FRUITS.

Berries and Currants.

PART SEVEN: NUTS.
The Almond.
The Walnut.

Minor Nuts.

PART EIGHT: FRUIT PRESERVATION.

Fruit Canning, Crystallizing and Drying.

PART NINE: FRUIT PROTECTION.

Injurious Insects.
Diseases of Trees and Vines.
Suppression of Injurious Animals and Birds.

Protection from Wind and Frost.

PART TEN: MISCELLANEOUS.

Utilization of Fruit Wastes. -

Topical Index.

CALIFORNIA FRUITS

PART ONE: GENERAL

CHAPTER I

THE CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA AND ITS LOCAL
MODIFICATIONS

In climatic conditions affecting horticulture we have in Cali-
fornia almost an epitome of all other parts of the United States,
with added climatie characters which no other part posseses. We
have high mountain valleys with wintry temperature-conditions,
where only hardy northern fruits can be grown; we have hot valleys
where the date palm confidently lifts its head to the fiery sunshine,
while its feet are deeply planted in moist substrata beneath the
sandy surface; but we can not claim tropical conditions, because our
dry air denies us many strictly tropical growths, although we have
frostless sites for them. Intermediate between the cold and snow
of the mountains and the heat and sand of the desert, we have every
describable modification and gradation, and, naturally, it is between
these extremes that our richest inheritance of horticultural adapta-
tion lies.

When the breadth and scope of our horticultural adaptations
are realized, it becomes apparent that an enumeration of the fruits
we can grow successfully would be, in fact, a catalogue of the
known fruits of the world, except those which are strictly tropical.
Wherever there is a northern or southern departure from the
equator sufficient to bring energy to mankind, or where the same
is accomplished by elevation upon tropical mountainside or plateau,
there also are fruits which find a welcoming home in California,
and are improved by the intelligent cultivation and selection which
here prevail. On the other hand, it has been abundantly demon-
strated, during recent years, by official awards at great exhibitions

10 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

and by the sharp criteria of the markets as well, that the fruits of
wintry regions are quite as much benefited by transfer to proper
locations in California as are the people who come to grow them.
From north and south alike, then, California makes grand acquisi-
tions and includes within her area the adaptations of the whole
country, with some which no other State possesses.

But while this horticultural scope is claimed for the State as a
whole, it is necessary to add that local adaptations within the ‘State
must be very narrowly drawn. Our greatest failures have followed
ill choice of location for the purpose intended. Whenever certain
California fruits have been ill spoken of, they have been produced
in the wrong places, or by ill-advised methods. It is possible, then,
to produce both poor and perfect fruit of a given kind. It may be
said this can be done anywhere by the extremes of culture and neg-
lect, but to this proposition it must be added that in California
equally excellent methods and care may produce perfection in one
place and the opposite in another. One who seeks to know Cali-
fornia well must undertake to master both its horticultural greatness
and littleness; and so closely are these associated, and so narrow the
belts of special adaptations, that there are many counties which have
a range of products nearly as great as the State itself.

It, is hard for the stranger to realize this. It is difficult for him
to believe that the terms ‘‘northern’’ and ‘‘southern’’ have almost
no horticultural significance in California; that northern fruits reach
perfection, under proper conditions, at the south, and vice versa; that
some regions of greatest rainfall have to irrigate most frequently ;
that some of greatest heat have sharpest valley frosts; that some
fruits can be successfully grown through a north and south distance
of 300 miles, but can not be successfully carried a few hundred feet
of either less or greater elevation; that on the same parallel of lati-
tude within a hundred miles of distance, from coast to mountainside,
one can continuously gather marketable Bartlett pears for three
months—not to mention the second crop, from belated blossoms,
which is often of account on the same trees in the same season.

Through the multitude of local observations, which seem per-
plexing and almost contradictory, it is possible to clearly discern
certain general conditions, of both nature and culture, which may
be briefly advanced as characteristically and distinctively Cali-
fornian.

The climate of the Pacific Coast is described by the meteorologist
as ‘‘insular or moderate,’’ as contrasted with the ‘‘continental or
excessive’’ climate of the regions east of the Sierra Nevada. The
west coast of Europe is also insular in its climate. The northern
limit of an annual mean temperature of 50 degrees Fahr. is 50 de-
grees and 47 degrees of north latitude on western coasts of Europe
and America respectively. But though there is this similarity in
mean annual temperature, there is a decided advantage pertaining to
our climate over that of west Europe in that our range of temper-
ature is less; that is, extremes of heat and cold are nearer together,
and changes are therefore much less excessive. This characteristic

TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE kali

of our local climates is due in the main te two great agencies, one
active, bringing heat, the other passive, shielding us from arctic
influences.

First: Our proximity to the Pacific Ocean. Professor Alexander
G. McAdie, for twenty years in charge of the San Francisco office of
the United States Weather Bureau, and now Professor of Meteor-
ology at Harvard University, says of the mildness of the California
climate: ‘‘The Pacific Ocean is a great natural conservator of heat,
the mean annual temperature of which near the California Coast
ranges from 50 degrees to 60 degrees F. The strength of the west-
erly winds which prevail on the California Coast for more than half
the .days of the year is due to the fact that the whole drift of the
atmosphere is prevailingly from the west to east. The climate of
west coasts is consequently less severe than the climate of east
coasts.’’*

Second: Another agency contributing to the mild climate of the
Pacific Coast consists in the mountain barriers upon our northern
and eastern boundaries. It was Guyot who first called attention to
the fact that the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Mountains reach
the coast of Alaska and bend like a great arm around its western
and southern shore, thus shutting off or deflecting the polar winds
that otherwise would flow down over the Pacific Coast States, while
California has her own additional protection from the north in the
mountain arch which has its keystone in Mount Shasta.

CHIEF TOPOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATIC DIVISIONS OF
CALIFORNIA

California is usually divided into three main areas and climates,
each distinct in typical conditions and yet separated by regions, more
or less wide, in which these conditions merge and influence each
other. Dr. Robertson says :t

Isothermal lines which normally run east and west are, as they near the
Pacific, deflected north and south, and define three distinct climatic belts.
These may be named coast, valley and mountain; and while they resemble
each other in having only two seasons, they are dissimilar in other respects.
These differences depend upon the topography of the country, and are of
degree rather than of kind; altitude, distance from the ocean, and situation
with reference to mountain chains, giving to each region its characteristic
climate.

How similar are the conditions which prevail in these belts may
be learned from the data shown, in the following table, which in-
eludes points separated by nearly the whole length of the State, the
difference in latitude of the extreme north and south points being
seven or eight degrees. Thus, through a north or south distance
great as that which separates the States of Georgia and New York,
similar climatic conditions prevail in California. In the following

*“The Rainfall of California,’ University of California Publications in Geography, 1914.
+Report of State Agricultural Society, 1886, page 322.

12 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

table the averages are deduced from observations by the United
States Weather Bureau observers for a long series of years:

Seasonable and extreme temperatures and average rainfall in various Cali-
fornia regions from the records of the United States Weather Bureau to the
close of 1918.

Sah Mag ae Bee Flee es ; . ga
£ of eh ge o8 gh 6 8 as
ES os SS os a8 8) @ BS
STATIONS. COUNTY Big Spe i go get aml el
a woe wa wo wa He DA PR aw
B ob £8 88 S860 88 eo aa
ge ree pS pee ee ee Se
Bat dy te yeti Ane we EE Sey 4
COAST—
HMUTeK ats oS 6 Eimboldttjc. ccc: 64 47 50 56 54 51 §85 20 46.0
San Francisco.San Francisco ... 155 51 55 59 59 55 101 29 22.3
San Jose...... Santa Clara?’ .:io0:. 95 50 57 67 60 58 108 18 16.8
Kine City 2) i: AMIONEGT OV 0% ace wate 3383 49 57 66 60 58 #116 14 11.4
Santa Barbara. Santa Barbara ... 130 55 58 65 63 60 115 27 18.1
Los Angeles... Los Angeles ..... 293. 55 60 70 65° 62° 209° 28 25.6
San Diego..... San Diezo: s22 ens 87550 159.68 63" (6 ALOK 25 tO
VALLEY—
Redding....... Shasta: So eis 552 47 60.80 64 638 112 18 35.8
Sacramento....Sacramento ...... TL 47 59s 12> 162° 601d 1952208
Merced........ IMGrGed vas ce eeitete = 17349. 62 (7965. 60" beet Gon. 7
BESO see cis ee ENDESHO Meee cette 293) AT 60. 79! 64, Go, dae Teron y
WASHIIA IS tie at MPiurlarer, hao ace 334), 46° 59) -78) 162.61 2 a AS
FOOTHILL AND MESA—
PAD ATE <5 Joho PIAGER Mey pains 1360 47°. 57°75 64 6h" 110 asso
Redlands....... San Bernardino ..1352 52 -61. 77. 65 63 114 48 149

LOCATIONS FOR THE GROWTH OF DIFFERENT
FRUITS

It is intended to describe as definitely as possible the locations
suitable for the growth of different fruits in the special chapters
given to those fruits, but there are a few general conditions which
should be outlined.

In discussing the choice of location for an orchard it is not
intended to speak geographically. As has already been intimated,
latitude, which is a prime factor in geography, is of exceedingly
small account as an indication of horticultural adaptations in Cali-
fornia. The fact becomes strikingly apparent when it is known that
the apple and the orange, fruit kings whose kingdoms lie at opposite
borders of the temperate zone, so far distant that one may be called
semi-frigid and the other semi-tropical,. have in California utter dis-
regard for the parallels of latitude, which set metes and bounds upon
them in other lands, and flourish side by side, in suitable localities,
from San Diego to Shasta. Impressive as this truth may be, it is
not so startling as, another fact, viz., that fruits, in suitable interior
situations, ripen earlier at the north than in coast valleys at the
south.

‘‘That almost any extreme of weather,’’ says Professor McAdie
in his publication just cited, ‘‘can be found within the limits of Cali-

CALIFORNIA COAST CLIMATES 13

fornia is readily comprehensible when it is considered that the state
is 800 miles in length, contains a hundred million acres, and varies
from deserts as much as 280 feet below the sea to Shasta 14,380 feet,
or the High Sierra, where 66 peaks exceed 10,000 feet in height, while
40 exceed 13,000 feet, and Mount Whitney rises to 14,502 feet.’’

It is apparent, then, in view of such diversity, that the selection of
locations for orchards must be made with a knowledge of special con-
ditions governing the distribution of equal temperatures and other
natural agencies contributing to the development of fruit. This
distribution, as has been intimated, is not by parallels of latitude,
great circles which appear as straight lines on a map, but by curves,
which proceed in various directions, governed chiefly by topography.
These are curves of temperature, of rainfall, of elevation, of soil
formation and deposit. Geography must be interpreted by topog-
raphy and climatography.

Let these ruling conditions be reviewed, then, briefly: First, as
to general areas; second, with reference to special situations and
locations.

COAST CLIMATE

The chief characteristics of the coast are equable temperature,
increasing southward ; summers cool and winters warm, as compared
with the interior; abundant rainfall, decreasing considerably south-
ward; a somewhat humid atmosphere, as compared with the interior ;
frequent fogs or overcast skies; prevailing westerly winds.

The extension of coast influence toward the interior is eaverned
by local topography. Coast valleys open to ocean winds are cooler
and moister and demand hardier fruits than valleys sheltered by
intervening ranges. Gaps and passes in the ranges are subject to
winds of considerable force and low temperature, and are not gener-
ally favorable for fruit; on the other hand, situations sheltered on
the north and west favor growth of fruits even though quite near
the coast. Sometimes a distance of a few miles, sometimes a wind-
break or natural forest, or of planted trees, so modifies coast in-
fluences that fruits do well. Elevation on the sides of coast valleys
secures similar results. For example, the floor of the Pajaro Valley
is well suited for apples, late pears, cherries, plums, prunes, and
berries (except gooseberries), while on adjacent hillsides peaches
do well.

In Southern California, coast winds are warmer than in the upper
half of the State, but coast influences intrude farther, as a rule,
because the hills near the coast in Southern California are low; the
high ranges, answering to the Coast Range of the upper part of the
State, trending far into the interior. On the coast side of these
ranges fruits ripen later than in sheltered interior points in the
upper part of the State, but eastward of the mountains, where soil
and moisture favor, or irrigation is practised, extra early locations
have been found and are now being rapidly developed—in the
Imperial and adjacent valleys, for instance.

14 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Some of the horticultural effects of the conditions prevailing on
the coast may be described as follows:

Late Ripening of Fruits——The late ripening of fruits west of the
mountains in Southern California has just been mentioned. Intrusion
of coast influences has the same effect in more marked degree at the
north because the ocean winds are colder. Directly on the coast, at
Pescadero, San Mateo County, for example, fruits ripen about a
month later than in Santa Clara Valley, which is just across the
Coast Range. Napa Valley, though about forty miles inland and
sheltered by ranges of hills, still is sufficiently affected by the coast
influences to mature fruits considerably later than Vaca Valley, ten
or fifteen miles further east, beyond a higher range, which com-
pletely bars out these influences. Similar local effects are found in
Southern California. For instance, in Ventura County, in a canyon
sixteen miles from the ocean, and at an elevation of sixteen hundred
feet, fruits ripen three weeks earlier than on the coast or in the
‘valleys opening thereon.

Failure of Certain Fruits—Though killing frosts are few directly
on the coast, the deficiency in summer heat and sunshine renders
some fruits unsatisfactory. This is especially the case in the upper
coast region. Grapes and figs ripen imperfectly, while but a short
distance back from the coast, in situations sheltered by ridges
parallel to the coast, they do well. Elevation sometimes produces
corresponding effects.

Pests and Diseases.—Certain blights are more prevalent under —
coast conditions. The scab blight of the apple, the curl-leaf of the
peach, and some other blights, are prevalent on the coast and in
coast valleys, on the river bottoms in the interior, and on the moun-
tains, and less serious, or wholly absent, in the hot interior valleys.
Some insects prefer the coast but thrive also in the interior, as hot
dry wind is excluded by dense growth of the tree and the included
air becomes moister above irrigated soil. A notable instance is the
black scale, which, with the black smut which attends it, has long been
a grievous pest of growers of olives and citrus fruits, and has recently
became prevalent on deciduous fruit trees in some regions. On the
other hand, in the face of ocean winds the codlin moth seems to have
less chance to fill pears and apples with her destructive offspring
than she enjoys in interior valleys and mountain regions. Directly
under coast influences, moss and lichens gather quickly and should
be removed. Spraying with alkaline washes not only kills insects
but cleans the bark from parasitic vegetable growth. Although fruit
trees on the coast are not so subject to sunburn as in the interior,
there is especial value in low heading to withstand winds; there
should also be plenty of room given the trees, that sunshine may
have free access to warm the ground all around the tree, which may
be undesirable in the interior.

INTERIOR CLIMATES OF CALIFORNIA 15

VALLEY CLIMATE

The characteristics of the interior valley climate are higher
summer and lower winter temperatures than on the coast, the range
of temperature being nearly the same both north and south; rain-
fall abundant in the north and decreasing rapidly southward, so that
as a rule the interior valleys in the south half of the State require
irrigation; very dry air and almost constant sunshine, freedom from
fogs and from dew in summertime; winds occasionally strong, hot,
and desiccating in summer and cold in winter.

Local Modifications.—The term ‘‘valley climate’’ is broad, and
includes everything away from the coast to a certain elevation on
the slope of the mountains. Certain small valleys protected from
cold northerly winds and from fog-bearing westerly winds and open
to the spring sunshine, have a foreing climate which produces the
earliest maturing fruit of the season; earlier not only than the coast
and the mountain, as has been stated, but also somewhat earlier than
adjacent locations in the broad, open valley. Slight elevation, even
on the sides of small valleys, frequently secures freedom from winter
frosts and ministers to early ripening. Elevation above sea-level on
the rims of great valleys also secures similar results and gives rise
to thermal belts in which semi-tropical fruits are successfully grow-
ing even as far north as Shasta County. On the floors of great
valleys moderating influences are secured on the lee side of wide
rivers and by planting on the river bank or on slightly elevated
swells rather than on the level, open plain. The river bottom lands
of the great valleys, though subject to severe frosts, are freer from
the effects of desiccating winds than the open plains; they are, how-
ever, more favorable to the spread. of certain blights than the plains.

Some of the horticultural effects of valley conditions are as
follows: Early ripening and perfection of summer and autumn
fruits, owing to continual sunshine and dry air; forced maturity of
certain fruits, as apples for instance, which destroys character and
keeping quality; injury from sunburn and hot winds in summer,
which seriously affect both fruit and foliage of some varieties;
occasional injury to tender fruits (semi-tropicals) and to young trees
of hardy fruits, which have been kept growing late in the season,
from low temperature, which sometimes is reached suddenly on the
floor of the valleys; freedom from some blights and insects which
are prevalent on the coast, but not from others. Many of these minor
troubles are, however, counterbalanced by the earliness, size, beauty,
and quality of certain fruits, and by the most rapid and successful
open-air drying of fruits, owing to high autumn temperature, the
freedom from summer fog, dew and generally from rain during the
drying season.

FOOTHILL CLIMATE

Foothill climate is usually considered as a modification of valley
climate. It has been shown that up to about two thousand five
hundred feet, on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, the seasonal

16 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

temperatures are quite like those of the valley, but the rainfall in-
creases about one inch for each hundred feet of elevation. There
are, however, in the foothills, places where early spring heat and
freedom from frost give very early ripening fruits, and other places
at the same elevation where winter temperature drops below the
valley minimum, and where late frosts also prevail. This is gov-
erned by local topography. In many of the small valleys among the
foothills, both of the Sierra Nevada and the Coast ranges, frosts are
more severe than on the hills adjacent or in the broader valleys to
which they are tributary. These small ‘‘protected valleys’’ are
apparently ‘warm and cozy for early blooming deciduous and citrus
fruits, but they are really very dangerous. They frequently have
such narrow and obstructed openings that cold air is dammed up over
their lower lands and frosts are more severe and later than in valleys
which have ample and free outlets and seem less protected.

Of course the disposition of cold air to settle in low places and
to flow down canyons and ereek-beds while the warm air rises and
bathes the adjacent hillsides, has much to do with the frost in the
hollow and the freedom from it on the hills. The constant motion
of the air on the slopes is also a preventive of frost, providing the
general temperature is not too low. It is not uncommon to find in
deeper valleys, protected against the western wind, flakes of snow
and a wintry chill, with dormant vegetation, while one thousand feet
higher up the foliage is fast developing.

MOUNTAIN CLIMATE

Above an elevation of two thousand five hundred to three
thousand feet, conditions gradually intrude which resemble those
of wintry climates. The tender fruits, the apricot, peach, etc.,
become liable to winter injury and give irregular returns, or as
greater elevation is attained, become wholly untrustworthy. Harly
blooming of these fruits during warm spells which are followed by
severe frosts, renders the trees unfruitful. At four thousand to four
thousand five hundred feet the hardy apple and pear flourish, ripen-
ing late, and. winter varieties possessing excellent keeping qualities.
Here, however, winter killing of trees begins and, locations even for
hardy fruits have to be chosen with circumspection.

There are elevated tracts of large extent among the Sierras where
the common wild plum, choke-cherry, gooseberry, and California
chestnut are produced abundantly. April frosts have killed the fruit
of those same plums, transplanted to lower ground, while those left
in their natural situation were quite unharmed. It has been ob-
served that these plum trees with other fruits and nuts in their
original positions, invariably occupy the broad tops of the great
ridges instead of the sides and bottoms of ravines or narrow, pent-up
valleys. Follow nature in the choice of orchard sites (with due
regard to a supply of moisture in the soil, either natural or artificial)
and little hazard attends the culture of the hardier fruits of our
latitude among the highlands of the State that is incident to other

AUTUMN COLORS NOT DUE TO FROST Lye

*

seemingly more favored localities. The beauty and quality of these
mountain fruits are proverbial.

A RULE OF GENERAL APPLICATION

What has been thus suggested of the great variation of temper-
ature conditions within narrow limits should lead to the conclusion
that not only must the kind of fruit to plant be determined by local
observation and experience, but often varieties of these fruits must
be chosen with reference to adaptation to local environment. For
this reason it is impossible to compile tables of varieties suited for
wide areas—and yet it is true that some varieties have shown them-
selves hardy and satisfactory under all conditions. These facts will
be shown by the discussion which will be given to each of the differ-
ent fruits.

REST AND ACTIVITY OF FRUIT TREES

Indication has already been made of regions adapted to the
growth of early and of late fruits. There is, of course, difference
in time of rest and of returning activity in blooming. On the
mountains under wintry conditions the trees leaf out and bloom
late, following more or less the habit of Eastern trees. In the foot-
hills, the valleys, and the coast, there is less difference in time of
rest and of leaf and bloom. Even in regions where there may be a
month’s difference in ripening of fruit, as, for example, in the Vaca-
ville district, fifty miles inland, and in Berkeley, two miles from the
bay shore, trees bloom almost at the same date. The difference in
ripening is due to the higher temperature and fuller sunshine of the
interior situation, which have a forcing effect, while the low temper-
ature and dull skies of the summer on the coast retard maturity.

The rest of the tree, in all save the mountain district, is not
dependent upon the touch of frost. It comes rather from thirst
than from cold. The immense weight of fruit, the vigorous growth
of wood, and the exhaustion of moisture from the soil by the draught
of the roots to compass this growth, are the chief causes which bring
the sere and yellow leaf in California. It is not frost, for the petunias
may be blooming and the tomato vines still green in the fields. But
the time has come for a rest. The trees sleep; but merely as a nap
at midday; the early rains wake them soon. The roots are active
first, then the buds swell, and the blossoms burst forth—sometimes
as early as January—the almond first heralding the advent of Cali-
fornia’s springtime.

Sometimes this season of rest is too short for the good of the tree
or vine. The early rains, when followed by a spring-like temper-
ature, as sometimes happens, induce activity in the top as well as
the root, and the tree is not in condition to withstand cold weather,
which may follow. It is probable that such stimulated activity,
suddenly checked, is responsible for more ills to tree and vine than
are usually attributed to it. Both to insure hardiness and fruitful-
ness it is important that a tree shall have summer moisture enough
to finish its late summer and early autumn growth-processes. Refer-
ence to this important matter is made in the chapter on irrigation.

CHAPTER II

WHY THE CALIFORNIA CLIMATE FAVORS THE
GROWTH OF FRUIT

It is pointed out by the earliest students of meteorology, as
related to horticulture, that perfect development of fruits depends
upon certain atmospheric conditions, which are included in the term
climate: First, temperature; second, light; third, humidity or at-
mospheric moisture,—considered wholly apart from soil moisture.
It was also shown that temperature and humidity should be equable,
or as free as possible from excessive extremes or rapid changes.

Obviously, the chief characteristics of the California climate are:
First, freedom from extremes of low temperature ; second, an abun-
dance of sunshine; and third, atmosphere with a low percentage of
humidity. It will be interesting to introduce enough statistics to
demonstrate these claims, and to cite reasons why these conditions
are of special value to the fruit grower.*

THE OFFICE OF HEAT IN FRUIT PRODUCTION

Temperature conditions may preclude the success of a fruit tree
either by destroying it outright, by dwarfing it, or by preventing it
from setting or ripening its fruit. Extremes of temperature accom-
plish the death of plants, and insufficient or excessive mean temper-
atures may prevent fruition without killing the plant. The first
quality of the California climate to arrest the attention of fruit
growers in the states east of the Rocky Mountains is the freedom
from the effects of the extremely low winter temperatures, to: which
is due the deplorable failure, in the eastern and western states, of
many of the fruit varieties from the west of Europe, and to escape
which such zealous efforts are now being so successfully put forth to
secure hardy varieties of native and foreign origin.

How slight is the injury from low temperatures in all parts of
the State where fruit is largely grown may be seen from the follow-
ing compilation of extreme low temperatures at different points
approximately at the same latitude on the coast, in the interior
valleys, and on the foot-hills.

Lowest Temperatures at Several California Points.

Coast and Coast Deg. above Deg. above Deg. above

Valleys— zero. Interior Valleys— zero. Foothills— zero.
BUT ekal oc Ae ere ats 20’ 2 Reddines:+2- 7h eae Mgt ees | fast Shee Ne rsleds misuse ella ate
Wikiahoe lh Sele oe ceveten, 12%, «Red Bui Tete sein DIS TS ce A gaa oaner ate bees mea gPbi mereer aan abe
Gloverdale™..%\.5 <..\ LT oy Orowiilen ise eter Le WING VAG a LG esis lrtey: 4
NAD a cre seer 18° Marysville) ccc. cee 9 ere COMA: fesse alnvens, cntates 8
San Francisco ..... 28 Sacramento ....... MO PATTIE IDS sales aceue tiie, 3 orere 12
San) Jose: osian eee Via) Merced wo. haveee ce TOS el ACKSON Ma. ae eoatentels 10
GUTOY: Sonik mites 205, SBTeSNOs-A eis ser ee Ly fis 8 eve) ar wen as eps emai tbe

*Other horticultural aspects of California climates are presented in the author’s other
books, viz.: “California Vegetables” and ‘‘California Garden F)owers.”’

GOOD FRUIT REQUIRES ENOUGH HEAT 19

Lowest Temperatures at Several California Points—Continued.

San INFIENIOL «2 ccc oye ne MH Cee hibare. Ciuey i) sreionces NG in PONEEL VINE. oasis vie. 21 18
Los Angeles ...... PSEA COLEONS is) ah) «5 apomhenoke ke TO SR CGIATES Es cicererekt ions 18
pan Diego, 42...0. 5 2): BO LIMpPeriale 2.5 seer OEM Sy Sarde ein oiceh een gr Sua sane (ee arte

These records will show any one familiar with winter killing of
the leading orchard fruits that such disasters are not to be feared
in the chief fruit regions of California. Local temperature is largely
controlled by local conditions, as has already been pointed out, and
in the districts named in the table there are special locations where
the lowest temperature may have been a few degrees higher or lower
than figures given.

NECESSITY OF ADEQUATE SUMMER HEAT.

Passing beyond the freedom from winter killing, it may be re-
marked that the influences of certain degrees of heat upon the
growth of the plant and the perfection of its fruit, has been the
subject of much close observation. Boussingault conducted careful
experiments, and showed that a temperature above a certain mini-
mum of heat is found necessary for germination, another for
chemical modification, and a third for flowering, a fourth for the
ripening of seeds, a fifth for the elaboration of the saccharine juices,
and a sixth for the development of aroma or bouquet.

Originally the mean annual temperature was alone observed, and
the polar limits of plants, it was presumed, could be thereby deter-
mined. More recently it was taught that the mean temperature of
seasons is of more importance than that of the year, and it is believed
that to the relative distribution of heat over the seasons rather than
to the absolute amount received during the year, we are to attribute
the fitness or unfitness of a region for the growth of certain kinds
of vegetation. -

It is held in Europe that the mean heat of the cycle of vegetation
of the vine must be at least 59 degrees Fahr., and that of the summer
from 65 degrees to 66 degrees Fahr. It is stated to be impossible,
for instance, to cultivate the vine upon the temperate tablelands of
South America, where they enjoy a mean temperature of 62.6 de-
grees to 66.2 degrees Fahr., because these climates are characterized
by a constancy of temperature, never rising to the higher heats neces-
sary to the process of sugar forming; and the vine grows and
flourishes, but the grapes never become thoroughly ripe. Boussin-
gault shows that, in addition to a summer and autumn sufficiently
hot, it is indispensable that at a given period—that which follows
the appearance of seeds—there should be a month'the mean temper-
ature of which does not fall below 66.2 degrees Fahr. As will appear
presently, this temperature test should notibe taken alone, but it will
Serve as a standard to show one feature of the horticultural adapta-
tion of the California climate. Boussingault claims the need of 66.2
degrees Fahr. for a single month. To be sure to include this, the
accompanying table gives the average ‘summer temperature at the
leading fruit-growing centers named.

20 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Average Summer Temperature at Various California Points

Coast and Coast Eleva- Deg.

Valleys— Deg. F. Interior Valleys— Deg. F. Foothills— tion. F.
Upper Lake .... 86 Redding ........ SO) ATI DUTT eon cy tate ee P3630) 45
INGA cts) vaneows sxe 65) Orovillewe eon 710) "Colfax ore Me sete 2,241 76
Livermore ...... 69 Marysville ...... 78 Georgetown ...... 2,700 85
Sag JOses nec 67. Sacramento... =. v2) 9 Caliente -.5.c0. ee 1,290 — 82
HIGINSECT UN. Gace: 66.5 ‘Mereed a) ect 190 Mall rogks (smc. ser 700 =68
Sabtas Barbara: .. \OD Mh reSHOws yee fe oe (2) Redlands 42. een: ere:
Los Angelése. 522) 70> Pularese. sess 78 San Bernardino ..1,054 74
San Diezso 28.5.5. 68 Riverside ....... v3 }SamJaeintor Pens 1,550 74

These points are selected because the European varieties of the
grape reach perfection in their vicinity. The excess of heat above
that required, as is found'in all the interior points mentioned in the
table, results in a very high sugar percentage in the grapes, and con-
tributes to the ripening of a second and third; crop, as will be noted
presently. The superior length of the growing season in California,
of course, is an important agency toward the:same end.

DIRECT SUNLIGHT ALSO A REQUISITE

Count:de Gasparin was first to point out that not alone sufficient
heat, but abundance of continuous sunshine, is a requisite of perfec-
tion gn fruit growing and ripening, and on his authority may be
based a claim of!exceptional value to the fruit grower in the months
of cloudless skies which are characteristic of the California summer.

““The solar rays,’’ says Gasparin, ‘‘do not only produce heat,
but bring us light, and the effects of the heat and light rays differ
in a very pronounced manner. Without light there is no fructifica-
tion; it is not necessary that the want of light should be complete
that there;should be a failure of fruits. In fact, diffused light alone
does not suffice for the greater number of plants; cultivated plants
will not ripen their seed without the direct rays of sun, and the
longer they are deprived of it the smaller the quantity which they
will mature.’’*

Again referring to the grape, for in connection with the growth
of this fruit the most careful, researches have been made, Humboldt
wrote: ‘‘If to give a potable wine the vine shuns the islands and
nearly all seacoasts, even those of the West, the cause is not only in
the moderate heat of summer upon the seashore, but it exists more
in the difference which there is between. direct and diffused light;
between a clear sky, and one veiled with clouds.’’t

The advantage of California over Eastern and Southern fruit
regions in the abundance of clear sunshine is shown in the table
below. Cloudiness is rated from 0 to 10, three observations daily,
and the figures in the table are the averages from these’ daily obser-
vations, for a series of years, compiled from the records of the U.S.
Weather Bureau.

*Cours d’Agriculture, t. II, p. 96.
7Cosmos, t. I, p. 349.

CLEAR SUNSHINE PERFECTS FRUITS PAL

Normal Cloudiness at California and Eastern Points

Ave. for
Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 9mo.

California—
Tesora 1961 334 00 s Caan ee ace 4.4 4, So) COM neler Orla aso noes an aca macy
Sacramento .....:.... Bt a dees 5 a -e eil Ls Seeenee StS Geabve Do Se oe oa Les Pe AD a ii ea Pe A |
San Francisco ...... Bei Aisi ty VAhe2) Dl Sesion atk or COC Ee lvorohicl acer TasO
MUBESTIOR ante (sais che aos bra FS ae tO aT oo Maen Oe et Onn Uap Acie ania Were th ee
SANG DICZO) sos c.e< s,ae RSP AAI GDI bias Sk TACO! ORO Oe Line (OsOr ake commence

HKastern—

Hochkester, No Von. test 0.000) D4 Or AGS AG 4:9) 6:0)" 736 sob
PeweeVOrky eN WV nce one ar ete oiae niece ae Oe PbeQs CACO IES ATH) se Aly eb arn bea
miiladeiphia, Paso.. /p0) vb. bd Op dO 4.9 AB VA Ph BA.
BaAMOre = MG. i pA, Gok hal ALG Al ALO ATS, 426) 49) ALG
Cleveland, Ohio ..... Ge Brel EMO rie Aco: hae! Badin Peau, Ee Ose
Grand” Haven; | Mich: 6.2)>:5:4 --4:8" §46°.-3:8- 4:0" ° “4:45 (56 7.5) bel
PACKSOMNVIING: shia. tas s4ea0 1 4. Ad WA “488. 49) 5.0). 2 a AS
INewmOrlecans: idee. utes ci cAe. Aso: MART OW ALO BET! co ALS) SLB) ALB oe ASB

It is noticeable that at the California coast points the average
cloudiness is almost twice that of the interior valleys, while in the
East the interior fruit regions of Western New York, Ohio, and
Michigan, have a greater average cloudiness than the Hudson
River, New Jersey, and Delaware regions near the Atlantic sea-
board. The average cloudiness in the Eastern fruit regions is rather
more than twice as great as in the regions of California where most
fruit is grown.

This excess of advantage, as it may be termed, in connection
with the high and protracted heat already mentioned, takes practi-
cal form in the successful ripening of a second and sometimes a
third crop of these grapes in a season, from later bloom on younger
cane growth. This behavior is of more value as a demonstration of
climatic conditions than otherwise, for it is generally better to pro-
duce the main crop alone than to undertake later ones.

Another indication of excess of advantage in the interior valley
ig found in the development of high sugar contents, which is of
direct value in raisin production. The same tendency, though per-
haps of less commercial value, is seen in the fact that some grapes
which yield a good claret wine nearer the coast develop too much
alcohol when grown in the interior.

RELATION OF ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY TO THE
GROWTH OF TREES

Here is another important condition of the climate of California
which is intimately related to those which have been considered,
and which is to be credited with no small influence in the perfection
of our fruits, and that is the low percentage of humidity which our
atmosphere contains. In California the percentage of humidity is
high in the winter and low in the summer; in the East the condi-
tion is just reversed. For this reason summer heat is far more op
pressive in the East than in California, and for the same reason cer-
tain serious fungoid diseases, which prevail at the, Hast, though

ay CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

found here in less injurious degree directly on the coast, may be
wholly unknown in the interior, where the air is drier. The dry air
also favors the access and action of light and heat, for Tyndall says
that a sheet of vapor acts as a screen to the earth, being in a great
measure impervious to heat.

It is not necessary, then, that there should be clouds to lessen the
chemical effects of sun heat in fruit ripening. Not only do clouds
intercept sunshine, but water vapor in the air—when to the eye the
sun is bright as ever—can absorb a large quantity of the effective
sun rays, and so retard fruit ripening. Hence an apparently sunny
country which has much invisible vapor in the air, may prove de-
fective in fruit-ripening qualities.

It is true that air free from humidity allows rapid escape of heat
by radiation as well as free access of it, and in the dry air frost is
more severe, but at the time of the greatest fruit{ growth, from June
to October, radiation down to a frost point is prevented by other
natural agencies. In the early spring and late autumn the humidity
percentage rises again and checks radiation just at the time of the
year when it is most,desirable to have it checked.

The accompanying table, compiled from the records of the United
States Weather Bureau, shows the prevailing relative humidity in
the East and South and in California.

Normal Relative Humidity at Eastern and California Points

Ave. for
April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 8 mo.
Eastern Stations—

Jacksonville, Gla . 2.665 12:3. . THOMITEG. 826.2 S029" (82:9 7G Soe S aan eck
Philadelphia, (Pac. science 63.4 ° GSESemeot 7 16826) MIA tb-2e OT mole Oe
Rochester, SN Yu. wee cess 67.8. GSGR SOULE PO 7-3 eer Olen Wee Toe) ehG.e ek ice
Grand Haven, Mich....... 70:9: . TES oie 209-0 Cost ei ee hoet) akon. aueee
St mOmiss IMOsu eae penne 63:7. GES 68:8 “66a cnoleo ] WOre. 165.9 al 67
New Orleans, La. ........ 16.0. TAe2 TS eto e econ a ikon hae U Moca dt Tal
Galveston) PPeOxt at eaeeaes 84.6) S780 2793 TT 4 18k F-2. 075-6 80.4 78.8
California Stations—
LLosivAme elles) cos sense WSL Teo VAS Da Glek eee tase) OOb os font
IPESHON. oe ce ane hoe tee 59.3 -°b20 4204 (ast | Sari 43:6 bbl 64.1 4873
HAcramento’- v2 5uArawie cevehe 67.6 67.6 66.1 59.8 59.8 59.0 62.4 66.8 63.6
Rea Bilnil ete ec 61:9 156:8) 243i) SabG) a bsome to. Om 90.00 O0l1 ) 49.6

THE THREE POINTS COMBINED

The three great advantages of the California climate—abundant
heat, continuous sunshine, and dry air—taken in connection with
the fitness of the soil and the great length of the growing season, in-
sure the characteristic excellence of ,California fruit, and the early
maturity, great growth, and abundant fruitage of our trees and
vines. Heat, sunshine, dry air, and a rainless summer also minister
directly to the curing of fruits in the open air. All things consid-
ered, it is doubtful whether any area in the world excels California
in possession of natural adaptation to fruit production and preserva-
tion.

HOW THE PEACH GROWS IN CALIFORNIA 23

A RECAPITULATION OF CALIFORNIA’S CLIMATIC
ENDOWMENT

Through the multitude of local observations, which seem per-
plexing and almost contradictory, it is possible to clearly discern
certain general conditions of both nature and culture, which may be
briefly advanced as characteristically and distinctively Californian.
Of these, perhaps the most striking is the length of the growing
season.

Take, for instance, the peach in a good peach region. The bloom
may appear in February, followed by the grand foliage expanding
to a leaf-size, marvelous to one unused to such peach leaves. The
shoots of new growth rush out with vigor promised by such leaf;
and yet the fruit below expands as though it would burst its skin
in rapid enlargement—and still it grows. The new shoot, apparently
weary of its several feet of extension, stops for a rest, and then, re-
viving, starts out its laterals—while still below the peach is growing.
The laterals push out a foot or more—all carrying large, fresh leaves.
While these are in full vigor, the fruit ripens, after having a full
year’s joint work of root and foliage, if it is a late variety. Is it
any wonder it weighs a pound? But still the tree is active. It forms
its terminal buds, and then all along the new main shoots and their
laterals are formed the leaf and blossom buds for the following year.
Still the foliage holds green and active, if the moisture below be
_adequate, and the leaves seem loath to fall in the ninth month from
time of blooming. Is it any wonder California peaches are large
and the trees require pruning and thinning to enable them to carry
the weight produced in such a season of growth? And what has
been said of the peach is true of other trees, according to their nature
and habits. The trees themselves are more eloquent of California’s
conditions for growth than descriptions or statistical tables can be
made.

But the quality of the light and heat, if the term is admissible,
is a factor as well as their duration. The air, relatively free, not
alone from clouds, but from the insensible aqueous vapor which
weakens sunshine in its effort to serve vegetation in a humid climate,
has a clearness and brilliance from its aridity which makes each day
of the long, growing season more than a day in other climates, and
thus adds to the calendar length of the growing season. The surplus
light and heat also act directly in the chemistry which proceeds in
the tissues of the plant, and we have not only size, but quality, color,
aroma—everything which makes the perfect fruit precious and beau-
tiful beyond words.

It is true that for long-distance shipments of fresh fruits it is not
possible to allow this process to go too far, for its later effects are
higher sweetness, accompanied by such juiciness that the fruit can
not endure transportation. But go to the tree to apply the only
test which can fairly be put to a juicy fruit, and the demonstration
of the service of clear, unobstructed sunshine through an adequate
period is complete. But if this can not be done, place the judgment

~
24 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

upon the mature peach carefully sun-dried and intelligently cooked,
or upon the ripe peach skillfully canned, and the distinctive adapta-
tions of California for fruit production will display themselves.

But there are other agencies involved in the perfection of fruit
than intensity and duration of light and heat. Without adequate
moisture in the soil, the air which we have credited with such benign
power in carrying heat and light for perfection of fruit would trans-
mit the same as agencies for the destruction of the tree which bears
it. If this moisture comes from rainfall, it descends at the time of
the year when the tree is least active, consequently is least retarded
by a clouded sky and moisture-laden air, and least affected by atmos-
pherice disturbances. Strong storm winds find the tree with reefed
sails, and able to endure pressure which would tear it to pieces if
they came upon its grand spread of foliage on branches heavy with
fruit. It is a priceless horticultural endowment that no tornado can
pierce our protecting mountain-barriers, and that it is exceedingly
rare that our local winds disturb the confident swaying of the
branches and leaf movement beyond the activity which ministers to
the sap flow. And if the adequate moisture is not from rainstorm,
but by irrigation, the same facts remain, for the water reaches the
tree without interrupting its aerial activity. Temperature is main-
tained, light is unobstructed, and the tree is refreshed with moisture
without the chill and cloud-shade which favor fungoid parasites. Of
all the ways by which moisture could come to soils supporting fruit
tree or vine, the natural by its time, and the artificial by its method,
endow California with the best.

The characteristics of the California climate which have been
especially pointed out in this sketch are not propitious to fruit
culture when they exist to excessive degree, as in some interior or
continental climates. Local conditions of altitude, distance from the
sea, and exposure to the sweep of arctic winds, induce sudden and
great weather changes which are serious in their effects. Excess-
ively low percentage of atmospheric humidity, in connection with
desiccating wind, often produce greater evaporation from the leaves
than the roots can supply. Excessively dry air admits a parching
sun heat at one time, and at another facilitates radiation of heat,
until the rapid decline in temperature makes killing frosts frequent.
It is evident that California has these agencies constantly held in
check by her insular situation and protecting environment, and owes
her wonderful adaptation to growth of tree and perfection of fruit
not more to the possession of certain conditions than to the fact of
their existence in moderation.

CHAPTER III

THE FRUIT SOILS OF CALIFORNIA

The favoring characteristics of the California climates, which
have been described, find their fitting complement in the adaptation
ef the California soils to the perfect development of fruit-bearing
tree and vine. In their wonderful variety and consequent great
range of special adaptations within narrow limits of area our soils
also resemble our climates. As a man may sometimes find within
the boundaries of an ordinary-sized farm such a difference of at-
mospherie conditions that the same fruit will thrive in one spot and
not in another, so he may find differences in soil which will tend to
produce the same results. For this reason the precise spot in which
to plant any given fruit must be chosen with regard to both soil and
exposure. In the chapters devoted to the several fruits, there will
be an attempt made to describe the soil requirements of each, so that
the inexperienced planter may not err seriously in choosing the loca-
tion for each kind of fruit he desires to grow. While this is true, it
will also appear in these special chapters that the choice of roots
upon which to bud or graft gives the planter a certain latitude and
independence. This is of the greatest value in the planting of home
orchards, or orchards for local markets, in regions where the soil is
not what is usually preferred for fruit production. With proper
choice of stocks and wisdom and diligence in cultivation, one need
hardly despair of growing good fruit on soil which will support any
laudable plant growth.

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF CALIFORNIA SOILS

One of the most interesting and important recent achievements
in soil investigation consists in demonstrating distinctive differences
between soils formed under arid and under humid climatic condi-
tions. In the development of this subject certain distinctive char-
acters of California soils clearly appear, and they are of direct
relation to the thrift, productiveness, treatment, and longevity of
fruit trees. These characters are: (a) lightness and consequent
permeability and ease of cultivation; (b) depth, admitting excep-
tional root extension and penetration; and (c) richness, containing
some kinds of plant food in considerably greater amounts than are
found in the soils of humid regions. These characteristics, as demon-
strated by Prof. Hilgard,* may be outlined in this way with special
reference to their relations to fruit growing.

Lightness.—California soils predominately exhibit the sandy,
silty or pulverulent nature of all soils formed under arid conditions,
Save in case of pre-existing clay formations of former geological
epochs, as well as slack-water deposits of the present epoch, all of
which are substantially independent of climate. While ‘‘sand’’ in

*Prof. E. W. Hilgard’s studies of California soils are summarized in his book on ‘‘Soils,’
published by The Macmillan Co., Me

26 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

the humid regions means virtually quartz grains only, in the arid
country it means very largely grains and powder of the other soil-
forming minerals as well. While, therefore, in the humid region
sandy land as a rule means poor land, in the arid, on the contrary,
sandy lands are at least as desirable as heavier ones, both on the
score of high productiveness, durability, and ease of cultivation,
together with ready resistance to drouth.

Depth.— Another point of great importance is that the difference
between soil and subsoil, which is so striking and important in
regions of abundant rainfall, is largely obliterated in arid climates.
Very commonly hardly a perceptible change of tint or texture is
found for depths of several feet; and what is more important,
material from such depths, when thrown on the surface, oftentimes
subserves the agricultural uses of a soil nearly or quite as well as
the original surface soil. The unconcern with which irrigators pro-
ceed to level or otherwise grade their land, even though this may
involve covering up large areas of surface soil with subsoil from
several feet depth; the rapidity with which the red loam of the
placer mines of the Sierra Nevada foothills is re-covered with the
natural forest growth of the region, ete., are examples familiar to
the residents but surprising to newcomers, who are accustomed to
dread the upturning of the subsoil as likely to deprive them of re-
munerative crops for several years, until the ‘‘raw’’ subsoil has had
time to be ‘‘vitalized’’ by the fallowing effect of the atmosphere,
and to acquire the needful amounts of organic matter or vegetable
mold. Thus the surface soil, which in the humid regions supplies
the bulk of the nourishment, becomes here of minor importance,
serving chiefly as a mulch to prevent waste of moisture; while the
active process of nutrition occurs in the deeper portion of the soil
stratum, whose composition, as well as condition of disintegration
and aeration, is substantially the same as above. The second foot is
rarely found to differ materially from the first, even as to content of
organic matter ; for the latter, being almost exclusively derived from
the decay of roots, the leaves and herbage on the surface being
mostly oxidized away under the intense heat and abundant aeration
of summer, it not uncommonly happens in very porous soils that the
first six inches of surface soil are poorer in organic matter than the
second foot.

Practical Results of Lightness and Depth.—The ‘‘lightness’’ and
perviousness of the prevailing soils of the arid region permit of the
penetration of roots to depths which in the humid region are inac-
cessible to them on account of the dense subsoils, which prevent the
needful access of air. This deep penetration enables even annual
plants to avail themselves directly of the stores of moisture in the
substrata, at depths which in the humid region are scarcely reached
save by the tap-roots of some perennials and trees; while the latter
themselves reach depth never approached by them in the region of
summer rains. Professor Hilgard found the ends of the roots of
erape-vines at a depth of twenty-three feet, in a gravelly clay-loam;
from ten to fifteen feet are ordinary depths reached by the root

RULING CHARACTERS OF CALIFORNIA SOILS OT

system of fruit trees. Even the roots of cereals have been found
to penetrate to a depth of twelve feet in California sandy alluvial
soils and to fourteen feet in loams. Such depth of rooting, when
conservation of moisture is secured by proper surface cultivation,
enables deciduous fruit trees to grow thrifty and bear fine fruit
through six months of drouth while as many weeks of drouth may
bring distress and loss of fruit to surface-rooting trees on the shallow
soils of the humid region. Recent investigations at the California
Agricultural Experiment Station have also disclosed that the good
_ physical and chemical conditions of the deeper layers of our soils
have also made possible the penetration from the surface layers, of
various forms of micro-organisms upon which we are dependent not
only for a solution of the insoluble plant food, but for the addition
of nitrogen to the soil from the atmosphere.

Richness.—The foregoing conditions are rendered the more sig- ©
nificant and effective through the third characteristic of soils formed
in arid climates. The average aggregate amounts of plant-food in-
eredients are markedly greater in the arid than in the humid soils,
wherever their derivation is at all generalized. Among the agricul-
turally important ingredients contained in larger average amounts
in the arid soils than in the humid, lime stands foremost; its per-
centage in soils not derived from caleareous formations being from
twelve to fourteen times greater in the arid than in the humid soils.
Magnesia follows lime in this respect, but the average difference is
only about half as great. The average content of potash in the arid
_ soils exceeds that in the humid in about the proportion of one to
three or four. But no such constant difference exists in respect to
phosphoric acid. As regards organic matter, and the nitrogen of
which it is the carrier and reservoir, its amount is usually consider-
ably less than in the humid soils; but the total nitrogen percentage
does not differ widely, because the organic matter of arid soils con-
tains, on the average, from three to five times as much nitrogen as is
in humid soils, and, therefore, the supply of soil nitrogen is very
nearly the same in both regions, while from several causes, the nitro-
gen of arid soils is more available to plants.

Practical Lessons from the Constitution of Our Soils—The ex-
traordinary depth of our soils, which reveals a favorable physical,
chemical, and biological nature, teaches the importance and essential
nature of: 1) deep tillage; (2) deep incorporation of manures and
fertilizers; (3) deep irrigation. It is clear that if we can make con-
‘ ditions just as congenial for the roots of plants in the lower layers
of the soil as in the upper, there is but one course left open to us,
namely: taking advantage of the opportunities afforded us by
nature, if we would maintain the fertility of our soils. To do this
we must encourage the deep rooting of our trees, and nothing in the
line of soil management can accomplish the desired end so well as
making available to the roots in the deeper soil layers, air, plant food
and water by the methods above enumerated.

28 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

CLASSIFICATION OF CALIFORNIA SOILS

Any attempt to classify the soils of California upon scientific lines
or even to describe them in their wonderful variety, according to
their geographical occurrence, would lead beyond the limitations of
a treatise upon the practice of fruit growing. Rather let an attempt
be made to designate certain grades of soil with brief characteriza-
tion of their leading features as they are related to the growth of
fruits. By such a course it may be made to appear that though the
soils of the State are predominantly light, deep and rich, and thus
eminently fitted for fruit growing, there are many degrees in the
possession of these characters or any of them, in local soils, and upon
this individual manifestation they rate all the way from perfection
to defectiveness. Let a classification proceed, then, upon a descend-
ing seale.

Light, Deep Loams.—Admixture of clay with enough coarse
materials to secure permeability to air and water, ease in cultivation,
deep root penetration and free drainage of surplus water, produces
soil of the highest adaptability to the growth of fruit trees and vines.
These soils are popularly known as loams. They are designated as
sandy loams, medium loams, and clay loams, according to the propor-
tion of clay commingled with the sand or coarse materials.

Professor Hilgard devised the following nomenclature oi soils
based upon their content of clay ; sandy soils, less than 5 per cent of
clay ; sandy loams, from 5 to 10 per cent; ordinary or medium loams,
from 10 to 15 per cent; clay loams, from 15 to 20 per cent; clay soils,
from 20 to 50 per cent of clay.

The coarse materials are sand grains of various sizes or rock par-
ticles in various degrees of disintegration. The fine materials are
clay and rock powder, commonly designated as fine silt. Loam soils
may result from deposits by flowing water or may consist of debris
but little removed from local rock disintegration. They inelude a
wide variety of materials, but agree in the possession of striking
adaptability to fruit culture. Some of the leading instances of such
soils may be cited.

Loams of the Valley Plains.—On the east side of the Sacramento
Valley low ridges and swales at right angles to the river’s course
come in from the foothills, forming a gently undulating plain with a
fall of from fifteen to twenty feet per mile, sometimes right up to
the river channels. Nearly all the soils of the east side have a red-
dish tinge, showing the admixture of the red foothill soil and demon-
strating, by the way, that all these lands are well drained. In cuts
ten to twelve feet deep, made by the sloughs, the reddish plains loam
is seen to reach from six to ten feet in depth, being then underlaid by
gravelly substrata. The width of this class of profusely fertile valley
land, east and west, varies considerably, according to the meander-
ings of the rivers. Away from the water courses, the higher lands
of the valleys are largely red or yellow loams, sometimes clayey and
difficult of cultivation unless taken just in the right condition, some-
times gravelly and apt to dry out unless the natural water supply is

; CALIFORNIA VALLEY SOILS DESCRIBED 99

supplemented by irrigation, but mostly a free-working, fairly re-
tentive, light loam, very satisfactory for some kinds of fruit.

The soils of the San Joaquin Valley have, as a rule, a much greater
admixture of sand than those of the Sacramento Valley; there is also
a more distinct subdivision of the valley lands into upland or
‘“bench’’ lands, and lowland or alluvial lands proper.

Upon the upland or plains soils, especially of Fresno and Tulare
counties, wonderful progress in fruit-growing by irrigation has been
made. Though its summer aspect is most forbidding and almost
desert-like in lack of vegetation, the application of water has shown
exceptional quickness of growth, early bearing, and lavish produc-
tiveness of tree and vine. These plains loams vary in appearance,
and are from this fact locally named, ‘‘reddish loam,”’ ‘‘ white ash,’’
and ‘‘sand hill.’’ All are distinctly caleareous. Even in the case
of the latter, which is the lightest and made of almost 90 per cent
of inert sand, it is so deep and has its plant food in such highly
available condition that it is producing very large crops of fruits
where there is no rise of the bottom water to prevent root penetra-
tion. In the foothills of the Sierra Nevada there are some loose
loams of light color resulting from the decomposition of granite, but
they are as a rule inferior to the red foothill soils, which are more
clayey, and will be mentioned among the clay loams later.

The soils prevailing in the valley of Southern California, from
Redlands at its head to Los Angeles at its opening out toward the
sea, consist chiefly of granitic sand, which at some points on the
slopes forms the soils exclusively, but everywhere constitutes a
prominent ingredient of the valley and mesa lands. These mesa
lands are conspicuous for their orange-red tint, and the red sandy
loam of which they are composed, to depths varying from ten to as
much as eighty feet, is evidently the choice soil for orange culture.
It is manifest that at some remote epoch it filled the entire valley.
Of the middle portion much has been washed away, but islands of
it form red-land tracts of greater or less extent all over the region,
traversed by and more or less commingled with the gigantic wash
from the valleys and canyons of the Sierra Madre. The latter fre-
quently consists largely of gravel, and were it not for the luxuriant
natural vegetation borne by these gravel beds, few would have
thought of devoting them to the costly experiment of orange plant-
ing, which, nevertheless, has proved eminently successful even on
these unpromising-looking masses of debris. In the upper valley
(San Bernardino Valley proper) the red loam is conspicuous, and
gives its name to the flourishing city and citrus district of Redlands,
on the terminal slope; but the heavy flow of water from the upper
canyons, notably from that of the Santa Ana River, has scoured it
out of the valley itself, and left there, at least on the northern por-
tion, gray and blackish granitic loams of great depth and produc-
tiveness, underlaid, and therefore underdrained, by the enormous
gravel beds that hold the artesian water of this favored region.

The reddish mesa soils prevail through the smaller Southern Cali-

30 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

fornia valleys as well, and are similar in character, as they are de-
rived from similar geological formations.

Where the surface descends gradually to the seashore, and not in
bluffs, there are as in Los Angeles and Orange counties, coast flats
several miles in width, where the soil is a dark-colored sandy loam,
glistening with scales of mica, and more or less affected with alkali
in the lower portions. Similar soils are found in tracts of greater
or less extent up the coast as far as Santa Barbara at least. As a
rule, these seashore lands are very productive, but fruits for them
must be chosen with reference to their low level and exposure to
coast influences.

The light loams of the so-called desert region of Southern Cali-
fornia are not inferior in productive capacity to some of the best
soils of the great valley, which they greatly resemble, save in the
searcity of vegetable matter. Only a detailed survey, however, can
determine the tracts having an arable soil, as against those overrun
by arid sand. The soil of the Colorado River bottom is highly pro-
ductive, easily worked, being quite hight. It is a highly calcareous
soil, and now, as the water of the Colorado River has been made
available for irrigation, is yielding rich returns for cultivation.

The valleys of the seaward slope of the Coast Range have mostly
gray, light, and silty, rather than sandy soils, quite similar in ap-
pearance, from Ventura to Humboldt county, though differing con-
siderably in composition, those of the southern region being more
calcareous, and apparently richer in phosphoric acid; as the coast
region consists for the most part of low ranges with intervening
valleys, the valleys are, as a rule, small, though a few show consid-
erable area. In such a country the soil surface shows wide diversity
with its smaller areas than on the vast stretches of the great interior
valley ; consequently, so far as soil goes, the coast farms are often
suited to a wider range of fruits than the interior valley farms of
similar size.

ALLUVIAL OR SEDIMENTARY LOAMS

These soils have been considered from the earliest plantings by
Americans as par excellence the fruit soils of the great valley of
Central and Northern California. They occur along the courses of
existing streams, and extend back to variable distances, until they
merge into the valley loams, or adobes. These deposits are consider-
ably higher than the present beds of the streams, and are sometimes
described as ‘‘next to river bottom.’’ They consist of fine alluvium,
with seldom any admixture of coarse materials. These river soils
are usually very deep and they are naturally well drained.

These deposits cross the valley in somewhat irregular courses ;
they are of greater or less width according to the drainage area
whence they have come. They vary also in depth, and taper down
on either side to the level of the red loam or adobe upon which they
have been deposited. Such strips are first chosen by the fruit
planters of the district in which they occur. In the valleys of the

CLAY AND CLAY LOAM SOILS 31

rivers crossing the eastern side of the San Joaquin Valley, there are,
bordering the streams as well as Tulare Lake, considerable areas of
brown to blackish loam varying from heavy to light, but for the most
part easily tilled and exceedingly rich. Considerable fruit has been
grown for years on these situations, and some kinds do well on these
bottoms which do not show adaptation to the plains. Some even of
the higher lying portions of these ‘‘black lands’’ support thrifty
orchards without irrigation. The wider stretches of alluvial soils
in the upper part of the valley, as in the Mussel Slough country and
the Visalia region, for instance, are notably well adapted to fruit
growing. The occasional intrusion of alkali, which must be care-
fully avoided, is the chief obstacle to the general approval of these
alluvial lands for fruit purposes.

Soil of similar character is found in some small valleys consisting
of an alluvial wash from the bordering hills which in some places
reaches a depth of thirty feet or more without notable change in
character. Such soils have proved very fertile and durable.

The rich river bottom, adjacent to the beds of the main rivers
and sloughs of the valley, has usually a dark, rich, and moist soil,
easily tilled and not subject to baking and cracking. It is largely
used for the growth of vegetables and alfalfa, but considerable areas
have been planted with fruit trees, especially with pears, which do
not suffer from submergence of their roots for considerable time.

In the coast valleys of the State there are also very extensive
areas of alluvial soils which are largely used in fruit production, as
well as upland loams formed in place by the disintegration of local,
rock formations. The famous fruit region extending from Oakland
southward nearly one hundred miles, including the Alameda and
Santa Clara Valleys, has very large areas of alluvial soil, ranging
from. deep, rich blackish loams used for vegetables and small fruits
to lighter loams resulting from intermixture of sediment brought
by streams from adjacent hillsides with the clay of the valley
bottom. It is to these deep, rich alluvial deposits that the region
owes its great reputation in fruit lines.

CLAY LOAMS

Of loams containing sufficient clay to render them somewhat
heavy and tenacious, there is also a great variety in California.
Their suitability for different fruits depends upon selection of roots
adapted to their character and upon the depth and degree of reten-
_ tiveness of the soils themselves. They are more difficult of tillage
than the free loams, but offer some compensation therefor in their
richness and durability.

Clay Loams of the Foothills and Valley Border.—The soils of the
foothills of the Sierra Nevada, throughout its courses along the great
valley, vary from a moderately clayey loam to a heavy, though not
uncommonly gravelly, often orange-red clay. This character seems
to be sensibly the same, whether the soil be derived from the decom-
position of the ancient slate bed-rock or directly from the dark-

32 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

colored granites, thus creating a presumption that the two rocks are
closely related. The soils are highly charged with iron to the extent
of from seven to over twelve per cent, which being finely divided,
imparts to them the intense orange-red tint. The soil of the foot-
hills agree with the soils of the valley in having a good percentage
of lime, while the supply of potash and phosphates, as well as of
organic matter, is smaller, and sometimes low, though never ap-
parently inadequate for present productiveness, in the presence of
so much lime.

Along the base of the foothills of the Sierra there is in Fresno,
Tulare, and part of Kern county, a narrow belt, irregular in width,
of partly red and partly black clay or adobe, so highly calcareous
as to break up, when dry, into small fragments, producing a con-
dition that has received the name ‘‘dry bog.’’ It is upon this that
many of the citrus orchards of the Porterville and Mt. Campbell
districts are chiefly grown. A white, calcareous marl sometimes
occurs beneath this soil at varying depths, inducing chlorosis or
yellowing of citrus leaves, owing to its impervious nature which does
not allow of good drainage and therefore kills the roots through
suffocation and acid production. Westward of this ‘‘dry bog’’ land
there is a belt of reddish or brown loam soils, corresponding to those
similarly located in the Sacramento Valley, but generally more
clayey, and hence frequently designated as adobe by contrast with
the very sandy soils of the valley at large, although properly they
should be classed simply as clayey loams. This belt is eight to ten
miles wide in middle Tulare county and narrows to the north and
south. Here these lands have a gentle'slope of ten to twenty feet
per mile from the base of the foothills, and appear to be underlaid
at a depth of twelve to fifteen feet by water-bearing gravel. The
soil is a reddish, more or less sandy, loam, changing little in its
aspect for several feet. Its adaptation to fruit is shown by the prod-
ucts of the Lindsay region.

CLAY SOILS

Thus far a very small area of true adobe* soil has been employed
in horticulture. There is a great difference in the character of what
is known as adobe in different localities. Its color varies, as the
popular terms ‘‘black waxy,”’ ‘‘black,’’ ‘‘brown,’’ and ‘corer
adobe indicate. Its physical condition and chemical composition also
vary greatly. The black adobe of the east side of the Sacramento
Valley is easily tilled as compared with the gray adobe on the west
side, which is very refractory and often largely impregnated with
alkali. To render soil of adobe character useful for fruit growing, this
tendency to dry out and crack, thus allowing evaporation from be-
low as well as from the surface, must be overcome. The discussion
of this point belongs to the chapter on cultivation. Adobe soils are,

*This name has been erroneously applied to the loam commonly used in the construction
of adobe houses. Agriculturally, it means ‘‘a heavy clay soil,” such as could not be used in
building.

TREATMENT FOR DEFECTIVE SOILS 33

as a rule, rich and durable and therefore promise long fruitfulness
to trees and vines with roots adapted to heavy soils, but difficulty of
cultivation, excessive retention of water, and other evils are always
present.

DEFECTIVE SOILS

Although California soils are predominantly of the depth, light-
ness and richness best suited to the growth and bearing of fruit
trees and vines, it should always be borne in mind that there are
marked exceptions, and failure to observe this fact has resulted in
considerable disappointment and loss. There is in California much
land which is bad from a horticultural point of view and it is apt to
occur even in the vicinity of lands of the highest excellence. It is,
therefore, necessary to advise that the closest examination, to be
made before investment, be made in the planting of fruits.

Although there are instances of deficiency in plant food in Cali-
fornia soils and considerable areas of land sterile through excess of
saline and alkaline salts, these are usually indicated by the local
reputation of the tracts, if the newcomer will take pains to make
inquiry. It is rather the more obscure, subsoil conditions which lead
to loss or failure, and they may be unknown even to men who have
owned or farmed the land for years for ordinary field crops. These
defects are, in the main, three:

Leachy Subsoils.—While it is best in all cases to choose deep
soils for cropping purposes, it is frequently profitable to grow fruit
on soils with defective subsoils. Among these defective subsoils
there is frequently encountered, underlying good alluvial loams, a
very pervious sand or gravel which allows of a too rapid escape of
moisture and plant food. This may result in starving the tree or
killing it for want of water. Under such circumstances it is possible
with three or four feet of good loam above the gravel to maintain
profitably the shallower rooted trees by practicing heavy green
manuring and constant summer cultivation to conserve what mois-
ture the loam retains and by recourse to irrigation, when required.

Hardpan.—It has frequently been observed that even where
hardpan has been blasted prior to tree planting, the evil effects of
waterlogging in a rather retentive overlying soil have either killed
trees or made them unprofitable. This condition occurs not only on
level land but also on rather steep hillsides where on a priori con-
siderations it would never be expected. In such eases drainage
gives immediate relief and the maintenance of a good supply of
organic matter in the soil, with constant summer cultivation, will
usually insure good moisture conditions.

“*Plow Sole’’ or ‘‘Plow Pan.’’—Constant plowing to the same
depth or a failure to break up thoroughly the silty deposits at the
bottom of irrigation furrows may in a few seasons produce a hard-
ened and difficultly permeable layer of soil known, according to its
origin, as plow sole or ‘‘irrigation hardpan.’’ This may also be ag-
gravated through the treading of stock and fruit pickers. Such

34 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

hardened soil layers interfere with root development and make for
poor aeration and water supply. They must be broken up by plow-
ing or subsoiling.

Rise of Ground Water.—The rise of the water table mainly due
to excessive irrigation or the impermeability of one of the under-
lying soil layers is a question of the most serious significance and
one which the prospective purchaser of land or the owner of cropped
land must not lose sight of. For this reason precautions taken in
the examination of land for hardpan, irrigation with necessary, but
not superfluous, amounts of water and adequate provision for drain-
age will not only go far toward making land profitable at the time
cropping is commenced, but will prevent troubles for the future
through the accumulation of alkali and other baneful physiological
effects on plants of a high water table.

Alkali.—The term ‘‘alkali’’ denotes an accumulation of salts, in
a limited depth of soil, which may be of such nature and quantity as
to render the soil partially or totally unfit for profitable cropping.
The term has no necessary reference to the reaction of the soil, as is
commonly supposed, is therefore, a misnomer, and should not be con-
fused with the term ‘‘alkaline,’’ as referred to soil, since the latter
denotes merely a ‘‘sweet’’ or favorable condition for the develop-
ment of most of our crop plants.

The ‘‘Alkali’’ salts may include common salt, Glauber salt, car-
bonate of soda, Epsom salt, the chlorides of calcium and magnesium
and more rarely some others, but for practical purposes we may take
the ordinary classification, namely that of ‘‘black’’ and ‘‘white’’
alkali as being sufficient for the needs of soil management. By the
‘“‘black’’ alkali, which is by far the most harmful of the sodium of
salts mentioned, we mean carbonate of soda. It is so called because
it dissolves out the humus and forms a black slimy layer on the sur-
face. Very small quantities of this salt are sufficient to make clay
soils unworkable because of the puddling effect it has on clay, and
similarly very small quantities of it have the power of stopping the
important process of nitrification. Since poorly aerated soils in the
arid regions are favorable to the reactions which produce ‘‘black’’
alkali, especially where carbonates are plentiful or where excessive
amounts of nitrate of soda are used for fertilizing, no pains should
be spared to insure to soils, as nearly as possible, perfect aeration
through drainage and tillage; great care should be exercised in the
use of irrigation water, and nitrate of soda should be employed
sparingly.

The term ‘‘white alkali’’ is usually applied to either common salt
or Glauber salt, or both, in soils. Where present in sufficient quantity
white alkali salts may, through evaporation of water, be deposited
on the surface of, the soil as a white efflorescence, such as that seen
in exaggerated form on the Nevada desert, on some soils of the San
Joaquin Valley and on some of the Coachella Valley soils. Of the
‘‘white’’ alkali salts common salt is by far the more harmful, and
most fruit trees are not very resistant to it. They can, however, be

HOW TO DETECT SOIL DEFECTS 35

successfully grown in very considerable quantities of Glauber salt.

In connection with consideration of the possible natural alkali-
content of the soil, it is essential to guard against its increase by the
use of alkaline water for irrigation—which will be mentioned in the
chapter on irrigation.

Prospecting for Soil Defects—For subterranean prospecting,
Professor Hilgard commends a steel rod not less than a quarter of
an inch in diameter (round or square, preferably the latter), well
pointed at one end, and provided at the other with a stout iron ring
for the reception of a stout cross-handle, such as is used for post-hole
augers. With such a prod, or sounding rod, not less than five feet in
length, the exploration of the subsoil for hard-pan or dense clay
layers becomes a matter of a few minutes. It is easy also to detect
thus the presence of underlying layers of quicksand, gravel, or other
loose materials through which irrigation water would waste, or
which would prevent the rise of bottom water within reach of plant
roots, by the large interspaces between their grains. Any remaining
doubts as to the nature of such underlying material at particular
points can then quickly be solved by the use of a post-hole auger
or by digging, for thorough inspection of each foot of depth which
may be found desirable. Subsoil prospecting or sampling can also
be very easily done by boring with an ordinary carpenter’s auger,
114 inches in diameter—the shank being lengthened by welding-in
a piece of steel, three or four feet in length, according to the depth
it is thought desirable to penetrate. Separate samples for each foot
of depth are thus easily taken.

CHAPTER IV

THE WILD FRUITS OF CALIFORNIA

The wild fruits of California are numerous, and for the most part
peculiar to the region, being either of local genera or local species of
more widely distributed genera. Very few are identical with the
wild fruits common to great areas of the continent. For this reason
our wild fruits constitute a very interesting subject for botanical
study, and they are now, perhaps, more widely than ever before,
attracting the attention of botanical pomologists. Viewed from the
standpoint of practical pomology or horticulture, our wild fruits can
not be claimed, on the whole, to have attained any very great im-
portance.

A few fruits, as will be noted further on, have demonstrated their
culinary or household value, and are locally sought for, but none
have any notable commercial value. This may be due to the fact that
some of our most delicious wild fruits are very exacting in their
choice of conditions, and can not be moved far, even within the limits
of our own State.

Another reason why we have made little of our own wild species
is found in the fact that our climate favors the superior growth of
the best improved fruits of nearly all parts of the world. Therefore,
we have little occasion for recourse to the improvement of local wild
fruits, because of superior hardiness and adaptation, as has been
done in other parts of the country.

The distribution of our wild fruits is determined by limitations
of areas of similar climatic conditions. In a general way it may be
said that fruits are most abundant in foothill and mountain regions,
and that our great valleys have always been practically destitute of
them, except along streams borders. These fruits are most abundant
in the northern portion of the State, but some exist throughout the
State, usually thriving at higher elevations as they proceed south-
ward.*

Oregon Crabapple (Pirus rivularis).—This fruit, though more
abundant in the more northerly regions of the Coast, as its name in-
dicates, is found in the northwest counties of this State. It chooses a
moist situation, becomes a tree fifteen to twenty-five feet high, shows
white bloom, and red or yellow oblong fruit, about half an inch long.
The flavor is rather acid, but the fruit is eaten by the Indians, and
was sometimes used for jelly-making by early settlers.

Wild Plum (Prunus subcordata).—This must be regarded as one
of the most useful of our wild fruits. Even now, when the plum
varieties of all the world have been introduced, residents in some of
the Sierra regions, where the fruit abounds, prefer the wild plum

*The botanical characters and relations of the fruiting plants mentioned in this chap-
ter may be pursued in the ‘Manual of California Flowering Plants,” by Dr. W. L. Jepson,
published by the Associated Students Store, Berkeley: price, $3.

CALIFORNIA WILD PLUMS AND CHERRIES 37

to the cultivated fruit, both for eating and preserving and jelly-
making.

Concerning the variable species, subcordata, which has varieties
both excellent and worthless, Dr. W. L. Jepson of the University of
California furnishes the following note:

In the coast ranges and central Sierras I have never seen Prunus sub-
cordata with an edible or near-edible fruit. But in Modoc and Siskiyou
counties the shrubs bear abundantly a bright red, roundish plum, which
is used freely for preserving and highly praised for the manufactured pro-
duct. These plums are certainly very beautiful. They are of a fine crimson
color and I saw shrubs in the Warner mountains loaded with them. At the
same time I saw shrubs of a sub-race ripening two weeks later a reddish
fruit, much more bitter and little used by the settlers. In addition there is
the yellow variety (Kelloggii), which is highly esteemed.

The variety, Kelloggii, has a narrower range, forms a larger
shrub, and bears a yellow fruit, larger and better than the typical
species.

Some attempts have been made to improve the edible varieties,
both red and yellow, by cultivation and selection of seedlings, and
the results are promising, as fruit has been shown at our fairs
notably better than the wild gatherings. The roots have also been
used to some extent as stocks, but seem to possess no marked advan-
tage. The late Mr. Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, reported that graft-
ing an improved plum on the wild stock seems to cause the root to
grow to much greater size than natural to it. Observation upon
erafted and non-grafted seedlings in the same nursery row convinced
him of this behavior. Other experimenters have condemned the
stock because of dwarfing and suckering. In the early days the wild
plums in the mining regions of the mountains were largely made use
of and highly praised by pioneers.

_ Oso Berry (Osmaronia cerasiformis).—This fruit is sometimes
ealled the ‘‘California false plum.’’ It has a plum-like form, one-
half inch long, and is of a rich, blue-black color, but is bitter, though
not disagreeable to birds and animals, which feed upon it. The white
bloom of the shrub has an almond odor. Used as a stock, the plum
varieties grafted upon it have been dwarfed.

Wild Cherries (Prunus sp.).—Quite a group of wild fruits come
under this generic grouping, and they have marked and widely dif-
ferent characteristics. The western choke-cherry (Prunus demissa)
closely resembles the Eastern choke-cherry, and bears its round, red,
or dark purple fruit on a raceme. It is used for marmalade by house-
wives in the mountain districts. This species has proved of some
utility both for its fruit and as a stock for grafting in early days
when better cherry stock was not available. Another species, Islay
(Prunus ilicifolia), has evergreen foliage, and is a useful hedge
plant.

Of species bearing fruits in umbels, or true cherry style, we have
the Bitter Cherry (Prunus emarginata), which makes a handsome
tree, sometimes thirty feet high, but its oval, dark red fruit is quite

38 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

bitter and astringent. The bush form bearing bright red fruit, in-
tensely bitter, is the variety Californica.

California Grape (Vitis Californica).—Along our streams the
native grape-vine attains large size and fruits freely, the fruit re-
sembling the “‘frost grape’’ of the Hast. The vine frequently covers
and sometimes kills large trees with the density of its foliage. Some
variation is reported in the species, but it is possible that some of the
better kinds are seedlings from some imported species, bird planted.
The species has attained something of a reputation as a phylloxera-
resisting root for grafting, but it has proved exacting in its choice
of soils and situations, and otherwise not desirable, and some Eastern
species are now relied upon for this service.

Elderberry (Sambucus glauca).—The elderberry makes a fine
tree in California, sometimes twenty feet or more in height, and with
a trunk a foot and a half in diameter. The fruit is borne in large
quantities and is used to some extent for preserves and pastry.

Raspberries (Rubus sp.)—In the mountains of the eastern part
of the State is a scarlet hemispherical berry of pleasant flavor, which
is called ‘‘thimbleberry’’ (Rubus parviflorus). It seems to have an
advantage over a variety (velutinus) of the same species which 1s
found near the coast and has a dry, insipid fruit. Another raspberry,
which is found in all hilly and mountainous regions, both on the coast
and in the interior, is Rubus leucodermis. It resembles the black-cap
raspberry of the Atlantic slope, except that it has yellowish-red fruit.
This fruit is quite largely gathered for domestic uses, and some
efforts have been made to cultivate the plants.

Salmon Berry (Rubus spectabilis)—The beauty, size, and de-
licious flavor of this fruit are highly commended by all who have
enjoyed it in the upper coast counties of California and farther
northward. The plant makes a strong bush, five to ten feet high,
and delights in the woods and shady banks of streams. The praise
of all who know the fruit has led to frequent attempts to introduce
the plant to warmer and drier parts of the State, but such efforts
have thus far uniformly failed.

Wild Blackberry (Rubus vitifolius) —This fruit should perhaps
be called a ‘‘dewberry,’’ as it has trailing, or, at most, but partially
raised stems, which extend from five to twenty feet. The plant
occurs abundantly on banks of streams and other sufficiently moist
locations, both in the coast and interior regions of the State. Around
the margin of Humboldt Bay, on land cleared by fire or axe, black-
berries spring up abundantly on the denuded land. Tons of the fruit
are said to remain after the local housewives have done their utmost
in preserving and jelly-making. In the low-land region around
Stockton considerable quantities are sometimes gathered for sale.
The fruit, which has been held in high repute ever since pioneer days,
is oblong, black and sweet. The species is variable, and the anomaly,
a white blackberry, has been reported from Del Norte county. The
native wild blackberry is one of the parents of the Loganberry and
of some of Mr. Burbank’s hybrids which are widely known.

CALIFORNIA WILD BERRIES AND CURRANTS 39

Wild Strawberries (Fragaria sp.).—We have in California two
Eastern species: Fragaria vesea and F. Virginiana. Thus far these
have only been reported from localities in the Sierra mountain
region. Another, the sand strawberry, has been found identical with
a South American species, Chilensis, and it occurs along the coast,
where the fruit is esteemed, and is sometimes abundant enough to
gather in quantity. A fourth species, wood strawberry, is local, and
is named Californica. It bears a small round fruit and is partial to
the coast region. Recently some cultural attention has been given
to the wild strawberries, and varieties worthy of propagation have
been reported by growers resident in the Sierra region. Mr. Albert
F. Etter of Ettersburg, Humboldt county, has secured notable re-
sults in crossing with the wild strawberry, as will be noted in the
chapter on that fruit.

Wild Gooseberries and Currants (Ribes sp.).—Some of our
eurrant species are achieving quite a reputation abroad as orna-
mental shrubs, but they bear insipid fruit. The fruit of Ribes tenui-
florum is, however, more agreeable, and is esteemed for jellies, etc.,
by dwellers in its region, which is the mountain region of the extreme
north of the State. We also have a species (bracteosum) which has
something of the black currant flavor and a fair-sized fruit, black
with whitish bloom, and very sweet.

There are also several species of Ribes which are classed with
the gooseberries, but only three bear edible fruit. One of these
(Ribes divaricatum) is peculiar to this coast ; another (Ribes Roezlii)
occurs at middle elevations in the Sierra Nevada. The berries are
small to medium, of pleasant flavor, and well armed with spines.
Another species (Ribes leptanthum), common in San Luis Obispo and
Kern counties, resembles the flavor of the cultivated gooseberry, and
is free from spines.

Cranberries and Huckleberries (Vaccinium sp.).—We have sev-
eral species belonging to the same botanical genus as the Eastern
cranberry, but quite different from it both in growth of the plant
and character of fruit. The fruit of two species is reddish, but in-
sipid. Other species (V. ovatum, ete.) have dark blue or purple
fruit. Some of these are locally esteemed, and the argument drawn
from them is that the cranberry of commerce would succeed. It
should be stated, however, that the situations in which these plants
thrive are not at all according to the requirements of the bog cran-
berry. A huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum) is largely gathered in
the redwood region of Northern California, for canning and pie-
making. The berries are juicy and delicious, and the preserved fruit
has a very agreeable flavor. In one year as many as two thousand
boxes were profitably gathered on the hills of western Sonoma
county.

Other Berries—There are many small, wild fruits commonly
designated as berries, which are of considerable botanical interest.
The fruit, too, may be said to be edible, judging by the taste of In-
dians, birds, and wild beasts, but not likely to be much more than

40 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

ornamental in the eyes of white people. They may be briefly enumer-
ated:

The ‘‘manzanita’’ (various species of Arctostaphylos, especially
A. manzanita, A. glauca, and A. patulo) the ‘‘little apple’’ of the
Spaniards, bears a rather dry but sub-acid fruit.

The ‘‘bear berry’’ (Arctostaphylos uvaursi) is esteemed by the
Indians both as food and medicine.

‘““The western buffalo berry’’ (Shepherdia argentea) has small
acid edible fruits.

The ‘‘salal’’ (Gaultheria shallon), small fruit, either red or pur-
ple, is also a favorite of the aborigines.

Of ‘‘barberries’’ we have three species of Berberis. One, aqui-
folium, is called the ‘‘Oregon grape,’’ chiefly notable for its hand-
some bloom, which has been chosen the State flower of Oregon. The
fruit is dark blue and the root is said to be a febrifuge. Another
species (nervosa) has a larger fruit which is esteemed in cookery ;
and a third species (pinnata) bears a small, pleasant-flavored fruit.
It is the Lena amarilla of the Spanish Californians.

Our ‘‘service berry’’ (Amelanchier alnifolia) is from a quarter to
a third of an inch in diameter and of a purple color.

The ‘‘lemon berry’’ is a fruit of Rhus integrifolia, and is coated
with an acid exudation which is said to dissolve in water and make a
pleasant drink. The fruit of Rhus trilobata is said to have both a
sweet and acid coating.

The berries of the ‘‘toyon’’ or ‘‘tollon’’ (Heteromeles arbuti-
folia), or ‘‘California holly,’’ are said to be eaten by Indians, but
they serve the white people a better purpose in Christmas decora-
tions.

The ‘‘jujubs’’ of commerce (Zizyphus jujuba) has a local relative
in Zizyphus parryi, which is, however, dry and mealy, rather than
juicy.

The ‘‘beach strawberry,”’ or ‘‘sea fig,’’ is the fruit of Mesembri-
anthemum aequilaterale, a relative of the ice-plant. The good-sized
fruit is gathered along the seashore, and its flavor remotely suggests
a strawberry.

Wild Olive (Forestieria Neo-mexicana).—This is a tall willow-
like shrub, found in springy places on the borders of the Mojave
Desert. It also grows in the Salinas Valley. It bears an abundance
of small fruits which, from their botanical relationship to the olive,
have attracted some attention. Experiments to determine its stand-
ing as a possible root for the olive have been suggested.

Wild Nuts of California—The wild nuts of California are of very
little commercial importance. The wild almond (Prunus Ander-
sonii) of the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevadas is chiefly of botani-
cal interest, although some experiments are in progress in its use as
a grafting stock for the sweet almond. The California filbert (Cory-
lus Californica) has none of the quality of the improved filberts nor
even of the wild hazelnut. Our native chestnut, the giant Chin-
quapin (Castanopsis chrysophylla) has a sweet kernel, but a hard

THE WILD NUTS OF CALIFORNIA 41

shell, almost like a hazelnut; its near relative, Castanopsis semper-
virens, or Bush Chinquapin of the Sierra Nevada and dry Coast
Range, is said to have a better flavored kernel. The nuts of both
of these species are very difficult to obtain because the fruit sets
sparingly and the squirrels harvest the crop early. Our native wal-
nut (Juglans Californica) is better in flavor than the Eastern black
walnut, but its hard shell makes it of little commercial account .in
competition with better, cultivated nuts. The root is widely used as
a stock for the English walnut, as will be discussed in the chapter
on the walnut.

The one native nut which is regularly sold in the local market is
the ‘‘pinenut’’—seeds of several species of Pacific Coast pines, par-
ticularly the ‘‘Nevada Nut Pine’’ or ‘‘One-leaf Pinion.’’ Their
flavor is somewhat resinous, but is agreeable.

The seeds of two species of palms, Washingtonia filifera and the
Lower California Erythea armata, are sought for by the Indians, who
also eat the sweetish fruit of the Yucca Mojavensis, which somewhat
resembles in shape the banana, and in flavor the fig, and is called the
~**wrild date.’’

The Indians also use the acorns of several species of California
oaks as food, extracting the bitterness by soaking in water, and then
making a rude bread of the acorn meal.

The ‘‘jajoba,’’ or ‘‘goat-nut’’ (Simmondsia Californica), is a low
shrub, the fresh fruits of which, deprived of their seed-coats, are
eaten like almonds, and when dried by fire and ground they are used
as a beverage, in the form of tablets made up with sugar, or as a
simple infusion. Fire-dried seeds contain 48.30 per cent of fatty
matter; the oil is suitable for food and of good quality, and is said
not to turn rancid. In lower California it is prepared by boiling
with water.

The nuts of the California laurel were roasted by the native tribes
and esteemed a great delicacy.

Cactus.—The common cactus (Opuntia Engelmanni) bears a
sweet edible fruit which the Indians dry in large quantities for win-
ter use. By long boiling they make a sauce, which, after slight
fermentation, they consider especially nutritious and stimulating.
The local species has been used by Mr. Burbank in crossing to secure
improved spineless fruits on plants of greater productiveness.

CHAPTER V

CALIFORNIA MISSION FRUITS -

Cultivated fruits were first brought into California from the
south. Mission work among the Indians of Lower California was
actually begun by the establishment of the mission at Loreto by
Salvatierra, October 19, 1697. The following years horses and eattle
were brought from Mexico, and from this introduction came ulti-
mately the vast herds which roamed the hills and plains of Cali-
fornia. Probably the first seeds and plants of cultivated vegetables
and fruits came about the same time, for there was a small garden
and a few fruit trees at Loreto in 1701. But Loreto was not fitted
for horticulture, and in the same year an expedition in charge of
Father Ugarte, who is called the founder of agriculture in Lower
California, crossed over the mountains to a more suitable location
at the mission of Vigge Biaundo, which had been destroyed some
time before by hostile Indians. Ugarte restored the mission, made
irrigating ditches, and planted fruit trees and vines. This effort was
successful from a horticultural point of view, for in 1707 Ugarte
made more wine than would suffice for mission use, and sent some
to Mexico in exchange for other goods. Thus began the export trade
in California wine.

The Jesuits continued their establishment of missions in Lower
California until there were fifteen missions, at five of which there
were vineyards, and presumably as many or more which had gardens
with fruit trees.

The variety of fruits grown in Lower California was small. They
had figs, oranges, citrons, pomegranates, plantains, and some olives
and dates. There were no North European fruits, with the exception
of a few peaches, which, however, did not appear to thrive.

The Jesuits were supplanted in Lower California, in 1768, by the
Franciscans. The Franciscans, led by Junipero Serra, at once
pressed northward, and entered the territory which is now the State
of California. Their first establishment was at San Diego, in 1769.
Thence they proceeded northward, braving many perils, and under-
going great hardships, establishing missions through the coast region
of the State. Credit is given to the secular head of the expedition
to San Diego, Don Jose de Galvez, representing the king of Spain,
for ordering the carrying of seeds of fruit, grains, vegetables, and
flowers into the new territory, and from the planting at San Diego
the same varieties were taken to the twenty missions afterwards
established.

Kinds of Fruit at the Missions.—It is of no little interest to
ascertain how great a variety of fruits was grown in these mission
orchards. Vancouver, in 1792, found a fine orchard at Santa Clara,
with apple, peach, pear, apricot, and fig trees, all thrifty and promis-
ing. He also describes at the mission of San Buena Ventura apples,
pears, plums, figs, oranges, grapes, and peaches and pomegranates.

MISSION FRUITS IN AMERICAN OCCUPATION 43

Robinson described the orchards connected with the Mission of San
Gabriel as very extensive, having among their trees oranges, citrons,
limes, apples, pears, peaches, pomegranates, and figs. There were
also grapes in abundance. Edwin Bryant noticed at San Luis Obispo
Mission the orange, fig, palm, olive, and grape. E. S. Capron, in a
general enumeration of the fruits grown at the missions, includes
cherries.

Early Planting by Others than the Padres.—Though the earlier
Spanish population had the example of successful horticulture before
them for half a century at the missions, they did not seem inclined
to, emulate the efforts of the padres upon their own grounds, except
in occasional instances. General Vallejo planted fruit trees in
Sonoma Valley as early as 1830, and of his place it is said: ‘‘It is
an old and well-cultivated place, well known in all the northern
portions of California while this State was still Mexican territory.’’
Exceptions there were also at the south. The old fruit garden on
the Camulos Rancho, in Ventura county, has become famous. Free-
mont, writing of his observations in 1846, says that among the arid,
brush-covered hills south of San Diego he found little valleys con-
verted by a single spring into crowded gardens, where pears,
peaches, quinces, pomegranates, grapes, olives, and other fruits grew
luxuriantly together.

Searcely had six years elapsed subsequent to the settlement of
the pueblo of San Jose on its present site before the inhabitants
were enjoying the benefits of luxurious fruits. Before 1805 more
was grown than could be disposed of in its natural state.

Decline of the Mission Orchards.—The decline of most of the
mission orchards and gardens followed the secularization of the
establishments in 1834. There were a few exceptions, where the
mission lands fell into enterprising Spanish or American hands.
During the years of neglect, the more tender trees died, and the
more hardy survived. The pear and the olive vied with the vine in
withstanding drouth and the trampling and browsing of the cattle
that roamed unmolested through the deserted gardens. These pears,
as will be described presently, were turned to good account by the
early American settlers; the olive and the vine furnished cuttings
for most of the plantations made during the first twenty years or
more of American occupation.

But it seems that not all the mission orchards were permitted to
fall into decay after secularization. In 1846 Edwin Bryant found
at the Mission San Jose two gardens inclosed by high adobe walls.
The area was from fifteen to twenty acres, all of which was planted
with fruit trees and grape vines. There were about six hundred
pear trees and a large number of apple and peach trees, all bearing
fruit in great abundance, the quality of the pears being excellent,
the apples and peaches indifferent. Other visitors to some of the
mission orchards between the events of secularization and American
occupation speak of being regaled with pears and milk, a dish which
seemed to them ambrosial after the weary journeys overland across
the deserts, or after months of ship fare.

44 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Planting of Mission Fruits by Early Settlers—There were quite
considerable plantations, chiefly of mission grapes and oranges, by
early settlers in the neighborhood of Los Angeles. General Bidwell
saw in Los Angeles in 1845 the largest vineyard that he had seen in
California, and the vines were the most thrifty. Wine was also
abundant—even the Angelica. Los Angeles had orchards, also,
mostly of oranges. The largest orange orchards at that time were
those of Wolfskill, Carpenter, and Louis Vigne. During recent years
the modern city of Los Angeles has been built over and beyond them.

Among the early planters of mission fruits in the northern part
of the State was Yount, who planted vines in Napa Valley in 1838,
and other fruits later. John Wolfskill, of Winters, saw grapes and
peaches at Yount’s in 1841, and J. M. Pleasant took peach pits from
Yount’s over into Pleasant’s valley, Solano county, in 1851. Dr.
Marsh, on his place at the base of Mount Diablo, had, in 1842, a
mission grape vineyard more than an acre in extent, and in good
bearing. The vines were planted about 1838. Mr. Wolfskill planted
a few vines on Putah Creek in 1842.

Partial Revival of the Mission Fruit Gardens.—After the incom-
ing of Americans in 1849 some of the old Mission trees were secured
by enterprising men, and made to renew their youth by pruning,
cultivation, and irrigation, that they might minister to the great
demand for fruit which sprang up among the gold seekers. The
trees richly reciprocated the care and attention given them, and
there still exist at the San Gabriel Mission old pear trees grafted
over with improved varieties by. 'W. M. Stockton in 1854. The first
fruits offered for sale in San Francisco markets were from the pear
trees of Santa Clara and San Jose Missions, and from the mission
erapevines of the same localities, and of Los Angeles county. These
grapes, packed in sawdust, came up the coast by steamer, and were
then re-shipped to the mining camps, arriving for the most part in
good condition, and were very popular. It is recorded that one
thousand five hundred tons of these grapes were sent from Los
Angeles county to San Francisco and the mines in 1852. Another
instance in which thrift followed neglect is seen in the fact that, in
1858, Don Andres Pico, who succeeded to possession of the orchard
at the San Fernando Mission, did a considerable business in drying
pears and other fruits, using the labor of the Indians.

At the present time vestiges of the old mission orchards still re-
main, the pears and olives still bearing, and in some eases the old
date palms guarding the desolate scenes, or standing as reminders
of the old regime, while the new life of California is surging up
around them.

RUSSIAN FRUITS

The second introduction of cultivated fruits to California was by
the Russians. The exact date of their planting at Fort Ross on the
ocean side in Mendocino county, is not known, but is believed to
have been as early as 1812. The survivors of the original Russian

RUSSIAN INTRODUCTION OF FRUITS 45

planting look ‘‘very old and mossy, and are not very thrifty, but
still bear some fruit every year.’’ They were planted too closely,
and have undergone periods of neglect, no doubt. The trees are
apple for the most part, but there were also cherries, and some of
both fruits survive. The trees are all believed to have been grown
from seed, and if this be true some fortunate results were obtained,
for there is still grown in Green Valley, Sonoma county, a medium-
sized, bell-shaped apple, lightly striped with red, which is called
the Fort Ross or Russian apple, and was probably propagated by
erafts from the Fort Ross orchard. Seeds were also secured from
this source for propagation of apple trees in early days in that sec-
tion of the State.

CHAPTER VI

CALIFORNIA’S LEADERSHIP IN AMERICAN FRUIT
INDUSTRIES

The first cultivated fruits of the old era came to California with
the padres. The first fruits of the new era came with the American
pioneers. Though not a little inquiry has been made, it is not yet
possible to declare definitely who brought the first budded or grafted
trees upon California soil. It is a tradition in the family of Martin
Lelong, who came to California as a member of Stevenson’s regiment
in 1846, that he brought with him a small lot of trees of French
varieties of apples growing in a box, and that they were planted in
Los Angeles.

In the fall of 1849, W. H. Nash joined with R. L. Kilburn in order-
ing from a nursery in western New York a small box of thirty-six
fruit trees, which, packed in moss, well survived the journey around
the Horn, arriving and being planted in Napa Valley in the spring
of 1850. The shipment included Rhode Island Greening, Roxbury
Russet, Winesap, Red Romanite, Esopus Spitzenburg apples; Bart-
lett and Seckel pears, Black Tartarian and Napoleon Bigarreau
cherries.

Before the introduction of grafted fruit trees, and, indeed, for
several years afterwards, there were many shipments of fruit-tree
seeds from the Eastern States to California. Mr. Barnett planted
Kentucky seed as early as 1847 in Napa county. T. K. Stewart
brought to California with him, in 1848, about two hundred pounds
of vegetable and fruit seeds, the latter including peach, pear and
apple, all of which were planted on the American River, within the
present limits of Sacramento, in the spring of 1849. At the same
time he planted figs and olives, and, in 1851, seeds of oranges. From
all these he secured bearing trees.

But these early efforts at improvement of California fruits were
but faint forerunners of the zeal and enterprise which followed the
great invasion by gold seekers. As soon as the first thought—to get
gold directly from the soil—would admit the second—to get it in-
directly, by agricultural and horticultural arts—there came a de-
mand for something better than the wild fruits of the mountains,
better and more abundant than the seedling fruits from the mission
orchards. At first everything in the line of fruit-tree seed which
could be obtained was planted. Thus the immediate vicinity of the
mines soon began to show growing fruit trees. But seedlings of any
kind would not satisfy the planters, and effort was put forth in every
direction after grafted trees of the best varieties. Oregon had a
few years the start of California as an inviting field for immigration
and the advantage also of winning the attention of those who went
out, not as gold seekers, but as agricultural producers. Oregon had
erafted trees in bearing, and nursery stock as well, about the time

INTRODUCTION OF IMPROVED FRUITS 47

the demand sprang up for it in California. Up to 1847 the cultivated
fruit of Oregon consisted of seedlings introduced by the Hudson
Bay Company in 1824, and by the early settlers from the Mississippi
Valley. In 1847 Henderson Lewelling crossed the plains from Henry
county, Iowa, to Oregon, bringing with him a pretty general variety
of grafted fruits. He fitted up a wagon, selected small plants, and
planted them in soil in the boxes. He arrived in Oregon, late in the
fall, with three hundred plants alive. The same fall Wilham Meek
arrived in Oregon with a few varieties of fruit trees. He and
Lewelling put their stock together, and commenced the first nursery
of grafted fruits on the Pacific Coast about five miles south of Port-
land, on the east bank of the Willamette river. In March, 1851,
erafts of apple, pear, peach, plum and cherry were brought to Cali-
fornia by Mr. Seth Lewelling and sold in Sacramento.

Other commercial importations and shipments by planters for
their own use were also made, so that the plantings of 1851-52 were
quite large. Still there was great doubt as to the success of the
trees. Mr. G. G. Briggs, after his great melon profits of 1851, went
back to New York State for his family, and, returning to California,
brought with him, as he says, ‘‘with no idea that they would succeed,
but as a reminder of home,”’ fifty peach and a few apple and pear
trees. To his surprise, the trees grew well in 1852, and the next
year blossomed and bore some of the best peaches he ever saw. The
pears also bore some fine fruit the same year.

There were other introductions of grafted trees in 1852, for, at a
fair held in San Francisco in 1853, there were several kinds of
apples, grown by Isaac A. Morgan, of Bolinas, on trees planted the
previous year. Apples were also shown from Napa. David Spence,
of Monterey, showed the first almonds grown in California. During
the winter of 1852-53 the distribution of grafted trees extended
widely over the State. Five dollars for a small tree was frequently
paid at the nursery in Oregon, and the trees were carried overland
into the mining districts of California, as well as brought to San
Francisco for distribution through the valleys.

Fruit Gardens, Not Orchards.—It is interesting to note that much
of the pioneer effort was expended upon fruit gardens rather than
fruit orchards. Two ideas, at least, led in this direction. One was
the popular thought, which, however, was very early found to be
erroneous, that frequent and copious irrigation was essential to the
growth of fruit in this dry climate. Another was the ambition,
which was correct, both from a horticultural and commercial point
of view, to secure the fruit just as soon as possible, for the double
purpose of determining what was adapted to the novel conditions,
and to secure the magnificent prices which fruit commanded in the
market. For these ends dwarfing stocks naturally suggested them-
selves, and were employed to an extent which seems wonderful when
it is remembered that now very few dwarf fruit trees are grown.
Very early, say from 52 to ’58, at San Jose, Oakland, Stockton and
Sacramento, small areas, which would now only be considered re-
spectable house lots, were turned to great profit with dwarf pear

48 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

and apple trees. The place of Mr. Fountain, near Oakland, was
called, in 1857, ‘‘The finest orchard of dwarf trees in the State.’’
It consisted of three acres set with one thousand six hundred apple
and pear trees, all dwarf from root grafts, two years old, and four
feet high, and most of them in good bearing. He started the
branches from the ground, pruning severely, and heading in during
the winter. He claimed that dwarfing gave him better and larger
fruit, and from two to three years’ sooner than with standard trees.
He did not irrigate, but plowed frequently, four inches deep, up to
the first of June.

But though these dwarf-tree gardens ‘were formally declared ‘‘to
be the fashion,’’ and though the list of stock of one Sacramento
nurseryman, in 1858, included ninety-five standard and eight thou-
sand and sixty-eight dwarf pear trees for sale, the foundations of the
greater orchards were early laid upon the basis of standard trees.
Thus the Briggs’ orchard, of one thousand acres on the moist land
of the Yuba, was planted with trees sixteen feet apart each way,
and other early planters on the rich lands of central Alameda county
adopted about the same distance.

Quite in contrast, too, with the prevalence of dwarf trees, and
contemporaneous with it, was the grand plan which the pioneer of
pioneers, General Sutter, laid out his orchard on Hock Farm, on the
west bank of the Feather River, eight miles from its junction with
the Yuba. Several acres were set apart for an ornamental fruit
orchard, the trees and shrubs being so arranged as to present a
unique landscape garden, nearly every article in which is productive
of fruit. The fruit trees were planted on either side of the broad
avenues opening through the extensive grounds in various directions.

But neither ‘the narrow dwarf-tree garden plan nor the broad
landscape-garden plan survived. Neither of them harmonized with
the commercial idea of orcharding—large production and economy
of cultivation, and both were soon abandoned. The only early:plant-
ing of dwarf trees which now survives is the Block orchard of pears
at Santa Clara which ‘will be mentioned in the chapter on that fruit.

Irrigation Abandoned.—The early abandonment of dwarf trees
suggests also the early abandonment of irrigation in the valleys of
Northern California—as early as 1856. Facilities which had been
secured for irrigation of orchards were allowed to go unused, be-
cause it was thought better not to use them. One case is reported
in Napa county where means to furnish the orchard with thirty
thousand gallons of water per day were allowed to le idle. The
substitution of cultivation for water, of course, attended this reform.
The announcement of a practice, in 1856, ‘‘to plow deep, dig »wide
and deep holes for planting, and work the ground from February
to July, allowing no grass or weeds to grow among the trees,’’ shows
that the thorough and clean culture, for which California became
famous, is an old idea. Even the abandonment of the plow, and
almost weekly use of the cultivator, was the practice of some growers
in the San Jose district before 1860. In fact, the descriptions of
orchard management in that day include nearly all the methods

PIONEER EXPERIENCES IN FRUIT GROWING 49

which have since prevailed. Later:experience has, however, shown
that irrigation facilities are more valuable even for deciduous fruits
than was once thought possible. This proposition will be discussed
in the chapter:on irrigation. As for the policy of clean cultivation
for the whole year, it also has been succeeded by a more rational
policy of cover cropping which will be discussed in the chapters on
eultivation and fertilization.

Early Wisdom and Enterprise—It is' evident to anyone who
studies the records, that California was very fortunate in numbering
among the early settlers so many men with horticultural tastes, skill,
and experience. The rapidity with which fruit trees were multiplied,
and the confidence with which these early comers entered upon the
nursery business, shows their training. Although there were many
trees brought here from the East and from Europe, they: constituted
only a small percentage of the plantings of the first few years;
but the orchards, with the exception of a very small number of trees
introduced to furnish grafting and budding stock, were the product
of the soil. When this is borne in mind, it becomes all the more
wonderful how so much could be done in a new country, in a distant
part of the world, in so very short a time. It was an observation
which was put upon record as early as 1856, that ‘‘some varieties of

‘fruit are much improved by change to this State, and some are not
benefited.’’ The test seems to have been that if a variety was not
better than at the Hast, it should be discarded..

The First Oversupply.—The wonderful stimulus given to the
fruit interest by the results obtained in growth and in ‘marketing,
soon induced larger plantings than the demand warranted. In 1857
it was publicly stated that ‘‘there are single farms in this State con-
taining each over half a million fruit trees in'orchard and nursery—
one person owning enough trees, when fully matured, to produce as
much fruit, other than grapes, as will be sold this year throughout
our State. The day is not far distant when fruit will be an impor-
tant crop for raising and fattening swine.’’ This was, to a certain
extent, a statement of a croaker, for plantation continued, rare va-
rieties were brought from the East, the South, and from Europe;
the growth of some fruits continued to be very profitable and the
nursery business, confined to fewer'hands, was profitable also. The
idea that quality rather than size should be striven for led to more
discrimination in propagation and better treatment of trees.

_ The'decade from 1858 to 1868 was one of quiet in the fruit in-
terest of California. Many of the too hastily and carelessly planted
trees died from lack of proper cultivation and pruning, and the
borer wrought sad havoe. In 1860 and 1861 there was serious de-
pression. It is recorded that peaches were worth but one cent a
pound, and many were allowed to go to waste as'not worth gather-
ing. The flood of 1862 destroyed many trees along the Sacramento
River, and replanting was slow until ‘prices began to improve, as
they did soon afterward. The rapid development-of the mining in-
terest in Nevada, and the construction of roads across the Sierras,
opened the way for the disposition of much fruit growth in the foot-
hills and in the region around Sacramento.

50 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HCW TO GROW THEM

The imports of dried and canned fruits were large, and growers
were exhorted to take steps to secure this trade for themselves.
Something was ‘done in this direction, for by 1867 the local product
of canned fruit was equal to the demand. Drying did not advance
so fast; for two years later there were imports of six thousand bar-
rels of dried apples, while hundreds of thousands of bushels of
the fruit were rotting under the trees in our orchards.

The decade under review was also notable for the first appear-
ance of cured raisins and prunes at the State Fair of 1863. The
raisins were from the Muscat of Alexandria grape, and the report
states that so-called raisins exhibited previous to that time were
merely dried grapes. Dr. J. Strentzel, of Martinez, was the first
exhibitor of Muscat raisins, and he exhibited also dried grapes of
four varieties to show the contrast between a raisin and a dried
grape. It is recorded, however, that true raisins from the Muscat
erape were made by S. P. Smith, of Sacramento, in 1858. J. R.
Nickerson, of Placer County, exhibited the dried prunes, which were
of the German variety.

Though this decade was one of uncertainty and ‘doubt, there
were rich lessons of experience learned, and the foundations for
coming greatness were well laid. Many of our leading lines of
production trace their beginnings to this period, and their later
developments have been beyond any anticipations then cherished.

Fresh Fruits 'for Distant Markets.—In 1869 the first fresh fruits
were sent East over the newly-opened overland line. The first sea-
son’s shipments amounted to thirty-three tons of pears, apples,
grapes, and plums; in 1870 seventy carloads, or about seven hundred
tons, were sent. Anew era began with the year 1886, when the first
full train load of fifteen cars of fresh fruit from deciduous trees
went overland. Shipping train loads of oranges from Southern
California began at an earlier date. The development of this phase
of California fruit production during the last fifteen years is shown
in the adjacent table. Statistics of long distance shipments of
fresh fruits from the beginning are given in earlier editions of this
book.

Se eee eee ee ee ee

Shipments of Fresh Fruits Beyond State Lines by Rail, in Actual Carloads.

iscel-

Year Oranges Lemons Apricots Cherries Grapes Peaches Pears Plums laneous Total
OAS ate role 26,160 3,239 97 209 1,451 559 2,186 1,053 28 34,972
AO ares ahs 26.044 5,378 279 79 1,602 1,946 1,013 1,391 16 47,748
QO OWS oss 2d,0910 oyolo 16 150 2,052 584 1,513 1,220 22 43,167
ASOT evel ens 26,310 3,507 71 133 3,460 699 1,039 1,039 18 34,069
NOOB feos 27,770 4,959 232 208 3,819 1,980 2,702 1,763 15 38,539
OOO Aree ers 34,320 6,196 210 250 5,880 2,599 2,638 1,526 19 45,851
LOD ay. ate 28,317 4,782 290 250 4,948 2,518 2,361 1,552 17 52,542
AIRED than gees 39,630 6,764 215 216 6,374 2,027 2,325 1,366 16 45,638
11h ena 34,329 5,961 196 244 6,357 1,621 3,135 1,776 15 58,738
ROHS tars, os us 15,893 2,192 158 231 6,363 2,359 2,496 1,706 19 53,622
OMA eet 45,594 2,954 382 166 8,773 2,144 2,725 1,907 49 34,121
Oke abe d 40,011 6,851 392 205 9,563 1,689 2,646 2,225 58 65,326
1916 selon: 38,034 7,200 290 164 9,722 1,909 3,701 1,999 106 64,753
WOW isan tees 46,447 7,914 403 330 13,944 2,432 4,802 2,651 66 69,902

OWS oave alone 17,204 6,331 | 440 356 16,358 3,187 4,571 2,483 75 50,955

PRESENT EXTENT OF THE FRUIT INDUSTRY 51

The table does not include apples because they are not handled
in the same way as other fruits. The figures of the apple product will
appear in the chapter on that fruit. This is true also of dried and
eanned fruits and nuts.

The Fruit Interests of 1919.—The fruit interests of California
now constitute the greatest single industry of California, and the
fruit output of California is far greater than that of any other State
in the Union. Notable progress has been secured in planting, in
the growth, preparation and marketing of the product, in the con-
test with injurious insects and plant diseases, and, in fact, in all
things which contribute to success. It is true that there are prob-
lems still unsolved, and there have been grievous losses to individ-
uals who have’ proceeded upon too great expectations or have
erred in location for various fruits. Such mishaps will be less
frequent in the future. At present there is a disposition to proceed
more cautiously and to profit by the lessons which have been learned,
many of which will be mentioned in their proper place in later
chapters.

Some dimensions of the present fruit interests may be suggested
by the following statistics showing the acreage of trees and vines
and amount and commercial valuation of the product of a single
year, mainly from records of California Horticultural Commission:

Acreage of California Fruits: Also Products and Valuation for 1918

Fruit Bearing Non-Bearing Product Valuation
Almonds: fesse dice 34,972 15,957 5,168 tons $ 1,860,000
ANPPLGS eis, «aida arhicle 43,647 15,684 6,560,138 boxes 6,000,000
ATICOUS 6. 2 be snes 40,686 19,444 135,787 tons 8,800,000
ETNETTICS lac siad oie vate se 8,616 Sy ea 11,117 do 1,800,000
ESAS rch 2. espa ate 6,017 5,631 18,000,000 lbs. 2,700,000
GTAPES Ss cpa bs sists e'os ons 220,047 31,400 1,254,514 tons 68,246,000
MVETIVONS) oo ee yeleks se 26,744 15,297 3,792,030 boxes 19,000,000
(OTR ae a Ree 18,801 12,222 13,801 tons 2,000,000
Oranees Salas ees 116,470 40,819 *15,858,939 boxes 75,000,000
IPAAGCHES A vib states 107,575 12,388 298,020 tons 11,920,000
GES res weeedue hatesers 22,416 23,087 106,073 do 5,500,000
EP Utainaeaeatote ts ats hessneteh « 17,284 4,656 39,368 do 3,000,000
TAGES sana Nie wiles 100,721 34,690 *39,127 do 5,500,000
Wiel Mutsy sisi tone 48,520 18,809 38,924,471 lbs 10,500,000
IS GETICS 1 iste lasts 6 otal 33,243 tons 6,847,500

BIRCH GEE Lover oe pega teaser vine eve tees eles a ccaaial Sihes.c eatate Map ciaet cei SLE ATR ace) SN at koh $228,673,500

*The orange product for the crop year ending October 31, 1918, was less than one-
half the normal, The prune product is given in tons of the dried fruit: this was but
little more than half the normal production. Though both oranges and prunes were thus
below the average in crop, the valuation was nearer the normal because of high prices
prevailing.

It was shown by the U. 8. Census of 1910 that California led
the other States in every fruit except two. California also led in
the total value of all fruits produced in all States—producing in
fact about one-fourth of all the fruit grown in the United States.
Since the census year, 1909, the California fruit interests have
notably advanced, and it is anticipated that the next census, which
will be taken in 1920, will show that California leads in the pro-
duction of all fruits grown in the United States except the apple.

52 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

INFLUENCE OF THE FRUIT INDUSTRIES UPON
CALIFORNIA DEVELOPMENT

Enlistment in California fruit growing has proved exceedingly
satisfactory to tens of thousands of people in the various ways
along which they have approached it. The fruit districts are full
of cottage homes sheltering families of those who have begun with
small investments and have made a good livelihood, and often con-
siderably more, from a few acres of fruits grown largely without
expenditure for hired labor. The study of the needs of the tree
or vine and ministering to them by personal effort has brought new
health and new incentive to the worn and weary who have taken
up outdoor life and activity in California fruit growing with a wise
choice of location, land and fruits, for obviously in all investments
one must be wise as well as willing.

In large operations hundreds have notably succeeded by pur-
chasing good land in large tracts at low rates and making ample
investment for its development and improvement. Some of the
most delightful of our towns and villages have arisen as a direct
result of such employment of capital. Well established communities,
well chureched and schooled, well provided for in local trade and
transportation, have followed investment and devoted effort in
colony enterprises.

Hundreds, also, have purchased large tracts of wild land and
have developed fine estates for their own personal gratification,
with thriving orchards of all kinds of fruits, rich pastures tenanted
with improved livestock, parks, gardens and buildings comparable
with the estates of the European nobility, except that California
conditions favor freedom and variety in outdoor effort unknown
in Europe, and command proportional interest and enthusiasm.
Estates for winter residences in California are exceptionally desir-
able, not only because of natural advantages and greater possibili-
ties of development, but because of the advanced standing of the
State financially and socially.

All of these lines of effort, then—home-making in a small way,
eolony enterprise and private estate development—have yielded on
the whole great satisfaction and success. Fruit growing has been
the central idea in nearly all of them, but it is obvious that activity
in any productive line begets opportunity for other lines, and so all
branches of agriculture have advanced and the diversification is
highly desirable. Opportunities in manufacture, trade and pro-
fessional effort of all kinds have been quickly seized and developed
with much originality and success. Fruit growing has created them
all and has in turn been advanced by all, for every accumulation of
capital promotes it. Successful toilers in all lines become planters.
The ancestral delight of the race, to sit beneath one’s own vine or
fig tree, is nowhere more enthusiastically manifested than in Cali-
fornia, and nowhere else does the emotion of comfort in ownership
yield such profound and protracted satisfaction. ~

AN OPPORTUNITY FOR DEVELOPMENT 53

THE OUTLOOK OF THE INDUSTRY

The outlook for California fruits and fruit products involves con-
siderations of much economic interest. Though the volume is already
large and there may be experienced now and then temporary dull-
ness or depression in this line or that, the business is, on the whole,
brisk and profitable. There is such a wide range in the fruits grown
and the products made from them, and such changes in local con-
ditions in the many purchasing States and foreign countries with
which Californians deal, that there must be some fluctuations in the
values of some of the supplies offered in distant market. The result
is that first one fruit and then another one seems to be more or less
profitable. The fact, however, that all are increasing in volume and
the total traffic brings each year more money to the State, is a
demonstration of the standing of the collective output. Hach year
new markets are found, both at home and abroad, and the capacity
of old centers of distribution is shown to be greater than anticipated.
There is every reason to expect that the products can be profitably
multiplied. There have been secured, largely through co-operative
efforts of growers, so many improvements in handling and trans-
portation that distant shipment has become more safe and profitable
and distribution far wider. It is reasonable to believe that further
improvement in movement and reduction of cost will be realized
and the per capita consumption in the populous parts of our own
country proportionately advanced. In spite of all that wintry States
ean do for local supplies, California can find open markets before
and after the short ripening season of the Eastern States for her
early and late fruits, and can use her own midseason fruits in the
drying and canning industries, though it is a fact that in the height
of the Eastern fruit season a considerable quantity of California
fruit will command the highest prices because of its exceptional size,
beauty and keeping qualities. The citrus fruits will continue to
supply an American product of exceptional quality and freshness,
while prunes and other cured fruits and nuts and raisins will not
only do this, but will push forward into larger trade abroad. The
patriotic service rendered by California fruit producers during the
last war, in supplying wholesome foods to the allied armies, has re-
turned an appreciative publicity which will be of incalculable trade
advantage in the future. The fact is that European countries can
not grow fruit enough to supply their own people, and fruit has been
largely a luxury. California canned and dried fruits are being wel-
comed by the great middle classes and are likely to become a staple
of their diet.

The development of adjacent territory on the American continent
and other Pacific countries may shape the future of California as a
fruit-producing State in a way which can at present only be dreamed
about. It should be remembered that California has a unique char-
acter from a horticultural point of view. Not only does the State
have a monopoly of semi-tropical conditions of the United States
(excepting small parts of the Gulf States and Arizona), but Cali-

54 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

fornia has command of the whole of northwest America and the
whole of northeast Asia, not only in the supply of semi-tropical
fruits, but in early ripening of hardy fruits as well.

California does not grow tropical fruits, as has already been con-
ceded in Chapter I. They must come from the islands and the trop-
ical south coast countries. Semi-tropical fruits are, however, vastly
more important in commerce than tropical, and a region which suc-
cessfully combines northern orchard fruits with the whole semi-
tropical class commands the fruit trade of all accessible populous
regions which have lmited fruit capabilities.

Prophets, far-seeing in world courses, declare that the Pacific
ocean is to be the arena for commerce greater than the world has
yet seen, and the Pacific coast countries are to contain the greater
part of the world’s population. This greatest quartosphere with its
superlative opportunities and activities will have California as its
treasure house of fruits and fruit products. During the long winter
the citrus fruits will afford tonic and refreshment, and before hardy
fruits bloom in northern climes the same fruits will appear from the
early ripening districts of California. In this traffie California will
not only be practically without a competitor, but, sitting beside the
sea, there will also be every advantage of water transportation and
the sustaining ocean temperatures of the fruits in transit. California
dried and canned fruits will render acceptable diet even through
the most Arctic stretches along which development may advance
in North America and North Asia, while a succession of fresh fruits
will flow to all Pacific ports throughout the year. California, too,
will be the winter residence for all the North Pacific millionaires
and the haven of rest and recuperation for all who are worn by
Arctic cold or tropic heat throughout the great circle of the Pacific
ocean. Here the arts will flourish, education attain its highest
achievements and culture prevail. Then fruit growing both as”
commercial enterprise and as a home delight will attain value,
volume and perfection, of which present achievements are but a
faint foreshadowing.

PART TWO: CULTURAL

CHAPTER VII
CLEARING LAND FOR FRUIT

The greater part of the orchard and vineyard area of this State
was naturally almost clear for planting. The removal of large trees,
which paid the cost of the work iin firewood, or the grubbing out of
willows on some especially rich bottom land, was about the extent
of clearing which our earlier planters had to undertake, and many
of them perhaps never had to lift an axe. Still there has always
been some clearing done, here and there, ever since the earliest days,
especially upon hill lands, the peculiar value of which for some fruits
is generally recognized.

Though in most eases of clearing by the actual settler himself the
problem is merely one of muscle’ and persistence, using the best
appliances one can afford, some few hints may be given from the
experience of others which may be useful. Spare time during the
summer and fall can often be used to advantage with a sharp axe
in trimming up the smaller trees, which are large enough to yield
fencing material, and getting out posts from the redwoods and oaks,
and rails and pickets from the pines. By thus using the waste ma-
terial the settler can often get out enough fencing material to in-
close his land and thus save considerable expense. Brush, too,
which cannot be made use of, can be lopped off—in short, all the
sharp axe work can be done in a dry time. The actual clearing,
however, should be done in winter, when the ground is wet and soft,
and digging is easy or ‘‘snaking out’’ is possible.

Partial and Thorough Clearings.—Orchards are planted on both
partially and thoroughly cleared land. By the former practice
clearing enough is done to give space for the tree holes, the debris
is burned up, and the trees planted. In this kind of work the stumps
are left to be taken out at a convenient season, the object being to
get fruit trees to growing as soon as possible. Where one is work-
ing with little more than his own muscle, and has no capital, this
sort of planting is better, perhaps, than not planting at all, but it
must be borne in mind that all subsequent work will be done at a
great disadvantage, and as cultivation is likely to be very imperfect,
it would be a question whether in the end anything would be gained
by such a plan. The encumbered character of the ground will, of
course, prevent the use of the horse in cultivation until most of the
stumps are removed. Whenever possible the clearing for fruit
should be thorough, everything which will interfere with good cul-

56 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

tivation removed; roots grubbed so that as little shooting up as pos-
sible is secured; the ground evened up to obviate standing water,
and, where needed, arrangements made for irrigation and drainage,
as will be considered later.

Removal of Standing Trees and Stumps.—Old methods of hand
chopping, digging and burning by which the pioneers cleared their
way from the Atlantic to the Pacific have been largely superseded
by more efficient and cheaper methods and agencies, explosives,
horse and man-power pulleys, etc., and descriptions of their use
have been published by the government in the interest of develop-
ment and settlement of idle lands. Those interested in clearing
should apply for such publications before entering upon the work.*

Horse-Power Stump Pullers.—The use of horse-power devices
for tree felling and stump extraction has increased considerably of
late. One which has achieved good results is a local invention called
a ‘‘California Stump Puller.’’ It is simply a specially designed cap-
stan worked by one horse, with a wire cable five-eighths of an inch
in diameter, an improved snatch block, chains, and a drafthook to
unite the cable with the chains. Power is applied to the capstan
with a sweep. It is calculated that with this device, properly ad-
justed, one horse is enabled to produce an effect equal to the capac-
ity of 60 horses without it, and that a 1,200-pound horse which can
move a dead weight of one and a half tons for a short distance can
move a dead weight of 90 tons with the devices employed in the
machine: It is so rapidly adjustable that on one trial in. Napa
county eighteen stumps were pulled in eighteen minutes, long roots
coming clear out of the ground with each stump.

The Use of Powder.—Another means for the removal both of
stumps and of growing trees which has come into quite wide use
during the last few years, is high explosives, which have vastly
cheapened the clearing of lands, where either large trees or stumps
have to be removed. Full instructions for the use of powder are
furnished by the agents in San Francisco, and they often send an
expert to start the work and give instruction if there is much to be
done. It has been estimated that the cost of handling trees and
stumps with explosives is less than one-fifth that by hand grubbing,
and the ratio of saving increases as the trees are larger, as powder
is cheaper than muscle.

Removing Shrubs and Brush.—In the case of removing shrubs
of a somewhat tall growth, the top is made to help out the roots.
This is done either with a good strong rope or a chain. To do this
requires two men and a pair of horses, and two chains, each ten or
twelve feet long. A chain should be placed around the bush some
distance above the ground, to give leverage. If the bush is not
removed at the first pull, start the horses in the opposite direction.
While the driver is unfastening the chain from the chaparral, the
second man can place the other chain around another bush, and the

*An up-to-date review of the subject which gives due prominence to Pacific Coast
methods is ‘‘Farmers’ Bulletin 974” on ‘Clearing Land’’—which can be had free by ap-
plication to the Division of Publications, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C

CLEARING SHRUBS AND GRAPE VINES 57

one who gets through his work first should at once assist the other.
In this way the horses are kept in constant employment, and neither
of the men need lose a moment’s time. This work should be done
when the ground is thoroughly wet.

Another rig to snake brush and small trees is contrived in this
way: Use single and double block or shives with 1-in. diameter
rope. On the block you pull from (the double block) use two
10-ft. chains with ring in one end and hook on other. Secure this to
a good anchor bush or to three or five of them, enough to hold.
Fasten them right down close to the ground so there is no leverage
on them. As soon as you have pulled all you can reach in a circle
around the anchor trees, take one anchor chain off, or start with
one anchor chain, then hook on other, take in big circle on single
block end. One to four chains can be used; take two half-hitches
as high as possible, make first chain taut; 2nd chain 2 ft. slack; 3rd
chain 3 ft. slack, and so on—so your horses are pulling one bush at
a time. Chains do not tie in hard knots when horses are pulling on
them, as ropes do.

A Vine Puller. What is called a ‘‘vine puller,’’ because it is
used to clear off old vineyard, is also available for shrub pulling.
Use two wagon wheels, long pole 4x6x12 pine with large strong
iron hook on one end. Bolt the hook on, allow the end with the hook
on to project over the axle 18 in. Bolt the pole down to axle. This
gives you great leverage. Roll right along on the short end over
the axle. Use a good five-eighths chain. Take double half-hitch
around bush; raise the pole into air, take a short tie on bush;
start the horse and out comes the bush.

Roller and Plow.—Where manzanita grows upright, as on hills
north of the bay, the same methods of extraction can be employed
with it, first slashing off enough to allow adjusting the rope or chain
a few feet above the ground. Where it grows lower, as, for ex-
ample, on the hills of Santa Clara, the manzanita brush is gone over
with a roller so as to break it down, and then the land is burned
over. The roller should be rigged with a tiller (header fashion) so
that the horses can push the roller and walk over the flattened
brush. The only object of the rolling is to smash the brush down
so that it will burn readily. When the brush is got rid of in this
way, the breaking plow is trusted to get rid of the roots. Horses
should be shod with a plate of sheet iron between the shoe and hoof
to prevent snagging, and not less than four of them used. Much of
the Santa Clara county vine belt was cleared in that way. Of
course this method only answers for the lighter-rooted growths;
tough-rooted chaparral, oak, holly, ete., must be grubbed out, unless
the roots are snaked out by the tops, as has been described.

Clearing Old Vineyards.—Prohibition legislation has forced the
clearing of vineyards of wine grapes. This is done on small areas
by grubbing and snaking as has been prescribed for the larger
shrubs. Large vineyard clearings are, however, much more cheaply
done with the tractor. Two concrete instances of procedure, after

58 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

the land is cleared of the top growth of arms and canes by chopping,
may be given:

Mr. I. D. Cox of Sonoma county pulled seven acres of roots a
day with a tractor and two men nearly as fast as the tractor travels
in low gear. Two chains are hooked to the tractor, one man to
each—pulling two rows per trip. The end of the chain is fastened
to a five-foot iron rod about seven inches from its end. While the
chain is still slack, the man pokes the short end of a rod around a
vine and catches it over the chain while the tractor pulls out the
vine. Then he drops the stump quickly and hooks onto the next one.

Mr. I. T. Onstott of Sutter county used a 45-horsepower tractor
and a ‘‘digger’’ which looks something like a nursery tree digger,
having a U iron fixed to a sled of 4x12’s so its cross bar, shod with
a cutting knife, runs deep enough underground to eut the roots
below plow depth. A hook or ‘‘gopher’’ follows the cutting edge so
that as it slides under the stumps it raises them out of the subsoil.
After chopping the stumps off, a furrow was plowed each side of
them, the tractor digger lifted them loose, and they were easily
picked out and thrown onto wagons.

Marketable Products of Clearing.—Whether any money can be
made from the results of clearing depends altogether upon local
markets for wood and charcoal, and the cost of transportation to
them. From clearings near large towns enough can be sometimes
had to pay for the work and hauling, and along railways wood can
often be shipped with profit. This can be learned by local inquiries.

Charcoal Burning.—Charecoal can usually be sold to advantage,
and wood can sometimes be profitably disposed of in this way when
it cannot be marketed for fuel. A considerable acreage of unprofit-
able fruit trees has been disposed of in this way recently. Charcoal
is made from most kinds of wood, and sometimes stumps and large
roots are charred. A simple process of charcoal burning is given by
an experienced burner, as follows:

To burn a pit of charcoal, the prime necessity is to perform the process
of combustion with the least possible contact with air. Select a suitable
place not too far from the dwelling, because the operation must be watched
from time to time by night as well as by day. It is not necessary to dig
much of a “pit” in the ground. Choose hard limbs of pine, spruce or what-
ever wood is most available of that kind. Dry, dead limbs. if not decayed,
take for choice. Set them up wigwam fashion, close together, fitting them
as well as they will allow, the apex forming the chimney. Be careful to
keep the chimney free, because the fire should be there applied to brisk
“kindling” as far down as possible. Build round and round, taking the
precaution to lay three or four straight pieces, three or four inches in
diameter, along the ground from the outside to the center. These may
have to be withdrawn to promote the draught.

The wood all being in place it is now required to cover it thoroughly.
In the absence of turf or sods, it must be thatched with leafy green boughs,
or anything that will prevent the earth or dirt that is now heaped on from
running through. Pack this soil covering carefully, exclude air as far as
possible, except when the port-holes referred to near the ground are need-
ed. The direction of the wind will determine which ones are to be opened.
When the fire—after a few hours more or less, according to the materials—
has got a good hold, close also the chimney. Visit the pit regularly night
and day; lessen or increase the draught as may seem needed; and in a

SUPPRESSING SPROUTS ON CLEARINGS 59

week or ten days the two or three cords of wood should be turned into good
hard coal. When uncovered water or dirt should be thrown upon coal that
is too lively when spread out on the ground.

Cutting to Kill Brush.—Just when to cut to kill depends upon
the character of the growth and of the season. One conclusion
seems to be that with deciduous growths the best time to cut is
when they have just made their most vigorous growth, and this is
in the summer—but the month to be chosen for the work will de-
pend upon the location, though August is generally selected as the
best time.

In the case of evergreens, the cutting should be just before the
coldest weather, in which they are the nearest dormant. Ever-
greens, however, differ much in tenacity of life, for while most kinds
are easily killed, the California redwood will endure almost any
abuse with the axe or fire and still spring up repeatedly and per-
sistently for years.

The Use of Sheep and Goats on Sprouts.—On sprouting brush,
there is, perhaps, no cheaper or more effective means of repression
than sheep and goats. They are used after the top growth is cleared
away instead of grubbing, if one can wait, for by the persistent cut-
ting down of growth many small stumps and roots will decay
enough in a year or two to be plowed out with a strong team and
plow.

Sage-Brush Clearing.—Desert vegetation was formerly largely
cleared by grubbing or snaking out with a length of railroad iron
with a heavy team at each end. Recently for large clearing a steam
tractor has been used—the cleared brush being used for fuel.
Hitched to the tractor was an outfit consisting of a roller to bend
the brush down, cutters to dig it out, and a rake to collect and dump
into windrows. The roller is made of iron cylinders about three feet
in diameter and seven feet wide. The digger consists of three heavy
V-shaped ‘‘weed cutters’’ which run underground, being supported
on wheels hitched behind the roller. Trailing behind the digger is
the rake, which is about 12 feet wide and runs on 7-foot wheels; it
is shaped like an ordinary horse hay-rake. The teeth of this ele-
phantine rake plow through the ground some inches deep. Brush
cannot get into the wheels, for they are lined inside with sheet iron.

Burning of the Debris.—However the trees and underbrush may
be wrenched from the soil, fire is the final cleaner. Where trees are
to be worked up into fire-wood, it should be done as soon as they
are felled, for the work is much less than after they become dry and
hard. If it is not designed to break the land the first winter, the
wood is left to season and it becomes lighter and easier to handle.
The brush and roots, if no use is to be made of them, can be left to
he on the clearing to dry out during the following summer, and
after the first rains of the following fall the whole area can be
burned over. Such stumps as do not burn with the brush must be
gathered in piles and re-fired. Burning before the first rain should
not be attempted, unless it be in exceptional situations, because of

60 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

the danger of communicating fire to the surrounding country, which
is a standing danger in our dry climate. Under the present law it
becomes necessary to secure permission from the State Forester at
Sacramento before starting field fires in the dry season. After the
rain, clean up the ground perfectly.

First Crop on a Clearing.—It is the opinion of some clearers in
the redwood region that the soil is not fit for fruit trees the first
year after the original growth is removed, and they grow a field
crop the first year. They claim that peas are the best corrective of
‘‘redwood poisoning,’’ and fortunately in the upper redwood dis-
trict they have a climate well suited to the pea.

Surface Leveling and Draining.—There is often occasion to clear
the land of stone and rocks. The latter should be blasted out of the
way so that the land may be clear for the plow and cultivator. Once
in a while one will come upon a _ stone wall enclosing an orchard in
this State, as trim and true a wall as the most thrifty New England
farmer can boast, but walls are not common. Our valley orchard
lands are, as a rule, naturally as free from stone as they are from
underbrush, but on the hills it is different. Probably the best way
to dispose of much of the stone is to dig trenches in the natural
water runs, put in stone, cover with small brush, and then with soil
deep enough so the plow will not reach the brush. This disposes of
_the stone for all time, and at the same time helps to drain the soil.
Concerning other treatment of the land after the rubbish is removed,
P. W. Butler writes as follows:

When water runs are wide, lateral ditches should be cut extending
entirely through the moist areas. If during the rainy season a run is likely
to have more water than can be conveyed properly through a covered trench,
it should be left open and graded, so that a team can cross it, and for fifteen
feet on each side sow to alfalfa, which will take the place of unsightly
weeds, that would otherwise grow at the point that cannot be cultivated.

To distribute the work more evenly through the first year buildings can
be erected, a well dug, and the trenches done in the dry season, while all the
grubbing, leveling, plowing and planting must be done the following season,
as soon as the ground is sufficiently moistened. All depressions where
water would stand should be filled, and all flat places should be graded
until water will readily flow off, and not be retained so near the surface
of the ground as to cause it to become soured. This leveling can be best
done by one man and a pair of horses. Plow the adjacent elevated land
and scrape into the places to be filled. The land is now ready for plowing,
and should be done thoroughly, subsoiling to as great a depth as the
removal of the stumps will allow. It is now well to go over the ground
again with the scraper and level all the most elevated points so they can
be readily reached by water in irrigating. Then cross-plow as deeply as
possible without again subsoiling, harrow and drag, and the ground will be
ready to plant.

Mr. Butler writes with reference to the foothills of the Sierra
Nevada, where irrigation must be practiced. Where irrigation is
not used, leveling, or rather grading, may be unnecessary, but it is
often quite desirable that there may be no depressions to retain
surplus water. The life of the trees and ease of cultivation may
demand this unless the soil should be light and deep enough to allow
free drainage.

CHAPTER VIII

CALIFORNIA NURSERY OPERATIONS

California nursery stock is unrivaled in growth, health and vigor.
This is the verdict of all the visiting horticulturists, and has been
formally declared by the victories of California tree growers at the
World’s Fairs held in this country, where the highest premiums
were awarded to Californians in nearly all classes in which they
exhibited since 1885.

The quality of the trees which can be purchased at our nurseries,
and the reasonable rates at which they are usually sold, make it
little worth while for the orchard planter to try to grow his own
trees. In fact, the investment called for to purchase a good assort-
ment of well-grown trees will be one of the best which the orchard
planter can make. The professional grower, if he is honest and en-
terprising, can give the purchaser the advantage of his experience
and skill in the choice of stocks suited to his soil, varieties of fruit
adapted to his situation, and be of assistance to him in other ways
connected with his enterprise; and such helps to an inexperienced
planter or to a newcomer are very valuable. There may be, however,
some reader who is distant from established nurseries, or possessed
of limited means, who may like to use his spare time in growing his
own trees, and to such suggestions are offered. There will, how-
ever, be very much which can be learned only by actual experience.

In the selection of a location for a commercial nursery there are
matters involved which it is not proposed to discuss. Attention will
be paid rather to matters connected with what may be called a farm
nursery. The first point will be the selection of a small piece of
ground, which offers proper soil, exposure, and, in most parts of the
State, facilities for irrigation—to be used whenever necessary to get
good growth.

Proper Soil for Nursery.—The soil should be a mellow loam,
easy of cultivation and not disposed to crust and crack. In all re-
spects what one would choose as a rich, kind garden soil will answer
well for the nursery. The soil should be moist, but thoroughly
drained, either naturally or artificially, for time and labor will be
largely wasted on a water-logged soil. In this respect a soil which
might yield fair crops of some shallow-rooted vegetables would not
always be suitable for young trees, which, to do well, must have
favorable conditions to send the roots to considerable depth. Good
spots are often found in the rich loam along the banks of creeks,
as in such situations one finds generally a deep alluvium, well
drained by the creek. But such situations, if liable to overflow,
should be rejected because standing water is not good for trees,
and because the soil will be apt to be soaked with water and inac-
cessible just at the time when the trees should be lifted for trans-
planting to orchard.

62 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

It is not always possible to find an ideal nursery spot on every
ranch, but still trees may be well grown on less favorable places if
attention is given to correcting natural defects. For example, if the
soil be naturally heavy, it may be improved somewhat by repeated
plowing and cultivation, during the year before starting the trees.
If it be an adobe, its mechanical condition may be greatly improved
by the application of a top dressing of lime at the rate of six hun-
dred to one thousand pounds of lime to the acre. For this purpose
‘‘Time waste,’’ which contains both lime and wood ashes, can be had
cheaply at the kilns. Old plaster which may have been left from
house repairs is excellent. Even builders’ lime would not be very
expensive, for but little would be required for so small a plot of
land as a farm nursery would need to cover. The lime will increase
the amount of plant food in a heavy soil as well as render it more
friable. Another way in which a small area of heavy soil may be
improved is by the addition of sand. A few loads of sand, if it can
be had nearby, will remove the tendency to crack, and will act as
a mulch to prevent evaporation of moisture. If the soil be very
loose and subject to too rapid drying out, the remedy will be mod-
erate irrigation during the summer, but it should cease early enough
to allow the young trees to ripen their wood before the frosts of
autumn. Mulches of various light, fine materials, rotted straw and
the like, may be used to advantage among the young seedlings in
preventing drying out of the soil, if the plot is to be hand-worked,
but such materials are apt to be in the way of neat, thorough work
with the horse. A mulch of sand, if available, is not open to this
objection.

In choosing soil for a nursery, a piece of land which has been in
cultivation for garden or field crops is to be preferred over a newly-
cleared piece. It is often the case that soil from which old stumps
or shoots have recently been removed has become soured from the
process of decay in the dead wood. Although the organic matter
from deeay of woody fiber tends to enrich the soil, afterwards cer-
tain acids are formed if the land lies without cultivation. These are
not favorable to the growth of young roots, and a crop to which as
much time is given as a crop of young trees, should not be placed
upon it. This evil quality in the soil is removed by cultivation and
aeration, or may be corrected by the application of lime. This state
of soil is most complained of in connection with old stumps and roots
of oak trees.

Situation and Exposure.—Warmth in the soil is necessary to a
good growth, and a good year’s growth is essential to the production
of a satisfactory tree. Drainage contributes notably to the warmth
of the soil. Exposure is also of importance. Plenty of sunshine and
protection from cold winds are to be secured. Sometimes a little
elevation is desirable. It would be a serious mistake to seek moist,
low land if the piece lies at the bottom of a little valley or depres-
sion where the cold air settles during the night and frosts are fre-
quent. In such cases choose higher ground. Of course, in broad,
open valleys there is not this objection, for such seasonable frosts

GROWING NURSERY STOCKS FROM SEEDS 63

as may be expected there are not injurious to deciduous nursery
stock. The greatest nurseries in the State are in the open valleys,
not on the lowest ground, however, in all cases, but on what would
be called good rich valley land. There are, however, situations in
the thermal belts in which the temperature does not fall low enough
to check growth of deciduous trees and cause the leaves to drop.
In such cases it has been found desirable to select lower and colder
ground for the nursery of deciduous trees.

Preparation for Nursery Ground.—The best preparation for nur-
sery ground is the growth, the previous season, of a cultivated or
hoed crop. This will secure frequent working of the soil, thorough
pulverization of the clods, ete. The produce of the hoed crop should
thus pay the cost of putting the land in good condition, at least.
Where the retention of moisture is an object, as it really is in some
parts of the State where the annual rainfall is sometimes small and
no facilities for irrigation provided, it will perhaps pay better in
the end to keep the land in bare fallow during the previous summer ;
but there must be frequent and thorough cultivation, keeping the
surface always mellow, or more moisture may be lost by evaporation
than a hoed crop would require for its growth. Properly cultivated
fallow soil will have a moisture within a few inches of the surface,
while unworked soil adjoining will be baked hard and dry to a
depth of several feet. During the winter immediately preceding the
planting, the green stuff should be allowed to grow for a time, but
should be plowed under before it gets high enough to interfere with
perfect turning of smooth furrows. The decay of this green crop is
of advantage. to the soil. Another plowing in the spring and a
thorough harrowing will leave the ground in good condition to re-
ceive the pits or root grafts, as the case may be.

Growth of Seedlings for the Nursery.—Fruit trees are produced
from buds and root grafts upon seedlings locally grown or imported
from the East or formerly from abroad. First, as to the growth of
seedlings:

It is usual to take seeds from sources where they can be collected
with the least trouble. Apple seeds are washed out from the pomace
of the cider press; apples and pears from the coring and peelings of
canneries and drying establishments; pits of the stone fruits are
derived from the same source. Supplies can usually be purchased
from such establishments at a moderate cost. The trouble is that
from such supplies one is apt to get seeds and pits from all varieties,
possessing different degrees of health and vigor. There is just as
much to be gained from selecting the seed from which to grow good
strong stocks for fruit trees as there is in selecting good garden or
field seed. One can generally get good peach pits, for it is easy to
have the order filled when the cannery is running on strong-growing
yellow varieties, for these are believed to be most vigorous, and yet
some claim much preference for pits from vigorous seedling trees,
and make extra efforts to secure them. Wherever it is possible, and
if one is only to produce a small lot of trees, it is practicable to

64 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

select from the fruit the seeds for planting. Not only is there great ©
difference in the strength of different varieties, but individual trees
vary greatly. If one is taking seeds from an old orchard to start
his nursery with, he can take pains to get his seed from his strong-
est trees, and thus secure also that which is probably best adapted
to his locality.

Apple and Pear Seedlings.—For a small lot of apple and pear
trees the seed can be best sown in boxes. Select plump pips and
keep in moist sand, from the time they are taken from the fruit
until sowing. Fill the boxes, which should be three or four inches
deep, with good garden mold, cover the seed about half an inch,
and then cover the soil lightly with chaff or fine straw to prevent
the surface from drying out. Be sure that the boxes have cracks
or holes in the bottom for drainage, and the whole is kept moist, but
not wet. When the seedlings have grown to the height of three
inches they can be set out in the nursery rows as one would set out
cabbage plants—if the work is carefully done and growing condi-
tions favorable. The easier and more common way is to ‘‘stratify’’
or alternate layers of seed and damp sand in the storage boxes and
sow in nursery rows in the open ground when the soil is in good
condition (in February or March usually) and the seeds swollen or
showing sprouts.

Cherry Seedlings.—There are different ways of handling pits of
stone fruits to prepare them for setting out in the open ground,
which will be described. The cherry is grown from pits of two wild
varieties; one is commonly ealled the ‘‘Black Mazzard.’’ It is the
common wild cherry of the East, and is the original type of what
are known as the Heart and Bigarreau types of cherries. The other
is the ‘‘Mahaleb,’’ a European wild species, which is used in the
East, where it thrives better than the Mazzard, as it is hardier stock.
In this State the Mahaleb does not seem to have much dwarfing
effect, as trees on that stock in this State over twenty-five years old
are twenty-five inches in diameter of trunk. The Mahaleb, however,
ripens its wood earlier, and for this reason may be valuable in the
colder parts of the State. It is also freer from root trouble by ex-
tremes of wetness and drouth in the soil, and is largely used on low
lands. The Mazzard is, however, chiefly used in California. Cherry
stones are sometimes taken from the fully-ripened fruit, dried for
two or three days, the stones cracked carefully and planted at once
in good soil and kept properly moist. They will germinate soon
and make a growth of a foot or so the first season. Such stocks are
taken up for grafting in the winter and set out in nursery row the
next spring. A better way of treating cherry is that given by W.
W. Smith of Vacaville:

The fruit of the Mazzard should be allowed to get perfectly ripe on the
tree, then gathered and let lie in a heap for three or four days, so thai they
may be partially or wholly freed from the pulp by washing them in water.
They should then be spread out in the shade and stirred frequently for
about twenty-four hours. This will give the outside of the pit time to dry
sufficiently to prevent molding, while the kernel itself will remain fresh and

TREATMENT OF PITS OF STONE FRUITS 65

green. They should then be placed in moist (not wet) sand and kept so
until the rains set in in the fall, when they can be planted in drills, in good,
rich, mellow soil, prepared the previous spring and kept clean of weeds
through the summer, ready for the purpose. They should never be allowed
to get perfectly dry; and the reason for it is that we have but little or no
freezing and thawing weather in this country to cause the pits to open; but
if they are kept constantly moist it answers the same purpose as freezing.
The seeds of the Mahaleb cherry will sprout with less difficulty, but the
same rules for keeping the Mazzards will apply to them.

Other stock for the cherry will be discussed in the chapter on
that fruit.

Citrus Fruits——The propagation of citrus fruits will be described
in detail in Chapters XXXII, XXXIII, and XXXIV.

The Larger Stone Fruits——In handling pits of the larger stone
fruits, apricot, peach, plum, ete., the chief requisite is to prevent
drying and great hardening of the pit. Some plant in the fall and
trust to natural conditions to start the seedling in the spring, but
this interferes with the cultivation of the ground, and leaves the
seedling to grow in soil which has perhaps been puddled by heavy
winter rains. There must also be much hand work done to clear
the rows from weeds. It is much better to keep the pits from drying
by covering with sand moderately moist, hasten the sprouting by
appropriate treatment toward spring, and then plant out in thor-
oughly prepared soil, and they will make a satisfactory growth.
The following method, by D. J. Parmele, of Vacaville, has given
good results:

Keep the pits out of the sun until the rains commence in the fall, then
put them into a box about a foot deep with openings at the bottom for drain-
age, and scatter sand or fine earth through them, putting about two inches
on top, and place them under the eaves of a building on the south side,
where they will get well soaked every time it rains. If there should be a
long dry spell during the winter, water them a little. About March they will
open and sprout. Then take a plow and open a deep furrow in loose, mellow
ground, and with a hoe, pull about two-thirds of the dirt back into the
furrow, breaking the clods, and making it fine, the same as you would if you
expected to plant onion seed there. Drop the sprouted pits in straight line,
and cover two inches. On account of the extra work in preparing the
ground, the trees will be large enough to bud in July.

Another way is to spread out the pits on a smooth piece of
ground and cover with sacks, and over these a layer of straw three
or four inches thick to retain moisture. The pits may be planted
out as soon as they crack open, although no harm will be done if
they are allowed to lie until the sprouts are well out.

Another method which has been especially recommended for
treatment for almonds is the following: Lay boards upon the ground
and cover them with an inch of sand; spread on this a layer of
almonds and then another inch of sand, and so on. Keep the pile
wet, and in three weeks of warm weather they will burst open. Plant
in drills one inch deep and put over them a light coat of rotten straw.

If from any cause the pits have become quite dry, they should be
soaked in water two or three days before planting.

66 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Nut Tree Seedlings.—In growing nut-tree seedlings, much the
same methods are followed as with pits of stone fruits. There are
methods described in detail by California growers which should be
given. As has been said, the nuts may be planted at any time after
ripening, in the milder parts of the State, if the grower will under-
take the greater care and cultivation. On some light soils where the
rainfall is not excessive, this is not much trouble. Felix Gillet, of
Nevada City, gives this as his method:

The nuts may be planted as soon as gathered, though in Nevada City it is
too cold to plant them in the fall, for the frost in winter would surely lift
the nuts right out of the ground. For keeping and sprouting walnuts, I
throw into the bottom of a box one inch deep of sand; then a layer of nuts,
put in another inch of sand, and another layer of nuts, and so on to one or
two inches from the top. Then water well with a sprinkler and water again
during the winter whenever the sand gets too dry. The sand has to be
pretty well saturated with water, especially from the first of January down
to planting time, which is in February, March or April, according to local-
ities. The latter part of March or first week in April is best for Nevada
City. The nuts are planted in drills and covered to a depth of two or three
inches.

In propagating chestnuts it is always better to select for seed the largest,
finest and healthiest nuts; in the fall or beginning of winter the nuts have to
be planted in a box of damp sand, by layers, the box being kept in a cellar.
The nuts may be stored in a hole in the open ground, a layer of chestnut
leaves being first thrown in the bottom of the hole, on top of that a layer
of nuts, then another layer of leaves, and so on to the top, which has to be
properly covered with two or three inches of earth so as to prevent the frost
injuring the nuts. In February or March, according to location, the nuts are
taken out and planted in drills to a depth of three or four inches; less for
smaller seed like American chestnuts.

In growing seedlings of English walnuts, Mr. J. Luther Bowers,
of Santa Clara, has shown that water-soaking of nuts may make it
unnecessary to undertake storage in damp sand, if the nuts are of the
last crop. He describes the method as follows:

The nuts should be large and thin shelled and should be of last year’s
crop. To ascertain this, break a few and split the kernel open at the germ
end, or the point where the root starts. If the meat of the kernel shows a
clear color they are of last year’s crop, but if the flesh shows any discolora-
tion they are old and will not germinate. I have often got hold of a lot that
were mixed, old and new together. Never risk a lot of this kind, for failure
will follow. After the nuts have been selected place them in some kind ofa
tin vessel; a five-gallon oil can, with the top removed is just the thing. Then
cover them with hot water at not over 110 degrees F. Let them remain in
this water for 24 hours and plant at once, keeping them in the water all
the time. Do not let them become the least bit dry, and be sure the soil is
moist, and put every nut in with the sharp point exactly straight down. The
root starts from this point and will go straight down, and if not molested
will the first year be about three times the length of the top; that is, if the
top grows one foot, the straight tap root will be three feet or more long, and
will be from three-fourths to an inch thick where it grew out of the nut,
tapering both up and down.

Tribble Brothers, of Elk Grove, give the following as their prac-
tice with native black walnuts:

Gather the nuts as soon as most of them have dropped from the trees, and
put them in a trench. Cover with leaves, and on the leaves put a thin layer

TREES FROM SEEDS AND CUTTINGS 67

of earth, leaving them until sprouted and ready to plant in rows. When
ready to plant, assort the nuts according to the growth of the sprouts, and
as we find the longest sprouts make the most rapid-growing trees, and by
selecting we can get even growth in the nursery rows. In our soil we plant
the nuts about five inches deep.

Imported Seedlings.—A very large proportion of some kinds of
the cherry, pear and apple trees produced in this State are worked
upon imported seedling stock. These stocks are cheap, convenient
to handle, and are therefore popular. It is easy enough to grow
peach, almond, apricot, and Myrobalan seedlings, but small seeds,
like apples and pears, often do not show up well in the spring,
especially if the soil is of a kind that crusts over with rain and sun-
shine. Therefore our nurserymen import these seedlings in the
winter, plant them out, as has already been described, and bud in the
following summer, grafting the next spring where the buds fail. If
the seedlings are large when received, they are often root-grafted at
once, and then one summer in the nursery gives a tree suitable for
planting out. These stocks are of better budding size during their
first sammer than California seedlings, which are apt to overgrow.

Myrobalan plum seedlings were formerly imported to a large ex-
tent, but are now chiefly home-grown, and seedlings are used instead
of cuttings, which formerly were employed largely. This stock has
secured great favor for plums and prunes, and in some situations,
for the apricot, as it is hardier against extremes of drouth and

- moisture.

Prof. Newton B. Pierce, of Santa Ana, identified upon imported
seedlings a serious root-fungus which kills all kinds of orchard trees
in Europe, and advised the use of home-grown seedlings to escape
this danger. For some years this practice has grown in California
nursery propagation and importations became impossible under the
National Quarantine regulation of June 1, 1919.

Fruit Trees from Cuttings —It is feasible to grow a number of
kinds of fruit trees from cuttings, but it is not desirable in many
cases to do it. Trees grown from a graft or bud in a seedling root
are much better. The root system of a seedling is naturally stronger
and more symmetrical. The roots from a cutting start out at the
bottom and spread out horizontally and irregularly. This style of
a root system is expressively named ‘‘duck-foot roots,’’? and they
do not give the tree a deep, strong hold on the soil. Trees can, how-
ever, be multiplied very fast from cuttings. Notable instances of
this are the Myrobalan plum and the Leconte pear. Cuttings of
deciduous trees should be taken from well-matured wood of the
previous season’s growth, and planted in rows and in well-prepared
soil, as has already been described for the sowing of fruit tree seeds.
The cuttings should be taken before the sap begins running in the
winter. A cutting about ten inches long, four-fifths of its length
buried in the ground, will answer. Be sure that the ground is firmed
well at the base of the cutting, but keep the surface loose. Small
wood is better than large, though, of course, the extreme ends of
twigs should be rejected usually. Cultivation of cuttings is the same

68 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

as that of seedlings, and budding, when the cuttings are to be used
as stocks, is also governed by the same rules.

The orange and lemon can be grown from eras but the work
is done during the summer while the ground is warm. Cut from
wood one or two years old; set in the open ground with partial shade
and give plenty of water, but be sure that there is free escape for
surplus water. Cuttings started in the warm weather and given
partial shade and plenty of irrigation are very apt to succeed. This
method of growing these fruits is not, however, in wide use or favor.

The propagation of the grape, olive and fig from cuttings will be
considered in the chapters on those fruits.

Planting Out in Nursery.—For planting out in nursery, the term
‘“spring’’ is given as the proper time, but in California it must be
remembered that spring is not any definite division of the year.
‘‘Spring weather’’ comes from the first of February to the first of ©
May, according to the latitude or elevation or exposure resulting
from local topography. Cherries may be ripe in Vaca Valley before
fruit trees put out leaves in Modoe county; and between these ex-
tremes there are advents of spring in other places according to the
situation. These facts are more fully set forth in the chapter on
climate. Spring must be detected in the behavior of vegetation and
not by the calendar. When the tree buds swell and the leaves ap-
pear, spring has come for that locality. But whether one can plant
his nursery then or not will depend upon the character of the soil
and the condition of the rainfall for that season. This varies much,
from year to year. As a rule, however, in most parts where fruit is
grown at present in large quantities, the heavy cold rains will be
over by the first of February, and then nursery operations can com- -
mence if the soil is in good condition. If not, the planter must wait
until the soil is dry enough to work nicely. There will, of course,
be heavy rains after the first of February ; but they will only necessi-
tate cultivation to loosen the soil, if the nursery ground is well
situated for drainage, and if it is not it should not be used for this
purpose.

Supposing the ground has been deeply plowed and thoroughly
harrowed, as has been already described, the laying out of the ground
is the next operation. Everything should be done with a view to the
use of the horse in cultivation. The rows should be laid out as.
straight as possible. Some use a plow furrow; some an arrangement
like a corn-marker, with two cultivator teeth set four feet apart;
some stretch a line, to get the pits or root grafts as true to it as
possible, and some trust to the furrow for straightness. No rule can
be laid down for means to be employed; the result must depend upon
the eye and skill of the individual. Some people can hardly shoot a
straight line with a gun. Each must do the best he can in this re-
spect.

There is a difference in practice as to distance between the rows
in nursery. The usual distance is four feet, but others claim that it
is better to make the rows six feet apart, especially where no irriga-

ADEQUATE MOISTURE FOR NURSERY TREES 69

tion is practised, as this gives the young trees more room, and if the
eround is kept thoroughly cultivated, as it should be, it gives the
roots a greater supply of moisture to draw upon. In growing a small
lot of trees, where there is plenty of land, it is, of course, desirable
to give them every advantage in the way of facilities for growth, but
on the other hand, an overgrown tree is not desirable. Thrift and
streneth must be sought rather than size.

At the ends of the rows spaces of about twelve feet should be left
as turning-ground for the horse when cultivating, and as a roadway.
The length of nursery rows depends upon the taste of the grower.
It is convenient to have alleys wide enough for a horse and cart at
intervals of three hundred feet, but in small nurseries the head-lands
would probably give all the access required.

The depth for planting seeds and pits must be regulated by the
size of the seed and the character of the soil, as is always laid down
by the authorities, and in this State another condition must be made,
and that is the climate or weather conditions prevailing in the
locality. Where the rainfall is generally light and the soil loose, seed
must. be planted deeper than where good spring showers are to be
expected. In heavy soils seeds must be planted shallower than in
light, even with the same rainfall. Suggestions of depth will be
found in connection with the discussion of particular fruits.

During the spring months the cultivator must be used as often as
may be required to keep the weeds from getting too high, or the soil
from becoming too densely packed by heavy rains, but the ground
should never be worked when too wet. It requires some watchful-
ness and promptitude to use the cultivator just at the right time.

Nursery Irrigation.—In parts of the State where the rainfall is
adequate, cultivation thorough, the soil sufficiently retentive, and
atmospheric conditions favorable, the seedling will make its growth
without irrigation, and some nurseries are on ground not provided
at all with irrigation facilities. In other parts of the State irrigation
is necessary. Water should be applied sparingly, and yet enough to
keep the seedlings in healthy growing condition. This is shown by
the leaves, which should not droop or curl. Excessive irrigation
should be guarded against, because a soft, excessive growth is very
undesirable. Water is a good thing, and in some eases a very neces-
sary thing, but the use of it should be wisely regulated. At budding
it is necessary that the sap should be free and the bark slip easily.
To foster this condition it is sometimes desirable to give a watering
a few days before budding commences. Water should be apphed by
running it through shallow furrows between the rows, and the culti-
vator should follow as soon as the ground is dry enough to work
freely.

CHAPTER IX
BUDDING AND GRAFTING

If the nursery ground has been well worked and the seed properly
handled, the growth of the seedling will be strong and rapid. If an
early start was had and other conditions favorable, some kinds will
be ready for budding in June, and the production of what are called
‘‘June buds,’’ will be described presently. In ordinary practice,
however, budding will come later, and the budding season extends
from July to October. The weight of the budding of deciduous trees
is generally done in August and September.

BUDDING

The process of budding, as employed on all the common fruit
trees, is very simple. It consists in lifting the bark and inserting a
bud from another tree in such a way that the inner bark of the bud
shall come in contact with the layer of growing wood in the stock,
and then it will be quickly knit to it by the new cell-growth if the
bark is closed around the inserted bud closely enough to prevent the
air from drying the two surfaces at the point of contact. In the
engraving 1 is the cutting or ‘‘bud stick’’ from the tree of the kind
into which it is desired to transform the seedling. This cutting is
usually made from the growth of the present season, which has well-
formed buds at the axils of the leaves, although in some eases older
dormant buds may be used, as will appear in the discussion of the
different fruits. If buds are desired to mature early, pinch off the
ends of the growing shoots from which they are to be taken. Suck-
ers and so-called ‘‘water-sprouts’’ should not be used, but rather
well-formed wood from the branches of the tree. It is requisite that
the buds be taken from a vigorous healthy tree of the variety de-
sired. But sticks can be carried or sent considerable distances if
packed in damp moss or other material to prevent drying, but care
must be taken not to enclose too much water or decay will be pro-
moted. Fresh shoots,in tight tin boxes without wet packing are safer
and carry very long distances. Sealing the ends with grafting wax
is also a good precaution against drying out. ‘

Budding knives can be bought at all seed stores and cutlery estab-
lishments. They have a thin, round-ended blade at one end of the
handle, and at the other end the bone is thinned down, or a bone
blade inserted. The former is for cutting and the latter for lifting
the bark of the stock into which the bud is to be placed. Armed
with a bud stick and such a knife, the ‘‘budder’’ starts in upon a
row of seedlings. Bending the seedling over a little and holding it
between his left arm and his left leg, he reaches down for a smooth
place on the bark as near the ground as convenient to work, and
makes a horizontal cut, and from that a perpendicular cut down-

BUDDING FRUIT TREES ILLUSTRATED 71

1 A stick of bud wood. 2 Cutting the bud. 3 Vertical incision

\ DA TIEN
f
BEX
} oie pe
} BLL

i rf
Cees Pa te La
4 Transverse incision. 5 Inserting the bud. 6 Inserted bud ready
for tying.

AB ae =
7 Waxed cloth ready 8 Waxed cloth tightly 9 Bud staked and tied.
for twisting. twisted.

72 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

wards toward the roots, as shown at 3, in the engraving, with the
bark slightly lifted and ready for the insertion of the bud. Next
he cuts from his bud stick a bud, as shown at 2. This carries with it,
on the back, a small portion of the wood of the bud stick as well as
the bud and bark. It was once claimed that this wood should be
carefully dug out, but in budding most kinds of trees it is not neces-
sary ; in fact, it may be better to leave it in; such at any rate is the
general practice. The point of the bud is now inserted at the open-
ing at the top of the slit in the bark of the stock and pushed down
into place, as shown in figure 5. To handle the bud, the part of the
leaf stem which is left on is of material assistance. Nothing remains
now but to apply the ligature which is to hold down the bark around
the bud.

There are various ways of tying in the bud. Any way will do
which holds down the bark closely, but not too tightly. Different
materials are also used, soft cotton twine, stocking yarn, strips of
cotton cloth, candle wicking, ete. The last-named is perhaps the best
material, on all accounts, although strips of cheap calico bear evenly
upon the bark and do very good work. The use of twine is speedy,
but the strands bearing upon a narrow surface, and not being elastic,
they are apt to do injury by cutting into the bark unless carefully
watched and loosened. The fiber from basswood bark was formerly
largely used, but has given place to the other materials named, which
are more handily obtained. The buds must be examined about a
week or ten days after the insertion, and the ligature loosened, for
otherwise it will cut into the rapidly-growing stock. Sometimes
trees are badly injured by neglect in this particular.

In making June buds, where immediate growth of the bud is de-
sired, some growers make a hard knot with the cord around the
stock, above the bud, and then use the loose ends to tie the bud.
When the binding around the bud is loosened, the hard knot remains
on the stock, girdles it, and forces the sap into the bud. Thin wire,
known to nurserymen as ‘‘label wire,’’ is also used for this purpose.

In going through the nursery row, all seedlings which are large
enough are budded at once. In going through the row again to look
to the bands, if the bud is seen to be fresh looking, it is considered
to have ‘‘taken.’’ In stocks where the first bud has dried up, another
is inserted lower down. Sometimes seedlings which were too small
to hold a bud at the first working over are given a bud later in the
season, or left for taking up for root grafting in the winter.

In nursery practice the budder does not stop to tie his buds, but
is followed in the row by another man, who carries the tying material,
and does this part of the work.

The common method of budding thus described is used on all
common orchard fruits. Special styles of budding for special fruits
will be described in the chapters treating of those fruits.

Usually the budded trees are allowed to stand in the nursery row
with no other treatment that year than the insertion and care of the
bud, the latter remaining dormant until the next spring. Then, as
soon as the sap begins to swell the buds on the stock, the top is cut

GRAFTING IN NURSERY AND ORCHARD 73

off down to about two inches above the bud, and all growth is kept
off except that of the inserted bud. When that has grown out about
twelve inches, the stub is cut off to about three-quarters of an inch
or less from the bud, and the wood is quickly grown over by the
bark. As there are apt to be dormant buds on the stock below the
inserted bud, the trees have to be examined from time to time, and
all such suckers removed. This is the common practice with budded
trees. Exceptions will be noticed presently in connection with defini-
tions of different kinds of trees known to the trade.

Spring Budding.—What has been said in reference to budding
applies to the use of dormant buds. It is also possible to work with
what is called a ‘‘pushing bud.’’ This process, as described by a dis-
tinguished French authority, consists of retarding the growth of the
buds on the scions by burying them in the ground until the sap is
starting well in the stock in the spring, and then putting them in,
trimming off the top of the stock so as to force the bud into growth.
In this way the grower of a rare variety may secure trees for plant-
ing out the following winter, or he may secure a stock of buds for
fall budding and thus multiply his stock of a desirable variety very
rapidly. A modification of this method consists in taking buds in
the spring when they have grown out even half an inch, and inserting
them by the usual method of lifting the bark, when the sap is flowing
well in the stock. Then cut off about half the stock, so as not to give
the bud too much sap at first, and afterward, when it is seen to have
taken well, the balance of the stock is cut off near the bud. This
method gives a tree the first season and saves a year over dormant
budding. Shade and protection from dry wind are desirable.

GRAFTING

Grafting, like budding, consists in bringing the growing wood
(inner bark or alburnum) of the scion into contact with the same
layer of the stock. It can be applied to any part of the tree, from
the topmost branch to the lowest root, as is the case when new trees
are made from scions and root fragments. Thus grafting pertains
both to the production of young trees for planting out and to the
transformation of old trees bearing worthless fruit into producers
of choice varieties.

Grafting for the production of young trees is first in order. In-
stead of budding the seedling during the first summer of its growth,
it may be allowed to complete its season’s growth, and drop its leaves.
When thus dormant the young trees are taken from the ground, the
roots rinsed off with water if the ground is wet and sticky, or merely
shaken free from clinging earth if in a dry time. Enough trees are
dug at once to graft at a sitting. The grafting can be done at the
work bench in the tool-house or barn, and if one is pressed with other
daylight work, it may be done by lamplight at the kitchen table, if
the housewife can be conciliated for the muss it will make.

Care of Scions.—The scions should be previously selected, and
whether taken from trees on the place or brought from near or dis-

74 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

att

Cleft Graft. Saddle Graft. Wedge Graft.

Whip Graft. Bad and Good Whip Graft. Side Graft.

MAKING AND USING GRAFTING WAX 75

tant sources away from the farm, should have been placed as soon
as procured in moist earth on the north side of the house or other
building, where they will keep cool and damp until one is ready to
use them. At the Kast and other parts of this State where the ground
is apt to freeze, it is necessary to keep scions in the cellar with their
butts covered with moist sand, but over most of the area of the State
nothing more is needed than to put them down in earth at the base
of a tree or on the north side of a building, with, perhaps a box or
barrel inverted over them to keep out mice and other intruders.
Care must be taken not to let them dry up. If it is desirable for any
reason to keep scions dormant long into the spring or summer, of
course storage in a cool cellar is better, for even in ground the scions
will burst into leaf after a warm spell of spring weather unless they
are wholly buried some depth in the ground which will greatly pro-
long dormancy. A place must of course be selected where no water
will stand in the soil.

In selecting wood for scions, as for bud sticks, never take water
shoots or suckers that start from the body of the tree and push up
through the older branches, but always give the preference to sound,
fully-matured wood, at the ends of the lower or nearly horizontal
branches. Careful experiments have shown that trees grown from
such scions are more likely to take on a low, spreading habit than
those from the central or upper branches. The scions should be tied
in bundles with a stout cord; and a piece of shingle, with the name
of the variety written plainly and deeply thereon, should be tied in
with each bundle.

Grafting Wax.—In grafting, a wood grafting wax is a requisite.
The ingredients are mixed in different proportions by different
erowers. A few recipes which are known to give good results are
as follows:

Two and one-fourth lbs. resin; 2 lbs. beeswax, %4 of a lb. tallow.

One lb. mutton tallow; 2 lbs. beeswax; 4 lbs. resin.

Two lbs. resin; 2 lbs. beeswax; 4 lb. tallow, and a little linseed oil.

Two lbs. resin; 1 lb. beeswax, 1 quart linseed oil; 4 tablespoonsfuls tur-
pentine.

One lb. beeswax; 5 lbs. resin; 1 pint linseed oil; 1 oz. lampblack.

One lb. beeswax; 5 lbs. resin; 1 pint linseed oil; 1 pint flour—the flour
stirred in after the other ingredients have boiled together and cooled some-
what.

All these mixtures are made with the aid of gentle heat, and
during grafting the wax must be kept warm enough to apply easily
with a small brush. To do this the wax dish may be kept on a hot
brick, to be changed for a fresh one as it cools, or, better still, is to
heat the wax in an old fruit can or something of that kind, inside
another, which is partly full of warm water. A more capacious heater
can be made by removing the top of a five-gallon oil can or a blasting
powder can and making a hole for draft in one side near the bottom.
A slow fire can be kept going to heat the wax-pot which is suspended
from a rod across the top. Sometimes a smaller can is used and a
small oil lamp used as a heater under the wax container. A wire

76 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

handle makes this outfit portable. A very neat small wax heater
may be made of a common lantern—a funnel-shaped tin cylinder
put in place of the glass globe, the lower end being of the same
diameter as the bottom of the globe. The top is about five inches in
diameter and a small can containing the wax is set down in it. The
wax should not be so hot as to run too easily, but just right to spread
well.

Grafting is greatly facilitated by the use of strips of waxed cloth
or waxed paper, the latter being quite good enough for grafts, which
are set low enough to be protected by a ground covering; also for
root grafts. This waxed paper is made by spreading a thin coat of
wax, with a brush, upon tough, thin wrapping paper, cutting up the
paper, when cold, with a sharp knife, on a board, into strips about
an inch wide. Waxed cloth is made by dipping cheap cotton cloth
into hot wax, pulling the pieces between the edges of two boards to
take out as much wax as possible, and when the cloth is cold, tearing
it up into half-inch strips for small grafts or wider strips for larger
grafts. When grafting is going on indoors, these strips hanging near
the stove are kept in good, soft condition for use.

There are grafting preparations which do not require heating, but
remain in a semi-fluid state, and then become very hard by contact
with the air. The following is a popular French preparation:

Melt one pound of resin over a gentle fire. Add to it one ounce of beef
tallow, and stir it well. Take it from the fire, let it cool down a little, and
then mix it with a tablespoonful of spirits of turpentine, and after that add
about seven ounces of very strong alcohol. The alcohol cools it down so
rapidly that it will be necessary to put it once more on the fire, stirring it
constantly. Great care is necessary to avoid igniting the alcohol.

This wax is easily prepared, and when well corked will keep for
six months. It is put on the wounded part of the tree, very thin,
and soon becomes as hard as stone. Thus it is valuable not only for
grafting, but for covering the scars caused by removing limbs in
pruning. It is, however, rather an amateur’s recourse, as it is rather
expensive for large commercial operations.

As a substitute for all the old grafting-waxes, asphaltum, ‘‘Grade
D,’’ has recently been widely and successfully used. It is kept warm
enough to spread well. Many use the asphaltum pure; others prefer
addition of resin—one part of the resin to three or four parts of
asphaltum, according to different grafters’ experiences. The two
substances are melted together over a slow heat. The resin over-
comes the running tendency of the asphaltum in hot weather. A
good grafting wax is also made by melting together four parts by
weight of asphaltum to one of paraffine.

A good grafting wax is also made by melting together four parts
by weight of asphaltum to one of paraffine.

Cleft Grafting.—Where various-sized stocks are to be used, as
will be the case with a bunch of home-grown seedlings, different
styles of grafting must be used. Where the stock is much larger
than the scion, as is apt to be the case with California seedlings, the
eleft graft will be simplest. Cut off the top smoothly above the root

METHODS OF GRAFTING DESCRIBED TT

crown and then split the top of the stock, as shown in the engraving.
Then prepare the scion by whittling it to wedge-shape at the lower
end. Open the slit in the stock with a little wedge and insert the
scion so that its inner bark matches with the inner bark of the stock,
something as shown in the second figure. It does not matter whether
the outside of the scion is flush with the outside of the stock or not;
the vital point is to get the growing layers, just inside the barks, in
contact with each other, and, to be sure of this it may be well to give
the scion a slight diagonal pitch, for if the barks cross each other,
this desirable contact is sure to be made. It is well to make the side
of the wedge of the scion which goes nearer to the center of the stock
a little thinner than the outside.

A scion for a root graft is cut longer than for use in the top of
the tree, for in planting, the point of grafting is placed a little way
underground. Such scions are usually cut with four or five buds.
After the scion is in place, it only remains to wrap it closely with a
piece of waxed cloth or paper, in such a way that all the cut surfaces
are covered, extending the wrapper a little below the split in the
root. Paint over the wrapper with warm wax put on with a brush,
put a little on the top of the scion, and the graft is complete.

Side Grafting—Another method which prevents splitting the
stock is the side graft, shown in the accompanying figure. It con-
sists in bending the stock to one side and cutting in diagonally with
a thin-bladed, sharp knife, a little more than half way through the
stock. Into this open cut insert the scion so that the inner barks
touch: then allowing the stock to straighten up, hold the scion
firmly. Covering with a wax band dra'wn tight makes a good job,
and such grafts make as good growth as the buds set the previous
summer. This method can be used with stems or branches up to an
inch in diameter, and is essentially the same, as will be mentioned
later, as a side graft for working over old trees. In this style of
erafting, a stub of three inches or more may be left above the graft,
and to this the graft can be tied to prevent blowing out if it makes
a strong growth. Afterward the stub is cut back with a sloping cut
and waxed or painted to prevent checking.

Whip Grafting in the Stem.—Grafting above the root or in the
stem of the stock when stock and scion are about the same size, is
done by tongue or whip grafting. The accompanying sketch shows
a whip graft in the stem of the stock. Grafts up to an inch in
diameter can be made in this way, but it is generally used for smaller
wood. Care must be taken to secure proper contacts of the inner
barks at least on one side of the stock. After pushing the parts
together, a wax band holds them firmly in place, or the joint-may be
simply tied and painted over with wax.

A Root Graft. When the root stock and the scion are about the
same size, the tongue graft is also used, as shown in the figure. In
making this both the stock and scion are given a sloping cut of about
the same length, and a secondary cut made in each. When the two

78 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

are put together the wood ‘‘tongues in,’’ or interlocks as shown in
the engraving. The object of this is to make more points of contact
for the inner barks of root and scion, and at the same time to inter-
lock the two more firmly. In putting the two together, if the stoek
is shughtly larger than the scion, be sure to put the scion so that the
inner bark contact is made, and this will bring the scion a little to
one side of the center. Bind with the wax band, and paint with wax
as in the case of the former graft.

In large nursery practice expert grafters have come of late years
to make this root graft without wax, merely tying in the graft. For
amateur work at home it is much safer to use the wax.

Grafting in the root, where the root is much larger than the scion,
may be done without splitting the root by cutting or sawing out a
triangular piece on the side of the root, cutting the scion to fit and
trusting to a strong band to hold it in place. This graft is illustrated
in the chapter on propagating the grape. It also works well with
root grafting the walnut, and is used by some in ordinary top graft-
ing on other trees.

Planting Out Root Grafts.—This root grafting can be done in the
winter before it is time to plant out, and the grafts can be made a
few at a time, as convenient. The grafts, then, as fast as prepared,
Should be bedded in moist sand in the cellar, and will make their
contact firm, and even start to growing a little. In planting out in
the nursery rows be sure the earth is firmed well around the root,
otherwise many will be lost. Plant ten or twelve inches apart in the
rows. Keep the weeds down and the soil well cultivated and loose
on the surface, and the first season’s growth will give a tree fit for
planting out in orchard in the coming winter. For irrigation the
rules already given for the growth of seedlings for budding will
apply.

PRUNING TREES IN NURSERY

As for other treatment of the trees (either from bud or root graft)
in nursery during the first year, there is some difference of opinion
and practice. If the young tree will be content to make a straight
switch with good buds in the axils of the leaves, but no laterals
thrown out, it will be in the best possible shape for planting in the
orchard, and-gives the planter a chance to make the head at what-
ever height suits him, and to secure uniformity through the orchard.
All trees will not, however, be content with this growth, but will push
out laterals all along the stem. Even in this case some let the whole
growth go for the planter to treat as he thinks best. Another plan
is to go over the nursery when the young stock is about two feet high
and pinch back the laterals part way, but retaining the leaves nearest
the stem to shade the stem. This pinching back is done from the
ground up to a height of one to one and a half feet, and above that
the growth is left to take its natural course, to be cut as desired when
the head of the. tree is formed. Pinching back develops buds near
the stem and gives the planter a better chance to head the tree lower

VARIOUS KINDS OF NURSERY TREES 719

if he likes. Another practice which prevails to some extent, is to
pinch off the terminal bud when the young tree has reached a height
of about two and a half or three feet in the nursery. This soon forces
a growth of lateral branches, which are in turn pinched after they
have grown out a couple of feet. The result is the formation of a
head on a nursery tree the first year, and when such trees are planted
in orchard they are merely cut back on the laterals, leaving the head
as formed in the nursery. Such trees are difficult to handle in pack-
ing, and take much room in shipment. There may, however, be an
advantage in such practice for the home grower if he is situated in
parts of the State where the greatest season’s growth is attained.
Orchard planters generally, however, prefer a June bud or a year-
ling of moderate growth, without laterals.

CLASSES OF NURSERY STOCKS

The several classes of stock which are to be had from nurseries
are as follows:

Root Grafts.—These are seedling roots, or pieces of them, on
which scions of the desired variety have been grafted on the bench
and the junction healed over in the cellar. No growth has yet started
in the scion. If the tree planter wishes this kind of stock, he should
plant it out in nursery row in the spring and remove the trees to
orchard the following winter.

June Buds.—For multiplying varieties very fast, buds may be
kept dormant in a cool place; and put into seedling stocks as early
in the season as the bark slips well. It is much more common to use
early buds of the current season’s growth and their readiness may
be hastened by pinching tips of new shoots from which they are to be
taken, which forces development of lateral buds. After budding, the
top of the stock is girdled with knife or cord, or partly cut away, and
growth is forced on the bud so as to give a small tree at the end of
the first summer. This method of propagation is most popular in
the foothill districts, where small trees are preferred for transplant-
ing.

Dormant Buds.—Trees are sold in dormant bud when they are
lifted from the nursery and sent out before any growth has started
on the inserted bud. The bud should be seen to be the color of
healthy bark. Such trees should only be used when yearlings are
not to be had and gain in time is very important. Care must be
constantly taken that growth starts from the right bud, and that it
be protected from breaking off by wind or animals. A considerable
percentage of loss is usual, and extra dormant buds should be
planted in nursery rows to fill vacancies.

Yearling Trees.—These are trees which have made one season’s
erowth from the bud or graft. Two-year-olds have made two sea-
sons’ growth, and so on. The proper way to count the life of a tree
is from the starting of growth in the bud or graft, for this point 1s
really the birth of the visible parts of the tree.

80 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

WORKING OVER OLD TREES

Another operation which may be properly considered as a branch
of propagation is the working over of old trees. There is much of
this being done every year in this State. The old seedling fruits in
the older settled parts of the State are being made to bear improved
varieties; trees of varieties ill adapted to prevailing conditions are
changed into strong growing and productive sorts; trees are changed
from one fruit to another, when affinity permits. This will be men-
tioned in the discussion of the different fruits. Still another reason
for working over is to secure more valuable and marketable varieties.
Sometimes a mixed orchard is made to bear a straight line of one
sort which is in demand; or when the grower finds he has too many
trees of a single kind, which give him more fruit than he can con-
veniently handle when it all ripens at one time, he works in other
varieties so as to get a succession of varieties adapted to his purpose,
and thus secures a longer working season in which to dispose of
them. This is especially the case in large orchards of apricots,
peaches, and plums, when the grower depends upon drying his crop.
Information concerning the successive ripening of varieties can be
gained from the special chapters on the different fruits. For all of
these reasons, and others which need not be enumerated, the work of
the propagator is continually going on even in our large bearing
orchards. As with young trees, so with old, transforming the char-
acter of the tree is done both by budding and grafting. :

Budding Old Trees.—One way to prepare an old tree for budding
is to cut back the branches severely during the latter part of the
winter, which has the effect of forcing out new shoots around the
head of the tree, and in these the buds of the desired variety are set
in the summer, just as is done in budding nursery stock, except that
the budding should be done rather earlier because the sap does not
run as late. When the shoots are budded, those being selected which
are situated so as to give the best symmetry to the new head, the
shoots not budded are broken a foot or so from where they emerge
from the old wood, and are allowed to hang until pruning time. At
the winter pruning the budding branches are topped off a little
above the bud, and when the new shoot starts it is often loosely tied
to the stub of the old branch to prevent breaking out in the wind.
When it gets strength, the stub is cut away smoothly to allow the
wound to heal over.

Another way is to insert the buds in the old bark at points where
it is desirable to have the new branches start. This is sometimes.
done by lifting the bark, as in ordinary budding, and slipping the
bud under, sometimes by what is called shield or plate budding,
which consists in removing a piece of the old bark entirely and
putting in its place a piece of bark of the desired variety, having
upon it a dormant bud. With plate budding it is necessary to be
careful to have the inserted bark just the size of the bared spot, and.
to wrap it more closely than when the bud is slipped under the bark

CHANGING VARIETIES ON OLD TREES ron

of the stock. In all cases in budding old trees, care must be taken to
get fully-matured buds, and it is well to take them from large
shoots, which have a thicker and firmer bark than may be used in
budding nursery stock. It is also desirable to be very sure that the
buds are taken not only from a tree of the desired variety, but from
a healthy, vigorous tree of that variety.

In selecting buds, also, one must be sure that he gets leaf buds,
and not fruit buds only. In taking buds from some kinds of bearing
trees, of course, he may sometimes, to get well-ripened buds, be
obliged to take both fruit and leaf buds together. This will work
well if care is taken not to rub off the leaf bud. It is rather easier,
however, to work with buds from young trees not yet in bearing if
one can be sure that these trees are of the desired variety.

Grafting Old Trees.—Old trees are also renewed by grafting.
This is most generally done by the old process of ‘‘top grafting.”’
The main stem or the larger branches are cut square off, and the
scions, usually two, but four or more if in the trunk, are shaped and
set into clefts in the stock as shown in the engraving. It is better
to use limbs above the main fork, or head of the tree, than to graft
in the trunk, if the old trees are of good size. The following de-
scription, which the writer borrows in part from some unknown
source, will serve to guide novices in the matter:

The outfit necessary for doing the work consists of a small, fine saw, a
regular grafting knife, or a pocket-knife with a long, straight sharp blade,
wax, light mallet, and a hard-wood narrow wedge. After selecting the
limb to be grafted, saw it off—your own judgment will guide you as to the
best point, but before the saw gets quite through the limb, cut the bark on
the under side of the limb to prevent the liability of peeling down.

Next split the stub with knife and mallet and insert the wedge in the
center of the cleft to hold it open. It is usual to cut the scion with two
buds, but sometimes better results are had by using scions with but a
single bud. Whittle the scion wedge sharp, so that it fits nicely down into
the cleft. .To do this, hold it in the left hand with the bud at the ball of
the thumb, then cut the side toward you; as will be natural, turn it over,
and cut the opposite side in the same way, making the wedge a very little
thinner on the edge opposite the bud than on the other. This will insure a
firm pressure at the points where the bark of scion and stock meet.

When set, the bud of the scion will be on line with the outer long portion
of the graft. the point to be closely observed in adjustment is to have the
inner or sap bark of the scion connected with the same of the stock. Ifa
trifle too far in, or too far out, the work will be a failure. Some people set
the graft a little out at the top and a little in at the bottom, so as to be
sure of a connection at the crossing point, but there will be firmer hold
if there is a union the whole length. Our rule has been to have the wood
of the scion come exactly parallel with the surface of the stock, and we
seldom fail in getting firm adhesions and solid limbs after years of growth.

After the scions are set, and two should be put into one limb if large,
carefully withdraw the wedge and apply the wax, so that every part of the
wood and bark cut and split is well coated. In doing this use extreme
care not to move the scions at all from their sittings. If the pinch of the
stock is seen to be severe, a small wedge may be left in the center to save
the scions from crushing. If there is a large cleft, it may be filled with
damp clay before waxing over.

Most grafting over of old trees is done by this method, using one

82 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

or another of the wax preparations described upon a preceding
page. If the cut surface of the stock and the split is thoroughly
waxed over as low as the bark is split, there is usually little trouble
with the growth of the scion and the healing over of the stock. In
the warmer valleys in the interior, the sun is often hot enough to
melt the wax and cause it to run and bare the wood surfaces. This
is prevented by dusting the wax thoroughly with brick dust well
powdered; but, by a little experimenting with the recipes already
given, one can secure a wax which will stand any heat likely to be
encountered.

For grafting over trees by working upon the limbs, good work
ean be done by bark grafting, which does not require the splitting
of the stock. There are various ways of doing this. One method is
shown in the engraving on a previous page, and consists of cutting
the scion as shown, and inserting it beneath the raised bark and then
binding well with waxed bands, the preparation of which has
already been described.

Another method is an application of what the French call oblique
side grafting. It consists of making an oblique cut downward
through the bark of the stock and for a distance into the wood, using
a chisel and mallet or even a strong knife. A saw and knife are also
used for making this cut, as will be described in the chapter on the
peach. A small form of side graft has already been shown earlier
in this chapter. In it the scion is held in with a wax band. Some
growers remove the top of the stock with a sloping cut about half
an inch above the top of the scion, as shown in the engraving, and
wrap the waxed band well around and over all the exposed surfaces.
Others do not remove the whole of the limb until the scion has
started well into growth, and then they cut down and pare the stock
and cover with a band or with a wax that will not run in the sun.

Several ingenious devices have been patented by Californians for
securing uniformity in the incision in the stock and in shaping the
scion, but it is so easy to succeed with ordinary tools that such in-
ventions have never come into wide use. Machines for the bench
grafting of vines have, however, been successfully employed to a
certain extent, but are not generally used.

Bridge Grafting.—Trees which have been girdled on the trunks
by gnawing of rodents or by blight, may have connection between
root and top by bridge-grafting. It is done by removing the earth
so as to expose the upper surfaces of healthy roots and springing-in
long scions from proper places on the roots to healthy bark above
the injury. Care has to be taken to connect the inner bark at both
ends and wax carefully. If the scion is a little longer than the dis-
tance to be traversed it usually pinches in tightly and holds itself
in place. Watch must be kept to remove shoots which may start on
the scions, and keep them carrying sap through instead of using it on
their own growth. Such bridge-scions are usually less than a foot
in length, but have been used in spanning pear blight to a length of
four feet.

CALIFORNIA’S ADVANTAGES IN GRAFTING 83

TIMES FOR GRAFTING IN CALIFORNIA

There is nothing particularly new about the methods or means
employed for grafting deciduous fruit trees in California, but the
time at which the operation can be successfully done, and the con-
dition of the scion, are different from those held to be necessary in
other climates. It is not at all requisite that the scions should be
earefully stored away to keep them in a dormant condition, nor that
the grafter should haste to do his work in just such a state of sap-
flow in the spring time. It was early discovered that grafting could
be successfully done with growing scions, and that scions could be
eut from one tree and set in another nearly at any time the grafter
desired. Grafting is therefore possible much later in the season
than is prescribed elsewhere, and it is also possible to begin earlier.
In one of the largest apple and pear orchards in the State it is com-
mon to graft in December. The absence of freezing weather saves
the graft from injury. As our trees start their flow of sap early,
and often when the ground is too wet for comfortable orchard
work, it is the practice of many to get their grafting and pruning
done before the heavy midwinter rains begin. The practice of most
growers is, however, to conform somewhat nearly to traditional
methods, to do most of the grafting in the spring months, and to use
dormant scions, the growth of which is retarded by heeling them in
on the north side of a building, or keeping them in sand in the cellar,
as the grower chooses. Of course it should be understood that there
are parts of the State where the winter conditions are more nearly
like those at the East, and practice has to conform to them.

As to whether it is better to remove the whole top of the tree and
graft all the limbs in one year, there is some difference of opinion.
The prevailing practice is to graft over part of the limbs one year
and the balance the following year; or else to leave part of the top
to shade the bark and take part of the sap flow until the grafts start
out well, and then cut it away. When a large amount of grafting is
to be done, the Limbs may be cut off during the weeks preceding
grafting. In this case, the cut should be made a foot or two above
the grafting point and a second cut be made at this point, when
ready to put in the scions.

Whenever old bark is exposed by cutting back for grafting
thorough protection against sunburn must be provided. The sim-
plest way is to cover the exposed bark with good whitewash, such as
can be made according to the recipes given at the close of chapter
XI.

Newly set grafts should be frequently looked after to see that
the wax remains perfect; also to remove suckers from the stock
which may rob the grafts of sap for starting and growing. Care
should also be taken that growth on grafts is not extended so rapid-
ly as to break away in the wind before the union becomes strong.
Such rapid growth should be supported by fastening a lath along-
side both stock and graft, or it should be checked by pinching or
eutting-back the graft-growth as conditions make desirable.

84 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

What has been said thus far relates especially to the working
over of old trees of common deciduous fruits. Though much the
same method will succeed with some of the semi-tropical fruits and
with nut trees, the discussion of their propagation and grafting over
will be deferred to the chapters devoted to them, and this will also
give opportunity to describe methods especially adapted to these
fruits.

CHAPTER X

PREPARATION FOR ORCHARD PLANTING

The two essentials in preparing land for trees or vines are deep
and thorough cultivation, and provision for drainage, unless the sit-
uation is naturally well drained. Drainage will be considered in
connection with irrigation in another chapter. In this place, how-
ever, by way of emphasis, it may be remarked that high land is not
necessarily well drained, although the general feature of the sur-
face may be an incline, nor is low land necessarily wet, although the
surface may be apparently level. For horticultural purposes the
drainage of the land must be considered on the hillside as well as in
the valley, for reasons which will be more fully set forth in the
chapter on drainage.

The preparation of land for fruit planting should begin with
grading. In irrigated orchards this is essential for the equal dis-
tribution of water. Even where irrigation is not anticipated, it is
of decided advantage to smooth down hummocks and fill sags which
are likely to collect water in the rainy season. As has been shown
in Chapter III, this can be done on most California soils without
danger of uncovering a sterile subsoil. Some intimation of the
method of grading is given at the close of Chapter VII. In prepara-
tion for the irrigated orchard, and irrigation is now widely em-
ployed even in regions where formerly rainfall was the sole reli-
ance, it is important that accurate grading should be done and the
use of the surveyor’s level and grade stakes will be found very de-
sirable. All moving of soil should precede the general plowing.

For the planting of orchard or vineyard the land must be put in
as good tilth as possible, and extra expenditure to secure this will
be amply repaid in the after-growth of the trees and vines. If prac-
ticable, it will be all the better to have the process of preparation
begin a year before the trees or vines are to be set. This is true
either with newly-cleared land, as has been described, or with old
grain or pasture land which is to be used; leaving the surface rough
during the winter, facilitates the access of air to the lower layers
of the soil, and in a certain sense may be said to sweeten and enliven
it. Following in the furrow with a subsoil plow is very desirable,
either at the first plowing or later. Such treatment of old grain
land breaks up the old hardpan,* which has probably been formed
by years of shallow culture. The preparation should continue
during the following summer, and can often be made both thorough
and profitable by the growth of a summer ‘‘hoed crop,’’ the culture
of which will kill out many weeds and secure good pulverization of
the soil. If no summer crop is grown, the land should be kept in
cultivation by plowing the weeds under as long as the surface soil

*In this connection the term means ‘“plow-sole.’’ Treatment of true hardpan will be
described in the next chapter.

86 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

retains moisture enough to start them. A special advantage of such
summer-fallow in regions where rainfall is apt to be short is that by
prevention of evaporation, the trees or vines set the following winter
will have a good part of the rainfall of two seasons to grow with,
and the result will often be very noticeable. If there are supplies of
manure available, as are often found in old corrals on our grain or
stock farms, it is better to gather and apply this the winter before
the planting of the trees. If this is not done, it should be left until
after the trees are planted, and then be spread upon the surface
during the winter, and plowed in after it has been in part leached
into the soil by the rains. Application should be made evenly all
over the surface, and not massed around the roots of the trees, un-
less it is to be applied as a mulch to the surface after the spring ecul-
tivation is over, as will be considered later.

If it is thought desirable to plant the land immediately after
breaking up, put in the plows as early in the fall as it is possible to
do deep work, that is, to plow to a depth of ten or twelve inches, or
more. Harrow thoroughly. If it is still early, cross-plow. Thor-
ough and deep breaking up as soon as practicable to plow in the
fall, and following in the furrow with the subsoil plow, working to
a depth of fourteen inches or more, is a good preparation for fruit
planting. For this kind of work tractors are now largely used but,
if not available, good teams are needed and the plow should be
sharp and bright. If the work is hard for the team, set the plow so
-as to take less land, but do not sacrifice the depth. Harrow again
thoroughly, and the land is ready for the trees or vines.

In breaking up alfalfa for fruit planting, it has been found de-
sirable to plow at first only about four inches deep to cut off the
plants with short stubs, and then to replow deeply somewhat later.
Plants cut with long stub roots, as in deep plowing, are more likely
to start again than are the short-stub plants.

Avoiding Dead Furrows.—Unless dead furrows can be used to
advantage for surface drainage in case of heavy rain-storms, it wul
be of decided convenience in laying off to have the field free from
them. This can, of course, be secured by beginning the final plow-
ing at a line in the center of the field, turning all furrows inwards.
In this case, too, if a right-hand plow is used, the team will always
turn on unplowed land, and thus avoid trampling upon and packing
the loose soil. The slight ridge in the center of the field formed by
the first two furrows can be easily leveled by a couple of back fur-
rows, and when properly harrowed the field will be found smooth as
a floor for staking out for planting.

LAYING OUT FOR PLANTING IN SQUARES

It is very desirable, both for convenience in cultivation and for
the beauty of the orchard, that the trees should stand in straight
lines, and care should be taken to attain that end. Most orchards
and vineyards in this State are laid out in squares; that is, the rows

LAYING OFF FOR PLANTING 87

of trees or vines are all at right angles to each other, as shown in
the accompanying sketch. This is the simplest arrangement; and
by some of our largest planters is held to be the best. It is true that
the trees are not equidistant from each other in all directions, and
that, theoretically at least, there is a portion of the ground unused—
supposing that the roots occupy a circle, as do the branches. Prac-
tically, however, it may be doubted whether the hungry roots of
well-grown trees or vines leave any portion of the soil unvisited.
There are also forms of double squares and alternating squares
available for planting at long distances, with growths between,
which are ultimately to be cut out, or for vines between fruit trees.
Such mixed planting is, however, but little practiced in California.

VARIOUS WAYS OF MARKING FOR SQUARES.

Marking With a Plow.—This method was used in laying off some
of the old orchards in the Sacramento Valley. A common two-horse
turning plow is rigged with a ‘‘marker’’—a light wooden bar ex-
tending at right angles from the beam, the bar being as long as the
desired distance between the rows of trees. On the end of this bar a
crosspiece is fastened perpendicularly, so that it scratches along on
the surface of the ground. The line of the first furrow has to be
designated by a flag stake, to which the plowman proceeds. When
this is done, the team is turned and sent back along the next row,
the location of which has been fixed by the marker, and so on for
the length of the field, the marker being turned each time to indi-
cate the next furrow. Following the same course the other way of
the field leaves the trees to be planted at the intersection of the fur-
rows. In early days trees were planted nearer together than is now
considered desirable and, obviously, the operations of a marker be-
come more difficult as the distances increase.

Measure and Sight.—Another method which is quite commonly
used and answers a good purpose in small plantings is the combina-
tion of measure and sight. The sighting stakes are usually plaster-
ers’ laths, pointed at one end and whitewashed to make them more
visible to the eye. In the use of these it is necessary to measure the
distances and locate the laths to mark the ends of the rows all
around the field. Then locate a line of laths across the field each
way through the center, these laths occupying places which the trees
of these two central rows will fill. After these are in place, meas-
urement can be dispensed with, and the job can be finished by sight-
ing through. The man on the ends of the rows has three laths to
sight by in each row, and the stake driver places the stakes as di-
rected by the sighter. Good location can be done this way if a man
has a good eye and patience enough.

Marking Off With a Wire—A measuring wire or chain is, per-
haps, the best means for getting accurate location of trees or vines.
It is used either for setting in squares or in other arrangement, as
will be described presently. Measuring wires are made of annealed

88 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

steel wire about one-eighth of an inch in diameter. The length varies
according to the wishes of the user. If it is desired to lay off the
plantation in blocks of one acre, the wire should be two hundred and
eight feet nine inches long, for that is approximately the length of
one side of a square inclosing an acre of ground. But some use a
wire as long as three hundred feet, when the acre measure is of no
consequence; and others, in smaller plantings, make the wire just
the length of the piece they have in hand. At each end of the
wire is fixed a strong iron ring about one and a half inches in diam-
eter, to be slipped over stakes; some use a larger ring, say three
inches in diameter, because it is easier to handle in pulling taut.
Along this wire, patches of solder are placed exactly at the distances
desired between the rows of trees or vines, and to these places pieces
of red cloth are sometimes fastened so that the points may be easily
seen. Another style of measuring wire is made of small wire cable
about a quarter of an inch in diameter, made of several strands of
small wire. It is more flexible and less likely to become kinked than
the large wire, and can be easily marked off to represent the dis-
tances, at which rows of different kinds of trees should be placed, |
by separating the strands a little at the desired points and inserting
a little piece of red cloth, pressing the wires together again and tying
firmly with a waxed thread to prevent slipping. In this way the
same wire can be easily arranged for planting vines or for trees re-
quiring the greatest distances between the rows. Another advantage
of the cable is that any stretching can be taken up by retwisting,
which cannot be done with the stretching of a single wire. Another
good style of planting wire is made of 2, 4 or 6- foot links of No. 12
steel wire (including the diameters of the small rings turned at each
end of the link pieces). As all planting will probably be at multiple
distances of these link-lengths, the cloth tags can be changed and
the chain thus be marked for any desired distances.

Some of the largest recent orchard plantings have been made by
the use of the planting-wires described. Guide stakes are placed by
surveyors two or three hundred feet apart in lines which accurately
represent the distance between the rows. The trees are placed in
these rows by the use of the wire between the gtide stakes. If the
foreman of the planting gang keeps his eye on the work, quite ac-
curate lining of the trees in all directions can be secured.

Finding a True Corner.—To use the measuring wire for laying
out trees on the square, it is necessary first to get one corner true,
and then a field of any size can be marked out accurately. Select
the side of the field which is to serve as the base of the square and
stretch the wire along that, say fifteen feet from the fence, which
will give room enough to turn with the team in cultivation or to
drive along in picking-time. When the wire is thus stretched par-
allel with the boundary of the field, place a stake at each of the dis-
tance tags on the wire, and these stakes will represent the first row
of trees or vines. To find a square corner, begin at the starting point
and measure off sixty feet along this row with a tape line, and put a

PLANTING SYSTEMS ILLUSTRATED 89

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ee SIN
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R&A REA AR
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PREAA LEE ch
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Ce&@d ead &
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The Triangular or Alternate system. The Quincunx system.

90 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

temporary stake, then from the starting point measure off eighty
feet as nearly at a right angle with the first line as can be judged
with the eye, and run diagonally from this point to the temporary
sixty-foot stake. If the distance between these stakes is one hun-
dred feet, then the corner is a right angle. Now, having the outside
lines started at right angles to each other, one can proceed with the
measuring wire and lay off as large an area as he desires, if care is
taken to have each line drawn parallel with the last, and all stakes
accurately placed with the tags on the wire—providing the land is
nearly level or on a uniform grade. In locating trees over uneven
ground, the measurements will have to be made from tree to tree,
with the tape line held as nearly to a level as passible.

Rows on Hillsides.—Laying off orchard or vineyard on hillside
too steep to plow both ways, there is advantage sometimes in placing
the rows up and down the hill nearly twice as far apart as the rows
along the face of the hill: In planting trees thus the advantage to
be gained ig by enabling you to keep the team well up the hill;
thereby you are able to plow or cultivate the trees close on the lower
side of the rows. There is no difficulty in cultivating the upper side
of the rows, for the plow or harrow is always below the team. If
trees are planted as recommended, the team can be guided up the
hill a little between the rows, then allowed to drop downhill one step,
and thus one can cultivate the trees close on the lower side. The
same rule will apply to vines.

QUINCUNX PLANTING

There is much confusion in the use of this term in this State. It
is, in fact, made to cover almost every kind of arrangement which is
not on the square. Webster defines the term to mean ‘‘the arrange-
ment of things, especially of trees, by five in a square, one being
placed in the middle of a square.’’ Trees set in quincunx would
stand as shown in the accompanying diagram. To locate them in
this form it is only necessary to proceed as already described for
planting in squares, by fixing upon the base line and locating two
side lines to it at right angles. Place the stakes on these two lines
just half the distance desired between the trees, and have the meas-
uring wire long enough to reach across from one line to the other.
Near one end of the wire place another mark just half way between
the end and the first tree marked; that is, if the trees are to be
twenty-four feet apart in the squares, this additional mark should
be twelve feet from the end of the wire. Now set the first row with
the end of the wire at the corner stake, and set stakes at each
twenty-four foot mark.

Proceed now to the first half-way stake, and instead of putting
the end of the wire at this stake, put the twelve-foot mark there,
Put stakes now at each twenty-four foot mark again to locate the
trees in that row. In the next row put the end of the wire at the
first stake and proceed as in the first row. Thereafter using the end

PLANTING AT UNIFORM DISTANCES 91

of the wire and the twelve-foot marks alternately, the stakes will be
set in quincunx all over the field. If the midway stakes are now
pulled out along the two side lines, the remaining stakes show where
the trees are to be placed. This way of planting locates about 78
per cent more trees upon any given area, but it brings the trees at
irregular distances from each other, and except in furnishing a way
to arrange an orchard with permanent and temporary trees; there
does not seem to be any advantage in it.

PLANTING IN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLES

This is the arrangement generally implied when the term ‘‘ quin-
eunx’’ is wrongly employed. By it the trees are all equally distant
from each other, and thus the ground divided as equally as possible.

Hexagonal planting places the trees as shown in the accompany-
ing sketch.

It is termed hexagonal because, as the figure consists of six trees
inclosing a seventh, a line drawn through the encompassing trees
makes a hexagon. It is also called septuple planting, because seven
trees enter into its figure.

An orchard can be laid out in hexagonals by using the measuring
wire as described for quineunx planting with the distance and half-
distance marks, except that the guide stakes in the side rows must
be placed at different distances apart. The following table shows
the. distance for side stakes to reach desired distance between
the trees, and the method of calculating the number of trees to the
acre by the square and hexagonal or sextuple arrangement:

Trees set Septuple Check-stakes should be
IIOP abet ex Bare Ost gee oe a A le 8 feet 8 inches.
IP PTCCT DARL sto tevehe ce ale ao Sie hares eevee die te 10 feet 4 2-5 inches.
A STCCE ADA n UGS sieic hi chee Sakis wees seein ac 12 feet % inches.
AEC A WANT 2, ol crits ete erate cisid nies 13 feet 10% inches.
TCE Ged DA Pi, Care x iei2, auede eae. e (9 iantoacesens etna 15 feet 7 inches.
ZAPOTEC PUPA ie pes 1a6 aio, 4 .0re ahs ans el, mena 17 feet 4 inches.
PAGTCOCUAP ATES oicrk c Sein earn e ao ora je ots elena ars 18 feet 21%% inches.
PEE Apa ite seve oc io aie oho ace inte oe a ets 19 feet % inches.
A DE ETUC eS 2, scdh oscil Bo. oh cabeNalS, okie cee e 20 feet 914 inches.

After the field is staked, each alternate stake in the check rows should
be removed. The following table will show the number of trees to the acre
by the square and septuple system:

Square Septuple
GRECCENADALU A tice o ne he a c/o ice ZAC CR a mee poate 500
WOT CR eA PAL Uc ine olson mnie aise drat DO eles etna eer 347
NAR LCCT ADA tees ce ae Cer oes aes e Dele se ss utags) a akeease ah arate 255
MGS REGED ATU Sc ciscls jrevsceis 16 sisivores «6 sont bly (Ue) eee oilers 195
NG WHEEL AD ALC eso cscs eo eee cnet BAe ee rere eisierana aoe tae Mead 154
ZU ECHE DAT. 5 fo dtcists sc clt.c boise etek QO eer horatan ale als oreteiehos « 125
EMEC SAD ALG Melee sere dere, scien ate OR emer ereeatask aborevetave sieis 114
PAPAS i223 Paeta W072) Gl Py 9 Rep ae a OO ab ateas theca wtevatereve cies 103
PAGE TESTE) E51) 023 ny Be pea em A ea na aE Ae Ten Sh ayete coer ats 86

For any distance not given in the above table, calculate the number of
trees to the acre by the square system, and add fifteen per cent. This will
give the number if planted septuple.

The arrangement admits 15 per cent more trees to the acre than the

a2 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

setting in squares, and the ground can be worked in three different
directions. This arrangement also gives better facilities for irriga-
tion. Objections are urged to it, however, in that it does not admit
of thinning trees by removal of alternate rows, as is sometimes de-
sirable, and that one has to take a zigzag course in driving through
the orchard.

Laying Out Hexagonals With a Triangle.—It is possible to lay
out an orchard in hexagonal form by working from stake to stake
with an equilateral triangle of dimensions equaling the distance re-
quired between the trees.

One corner of triangle—all being made alike.

Take three strips of one-by-two-inch dry pine or redwood, and as long
as you wish the distance between the trees. Cut the strips the same length,
and fasten the corners of the triangle firmly together by nailing two pieces
of pine board six by six inches.

If the long strips are set up edgewise, the triangle will be much stiffer
and better to carry. Through the corner boards bore an inch hole, making
sure that the three sides of the triangle measure exactly the same. If they
do, the triangle must necessarily be perfect. Then brace it a little by nail-
ing a lath across each corner, and it is ready for use.

Now split out some three-quarter-inch pins, one foot long, from good,
straight-grained redwood. Make one hundred pins for each acre you have
to lay off.

Three persons must now carry the triangle, beginning on one side of
the field, say eight feet from the fence, and guided the first time through
by a line of stakes. Carry the triangle with its side to the line of guide
stakes and its point in. The head man and the inside man will stick pins,
while the rear man will slip his corner each time upon the pin set by the
head man.

After the first time across, the man at the inside point of the triangle
alone will set pins, while the other two fit their corners upon the pins in
the last row set. Thus one row of pins only is set each time you go across
the field.

If the triangle is exact, and the first row of pins is set perfectly straight,
and the pins are always set perpendicularly, everything will now work like
a charm and the job will be perfect; and it is so simple and easy that a

HEXAGONAL SYSTEM ON SLOPES 93

man and two small boys can lay off from five to ten acres in one day. Re-
member that no guide stakes are used anywhere after the first time
through.

The Triangle on Hillside—The use of the triangle requires a
little nicety in ‘‘leveling up’’ where the piece is hilly. By using a
plumb-line at two corners of the triangle, the third corner resting
on one of the stakes, leveling the triangle and bringing one of the
plumb-lines over another stake already set, the position of the other
line would determine the position of the next stake. This method
has worked fairly well, even in places where the slope was sufficient
to give a fall of six feet between the trees, which were set twenty
feet apart.

Locating in Triangles With a Chain.—Instead of a wooden tri-
angle, a chain has been used in this way:

First stretch a chain along one side of the ground, setting by it the first
row of stakes. This forms the base line. Have a piece of chain just twice
the length of the established distance between trees, with ample rings on
the ends and a joint in the middle. Put one of the rings over the first stake
and the other over the second stake. Then take the joint in the middle of
the chain and stretch it out reasonably tight. The wire forms a letter V,
at the focus of which stick a stake. The point is indicated with precision
by the joint in the middle of the chain. Then take the ring off the first
stake and put it over the third stake, leaving the one on the second stake
where it is. Tighten the chain again, and another point is fixed. Thus
continue all the base line, shifting the rings alternately, turning over the
chain as one turns a pair of draughtsman’s compasses in his hand when
spacing off a line. The second row of stakes being set, set the third row,
and so on through the ground.

The suggestions given in this chapter should indicate ways
enough to lay off orchard and vineyard ground to answer all needs,
though there are other good ways not mentioned. It is hoped that
the instructions will not be regarded as too explicit. They are in-
tended for the guidance of the inexperienced planter, and will
naturally seem laden with detail to those who have become familiar
with the operations by repeated practice.

CHAPTER XI.

PLANTING THE TREES

After the field has been graded, thoroughly tilled and carefully
laid off as has been described, the next step is digging the holes for
the trees. ‘‘How large shall the holes be?’’ He was a wise fruit
grower who, when asked this question, replied, ‘‘As large as the
field.’ That is to say, it is much better to work the whole ground
over deeply than to trust to deep holes and shallow working else-
where. Where this is done, the tree holes need only be large enough
and deep enough to receive the roots without folding them in or
cramping them up. In loose, deep soil, however, one can dig extra
deep and broad holes if he desires, and will be repaid by extra
growth of the tree; but in a close, tenacious soil a deep hole is not
only undesirable, but often positively a danger to the tree unless
drainage of the holes is provided artificially. Such holes hold water
like a tub, and the loosening of the soil deeply facilitates its gather-
ing in the hole. Many have found their trees in such places dwind-
ling and dying because their roots were soaking in water.

Planting on Some Shallow Soils—dAs a rule, trees should have
a deep soil, and for these deep, free loams, California is famous, but
there are situations where very satisfactory growth and production
can be had, even when the hardpan is near the surface and the soil
would be called shallow. In such places it is the character of the
subsoil which warrants the tree and vine planter in making use of
them. Sometimes the hardpan is so thin and near the surface that
it can be broken through with a pick in digging the tree hole.
Otherwise boring is done. It was about 1875 that Mr. James Rutter,
of Florin (on the ‘‘bedrock’’ lands near Sacramento), first noticed
that there were vines here and there which grew exceptionally well
and bore large crops of fine fruit. He found by investigation that
under these vines there were crevices in the bedrock, and from this
he took the hint to bore through this hardpan in the bottom of the
hole where he placed the tree, and in this way he gained access for
the roots to the subsoil and egress for the water through the per-
meable substratum. He bored a hole two inches in diameter into or
through the bedrock and rammed well into it one and a half pounds
of black blasting powder. After exploding this, he sometimes bored
a three-inch hole about four feet below the blast. Instead of blast-
ing in the hole where the tree is to be planted, some bore and blast
in the hardpan midway between the rows, placing the holes at
‘‘quineunx’’ with the trees. The shattering of the hardpan between
the trees is said to be practicable after the trees are growing, and
may in certain soils relieve trees which are suffering for lack of
drainage. A half-pound cartridge of dynamite has been successfully
used for subsoil blasting, and some have reported in favor of ex-
ploding a quarter-pound cartridge quite near to a tree suffering

SHOOTING LAND FOR TREE PLANTING 95

from standing water, putting in the charge during the dry season.

There are many situations where such practice would be bene-
ficial, and in some cases mere digging or boring through the im-
pervious stratum avails much. There are spots where ‘‘lava crusts’’
overlie gravel, and trees have been well grown by cutting holes
through the lava to the gravel, filling with good soil and planting the
trees in these holes. Their roots penetrate to the gravel stratum
and obtain abundant moisture and nutriment. In certain situations
where a shallow layer of soil overlies a heavy clay, trees have been
blown over, but when a cut has been made through the clay, the
trees have rooted deeply and have withstood the winds.

Shooting Holes for Trees.—Even where there are continuous
depths of dense strata, and not shallow hardpan underlaid by free
soils, trees can often be successfully grown by the use of high ex-
plosives. In his book on ‘‘Soils,’’? Professor Hilgard gives these
suggestions :

A permanent loosening of dense sub-strata is best accomplished by
moderate charges (1% to % lb.) of No. 2 dynamite at a sufficient depth (3
to 5 ft.) The shattering effect of the explosure will be sensible to a depth
of eight feet or more, and will fissure the clay or hardpan to a correspond-
ing extent sidewise. If properly proportioned the charge will hardly dis-
turb the surface; or will throw out sufficient earth to plant the tree with-
out further digging. Where labor is high priced this proves the cheapest
as well as the best way to prepare such ground for tree planting, and it
has often been found that in course of time the loosening begun by the
powder has extended through the mass of the land so as to permit the
roots to utilize it fully and even to permit, in after years, of the planting
of field crops where formerly they would not succeed.

Upon the basis of these pioneer demonstrations, California claims
priority in the now widely prevalent ‘‘dynamite farming.’’ The
most minute descriptions of approved methods are now available in
the publications of the powder manufacturers and their traveling
demonstrators give field instructions in materials and appliances to
those who ask for them. It is very important to proceed wisely, for
if the subsoil is not in the right condition or the charge of powder
not properly chosen for the purpose, there is danger of making a
pot-hole in which water will stand and kill the tree. It is also im-
portant to do the blasting some time in advance of planting so that
irrigation or an adequate rainfall can settle the disturbed subsoil.
The trees planted on a fresh blasting have sometimes sunk a foot by
settling after planting and have been ruined thereby.

Digging the Holes.—Holes for tree planting may be dug at a
leisure time after the laying off of the field, even though it is not
designed to plant the trees immediately, but our largest planters
do not approve the practice. In such cases the sides of the holes
should always be freshly pared off before the trees are put in, be-
cause the rain and sunshine are apt to cement the sides. In digging
holes the surface earth should always be thrown to one side and the
lower soil on another. The object of this is to have the top soil to
place in direct contact with the roots when the tree is planted, the
lower soil being used to fill up the hole.

9§ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

TREE SETTERS

No matter how carefully the stakes are placed in laying off the
orchard, the trees will not easily come in line unless some handy
device is used for bringing the stem just in the place occupied by
the stake which was thrown out in digging. These devices are called
‘‘tree-setters,’’ and there are a number of designs. Two are given,
either of which will give good results. Take a piece of board one
inch thick, four inches wide, and five feet long; bore an inch hole
in the center, and one at each end at equal distance from the center;

Bar for Tree Setting.

then cut a piece from one side of the board, marked by a square,
the corner resting in the middle of the center hole. Make two stakes,
each one foot long, that will easily pass through the end holes. Place
the center of this board against the stake, where the tree is to be
planted; push the stakes into the ground through the holes in the
ends, then lift the board from position and proceed to dig the hole.
When dug, replace the board over the end stakes in its former posi-
tion, then plant the tree with its trunk resting against the center
notch in the board, and you have it in just the right place.

Another setter is in the form of a triangle: Take three pieces of
plain one-inch stuff three to four inches wide and four feet long,
and nail them together, forming a three-cornered frame, letting the
ends project sufficiently to form a corner, as shown in the drawing.
Next make a couple of smooth, hard stakes, well sharpened, and
about a foot or sixteen inches in length. When you are ready to
set your trees, place the frame flat upon the ground with one corner
firmly and fairly against the stake which marks the place where the
tree is to stand. Now in the other two corners stick the stakes al-
ready prepared for the purpose. This done, pull up the stake

Triangular tree setter

SELECTING TREES FOR PLANTING 97

against which the frame was first placed—the one indicating a place
for a tree—remove the frame, being careful in doing so not to move
the other two stakes, which must be left to be used while setting the
tree. After the hole is dug and everything ready for setting the
tree, again place the frame against the two standing stakes, let the
tree drop into the other corner, which will help support it while the
dirt is being placed about the roots; and this will bring the tree ex-
actly where the stake was originally. If the stakes are properly put
in line, so will be the trees.

These setters are described as they are used when the hole is dug
and the tree set at the same time. Such is the ordinary practice in
planting. If one wishes to dig the holes beforehand, it is necessary
to furnish more stakes, as two have to be left beside each hole to
mark the position of the setter when the planting is done. Besides
its use in bringing a tree into line, the tree setter enables one to
judge of the depth of setting as compared with the surface of the
surrounding ground. It is not easy to determine this with the eye
if the hole be a large one. Where the measuring wire is used to set
the stakes, it is sometimes stretched across again after the holes are
dug, the tags on the wire thus indicating the places for the trees of
the whole row. The trouble with this practice is the bother of hav-
ing the wire in the way while filling and tramping the earth around
the roots.

SELECTING TREES

In the purchase of trees it is well to patronize nurserymen in
your own district, providing they are honest and intelligent men,
who keep themselves informed as they should about their business.
The advice of such a local nurseryman is often of great value to the
newcomer, for he will know by his experience and observation much ~
about the adaptations of fruits and varieties thereof to the region.
If, for any reason, local nurseries do not meet your needs, seek some
well-established nursery at a distance. It is much safer to deal di-
rectly with the grower of the trees than to patronize traveling
agents. Where, however, these agents are the accredited represen-
tatives of well-known establishments, they may save the planter
time and trouble by taking his order for him. So-called ‘‘tree-
peddlers,’’ who are jobbers in trees and in too many cases send you
refuse trees which they pick up cheap wherever they can, and labeled
to suit, without respect to truth or honesty, should be resolutely
avoided, no matter what inducements or blandishments they may
offer.

The California legislature of 1907 passed a law making it unlaw-
ful to sell fruit trees representing them to be a certain kind and
afterwards to deliver trees of a different kind. To do this is a mis-
demeanor punishable by fine and imprisonment. Action may be
begun at any time within seven years after the date of delivery of
such trees.*

*Statutes and amendments to the Codes, 1907; chapter 229.

98 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

The State of California also endeavors to protect planters by en-
abling them to ascertain responsibility of nurserymen. The law of
1917 requires that any person who handles nursery stock for plant-
ing or propagation within this State shall register with the State
Comissioner of Horticulture, and all shipments by such licensee shall
have his license number affixed to the package. Planters should
preserve all such evidence of responsibility in case occasion should
arise for reference to it.

It is desirable, if possible, to visit the nursery and see the stock
which is to be furnished. The trees should have a good healthy look,
with clean bark, and of size enough to indicate a good, free growth.
The matter of size is not the only point to consider, for size of the
top is not so desirable as well-matured wood and plenty of roots.
Stunted trees are not, as a rule, worth planting. There are cases,
however, in which, by extra cultivation in good soil, fine trees have
been grown even from ‘‘culls’’ from the nursery. The best rule is
to select trees of good medium size, straight and healthy. During
the digging season, ask to see samples of the roots as well as the
tops, and do not purchase trees unless the roots are healthy looking
and free from knots or excrescences. Gnarly and knotty roots in
the young tree are a sure sign of insect pests or of unhealthy growth,
and planting such trees has occasioned immense loss. Many have
been led into purchasing poor trees because they may be had cheap.
A tree selected merely because it is cheap may prove the most ex-
pensive thing a man can put in the ground.

Guarding Against Insects.—The top of the tree should be care-
fully examined to discover scale insects if there be any. For this
purpose a hand-magnifier should be used. Such a glass should al-
ways be in the fruit grower’s pocket. One can be bought at any
optician’s for a dollar or two, which will fold into its case so as to
be carried without scratching. Our nurserymen by forsaking old
infested locations and obtaining new ground, now sell much cleaner
trees than they did years ago. But still it is well to be always on the
watch for pests. Disinfection of nursery stock is now officially pro-
vided. Details of treatment will be given in the chapter on injurious
insects.

TAKING TREES FROM THE NURSERY

Trees should be carefully taken from the nursery rows, so as to
obtain a good amount of small branching roots. In lifting from the
home nursery, digging with well-sharpened spades, which will sever
the long roots cleanly, is perhaps the best method. In the large
nurseries tree diggers are generally used. They have two revolving
ecoulters which cut through the surface soil each side of the trees,
and a sharp-curved blade, which is drawn through the ground under
the trees, loosening the soil and severing the long roots cleanly. The
tree is then easily lifted, and has generally a much better root sys-
tem than by the old style of ‘‘plowing out,’’ which broke off so
many of the small roots and lacerated the larger ones. Whether the

CARING FOR TREES BEFORE PLANTING 99

tap root should be retained or not is not worth discussing on theo-
retical grounds. As a matter of fact and practice, the tap root cuts
no figure at all in California orchard planting, although the discus-
sion of the question was formerly very warm in this State, and is
still occasionally heard. It is important, however, that the planter
should have as-many small lateral roots as he can get. The small
fibrous roots are usually of little account, as they seldom survive
transplanting, and it is better to clip them away, if the time can be
afforded, as they often prevent the proper close contact of the soil
with the larger roots. Cutting back all roots to short stubs at the
base of the stem has succeeded in some instances in California on
moist lowlands, but longer roots are far safer in the deep drying of
the surface layer which is to be expected in this State.

The roots, after lifting, should not be permitted to dry. Hence,
in hauling from the nursery to the farm, the trees should be well
covered with wet straw and old sacks, or, if shipped from the nur-
sery to distant points, should be well packed. The best way to pack
trees is, undoubtedly, to box them in with wet straw, but it costs
less and they usually carry well considerable distances if carefully
bundled with tules (dry reed stems), the roots packed in wet straw,
and the packing and covering bound down tight with ropes to pre-
vent drying out.

Attention should be paid to hauling away trees from the railway
stations as soon as possible after arrival. It is not uncommon for
shipments to le on the station platforms for days, often when a des-
iceating north wind is blowing. Such treatment soon takes the life
~ut of trees, and often, no doubt, the nurseryman is blamed for
failure of trees which have suffered some such neglect as this, either
from transportation companies or from the purchasers.

Heeling In.—On arrival at the farms, trees should be ‘‘heeled
in’’ as soon as possible; even if it is the intention to plant at once,
heel them in just the same, for delays arise often in the most unex-
_ pected manner. To heel in, dig a trench or plow a deep furrow, or
a double furrow, in light, moist, but well-drained soil; put in the
trees singly side by side, removing all the packing material carefully
from the roots, laying the tops all one way, and then shovel the dirt
over the roots until they are well covered with loose soil, and be sure
that the soil sifts down well between the roots. Ordinarily this
treatment will hold the trees in good condition for a considerable
time if need be. If, however, they have become dry before arrival,
the bundles should be thoroughly drenched with water before heel-
ing in. In extreme cases, where the top shows drying by shrinking
and shriveling of the bark, the trees should be drenched, and then
they should be covered root and top with earth for two or three
days, when, if the trouble has not gone too far, the bark will recover
its smoothness and plumpness. It should be very seldom, however,
that a lot of trees is allowed to get into such condition by neglect.
In heeling in it will be found a great convenience and a safeguard
against possible confusion by loss of labels, if each variety as taken

1060 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

from the packing is placed by itself in the trench. Nurserymen gen- ~
erally attach a label to each small bundle, if the trees are of several
varieties, and the novice is apt to lose all track of his sorts when
heeling in the trench, unless he heels in each kind by itself, leaving
the nurseryman’s label to mark the whole lot of each kind.

In heeling-in, the trees should be put in the trench on the slant
and not upright. First it is easier to put them that way, because
they hold themselves in place for covering the roots, and it is also
easier and better for the trees to lift them out than to pull them out.
Second, when putting in on the slant the tops should always point:
to the southern sky, because the sun is low down and its rays hit the
trees on the ends and not on the sides. Activity in the top of the
tree begins from sun heat on the bark and a tree slanting to the
south gets less of it than if straight up and very much less than if
the slant were toward the north, which would bring the sides of the
trees at right angles to the sun’s rays. Therefore a slant to the
south keeps the heeled-in trees dormant longer.

Some planters spray the trees with lime-sulphur after heeling-in,
both to make sure of disinfection and to whiten the bark against
sun-heat.

Cutting Back in the Nursery.—If the planter has his own ideas
of after-treatment of his trees, or if he is a beginner and desires to
adopt the suggestions which will be laid down in this book, he should
insist that the nurseryman shall not trim up or cut back the trees
before packing. Have the trees packed just as they are lifted from
the ground. The work towards the shaping of the tree should be
done when it is planted in the orchard.

PLANTING THE ORCHARD

The young deciduous tree should be dormant before being re-
moved from the nursery row, and if its leaves have fallen it is good
evidence of its dormancy. Such, however, is the effect of the climate
of California, more apparent in some years than others, and with
some kinds of fruit than others, that the young tree retains a small
part of its activity very late, and in such cases it is not practicable
to wait for the complete falling of the leaves. Sometimes for con-
venience of work, the trees have to be lifted before this takes place,
and in such ease it is desirable to remove the leaves to lessen evap-
oration. It is probably better to transplant in this condition for the
sake of early setting in its new position than to wait for all the
leaves to drop. This statement is not intended to include nursery
stock which is kept growing late in the season by late irrigation.
Such trees are not always desirable.

Time to Plant.—The best time to plant deciduous trees in Cali-
fornia is soon after the early rains have deeply moistened the
ground. It is not desirable, however, to have a stratum of dry earth
below. This can be removed by irrigation when available. Early
planting of common orchard fruits is of advantage for several rea- ©

WHEN TO PLANT TREES 101

sons. First, an early-planted tree gets the full benefit of the season’s
rainfall, whatever it may be, and a late-planted tree, in a year with
short rainfall, is apt to suffer during its first season’s growth, unless
it can be irrigated. The two main things to observe are the dor-
mancy of the tree and the proper condition of the soil, and both of
these are most apt to coincide in many parts of California about the
first of January, but in heavy loams in region of large rainfall, the
soil may then be too cold and wet. There will, however, be some
variation from year to year, and different parts of the State dis-
agree as to the date. Hence, the general rule must be based on con-
ditions, that of the tree and that of the soil. If the novice cannot
judge these for himself, he must get the advice of some one of ex-
perience in the locality.

The dormant period of a tree in California, as has been stated in
another connection, is very short. As many cold-climate annual
plants become perennial here, so our deciduous trees, in compara-
tively frostless portions of the State, evince a tendency to become
evergreen. The period of dormancy in the root is also shorter than
the inactivity of the top. Trees transplanted early are found to have
their root wounds calloused over and new rootlets considerably ad-
vanced before the buds swell. Therefore, by early planting the tree
begins soon to take hold upon the soil, the latter being well settled
around it by the rains, which often follow early planting, and the
high winds, which are apt to come in the spring in some parts of the
State, find the tree well anchored and ready to maintain itself.

Again, the proper condition of soil, if not seized at its first coming,
may not recur until after the great storms of the winter are over,
say in February or March (in most parts of the State), and then
often the buds are bursting into bloom and leaf. Planting when the
soil is water-soaked and cold is very undesirable, for in such condi-
tion it cannot be properly disposed about the roots, the inactive
roots may begin to decay, and trees moved at this period are apt to
show their dislike of the treatment. If the work has been delayed
unavoidably, so that early planting cannot be done, it is better to
keep the trees heeled in until the proper soil condition returns, even
if it be rather late, for a little extra attention to cultivation for re-
tention of moisture will pull through a late-planted tree.

These remarks are of very wide application in this State, but
there are exceptions. In our high altitudes, where the climate ap-
proaches Hastern conditions in cold and snowfall, practice in plant-
ing will also approximate Eastern methods. In regions of very
heavy rainfall and on the upper coast where the rainy season and
moisture from fogs are prolonged late in the spring, late planting
is safer and surer than in the warmer, drier parts of the State.

Another consideration, too, is the slope of the land to be planted.
Our hillside fruit growers in regions of heavy winter storms some-
times plant slopes, which, if plowed deep in the fall, are apt to wash
badly during the heavy winter rains. On such slopes it is better to
plow late in the winter, after the heavy storms are over, and plant
as soon as the soil becomes warm and mellow.

102 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

THE OPERATION OF PLANTING

Tree planting should be carefully and well done, but it need not
necessarily be slowly done. With a kind soil deeply worked and
just in the right condition for planting, trees may be put in well and
rapidly. Two men work together at a decided advantage. Using
the straight ‘‘tree-setter,’’ which has already been described, one
takes each end, and as soon as the center notch encloses the tree
stake, the setter stakes are pushed into the soil, the ‘‘setter’’ is laid
aside, and the two men, taking up their shovels or spades, begin first
around the outside of the hole, throwing all the surface dirt on the
same side of the hole and leaving the tree stake to be thrown out
last, because its remaining serves to center the hole. The lower
soil is now thrown to the other side of the hole, and when depth
enough is reached, the soil at the bottom of the hole is loosened up
to a depth of a shovel thrust, without removing it from the hole.
A shovelful or two of the surface soil is thrown into the center
of the hole, being allowed to remain higher in the center, because
this generally furnishes a cushion about the natural shape of the
under surface of the root system of the tree. Now replace the tree-
setter upon its end pegs, let one man hold the tree with its stem in
the central notch in the setter, and while the other man shovels in
the surface earth rather slowly at first, the man who holds the tree
with one hand will spread out the roots, pulverize and pack the
earth around them, being sure that no cavities are left under any
of the roots, but_that their surfaces everywhere come into contact
with the soil, and that they spread out as widely as possible. The
earth is being continuously put in by the shoveler, and when the
roots are covered the planter steps in the hole and carefully firms
the soil down upon the roots by tramping (especially at the cut ends
of the roots around the outer side of the hole), at the same time
judging of the perpendicularity of the tree with his eye. When this
is done, both men use their shovels and fill up the hole with the earth
taken from below, being sure to leave the last few inches at the sur-
face pulverized, but untramped, unless the soil be very light so that
tramping will not overpack it. Some one said long ago that one
should not plant a tree as he does a post, ramming down the earth
to the very top of the hole. Many trees are doubtless ruined by over
zeal in this respect.

The shovel has been mentioned frequently as the tool to be used
in planting. Where the soil is deeply plowed, well worked, and free
from stone, the shovel is the most rapid tool. Under other condi-
tions the long-handled spade, and in some eases the long-handled
spading fork, serves admirably in loosening the soil at the bottom of
the holes and in breaking up lumps while filling in. One man with a
shovel or spade, and the other with the fork, make a good combina-
tion in this respect.

As a rule the young tree is planted so as to stand upright, but
it is reasonable to give it a slight slant into the prevailing wind if
older trees indicate that they are thrown out of plumb by it.

HINTS ABOUT PLANTING 103

Planting in a Furrow.—A practice which has been largely fol-
lowed in the Sacramento Valley and which attains greatest speed
and cheapness consists in laying off as described in the preceding
chapter, and then proceeding with a heavy listing plow, followed
by a subsoil plow in the same furrow. The trees are then rapidly
set with the least digging. This is all done before the field is plowed.
Plowing immediately follows planting. The advantages of this
method are ease of work on firm ground instead of a plowed surface,
and escape of injury to this surface by men and teams in planting
after plowing. It does not, however, prepare the land so well as
deep working before laying out.

RANDOM SUGGESTIONS

The roots of every tree should be examined before planting. All
large root ends should have.a fresh, clean cut with a sharp knife or
shears. Make a slanting cut with the cut surface on the underside
of the root. Where a root is mangled or bruised, it should in most
eases be cut back to a sound place.

The wound made by the cutting away of the seedling stock above
the bud should be at the north or northeast, in order that this weak
point may be shaded as much as possible from the afternoon sun.

If the roots of young trees grow more to one side than the other,
place the strongest roots toward the prevailing wind.

The use of water to settle the earth around the roots is some-
times desirable in sections where the rainfall is light or uncertain.
Pour in four or five gallons from the water wagon after the hand
work in spreading the roots and in pressing the soil under and
around them has been done and the hole partly filled. When the
water-has soaked away, fill the hole with fine earth without tramp-
ing. In irrigated districts leading the water along the line of trees
in a furrow to settle the ground at planting is a good practice. It
is almost essential in the planting of evergreen trees, which are best
moved during the dry season. In early planting in parts of the State
where the rainfall is abundant, there may be no need of water-
settling; puddling the roots, or dipping them in thin mud and plant-
ing them with this mud adhering, is governed by much the same
conditions as water-settling ; it may insure growth of the tree when
otherwise it might be seriously injured by drouth. With puddled
roots especial care should also be taken to leave the surface loose to
prevent evaporation. In making puddle, use loamy soil and never
adobe, for in dry time the latter will bake around the roots and may
kill the tree.

The Use of Manure.—Never put manure in the hole with the tree.
Sometimes the injunction is, Never put anything but well rotted
manure in the hole. It is better to put in none of any kind. Manure
should be spread upon the ground after planting. The rains then
leach it out and it may be turned under in the spring plowing. There
are, however, light soils in the drier parts of the State where turning

104 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

under manure in the spring is a disadvantage, as it makes the soil
too porous and facilitates evaporation. On such soils, extra care
should be taken to have the manure thoroughly decomposed by com-
posting, as will be described in the chapter on fertilizers, and all
applications should be made either late in the spring to act as a
mulch in the summer, or if a mulch is not thought desirable, apply
the manure in the fall before the first rains, so that it may be turned
under at the first plowing and have the whole winter for disintegra-
tion. In this dry climate there is often misapprehension, especially
among newcomers, as to what is well-rotted manure. They take the
serapinges of the corral, which have been trampled and pulverized,
but which, having been kept dry, have never rotted. When this is
put in the holes with the tree and then moistened by rainfall or
irrigation, it will burn the tree, the first sign of injury being the
drying up of the leaves. It is, on the whole, safest and best to put
nothing but well-pulverized surface soil around the roots of the
young tree.

Depth of Planting—The depth to which trees should be set has
always been a matter of discord among the planters. The safest rule
under ordinary circumstances is to get the tree as nearly as possible
the same depth it stood in the nursery row; that is, so as to have it
stand that way when the ground has settled, or the surface returned
by cultivation to its normal level. In planting in loose soil in the
drier parts of the State, it is often desirable to plant rather low,
because several inches depth of the surface soil become dry, and the
roots should be well in the moist layer. But if irrigation is to be
practised, it must be remembered that the water level will rise when
the soil is saturated and deep-planted trees are apt to suffer. The
experience of recent years is decidedly against deep planting, which
used to be advised because of our dry climate. Thousands of trees
have been ruined by planting too deep except in light sandy soil.

Speed in Planting.—On good soil, well prepared, trees can be
put in rapidly and the job still be well done. It is reported that on
one occasion, in planting almonds, twenty men finished sixty-four
acres from Friday noon to Wednesday night, placing the stakes, dig-
ging the holes, and planting the trees. This would be almost three-
quarters of an acre per day per man. In planting peaches and
apricots an average of one hundred trees per day to the man has
been attained. On the mellow loam, in another case, the average
was one hundred and twenty-five trees to the man, digging holes
two feet square in land which had been plowed twelve inches deep.
Such work is only possible on good soil, well prepared, and by men
who work well together.

Mapping and Labeling —Where mixed varieties of fruit are
planted, the orchard should be mapped as soon as the trees are set.
A good durable map is made of the glazed muslin, such as carpenters
and architects use for their drawings. The map can be easily drawn
to a scale by using a fraction of an inch to represent a foot. After

PROTECTING TREES FROM SUNBURN 105

the map is made, it can be rolled on a broom stick and easily pre-
served. With such a record, the grower need not care what becomes
of the labels, as he can locate a variety at any time by its row and
tree number. If, however, one desires labels, let them be made in
this way: Take a piece of common sheet zine five inches wide.
Across this, cut pieces three-quarters of an inch wide at one end and
tapering to a point at the other. Near the wider end write plainly
with a common lead-pencil the name of the variety. This will get
brighter by exposure to the weather. The small end may be coiled
around the branch of the tree; it will yield as the tree grows and
will do no injury. Such labels will last for a long time. Labels
attached by a cord or wire should be removed as soon as the trees
are set, for they are apt to be forgotten and the tree seriously in-
jured by the cutting in of the ligature. Even when labels are used
the map is the only surety, because any kind of a label is apt to be
be lost by accident or through malice or mischief of intruders.

Mulching.— Although early planted trees on deep soils in regions
of sufficient rainfall need only good cultivation, after planting, there
are cases in which mulching is desirable. Various light materials
may be used for a mulch, but nothing is better than well-rotted
straw, in which fermentation has killed all weed seed. Apply it to
a distance of two feet around the tree, and to a depth of not less
than six inches. It is best done as soon as the tree is planted, and
is to be especially recommended when late planting is practised.
Even in localities of light rainfall, if the trees are well mulched
early in the winter, irrigation may be unnecessary for the young
deciduous tree. Trees planted very late in the spring may, by using
ereat care and mulching well, make as great a growth as those set
out early in winter. This should not be an excuse for late planting,
but where late planting is necessary, mulching will help the trees
to pull through. It is a far easier way of keeping the ground moist
than by irrigating, but is not a substitute for it where systematic
irrigation is necessary, though irrigation may often be lessened, and
in some eases obviated, by extra cultivation or mulching, at least
until the trees come into bearing.

Guarding Against Sunburn.—Newly-set trees should be protected
against sunburn. This can be easily done by winding strips of bur-
lap from old grain sacks spirally around the stems beginning just
below the ground surface to the points where the young shoots will
appear. When these start the strip can be loosened and rewound so
as to protect the bark between the shoots. The top can be fastened
with a stitch or two with a twine needle. Manufactured ‘‘tree pro-
tectors’’ of paper or rushes which are readily adjusted around the
trees are now largely sold.

Whitewashing is the most widely used preventive of sun-burning
not only for young trees but for old trees which may have bark ex-
posed through pruning, grafting, ete. Sun-burning is not confined
to summer time, therefore whitewash should be continually in place

106 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

and durable whitewash is a desideratum. The following are good
preparations:

First, slake 62 pounds (one bushel) of quicklime in 12 gallons of
hot water. Second, dissolve two pounds of common table salt and
one pound of zine sulphate in two gallons of boiling water. Pour
the salt and zine mixture into the lime and then add two gallons of
skim-milk and mix thoroughly. If skim-milk is not handy, four
pounds of flour boiled in four gallons of water may be substituted.
For use thin with cold water to flow well.

Another recipe is this: Dissolve five pounds of salt in six gallons
of hot water and use this to slake thirty pounds of lime, stirring in.
four pounds of cheap tallow (or heavy oil or any other old grease)
while the lime is still hot from slaking. Add water to the consistency
desired.

For use with a spray pump it is necessary to strain through bur-
lap or a fine wire screen.

The use of white lead and oil paint has seriously injured young
bark and is dangerous.

Cutting Back at Planting —Whatever idea the grower may have
as to shaping his tree, it must be cut back when planted. Lifting
from the nursery has removed a considerable part of the root system
of the young tree and the top must be reduced accordingly. The
planter who dislikes to sacrifice the fine top will sacrifice future
growth and vigor by retaining it. The tree may struggle through
and regain strength, but it will for years be smaller than if it had
been properly cut back at planting. If the moisture supply should
be short the tree may die the first summer which would have sur-
vived if differently treated at planting. The manner of cutting
back depends somewhat upon the style of pruning to be followed
afterward, as will be considered in the next chapter.

CHAPTER XII

PRUNING TREES AND THINNING FRUIT

It is not intended to enter into a discussion of the general theories
of pruning. The reader desiring to pursue them is referred to the
abundant literature on the subject in Eastern and European treatises.
The effort to approve or condemn these theories by considering them
in the light of California experience and observation might lead to
interesting conclusions, but it has no place in a work aiming merely
at an exposition of what appears to be the most satisfactory practice
in California fruit growing. It will be found that this practice varies
somewhat in the different regions of California, sometimes in degree,
sometimes in kind, because of different local conditions, and it might
be found that nearly all reasonable theories of pruning eould be
verified in California experience.

Pruning in California is chiefly undertaken as a shaping process.
Our fruit trees are naturally ‘so prone to bear fruit that pruning to
produce fruitfulness is seldom thought of, and still more rarely
practiced, while pruning to reduce bearing wood, and thus decrease
the burden of the tree, is quite widely done, to take the place, in
part, of thinning out the fruit. Pruning to restore vigor to the tree,
as in cutting it back to induce a new wood growth, is also rather a
rare proceeding, but probably could be much more widely employed
to advantage. We prune, then, for shape and for the many practical
advantages which inhere in the form now prevailing in California
orchards. Some of these advantages are peculiar to our climate;
others we share with those who advocate a similar form elsewhere.

Our best orchards of the same fruits in adjacent localities are
almost identical in form and general appearance of the trees, and
those more distant differ chiefly in the extent to which the same
principles are applied. And this is not because the trees are allowed
to follow their natural inclination, which should secure resemblance,
but because their natural bent is resolutely conquered by agreement
of growers that they know what is good for the tree; and this sub-
stantial unanimity is the result of the experience of the last fifty-five
years. People possessed of the art temperament sometimes complain
of the depressing uniformity and artificiality of orchard-tree shapes
in California. They are apt to lament the fact that systematic
orcharding destroys the picturesqueness of tree-growth. They
should understand that a picturesque fruit tree has no place in com-
mercial fruit growing. The producing tree is an agency to serve
certain purposes. The orchardist does not pursue uniformity for
its own sake, but rather for. the purpose it serves, and the fact that
many thinking men have practically agreed upon a certain form as
an ideal of producing ability is demonstration that such form is, at
least, approximately correct. There is an industrial conception of a
tree, which is necessarily and essentially different from a conception

108 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

of picturesqueness based upon the wild type. The wild tree is rude
and crude from a cultural point of view.

PRACTICAL PURPOSES OF PRUNING

One of the first things for a beginner to undertake as he ap-
proaches the practice of pruning trees and vines is to form a good
idea of the purposes to be served. Imitation is not the foundation
of intelligent pruning, though it yields many valuable suggestions.
Satisfactory work rests upon a correct understanding of the reasons
for each act and to the attainment of this, all study, observation and
experience should tend. Possessing this, one can proceed capably,
modifying method to meet condition, and producing desirable re-
sults. Receive all suggestions and then go quietly to the tree and
study your problem in its shade. The tree is the best revelator of
its needs. Some of the best pruners in California are men who were
untrained to horticulture before they entered upon their orchard
work. Reading, discussion, systematic instruction are all valuable.
They save much time and many errors, but recourse to the. tree
‘affords the sovereign test of attainment.

These may be counted among the practical purposes to be attained
by pruning in California: (a) Convenience of the grower; (b) health
and strength of the tree; (c) regulation of heat and light; (d) at-
tainment of strong bearing wood; (e) attainment of size in fruit;
(f) promotion of regular bearing. Examine trees with reference to
their embodiment of these characters and one can hardly fail to
secure rays of light upon the subject of pruning which seem dark to
so many.

Convenience.—Trees which branch near the ground are most
quickly and cheaply handled in all the operations of pruning, spray-
ing, fruit-thinning and picking. Low trees with obliquely-rising
branches are more easily cultivated than any form with horizontal
branches, unless the head is carried so high that the animals pass
easily under the tree. To do this sacrifices all the other conveniences
and economies which actually determine profit, and is really out of
the question from a commercial point of view. Sometimes it does
not pay to pick some of the smalier fruits like cherries and olives
at a certain distance above the ground, when picking at half that
distance may yield a profit.

Health and Strength.—It is imperative in most parts of this State
that the sunshine be not allowed to touch the bark during the heat
of the day. This protection is secured even for young trees by low
branching and encouragement of small, low laterals. The low tree
with properly spaced main branches attains superior strength by
virtue of thick, strongly knit, short growth between lateral branches,
and by its strong, stiff, obliquely-rising growth sustains weight which
brings horizontal branches to the ground, and thus even high-headed
trees are liable to continually interfere with cultivation, and the
desperate grower has to raise the head of his tree higher into the air

4

REASONS FOR PRUNING 109

and farther above the profit line, while at the same time he renders
it more liable to sunburn, to bark-binding and to unthrift by forcing
the sap to flow an unnecessary distance and through wood and bark
which impede its movement. Besides a low tree escapes stress by
strong winds which a high tree invites and at the same time is less
able to withstand. Pruning for health and strength of tree also in-
cludes the removal of unthrifty or diseased parts, which are not only
an incumbranee to the tree but may communicate to other parts the
eauses of their ill condition.

Heat and Light.—The maintenance of strong bearing wood in the
lower part of the tree is conditioned upon the proper pruning of the
top of the tree. How far the upper levels or the shade-layer of the
tree can be safely opened, depends upon the local climate in each
fruit region. The rule must be the higher the summer heat the
denser the tree; the lower the heat the thinner the tree; but every-
where the proper condition of openness must be constantly in view
in pruning. Not alone must this be done to maintain thrifty growth
below, but it is also essential to the best growth and ripening of the
fruit in the lower and interior parts of the tree. Fruit inferior in
size, color and quality results, in part, from lack of pruning to regu-
late the admission of light and heat, sometimes one, sometimes both,
to the shaded portion of the tree.

Bearing Wood.—Good fruit develops on good bearing wood and
good bearing wood is the product of proper degrees of light and
heat, as has just been urged. But bearing wood in the case of some
fruits is new wood, and reduction of old wood for the purpose of
forcing the growth of new wood must be constantly in mind. Re-
newal is more or less a consideration with all trees, and especially the
securing of strong new wood. This is a point upon which close study
of the bearing tree will yield most satisfactory suggestions.

Size of Fruit—The size of fruit, providing the tree is healthy
and vigorous, depends upon the character and amount of bearing
wood which the tree is allowed to carry. Removal-of part of the
fruit burden is done by thinning after it is well set, but this labor
should always be minimized by antecedent pruning, which aims to
retain more or less bearing wood according to the vigor, size and
bearing habit of the tree. Thinning out of bearing shoots and spurs,
when either are clearly seen to be in excess, should be the constant
study of the pruner.

Regular Bearing.—This point is largely involved in the preceding
and affords an additional incentive. Regulating the amount of fruit
borne in one year may involve the profit of two years, because a tree
may not be able to produce an excessive amount of fruit and perfect
good fruit buds for the following year. It may generally make buds
which will bloom, but not always that. If it does make the bloom,
it is no guaranty that the bloom will be strong and effective for
bearing. Consequently, pruning for reasonable amount of bearing
should always be borne in view and should be practiced at the close

110 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

of the year of non-bearing with particular diligence, if the alternate
year bearing habit is to be broken up.

The foregoing are among the practical purposes to be served in
pruning. There are others, but these will suffice to emphasize a
single point, and that is, that pruning can not be compressed into a
single formula, nor can one learn it by a recipe. There are various
ends to attain; they may be attained in different ways, although it
is not strange that substantial agreement in methods does largely
prevail. It is better to try to understand the purposes than to memo-
rize the formulae. Get the tree and its interest clearly in the mind;
have an ideal toward which to work; be more interested in why a
neighbor prunes in a certain way than how he does it. Learn con-
stantly by all available means, and at the same time study the visible
forms and aim to understand their fullest significance.

FORMS OF TREE BEST SUITED TO CALIFORNIA
CONDITIONS

The form of deciduous fruit tree which prevails with singular
uniformity all over the State is the ‘‘vase,’’ or ‘‘goblet,’’ ‘or ‘‘wine-
glass’’ form, all these terms signifying a similar shape. There are
different ways in which this form is secured and maintained in dif-
ferent parts of the State, and with different fruits, which will be
especially noted in the chapters devoted to these fruits.

The mainspring of success in California is to grow low trees.
Low is a term admitting of degrees, it is true, and may imply a
trunk six inches up to one or two feet, in the clear. In addition to
the convenience of low-trained trees which has been mentioned, there
are special reasons for this form in California. Hundreds of thou-
sands of trees have been destroyed by the exposure of a long, bare
trunk to the rays of the afternoon sun. The sun-burned sides have
given the conditions desired by borers, and destruction has quickly
followed. Sometimes young trees have not survived their first season
in the orchard, because of burned bark, or this, with the added injury
by the borers. It is also found by California experience that growth
is more vigorous in the branches when they emerge near the ground.
Even where actual burning may not occur the travel of the sap
through the longer distance of trunk is undesirable. It is believed,
also, that benefit results from shading of the ground at the base of
the trees, by reducing evaporation, and by maintaining a tempera-
ture of soil better suited to vigorous root-growth.

But whatever may be the reasons, the fact is indisputable, the
higher the prevailing summer temperature, and the greater the
aridity, the lower should the trees be headed. Trees which may do
well in the central and upper coast region and adjacent to the bay of
San Francisco, with twenty-four to thirty-six inches of clear trunk,
would dwindle and probably perish in the heated valleys in all parts
of the State. In such situations, both north and south, the best prac-
tice is to head the tree fifteen, twelve, and even some hold as low
as six inches from the ground. There will always be some difference

VASE FORM WITHOUT CUTTING BACK vey

of opinion as to detail, but the necessity of making the trunk short
enough to be effectually shaded by the foliage is admitted by all
growers.

Variations of the Vase Form.—There are several variations of the
vase form to be found in California orchards. The prevalent is a
vase form with short-jointed leaders (secured by systematic cutting-
back) which will be described in detail as the ‘‘common vase form.”’
Another, which is gaining in popularity, aims to grow leaders
trained along in directions first chosen for them (without cutting
back after the low head has been secured), and this may be described
as the ‘‘vase form with continuous leaders.’’ The latter method
aims to secure more open centers and to produce fruit nearer to the
leaders or, aS one may call them, the ribs of the tree—the figure
having a rough resemblance to the ribs of an inverted umbrella.
These open-center vase forms will be described in the chapters on
the apricot and peach, to which fruits they have been chiefly applied.

Vase-Form Without Cutting Back.—<An interesting experiment in
the development and retention of the vase-form without cutting back
the main branches after the first year in the orchard has been under-
taken on the University Farm at Davis under the direction of Dr.
J. C. Whitten, head of the Division of Pomology of the University
of California. Concerning the method, publication will be made by
the University as soon as definite conclusions are reached. The
shaping of the tree begins by cutting back at planting to get a low
head, the framework of the tree being secured by selection of three
main branches properly placed on the short stem. These branches
are cut back during the first winter to 16 to 24 inches in length and

['E-

Forms of head resulting from cutting back

Twelve-year-old apple tree in the writer’s garden in Berkeley, showing forms of head
resulting from cutting back for greater and less spacing of main branches at planting.

112 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

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— hs eed

Results of cutting back to longer and shorter stems

Apricot and cherry trees twelve years old, showing results of cutting back to longer
and shorter stems at planting, as an experiment in head form.

THE PREVAILING VASE FORM 113

are not cut back afterwards—except in the case of excessive ex-
tension, when they may be shortened, if necessary, to a lateral which
is to continue, as nearly as may be, growth in the same direction.
Growth on these continuous leaders is selected the following summer
to make desirable branchings—all other shoots being tip-pinched to
make a few leaves. After the leaders are well located in sufficient
number, cutting back ceases and these main branches are kept
properly clothed with bearing wood by thinning out supernumerary
~ spurs and laterals and by pinching undesirable shoots during the
growing season.

The method seems to be reduction to systematic form and im-
provement of the practice which has long been followed in this State
with apples, cherries, prunes and almonds which have for many
years not been cut back after the young tree was properly headed
and branched. It does however attach more importance to the
dominance of main branches proceeding continuously and not zig-
zagging so much as in the common vase form.

Characteristic of the Common Vase Form.—This vase form which
has been so widely and uniformly developed in this State that it has
been called the ‘‘California Vase Form’’ is a product of French
ingenuity in the training of dwarf trees, but it has undergone very
marked modification in California, losing much of the accuracy of
its outline and gaining vastly in speed of work and in bearing
capacity of tree without sacrificing any practical value which in-
heres in the design.

This vase form dispenses with the central stem or trunk at a
certain short distance above the ground, but this is not done for the
purpose of securing a hollow or open-center tree, which is a leading
characteristic of the old European vase form. The few branches
which are desired to grow from the short stem are pruned when the
tree is young to induce successive branching with short interspaces.
At each cutting the aim is to get two branches from one, and nearly
as possible of equal vigor, so the California tree does not, except, of
course, in occasional instances, show the outline of a leader from
the bottom to the top, but there is a succession of branchings, turned
this way or that by the skillful pruner, occupying available air
space, distributing the weight so it comes more nearly over the center
of gravity and at the same time knitting the fibers of the branch so
that the weight of the fruit is well sustained. This idea, however,
is not allowed to go so far as to wholly close the interior of the tree,
hut to retain such degree of open interior as is found desirable.
When the tree is laden with fruit, the weight naturally expands
the top quite enough to admit the sunlight without exposing either
the fruit or the branches to danger of burning. Thus it appears that
instead of the true vase or wine-glass, with hollow interior and thin
walls, we have the general exterior outline of this model, but give
a good part of the central area of the figure to bearing shoots, and
thus secure a large bearing surface with well-strengthened supports.

It has been found that this many-branching form, developed upon

\

114 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

a few main branches well placed upon the trunk, gives a stronger
tree than can be had by growing a considerable number of leaders,
all starting from near the point where the tree was headed at plant-
ing. Such leaders crowd each other at the point of emergence from
the stem, and when laden with fruit, sway outward and break out
at this point. A vastly stronger tree is secured by starting but four
or five branches from the low trunk and letting them emerge from
different sides of the stem, and at different levels. Thus each main
attachment to the stem has abundant room, and the wood enlarges
symmetrically and solidly. The expansion of the top is attained
by the branching which follows the cutting back of succeeding years.
Starting branches from nearly the same level on the stem has been
the occasion of great losses of overladen trees, and quite a consider-
able recourse to strengthening up weak trees by running bolts
through from side to side at the points where experience shows
breakage is likely to occur. In this respect it is now clearly shown
that the practice which has been widely adopted of beginning with
a very short stem and using the three or four adjacent buds nearest
the point to which the tree was cut back at planting, is defective.
It is much better not to cut back so far at planting, but to leave a
longer trunk, keep a greater distance between the main branches
and still have the lowest branch as near the ground as before; thus
securing a tree which is practically as low as that secured by the
old method of starting. This point will be enforced by the accom-
panying illustrations.

Pruning for branch spacing

Yearling apple marked to cut back for greater or less
space between main branches; also first year’s growth
from each beginning marked for first winter pruning.

PRUNING THE NURSERY TREE 115

HOW TO SECURE THE COMMON VASE FORM

For the benefit of the inexperienced reader, it will be well to
illustrate the steps by which the form of tree so widely prevailing
in this State found so generally desirable is attained.

Cutting Back at Planting.—This has been already mentioned as
essential to strong growth of the transplanted tree. It is also the
prime act in securing a tree with a low head and strong branches.
Formerly trees were cut back farther than desirable and the
branches allowed to crowd each other, as has just been stated. It
is better to attain twenty-four inches of stem than twelve inches—
providing care is taken during the first summer to prevent, by pinch-
mg, the growth of too many branches near together. Allow those
to grow which are more distant from each other on the stem and
pinch the intervening shoots. In this way one can have the lowest
branch at six inches from the ground in the hot valleys if desired,
or twelve inches in the coast valleys, and the highest branch at
eighteen or twenty-four inches. This gives about twice the distance
between the main branches which was formerly allowed, and it is
of vast advantage to the strength of the tree. The illustrations of
this fact are from trees planted by the writer in 1887 to test the
matter. At this date they are large trees and show the forms of
heads resulting from different spacing of branches on the young
trees during the first summer’s growth.

First, then, cut back the tree just after planting, as shown in the
engraving, deciding first at which height you wish trees to form
heads, and cut them all back as uniformly as possible and still secure
a good bud just below the point of cutting. To preserve these buds
the trees should be handled carefully while removing from the
nursery and during planting.

If the tree has already grown laterals in the nursery where the
head is desired, three or four of these properly placed on the stem
may be selected to form the main branches, shortened in to the sound
bud nearest the stem, and other laterals, not desired to form the
head, removed. This treatment is shown in the engraving of a young
peach tree well branched in the nursery. If all the laterals on the
young tree have started out above where the head is desired, as is
sometimes the case, it may be necessary to remove the whole top,
and usually others will start below afterwards. If there are no buds
visible on the stem at the place where the head is desired, the choice
must be made between heading the tree higher up, where the buds
are, or cutting back without regard to buds, trusting to the develop-
ment of latent buds at the right place, or to the growth of a shoot
from below, which can be cut back to form a head the following
year. It is for this reason, among others, that planters prefer a year-
ling tree which has not branched, but has good buds all along the
stem. Peaches and apricots usually branch in the nursery, but
usually have dormant buds at the bases of such branches which can
be employed in making new growth where it is desired.

After cutting back at planting, the shoots desired to form the

116 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

head are allowed to make their full growth without interference.
All shoots not desired for branches are pinched off at the tips, after
growing out two or three inches, leaving a bunch of leaves to shade
the trunk and contribute to its stouter growth. Constant watchful-
ness is necessary to pinch off the tips of undesirable branches all the
first summer.

First Pruning.—In the winter following planting, the shoots of
the previous season’s growth are cut back to about ten or twelve
inches from their junction with the stem. Some prefer to cut shorter,
but this is apt to huddle the branches too close together when they
get old and stout. Growers, however, do not agree on the exact
length which these future main branches should be left at first
pruning.

If, during the first summer’s growth, all shoots except the number
desired to form the head have been pinched back, the first winter
pruning consists only in cutting back the main branches. If laterals
have grown on the parts of these branches which are to be left on
the tree, they should be cut back to a bud or two. Some growers
practice cutting away all such laterals cleanly because they are too
young to bear fruit, but it is better to shorten and retain at least a
part of them and, when growth starts, pinch the tips after throwing
_out a few leaves to shade and thicken the branches, just as the short
growths left the previous summer serve the main stem. These leaf-
bearing stubs on young trees should generally be cleanly removed
at the following winter pruning.

Second Pruning.—During the second summer it is usual to allow
two branches to grow from each of the main branches cut back at
the previous winter pruning, and to pinch off all others, as described.
These branches are allowed to run out their full growth, except
where excessive growth is made, and then it is repressed by summer
pruning. This is done with the apricot in the warmer parts of the
State, as will be considered at length in the chapter on that fruit.
Usually, however, the main branches are untouched during the
second summer’s growth unless some are running out so far as to
make the tree lop-sided. During the following winter the main
branches are cut back from one-half to two-thirds of the growth
they have made, and if too many strong laterals have grown below
this point, some are shortened, others are removed entirely where
they are apt to cross or crowd each other or to interfere with culti-
vation. It is not desirable, however, that all small growth should
be cleanly removed. Some of these small shoots will bear a little
fruit and the leaf action is in any case desirable as a contributor to
the strength of the larger branches to which they are attached.
Besides, they serve to shade the bark from sunburn.

Third Pruning.—When the tree reaches its third winter pruning,
its form is well outlined, and early-bearing trees like the peach,
apricot, almond, Japanese plum, etc., will give the grower a respect-
able crop the next season. To bear this crop greater care should be

EFFECTS OF SEASONAL PRUNING ay

taken at the third winter pruning to leave the small laterals low
down on the main branches, for on them, clustered close in the head
of the tree, most of the first crop will be found. Though some trees,
as stated, do bear earlier than the third summer, the fruit is not
usually considered of commercial account until the third summer.
An engraving is given of a peach tree just after its second winter
pruning. It is a very good representative of the common vase-form
of a tree as grown in California. It has four main branches, each
issuing from a different point on the stem, each permitted to carry
two main branches, which are not arranged around the circumfer-
ence, but some of them tending toward the center. At the third
pruning more shoots have been left than are required by the rule,
for, starting with four main branches, there are usually sixteen left
at the third pruning.

PRUNING BEARING TREES

Three winter prunings of deciduous trees usually establish their
permanent form, and subsequent pruning is chiefly directed toward
the retention of that form; for strength of branch and stem; for
renewal of bearing wood; for regulation of amount of bearing wood;
for relative light and shade, and for convenience in cultivation and
other orchard work. Naturally, these ends are sought according to

First summer’s growth in the
orchard.

These sketches, and those on following pages represent the progress of the peach
tree from a branched yearling to bearing form entering the third summer.

118 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

the needs and habits of different fruits, and the methods of attaining
them will be discussed in the chapters treating of these fruits. There
are, however, certain general considerations which are proper in this
connection:

Pruning during the dormancy of the tree induces greater growth
of wood during the following summer; pruning during the active
period reduces wood growth and promotes fruit-bearing. The
amount of wood removed during the dormant period will make the
summer growth of wood proportionately stronger. Whether the total
weight of wood growth would be greater may be questioned, but the
effective wood growth is certainly greater. Whether the feet of new
wood grown on a peach tree cut back to stumps in the winter would
be greater in weight than all the inches of growth which would be
seattered all over the surface of the tree if not cut back, may be
doubted, but the new growth secured by cutting back will be of
immense vigor, and the following year will bear large fruit, while
the new growth on the tree not cut back will be thin and short and
the fruit absent or indifferent. The weaker the tree or the branch
or the twig of the tree, the greater part of it has to be removed when |
dormant to get the stronger new growth.

First winter pruning. Second summer growth in orchard.

In the case of fruit trees in vigorous growth pruning during the
active period or allowing the wood to go uncut during the dormant

SUGGESTIONS ON CUTTING BACK 119

period, have the same effect, viz., the promotion of fruiting. Some
trees, like apricots and peaches, which bear upon new laterals, will
bear fruit even though heavily winter-cut, if these small laterals are
retained on the lower parts of the main branches. Some other trees,
like the prune, which bears on spurs, will delay the formation of
spurs if heavily winter-cut. These two facts suggest two diverse
policies in pruning bearing trees: A peach tree unpruned will reduce
its crop for lack or weakness of new laterals; a prune tree too
severely winter-pruned will reduce its crop for lack of old spurs.
Again, some fruits, or varieties of fruits, bear chiefly upon the tips,
others chiefly upon the lateral spurs ; shortening one reduces the crop
largely ; shortening the other may increase the marketable crop by
decreasing the aggregate number. These and other similar facts
suggest that pruning bearing trees, to be intelligently pursued, must
be accompanied with the fullest possible knowledge of the bearing
habit of the fruit or variety thereof.

Cutting back or ‘‘shortening in’’ should be done in a way which
will reduce the burst of new shoots near the cut. This is measurably
secured by always cutting the branch at a strong lateral, because
the sap flow into this lateral prevents undue pressure and. forcing

Second winter pruning in orchard.

of latent buds in the vicinity of the cut. For this reason the cutting
back of all branches to a certain definite height is wrong. Trees

120 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

shorn across at a certain line become thick as a brush with top
shoots which require extensive thinning, or the bearing wood will
soon be all at that level through failure of the densely shaded bearing
wood below. Cut to the nearest lateral below the line you wish to
approximate, and shorten the lateral, if desirable, and the result will
be fewer and stronger shoots than from a stub-cut.

In the treatment of bearing trees the main effort should generally
be toward thinning or reducing the number of bearing shoots. This
is related to the important work of thinning the fruit to reduce the
burden of the tree, and will be mentioned again in that connection.
The work has, however, a bearing beyond the size of the individual
fruit specimens. It involves the whole future of the tree as a profit-
able affair. An unthinned tree becomes a thicket of small, weak, and

Young peach and apple trees, showing branches well spaced on the stems.

dying laterals and spurs. An attempt to cure this afterwards by
sawing out many large branches is only partially successful, though
perhaps the best thing that can be done after such condition has been
allowed to exist. The only way to keep the interior of the tree full
enough of strong, bearing wood is to resolutely and regularly thin
out surplus shoots as the tree advances in age and size. This work
is as important with trees which are not regularly cut back as with
those which are thus treated. It is one of ‘the most vital as well as
the most generally neglected item in orchard practice.

In thinning out lateral bearing shoots seldom leave more than
one at any point; select the strongest; remove the rest close to the
branch. When a new shoot springs out at the base of an older one

PRUNING AT DIFFERENT SEASONS 121

remove the older one; when a new shoot breaks out on the side of
an older one cut the older one back to that point. In thinning always
reject the older, weaker laterals or spurs. This does not apply to
the outbreak of strong suckers or water sprouts wherever they
appear; they should usually be cleanly cut away unless a new main
branch is desirable.

Pruning of bearing trees should always have regard to the re-
moval of branches which have become decrepit through sunburn,
blight of disease of any kind, frost injury, or in any form die-back
from whatever cause. Such wood is not only of lessened value, but
there is also danger of extension of the trouble. Removing such
wood and training new wood to take its place should always be in
mind.

Where cutting of large branches is demanded for any reason it
should be remembered that the wounds are most quickly healed and
least injury to the tree is to be apprehended if the cutting is done
near the beginning of the growing season, and not at the beginning
of the dormant period.

Weak tree from ill-spaced branches.

TIMES FOR PRUNING

Some changes of views have lately prevailed as to the times,
within the dormant period, during which winter-pruning can be done
to the best advantage. Formerly it was thought to be a vital matter
that no cutting should be done until the leaves had fallen, and this
is still the prevailing practice, and may prove to be on all accounts
the best. Recently, however, pruning in autumn has been quite
widely practiced.

Fall Pruning.—There is a time near the end of the active season
in California when the foliage changes its aspect. There is no
marked change in color, perhaps, but there is a certain limpness and
drooping which betokens decided decline in activity. It comes first
to the early fruits, the cherries and apricots, for instance, and upon
old trees earlier than young ones. The buds are well formed; the
season’s growth apparently complete. There are no frosts to hasten
the fall of the leaf and it remains in place. Does it render any im-
portant service? On the conclusion that it does not, many growers
. begin the winter pruning while the days are longer and the ground

122 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

dry and firm, rather than delay pruning until the short, dark days
and rain-soaked soil of December and January render pruning ex-
pensive and disagreeable. Those trees are first pruned which first
assume the appearance described, and the work proceeds with other
varieties afterwards until the winter pruning may be finished by
December 1—about the time when it commonly began under the old
practice. Not only is more thus accomplished in the same number
of days’ work, but the orchard is earlier in shape for the winter
spraying and cultivation, and the grower is ahead of his work and
not behind it all the season if the season is unusually rainy. Several
years’ practice of this method discloses no bad results except in the
one item of increasing danger from frost. Vines and trees pruned
early in the dormant period have a tendency to start growth earlier
than those pruned late in the dormant period. In places, then, where
early bloom and fruit-setting are particularly threatened by frost,
this practice may be undesirable.

Spring Pruning.—Resting largely upon this matter of retarding
erowth, the practice of pruning very late in the dormant period, or,
in fact, at the beginning of the growing season, is also gaining wider
adoption where frost injury is especially feared. It is not actual
freezing, but a drop of two or three degrees below the freezing point
which is feared, and during recent years such a temperature has
wrought havoe with some fruits, in early valley regions particularly.
Later pruning, even after the bloom and foliage have appeared, has
worked no injury to the trees, but it is less conveniently done than
when the trees are free of foliage.

Summer Pruning.—Summer pruning, to induce bearing, is, as has
been previously intimated, but little employed in this State, for the
constant tendency of our trees is to bear early and to overbear.
Enough has, however, been done in individual cases to show that
fruit-bearing is promoted by pruning after the chief growth of the
season has been attained. If the pruning results in forcing out
laterals late in the season it has been done too early. What is
desirable is the strengthening or development of fruit buds, and
this will be accomplished after the energy has been too far dissi-
pated to make new wood growth. Such pruning of the earlier fruits
like cherries and apricots is done as soon as the current crop of fruit
is gathered.

Summer pruning to check the too exuberant wood growth of
some kinds of trees is employed to some extent, chiefly in the warmer
parts of the State, where the vegetative process in some trees seems
fairly to run riot, and unless checked is apt to ruin the tree by
breaking to pieces when the wind and weight of fruit test its
streneth. The methods of summer pruning employed in different
parts of the State for different fruits will be considered in connec-
tion with the special chapters on these fruits.

Summer pruning to preserve form is another matter, and relates
in the main to pinching in, to check undesirable extension and to
direct the sap toward shoots in which growth is desired. This prac-
tice is approved by most of our orchardists, and is employed by them

PRUNING TO RENEW OLD TREES 123

to a greater or less extent. More people believe in it than practice
it, however, because the summer months, with their long succession
of fruits to be gathered and shipped or dried, and the additional
consideration that there is always a scarcity of labor at this time,
give the orchardist so much work to do that he is more apt to con-
fine his ‘‘pinching’’ to a little that he may do now and then when he
has a few moments’ leisure than to do the work thoroughly and
systematically. The result is that the regular winter pruning is the
main operation for tree shaping in this State.

There is such a great difference in opinion about summer pruning
that it will be very difficult to make any assertions about it which
will not be disputed. Much of this difference comes, of course, from
different conditions prevailing in different trees and in different
parts of the State, and some of these will be met, as already prom-
ised, in following chapters. Leaving these wholly out of considera-
tion at this time, it is safe to advise those who wish to secure
symmetry or any particular form in any kind of tree, that they can
resort to summer pinching with advantage, and can sometimes to
advantage remove wood too large for the thumb and finger to sever.

Constant watchfulness should be maintained for adventitious
shoots starting out on stem on limb at points where branches are not
desired. Wherever they start out strongly, they should be pinched,
or entirely removed, according to the best judgment to be formed in
each case. They should not be allowed to divert the sap from the
fruiting wood to make the generally coarse and sterile wood which
is characteristic of them. Suckers which properly, according to
Downing, are ‘‘shoots sent up from the root or from parts of the stem
below the surface of the soil,’’ should be removed whenever dis-
covered. In common California parlance the term ‘‘sucker’’ is used
as a synonym for ‘‘water-sprout’’ and signifies undesirable shooting
from any part of the tree or vine. Early in the growth of these
shoots, they can be pulled from the bark, leaving only a clean,
round hole. Later they must be cut, for removal by pulling will tear
the bark to which they are attached.

RENEWING OLD TREES

Improving and renewing trees by cutting back and grafting has
already been considered under the head of propagation. It is often
desirable to renew trees of a satisfactory variety, and this is done
simply by cutting back when the tree is dormant. Cutting back was
formerly done early in the winter, before the rise of the sap begins,
but more recently it has been seen that the exposure of large cut
surfaces for weeks or months before growth begins, results in drying
and shrinkage of the bark and checking of the wood, both of which
are avoided by amputation later in the dormant period or during the
early part of the growing season. In cutting back, of course, those
stumps should be left to support new branches which will secure the
best balance and symmetry in the new head. When the new growth
starts there generally appear many more shoots than are desirable,

124 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

and selection of the best-placed and most vigorous should be chosen,
the others either being rubbed off in the bud or pinched back when
a few leaves are put out. In cutting back trees, the exposed trunk
and branch stumps should be wrapped in old sacking, or carefully
whitewashed as protection from sunburn.

In removing large limbs it is desirable that the cut should be
made in the right place so as to secure quick covering of the scar
with new growth. Cutting so as to leave a long stub results in an
unsightly piece of dead wood on the tree, and this, in decaying,
carries the decay deep into the center of the trunk or branch. Cut-
ting too close prevents covering with the new bark, and also results
in a hole in the branch. Cutting just to the right mark, which is the
outer edge of the little collar or swelling which will be found at the
base of all branches, enables the wound to grow over quickly, and if
the wound is properly treated when cut, there will be no decay, and
the wound will soon be obliterated.

Renewal of an old tree must be undertaken with a careful study
of its present form and character, and it should be done by an experi-
enced pruner who has a good idea of what good form and thrift are
and will work over each tree to meet its individual needs and possi-
bilities. Generally speaking, the main efforts in such pruning are
four—(1) to saw off cleanly all stubs from broken branches; (2) to
remove branches which are weak or dead or are running across
others which are better to keep or which are making the tree too ~
dense and brushy; (3) to shorten to well placed laterals, branches
which are growing downward or sidewise so as to interfere with
light and space belonging to other branches or interfere with culti-
vation or other orchard operations; (4) to remove branches which
are throwing the tree out of shape and likely to induce breakage
or blowing over, unless such branches are required for other
reasons.

In amputating large branches, an undercut with the saw should
be made first so that the bark shall not be torn as the branch falls.
Another good way is to saw off first at a distance from the final cut,
and then saw off smoothly at the right place when the weight is
removed.

Trees often become ‘‘hide-bound,’’ as it is called. Especially
in this dry climate the bark gets dry and tough, therefore cannot
expand in proportion to the growth of the tree, or supply the
amount of sap necessary for the demand. Slitting such trees here
and there up and down the trunk and main limbs with a sharp knife
seems to have good effect, for often in three months the cut opens
half an inch, and a fine, clear bark, with an increase of growth,
results. On old trees, too, there is often a growth of moss and
lichens which should be removed. This can be done by scraping off
the rough, loose bark and spraying with an alkaline wash, composed
of one pound of caustic soda or potash to six gallons of water. If
seale insects are present, the lime, salt, and sulphur spray should
be used, as will be described in the chapter on injurious insects.
This will remove the parasites, give the trees a clean, bright bark
and contribute to their vigor.

CALIFORNIA PRUNING TOOLS gee

‘

But the renovation of neglected fruit trees is not usually a
matter of pruning and spraying alone. Generally, also, success
depends upon good cultivation and wise use of fertilizers; also some-
times of irrigation, and sometimes of drainage.

PRUNING TOOLS

There is some difference of opinion as to the comparative value of
the pruning knife and the pruning shears. The knife, if sharp, and
well used, makes a smooth cut, with no bruising of the bark, and such
a wound heals over perfectly. The shears, if of good pattern and
sharp, also make a very good cut, but there is always some little
injury to the bark on the side opposite the entry of the blade. On
small cuts, say three-quarters of an inch or less, if the blade is kept
very sharp, the resistance does not make sufficient injury to the bark
to seriously consider, and the speed with which the shears can be
used renders them the main reliance for all the smaller pruning.
Nearly all styles of hand shears are used in this State.

There are, also, two-hand shears, which are very powerful, and
enable one to work very quickly. When kept well sharpened they
are very effective tools. There are a number of styles in use, both
homemade and imported.

Still another arrangement of shears is mounted on a pole, the
cutting blade being operated by a cord, and having a spring to throw
the blade back. The pole is jointed, so that one or more lengths can
be used. With this device one can stand on the ground and shorten
in the top shoots of a tree very handily.

For larger cuts than can be made with the pruning knife or with
hand shears, there are pruning saws of different styles, of which two
styles are chiefly used. One has a frame made of the best spring
steel, constructed somewhat on the plan of a butcher’s saw, except
that the saw blade is much narrower; and instead of being station-
ary, it revolves so that the pruner is enabled to adjust the blade to
eut at any angle, as is often necessary to do when cutting where
limbs grow close together, and where it would be impossible to use
an ordinary saw of a wider blade. The blade is only one-fourth to
one-half inch wide, and therefore not liable to get pinched in the cut.
Strength is imparted by a tension screw under the handle, which
tightens the blade. The blade is easily detached by slackening the
tension screw, and lifting the blade out of the slot in the clutches
at each end. The blade can be thus reversed and made to cut with a
push or a pull, as may be desired.

Another popular saw is the curved pruning saw, with twelve and
fourteen-ineh blades, which cuts with a pull.

During recent years it has been possible to find quite full assort-
ments of pruning tools at the hardware and general merchandise
stores in all our fruit districts, where these devices can be compared
and selection made according to individual preference, for there can
be no best tools for all men and all uses.

126 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

CUTTING TO A BUD

Whatever may be used to make the cut, it is important to sever
the twig or shoot at that distance from a wood bud which gives that
bud the best chance to grow well, and at the same time facilitates
the healing and complete obliteration of the scar. Cutting too far
from the bud leaves a stub which dies back, and is likely to carry
decay into the pith and thence down into the limb. Cutting too close
to the bud or carrying the slope down too far behind it, does not
give it enough live wood to carry it, and it makes a weak growth.
In cutting to a bud it is desirable to hold the shears so that the cut
shall be from the sides of the shoot over the bud.

Cutting to inside buds with trees of spreading habit, and to out-
side buds with upright growers, or to a side bud when lateral exten-
sion is desired, should always be remembered as a means of throwing
new growth in the direction demanded by symmetry and equal
occupation of the space allotted to the tree. This is one respect in
which study of the habit of the tree suggests proper practice.

COVERING WOUNDS

Whenever wood is cut with so great diameter that it will not
erow over in one season, the wound should be coated with some-
thing to keep the wood from checking and decaying. It has been
amply demonstrated by California experience that smooth-paring of
the cut made by shears or saw is a waste of time. Large wounds
should, however, be covered to prevent checking of the wood and
drying back of bark edges. For this covering lead and oil paint
may be used—a little thicker than for ordinary use, and applied
sparingly, so that it will not run down the bark. Asphaltum,
‘‘Grade D,’’ applied warm, is now widely approved. It can be very
satisfactorily applied with a brush made by cutting up baling rope
into 14-inch lengths, bundling them to the thickness of one and a
half inches, and winding with string tightly at intervals of one inch
from top to bottom, only one end being frayed out to form a brush.
As fast as this end wears off, one of the strings can be cut to give
renewed length to the frayed end.

GATHERING UP PRUNINGS

Gathering up prunings for burning is tedious and expensive, and
several efforts have been made to substitute machinery for hand
labor. Anderson’s Brush Rake, invented by W. C. Anderson, of San
Jose, has been used to some extent. It readily gathers all kinds of
tree and vine brush, compresses it considerably and is easily dis-
charged of its load by a slight lift while still going forward. It is
said to save about one-half the cost of hand raking. Brush is often
gathered into windrows by the use of horse rakes borrowed from the
hay field.

Baling Prunings.—There is a fuel value in prunings which has
become more clear since pumping for irrigation is so widely prac-
ticed, but loose prunings are too expensive in handling. T. G.

FORMING FRUIT BY SPACING 127

Rogers, of Winters, has contrived a ‘‘brush baler.’’ It is a large
strong saw-horse inverted, to which is bolted a long, heavy lever.
Attached to a cross piece on the lever are four heavy tines bent in a
semi-circle. The saw-horse is filled with brush, the lever is then
_ pulled down and fastened by a ratchet brake, the brush is forced
into a small, compact bundle, and when bound with wire makes a
bundle easily handled by the fireman.

Prunings for Fertilizing.—Although many propositions for re-
turning prunings to the soil and several machines for cutting have
been used, such practice has never widely prevailed because of cost
of labor involved. Several growers have, however, used a heavy
feed cutter, run by a gasoline engine, and both mounted on a
wagon-bed, and run through the orchard after pruning. Two men
pick up prunings and feed them into the cutter as the wagon slowly
proceeds. This waste from an evergreen tree seems to decay very
readily in the soil as it is covered in by cultivation.

THINNING FRUIT

Intimately connected with the pruning of bearing trees, is the
thinning of the fruit or proper spacing of the individual fruits so
that each shall have space and sap to allow its attainment of satis-
factory marketable size. It has been fully demonstrated that no
demand is profitable which will be content with the undersized fruit
from an overladen tree. The superior price for good-sized fruit for
all uses, not excluding drying, is unquestionable; the total weight
secured may be variable as between thinned and unthinned trees,
but it can be accepted as an indisputable fact that any increase of
weight there may be upon an unthinned tree will not be nearly an
equivalent for the loss in value. It is the conclusion of our largest
and most successful growers that large as is the expenditure
required for careful and systematic thinning of fruit, it is the most
directly profitable outlay which they have to make for orchard
maintenance.

Objects in View in Fruit Thinning.—But thinning fruit has
objects beyond the value of the visible crop which it makes profit-
able. No overburdened tree can discharge the two-fold summer
duty of every cultivated fruit-bearing tree, which is to perfect this
season’s fruit and lay a good strong foundation for next year’s
bearing. If the tree, after fruit gathering, has not the strong, vig-
orous foliage to complete the formation of fruit buds for the fol-
lowing year, there will either be a lack of bloom or a show of bioom
unfit to set, and the tree will work for itself next year, and not for
you, because this year you would not work for it. In this particular,
thinning fruit coincides in purpose with pruning to limit the amount
of bearing wood, which has already been considered.

When to Thin Fruit.—Thinning of fruit should begin with the
winter pruning of bearing trees, as has been already urged in con-

128 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

nection with regulating the amount of bearing wood allotted to each
tree. After this is carefully done, there is the thinning of bloom,
which is urged on the ground of least possible loss of energy by the
tree in the partial development of fruit to be subsequently removed.
Hand-thinning of individual blooms is impracticable on a commer-
cial scale, but the removal of spurs or twigs, or shortening of them
with shears, is feasible enough. The objection must lie in the fact
that profusion of bloom does not necessarily indicate an excessive
set of fruit, and any severe reduction of bloom is, therefore, ven-
turesome unless one is fully assured by local experience of the habit
of the variety under treatment. Reduction of the amount of fruit
itself is, therefore, the only safe proceeding, and this should not, as
a rule, be taken until the first drop, though lack of pollination, has
taken place. Even at greater theoretical loss of energy to the tree,
it is better to err on the side of thinning a little too late than too
early in order to secure the fullest assurance possible of the perma-
nent burden which the tree assumes. Where spring frosts are likely
to occur they afford additional reason for delay. If surety of the
local conditions comes before the pits harden in the young fruit it
is fortunate for the tree, but even after that it is still a greater
saving to the tree and assurance of profit to the grower to reduce
the fruit to a proper amount than to permit over-bearing.

The Practice of Thinning.—If the tree has not been sufficiently
relieved of an excess of bearing wood during the winter pruning and
has made a very heavy set of fruit, thinning with the shears by cut-
ting out whole spurs or short bearing shoots, or even shortening in
Jonger limbs, cutting always to a lateral when possible, is of no
appreciable injury to the tree. After all the shear-work possible is
done, the spacing of the fruits on the twigs and branches must be
provided for. This was done in early days by beating the tree with
a pole, and some still maintain that they can use the pole to advan-
tage. The almost universal practice, however, is to use the hand in
plucking or pushing off the small fruit. This is done very quickly
by experienced workmen. If the trees are low, as they should be,
most of the work can be done from the ground. It is best to work
in vertical spaces and take all that can be reached from top to
bottom without changing position; then move a step or two and
take another vertical strip, and so on. In thinning above reach
from the ground ordinary fruit-picking ladders are used. Some
growers mount a platform above a wagon-bed, working around the
tree, and assurance is given that a man will thin off as much fruit
from such a platform as two can from ladders.

The distance which should be left between specimens depends
upon conditions. It is as unsatisfactory to thin by rule of inches as
it is to prune by such a rule. The space to each fruit depends upon
the kind, the age, vigor and strength of the tree, the size and thrift
of the lateral or spur, which carries the fruit, the moisture supply,
the richness of the soil, etc. It also depends upon what use is to be
made of the fruit, because it is possible to have some fruit which is

Plate II.

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PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN THINNING 129

too large for certain demands, though this objection does not often
arise. The strength of the shoot is perhaps the most easily appreci-
able factor. With peaches, for instance, a shortened lateral one-
eighth of an inch in diameter should only carry one peach, while one
one-quarter of an inch in diameter might mature four good large
fruits. It would evidently be wrong to work for an arbitrary inch-
distance on all sorts of shoots, and it will be seen to be just as
irrational if it be applied without regard to the other conditions of
the tree. If, however, a rule must be had, let it be this, that the
distance between the fruit shall be two and one-half times the
diameter desired in the fruit. This would fix an arbitrary distance,
then of four to six inches for apricots and six to eight inches for
peaches—with other fruits according to their respective sizes, and
- the late varieties with greater distance than early.

Any such standard, however, considers only the size of the fruit,
not the strength of the tree, and therefore stops short of one of the
important ends of thinning—to conserve the strength of the tree for
next season’s fruiting. Fruits might be thus spaced and still the
tree be overladen, because it may be carrying too many bearing
shoots. Calculate the burden of the tree in this way, for instance:
Peaches which weigh three to the pound are of fair marketable size ;
sixty such peaches will fill an ordinary peach box of twenty pounds;
ten to twelve such boxes is fruit enough for a good bearing tree six
to ten years of age. Now count the little peaches you have left on
one main branch and its laterals, which ought to be about one-tenth
of the tree, and thin down to about sixty. By doing a few trees in
this way and thinking of the relation of the bearing wood to the
fruit, one will soon get a conception of the proper degree of thinning,
and proceed to realize it as rapidly as the fingers can fly along the
branch.

It is seldom desirable to divide doubles in peaches; pull both off
or leave both on, as they may be needed or not to make the load of |
the tree. Clusters of apples or pears should often be reduced to
singles, except where size is apt to be too great.

All kinds of fruit are clearly subject to increase of size by thin-
ning, but it is with only the larger fruits that the practice prevails at
present. The dividing line seems to lie upon the prune. With this
fruit thinning is only done by pruning the tree for the reduction of
the number of bearing branches, while with some shipping plums
hand thinning is practiced. Growers are still striving for a prune
naturally of larger size rather than to have recourse to thinning.

The practice of thinning partially at first, trusting to further
removal of fruit later if too much of it survives the natural drop and
various accidents, is followed by some growers, but the rule is to
finish at one operation.

The size of oranges on over-burdened trees can be increased by
thinning, just as other fruits are enlarged, but it is not systematically
undertaken, because it is not so necessary and because it is perhaps
easier to get oranges too large and to be discounted for over-large
and coarse fruit. Removing part of the fruit from young trees is
often done—for the good of the tree, not for the good of the fruit.

CHAPTER XIII

CULTIVATION

It was demonstrated very early in California experience in fruit
growing, that ‘‘clean culture’’ is generally the proper treatment for
trees and vines during the growing season, at least. Though the
frequent stirring of the soil and eradication of grass and weeds have
been advocated by certain horticulturists for generations and have
recently been demonstrated to be desirable by careful comparative
experiments it has nowhere secured such wide adherence as in Cali- ~
fornia. It may even be held to be an essential to successful growth
of tree and vine in most soils and situations of California, and the
several advantages of clean culture are intensified under our con-
ditions. .

Chief of these advantages is the maintenance of the soil in a con-
dition favoring root growth, and the main feature of this condition
is the retention of the moisture, though aeration and regulation of
summer temperature in the soil are also involved. Where moisture-
retention is not the chief concern, because of ample irrigation facili-
ties, and the moderation of soil temperature of greater moment, a
summer-growing cover crop may be of benefit to the trees. In irri-
gated districts of excessive heat and dry air this policy is successful,
but it may always be only the exception to the rule of clean culture
for the greater part of our fruit-growing areas.

Retaining Moisture by Cuitivation—lIt is a familiar fact that
water will rise in a tube of exceeding small diameter very much
higher than the surface of the body of water in which the tube is
held upright. The water rises by capillary attraction. A compact
soil has extending through it, minute spaces, formed by the partial
contact of its particles, which facilitate the rise of water from moist
layers below, in accordance with the same principle which causes the
water to rise in the capillary tube. This movement is constantly
going on in firm soil, and as fast as the top layer is robbed of its
moisture by evaporation, the water rises from below and it too is
evaporated. During the long, dry summer, the water rises and is
evaporated from a depth of several feet in some soils, and the earth,
beneath the baking sun heat, becomes ‘‘dry as a brick.’’

When a soil is broken up by cultivation, capillarity is temporarily
destroyed through the disturbed layer, because the particles are so
separated that the mutual connection of the minute inter-spaces no
longer exists. But if it be only roughly broken up, so that the dis-
turbed layer takes the form of coarse clods, the air has free access
to the upper surface of the firm soil beneath them, in which the
capillary condition still exists, and evaporation proceeds in the same
way, though in a somewhat less degree, as if there had been no eculti-
vation. It becomes evident, then, that the pulverization of the dis-
turbed layer must be so complete that the particles are separated

CULTIVATION CONSERVES MOISTURE 131

and eapillarity destroyed, and, further, that the free access of air to
the lower point, where capillarity exists, must be prevented. This
is accomplished by the fine loose earth which acts as a mulch. When
this is attained, only that moisture in the upper surface which comes
in immediate contact with the air is evaporated, and the balance is
retained for the use of the plant. Plants growing, then, in a well-
cultivated soil, have the water in the lower soil held for their use,
and their supply is replaced from the firm soil below, which remains
moist and permeable by roots which extend freely, seeking the
nourishment they need.

Such is a brief outline of the theory which explains the results
gained by thorough cultivation of the soil, so far, at least, as reten-
tion of moisture is concerned. The practical demonstration is easy.
Go into a well-cultivated orchard or vineyard, push aside the soil
with the foot, and moisture will be found two or three inches from
the surface, or even less in some soils, while on uncultivated land
adjacent, digging to the depth of several feet will show nothing but
hard earth, baked and arid. In such hard-baked earth, moreover,
the sun heat is conveyed or conducted downward very rapidly during
a hot day, so that in some eases the roots are seriously injured.
When the surface is well tilled, it will act like a blanket, preventing
a too rapid conveyance; of heat downward, and thus also diminishing
the intensity of evaporation.

Accurate demonstration of these facts has been secured as the
result of many moisture determinations in cultivated and unculti-
vated soil by the University of California AgricuJtural Experiment
Station.* Very striking exhibition of the condition of trees with and
without cultivation is found in the engravings which are reproduced
herewith. Upon the demonstration, the practice in the uncultivated
orchard was radically changed. The exact determination of
moisture present at various depths of the soil beneath these con-
trasted orchards in the month of July is as follows:

Cultivated. Uncultivated.

Depth in soil. Per cent Tons per acre. Per cent Tons per acre.
WES POOL a srater) eye u sr sees 6.4 128 4.3 86
SECOMG: TOOU oles aac ates) 5.8 116 4.4 88
MEOH LOO UG ca cisco fare a oxen 6.4 128 3.9 78
MOUTLAPEGOT oral cco chek: 6.5 130 Bad 102
BME ROOD e crac eke nete a os Gk 134 3.4 68
ISIE MOO aateee lature ailesure 6.0 120 4.5 90

Totals, six feet ... 6.3 756 4.2 512

This shows a gain of nearly fifty per cent of soil moisture by
cultivation.

Rise of Water from Greater Depths.—The foregoing facts apply
to the movement of moisture from the stratum which the roots of
fruit trees chiefly occupy—estimated to be to a depth of about four
feet from the surface when the soil is hospitable to them to that
depth. Formerly it was generally argued that moisture would rise

*Bulletin 121.

132 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

by capillarity from moist subsoils below that depth to replace the
exhaustion of moisture from the upper layer and therefore surface
eultivation would render all the lower water ultimately available for
the use of the tree. It has recently been shown, however, that the
rise of moisture from a deep moist layer to a drier layer above is
slow and limited, and the practical lesson is that even with a deep
soil and the best of cultivation, irrigation is often desirable for trees
which for any reason are not inclined to root very deeply and help
themselves to deep-lying moisture.

Necessity of Adequate Cultivation —It has been very fully dem-
onstrated by California experience that adequate depth of tilth must
be attained. The depth of cultivation, or the thickness of the dust-
mulch, as some like to call it, must be sufficient to prevent the access
of the dry air to the firm soil below. At the East, where they have a
moister air, a thin mulch may answer, but in California, with a thirsty
air for such a protracted period, there must be deeper tilth. Two or
three inches of dust spread over a hardpan layer formed in some
soils by cultivation, will not retain moisture well in California. The
cultivator should go twice that depth, ordinarily, and then the result
will be accomplished if it is done frequently enough to prevent the
re-firming of the surface by atmospheric moisture or by the rise of
moisture from below. The exact significance of depth in the loose,
surface layer has also been demonstrated by moisture determination
in the subsoil at different points by the California Experiment Sta-
tion, as follows:

Percentage of Moisture in Cultivated Loam Soil.

Depth. Niles. Santa Maria. Ventura.
TEMES: MICH ES: cera eioiecs ese) share evemor abe 5.4 Deo 8.3
Six TaN GHeS si aiciseetnee eee ee Ae Ree co 8.5 9.3

These may be accepted, probably, as average results: Variation
may occur in soils of different characters. The capillarity in a heavy
soil is vastly greater than in a light soil. The difficulty of securing
a pulverized surface layer is also greater in the heavy soil. The
poorer the pulverization, the deeper the layer must be. Naturally,
then, growers’ practice will vary. The rule will remain that there
must be depth enough to secure effective protection of the firm soil
beneath from agencies promoting evaporation.

Loss of Moisture by Weed Growth—One of the most active
agencies for the exhaustion of moisture from the subsoil is the
growth of weeds. To cultivate the soil in winter and spring, and
then to allow a summer growth of weeds to ‘‘shade the soil’’ is a
ereat error. Although under cover of rank weeds moisture may
appear even at the surface and convey the impression of moisture-
saving, the fact is, as fully demonstrated by experience and actual
experiment, the moisture in the lower layers of the soil is reduced
and trees are thus robbed of their supply. Weed growth must be
resolutely suppressed during the dry season, if one has to operate
by rainfall or desires to make best use of irrigation water.

INTER-CROPPING WITH FRUITS 133

Moisture Storage in the SoilConservation of moisture in the
soil is not only the surety of the current season’s growth and fruit-
fulness, but is the safeguard against injury from the years of de-
ficient rainfall which occur now and then in California. The mois-
ture supply is equalized by this storage of the soil, and a surplus
from the liberal rainfall of one year is held over to supply the lack
of the next. Of course, the well-cultivated surface is also well caleu-
lated to catch water. While from a hard surface much of a heavy
rainfall flows off quickly to a lower level before it can penetrate, a
loose soil, if sufficiently deep, retains all that falls upon it, except
the excess, which disappears by drainage.

It has sometimes been held by California orchardists that planting
some tall-growing crop, like corn, so as to shade the young tree and
the ground around it, is an advantage. This is a great mistake.
Though some rich, moist soils may afford moisture enough to grow
both the tree and the corn, it is a fact that in most cases the growth
of the corn is made at the expense of the tree, and sometimes almost
costs its life and thrift. It has been amply shown by investigation
that though shading ground by a leafy growth may make the surface
layer of the soil moister, the lower layers are invariably made drier,
and it is in these lower layers, to a depth of several feet, that the
tree seeks its sustenance. The young tree should be shaded as has
been described in the chapter on planting, and not by a growing
plant.

GROWING CROPS BETWEEN TREES AND VINES

The possible advantage of a cover growth of clover in regions of
high heat and ample moisture has been noted at the opening of this
chapter. The rule, however, must be to grow nothing whatever be-
tween the trees if you desire the full success of the latter. As with
all rules, this one may admit of exceptions.

Inter-cultures in orchard or vineyard may be allowed under
certain conditions of the soil and the purse of the grower. If the
soil is deep and moist and rich, the cost of planting and cultivation,
and sometimes more, may be made by growing a crop among your
trees. Of course, if irrigation is available, much more can be done
in this direction than if dependent upon natural supplies of water.

There is much difference as to crops in amount of injury they may
do to the trees. Growing alfalfa, without irrigation, has been known
to kill out an orchard, and yet alfalfa growing in an orchard under
certain conditions may be a great advantage in some ways, as de-
scribed in the next chapter. Grain is less dangerous, but still is
objectionable, both because of exhaustion of soil and moisture, and
because of danger to trees from heat deflected from straw and
stubble. The crops least injurious, because of their requirements,
and because the constant cultivation of them checks the loss of mois-
ture by evaporation, are corn, beans, potatoes, beets, carrots, etc.,
squashes, and other members of the melon family, onions, and other
shallow-rooting vegetables. In the growth of these, however, there

134 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

should be a width of several feet of well-cultivated soil on all sides
of the tree, unoccupied.

In soils exceptionally rich and deep, and where rainfall is abun-
dant, inter-cultures of small fruits or vegetables may be carried on
for a long series of years with profit both from the trees and the
inter-culture. In similar deep, rich soils, with irrigation, immense
crops of small fruits and vegetables, even as high as twelve to
twenty-four tons of tomatoes per acre, have been taken from between
orchard rows, and one hundred and fifty sacks of onions per acre
from between the rows of a strawberry plantation. In Ventura
county some fields of lima beans, in favorable years, have paid over
$70 per acre—grown between young trees. In other parts of the
State considerable amounts of peas for sale to canners are grown
between the rows in young orchards. This crop is especially desir-
able when good sale is assured, because the plant is hardy and can
make a good part of its growth during the rainy season and the
ground be cleaned up and well cultivated early in the summer. As
beans and peas are legumes, their roots enrich the soil, as will be
noted in the chapter on fertilization.

How Exhaustion by Inter-Culture May Be Avoided.—But all
inter-cultures are a loan made by the trees to the orchardist. The
term may be very long and the rate of interest very small in some
cases, but sooner or later the trees will need restitution to the soil
of the plant food removed by inter-cropping. This may be accom-
plished by the use of fertilizers. Still the rule that the trees or vines
should have all the ground is generally true. It is also true that on
merely ordinary soils, trusting to rainfall, or on shallow soils, trust-
ing in part to irrigation, the trees or vines should have the full
streneth of the land and all the help which can be given them in the
shape of thorough cultivation and intelligent cover-cropping.

METHODS OF TILLAGE

In general terms the main objects of tillage of orchard and vine-
yard are two: Winter cultivation for moisture reception, and sum-
ne cultivation for moisture retention.

Wherever early winter plowing can be done without ie ereat
danger of soil washing, it affords the best available means of admit-
tine water to the great reservoir in the lower levels of a deep soil.
Too frequently large volumes of rain water, enriched by air-washing
as it falls and by fine soil-particles as it flows, are allowed to run off
into the country drainage, with the double loss of fertility and mois-
ture to the fruit grower. Deep penetration of winter rains should
be, in all safe ways, promoted. Cultivation for retention has already
been strongly urged and is quite generally recognized.

To serve these chief purposes there are two main divisions of
practice in this State, each of which has variations of greater or less
importance.

First: Winter plowing followed by frequent use of cultivator and
pulverizer in summer.

PLOWING ORCHARD AND VINEYARD 135

‘Second: Use of disk or other cultivators at intervals both winter
and summer, following, if needed, with pulverizer in the summer.

The main features of each division of practice, and some of the
claims by which each method is supported by its advocates, will be
noted.

Plowing Orchard and Vineyard.—There is considerable variation
in the practice of plowing orchard and vineyard, in the kinds of
plows employed, and the times chosen for the work. Some plow but
once, toward spring, whenever the ground is in suitable condition;
and, if there is much growth of weeds and clovers, a looped chain is
run from the plow to the end of the evener to aid in drawing under
the tall growth. Sometimes, however, the growth gets so rank before
the soil is in condition to plow that the weeds must be mown before
plowing. Where but one plowing is done, the soil is usually thrown
away from the trees and afterwards is leveled back by harrowing or
cultivating. If this practice is adopted, care should be taken that
the soil is properly returned about the tree roots, for injury is some-
times done by bringing the roots too near the surface, which is soon
afterwards intensely heated by the sunshine.

The use of tractors, which has recently become very common, has |
greatly facilitated orchard and vineyard plowing and these motors
are of incalculable advantage in promoting thorough tillage of fruit
lands.

It is undoubtedly better practice to plow earlier, when the green
stuff gets a good start, but is still not too high to turn under handily.
In this practice the weed stems are less woody, and they easily decay
and act as a fertilizer. Where early plowing is practiced, it is usual
to plow again when the second growth of weeds reaches the proper
state in the spring. When two plowings are given, the earth is
usually thrown away from the trees in the first plowing, and re-
turned toward the trees in the second plowing. But this order is
sometimes reversed in situations where rainfall is heavy and the soil
retentive, so that the dead furrow between the rows may act as a
surface drain to carry off surplus water, which is thus prevented
from standing around the tree roots. Dead furrows and hollow
middles may be avoided by plowing around a row until within two
or three feet of the next row on each side. Then plow two or three
furrows around those rows and go to the next one for another big
land. This leaves dead furrows close to alternate rows. Cross
harrowing levels the dirt in the rows by dragging it into the dead
furrows. Next year these rows get the big lands. In all modes of
plowing it is desirable that before the summer heat comes, the surface
be leveled as completely as possible.

Too much stress can not be laid upon the importance of plowing
when the soil is in good condition and not otherwise. To disregard
this is bad enough in all soils, but it is a grievous mistake to work
any of the clayey soils when they are out of condition. If too wet,
they are puddled by the plow and dry down in hard elods, impene-
trable by air, and even resist water itself for a long time. When
clods are thus formed, it may require long effort to bring the soil

136 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

back to a good friable condition. The cultivation of adobe is one of
the problems of California agriculture. The more refractory it is,
the more particular care is needed to take it when it is in proper
condition to work. To work it when perfectly dry is simply im-
possible, and if it is plowed when too wet and sticky, it becomes
hard, lumpy, and altogether unmanageable. The condition which
favors best results by tillage must be learned by experience.

Another mistake apt to be made when the orchard or vineyard
is but one of the branches of a mixed farm, is to put aside the plow-
ing until all the field work is done, and in some seasons the soil in
the orchard has become so dry that it turns up in large clods which
are afterwards partially reduced by the harrow, but never put in
the fine tilth which should be secured for the retention of moisture
and otherwise to encourage the growth and productiveness of the
Eree.

Breaking up Hardpan.—Those who advocate the use of the plow,
claim several advantages for it. The chief is that more thorough
tilth can be secured. In most, but not all soils, there is formed by
cultivation an artificial hardpan at whatever depth the implement
attains, if this depth can be kept the same for many successive culti-
vations. This hardpan, in some soils at least, becomes impervious
to water and is otherwise an injury to the growth of the trees. It
occurs in irrigated and unirrigated land alike, but is more quickly
formed by irrigation. When continuous summer cultivation is prac-
ticed, the hardpan will be found at whatever depth the teeth uni-
formly reach. The remedy is to plow in winter just below this hard-
pan layer and thus break it up, and then by the action of the air and
rains it is reduced, and cultivation may proceed as before. Where
the hardpan is formed by the plow, the ground should be plowed
shallow one year and deeply the next, thus alternating from year to
year.

Where compact layers are found below the reach of ordinary
plows a subsoil plow is used, and in some cases excellent results have
followed the use of powder—with the charge fitted to shatter the
soil without disturbing the trees.

Green Manuring.— Another advantage in the use of the plow is,
as has already been mentioned, the turning under of the growth of
weeds, grass, and clover as a green manure. In recent years growers
have learned the great importance of this, and those who had
orchards in which winter growth had been killed out by long cultiva-
tion, are now growing a quickly-growing crop which they can sow
with the first rains and secure enough to turn under with the winter
plowing. This consideration will be further presented in the chapter
on fertilization.

Plowing Hillside to Prevent Washing.—Where the slope of the
land is sharp, there is much danger from washing during the rainy
season, if the hillside is not terraced or furnished with ditches care-
fully laid out on contour lines to carry the water down on a gentle

AVOIDING INJURY TO TREES AND VINES nbow

gerade. The old plan of plowing furrows one above another around
the hill to check the flow and let the water down easily, is often
found treacherous unless one is able to strike good grades, because
of the liability to collection of water at certain points and the subse-
quent breaking away and washing. Recently some of the foothill
growers have adopted the plan of plowing furrows seven or eight
feet apart straight down the hill in the direction of its steepest
descent. The rainfall is thus distributed over the ground so that not
much water is collected at any one place and the harm done by wash-
ing will not amount to much. Hillside work differs according to
character of soil and of local rainfall and conference with experi-
enced men in the region will usually afford the beginner the best
suggestions of method. In some localities, the plowing of a few
furrows at intervals to assist in penetration and the growth of a
cover crop during the winter to assist in binding the soil, will be
found better than any attempt at the early plowing, which may work
admirably on level lands.

The Best Plow.—For plowing orchards and vineyards many
kinds of plows are used, including the ordinary one- and two-horse
walking plows, single and double sulky or riding plows, and gang
plows of different kinds—largely operated by special forms of
orchard tractors. Recently disk plows and harrows have become
very popular. In several of the leading fruit districts there are
plows made in the local shops which are patterned to meet the differ-
ent soils prevailing. Which is the best plow is a question which can
not be answered; it must be determined by local conditions, and the
best way to get information is to consult the experienced cultivators
of the locality and to watch the effects of one’s own operations.

Avoiding Injury to Trees and Vines.—The great problem is to
use the plow so as not to injure the trees and vines. Injury to the
roots is one ground on which those who advocated the banishment
of the plow from the orchard and vineyard based their opposition,
as will appear more fully presently. It is the usual practice to run
the plow shallower when approaching the stem of the tree or vine,
and this is easily done when using a riding plow or a two-horse walk-
ing plow or a tractor outfit between the rows and finishing up near
the trees with a single-horse walking plow. The injury to the bark
of the tree or to the vine stump and to the roots is thus minimized.

Makers of the special orchard and vineyard plows have recently
made them adjustable so that the plow will work either side of the
central line of draft, and these improved tools have rendered obsolete
the early contrivances for accomplishing the result with common field
plows.

Extension of disks and of spring-tooth harrows are often made
by attaching the parts to the ends of a central piece in such a way
that the horses walk in the centers and the cultivators work under
the low branches and very near to the stems of the trees. These are
chiefly used with citrus trees whose foliage and fruits are permitted
to grow very near to the soil surface.

138 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Flat Hames and a Spreader.—Among the worst things for use
among trees are the pointed iron hames which are found on most
harnesses. They often seriously bark the branches under which the
horse passes, and should be dispensed with. An arrangement widely
used consists in having broad leather tugs and hames with only one
long iron loop on the swell of the hame. The tug is passed around
the hame and the end is brought through the iron loop from the
under side so that the draft will hold the tug tight between the collar
and the hame and the end between the iron staple and the pulling
part of the trace. A spreader is put between the tugs; it is made of
a hard-wood stick sixteen to eighteen inches long; a hole is bored
in each end large enough for a two-inch screw, a hole punched in
each trace about twelve inches from the rear end, and the tugs are
screwed to the ends of the spreader, and the ends of the tugs attached
to the plow clevis. This gives no iron or wooden surfaces at all,
either on harness or whiffletree, to strike the bark.

Improved Singletrees.—Later than these came the orchard and
vineyard singletrees, invented and patented by Californians, which
are widely used and sold in all stores of the fruit-growing districts.

Dispensing with Doubletrees.—Still other inventions which admit
the use of two horses even close up to the trees, because they dis-
pense entirely with whiffletrees and tugs, are known as the steel
harnesses, which have secured the approval of some of our leading -
cerowers, for use in orchard and vineyard. The plow is attached to
the steel yoke by a chain running between the horses. With them
it is possible to work quite close to the trees and vines, and is
especially desirable in the vineyard in working close to the vines
when they have grown out about two feet, which is a difficult job
with the old-style harness.

SUMMER TREATMENT OF PLOWED ORCHARD AND
VINEYARD.

Where the orchard or vineyard is plowed twice during the winter,
the land should remain after the first plowing as the plow leaves it.
The moistening and aeration during the winter have good effect upon
the soil both chemically and mechanically.

If but one plowing is done,when the chief rains are supposed to be
over, there must be full effort put forth to reduce the soil to good
tilth and to level the surface as much as possible. This is done by
harrowing with one of the several improved harrows which are now
generally available and found very effective. They act in cultivat-
ing, clod crushing, and leveling, in a most satisfactory manner. They
are too well known to need description. Each has its advocates and
its adaptations to certain soils. As with plows, so with harrows and
cultivators, the best for one soil may not be the best for another, and
local inquiry among experienced fruit growers will be the best guide
for the new-comer. In addition to the excellent implements brought
from the Eastern States, there are others of California invention and

CULTIVATORS AS SUBSTITUTE FOR PLOWS 139

manufacture which have very marked local adaptations, and almost
every fruit region in California has some embodiment of local in-
ventive genius in the form of implements of tillage.

The secret of success in handling the heavier soils in spring work-
_ing is to secure as perfect surface pulverization as possible without
compacting the soil. Light soils need a certain amount of firming
after plowing, or else there is too free access of air and too great
drying out. For these and other reasons, the grower has to study
his soil and learn from observation the methods which succeed best
with it. The practice which gave success under certain conditions
might not be well adapted under other conditions. The use of the
roller is a striking example of this fact. In some orchards the roller
is a benefit, in others a decided injury. Its chief effect is compacting
the surface layer, which is only desirable on very coarse open soils.
The long-tooth harrow accomplishes a very marked compacting of
the soil to the depth it reaches, and often settles the lower layer too
closely and causes it to run together too solidly if rain follows. The
modern cultivators, clod-crushers, disk-harrows, etc., are superior in
effect, each in the soil to which its action is most desirable.

After working down the soil after plowing, the cultivator is relied
upon to kill the weeds, break up the crust which may form after
spring rains or after irrigation, and to prevent the compacting of
the surface layer of the soil from any cause.

CULTIVATION WITHOUT PLOWING

There are some orchards in California which have not been
plowed for years—in some cases the plow has not been used since the
trees were planted. Instances of this kind are to be found both in
irrigated and unirrigated land. It depends largely upon the mechan-
ical condition and disposition of the soil whether the practice will
give satisfactory results. It can not be trusted on land prone to
develop hardpan, as has already been considered, and yet the term
“‘eultivation’’ has taken such a wide range in this State, and the
tools have reached such efficiency, that there is not as much differ-
ence as formerly between the plow and the cultivator, except that
the former turns the soil and the latter stirs without turning. For
some who oppose the use of the plow, use a chisel-tooth cultivator,
eutting to a depth of eight inches in the spring, but at other times of
the year they are not more than half as deep. This treatment would
tend to dispose of hardpan. However this may be, and whatever the
special nature of their soils, there are fruit growers, both in northern
and southern California, who have for years trusted almost wholly
to the cultivator, cutting to a depth of 3 or 4 inches, and keeping
their orchards throughout the year almost in the same state of tilth,
never allowing a weed to grow. This practice is, however, becoming
less prevalent, and for certain soils the question is practically settled
in the minds of nearly all orchardists, while for other soils there is
still doubt. For the heavier soils, which continuous shallow cultiva-
tion is apt to render too compact, it is necessary to have recourse to

140 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

the plow to open the land for proper aeration and penetration of
moisture which otherwise would be largely lost by surface run-off.
The lighter soils do not require this and they seem to do well with
continuous use of the cultivator. It is beginning to be clearly seen,
however, that this treatment tends toward the decrease of the organic
matter and the consequent impoverishment of the soil. Its water-
holding capacity is also lessened. These facts have induced some
growers to change their practice and to take up the plow during late
winter or early spring, to turn under a winter growth of a legume
sown for the purpose or to cover in the growth of green stuff which
they allow to grow instead of frequently destroying it with the win-
ter use of the cultivator. Either the fall and spring plowing, or both,
followed by the summer use of the cultivator, is the most rational and
satisfactory practice for most of our deciduous orchards, though
there are local conditions and circumstances under which different
procedure is preferable.

SUMMER CULTIVATION

Whatever the winter policy may be, the essential point in summer
cultivation is to preserve the surface layer of pulverized earth. It
will not do to have a few inches of clods, from the size of a pea to
that of a goose egg, resting on a hard surface. The finer the pulver-
ization the shallower can be the surface layer, and vice versa, and
this is probably one reason why in practice the work of the plow is,
in so many situations, found the best foundation upon which to rest
the year’s cultivation.

In order to secure this finely-pulverized layer, it is sometimes
necessary to use what is called a ‘‘rubber,’’ where there are many
clods which are merely displaced by the harrow or cultivator. There
are different styles, and they are generally home-made. The most
common form is made of two-inch plank in lengths of three or four
feet, bolted or spiked to pieces of four-by-four-inch seantling running
crosswise, the edges of the planks lapped like the clapboards which
are used for weather boarding. As these edges are drawn over the
surface, the clods are rubbed into tilth if they are not too hard and
dry.

But this rubbing may be very undesirable if it leaves the surface
smooth and polished. It may reflect the sunheat even to tree-.
burning, and is apt to form an evaporating surface, which is most
to be avoided. The best finish for the land is that produced by a
light, fine-toothed harrow, and an attachment of this kind is provided
with various clod crushers and cultivators. The result is a surface
of loose earth, flat and fine, which approaches very closely an ideal
condition.

There is less difference than formerly in the use of the harrow
or cultivator during the summer. Still some are content to use the
cultivator only as a weed-killer, and after the weeds cease to grow
and the spring showers are over, the cultivator is laid aside and the
land left unstirred until the following winter. This, of course, refers

‘

DIFFERENT KINDS OF CULTIVATION 141

to unirrigated ground, for wherever irrigation is practiced a culti-
vator must follow, except on hillsides where the surface is left undis-
turbed after the irrigation furrows are made for the season. It is
a fact, however, that even if no rain falls, the soil becomes compacted
to a certain degree, and the best way to imprison the greatest possible
amount of moisture below is to run the cultivator at intervals all
through the dry season. It should run shallow and only stir the
surface layer. The experience of the most successful growers is that
frequent stirring without, however, bringing new soil to the air, is
the best-paying practice.

WHAT IS THOROUGH CULTIVATION

As clean, thorough cultivation has been approved, it may be
desirable to attempt to define the term. It can, however, only be
approximately done, because of the great difference in individual
views and practices. Some indication of the operations which are
contemplated may be had in the following specifications upon which
contracts have been let for care of orchard: First, plowing away
from the trees, followed by harrowing; second, plowing toward the
trees, followed by harrowing; ten summer workings with cultivator;
three working with shallow cultivator or weed-cutter ; five hand hoe-
ings around the trees. The contract intends the most complete and
perfect working of the soil and specifies the above merely that there
may be no difference of opinion between owner and contractor.

With the best team and implement work which can be done there
always remain the need of quick hand work in hoeing around the
trees. As an offset to the cost is the additional moisture-conserva-
tion, for hard ground around a tree sucks out and evaporates much
moisture and draws it sidewise from far beyond its own area. Hard
soil in contact with the bole of a tree is apt to pinch the bark, pre-
vent expansion and perhaps cause gumming. It is also a safe refuge
for many kinds of pests which a good stirring may destroy.

CULTIVATION FOR WEED KILLING

Cultivation for weed killing is a minor consideration in Cali-
fornia, because cultivation for moisture conservation effectually dis-
poses of most of them, and weeds do not start readily in the earth-
mulch during the dry season. There are, however, a few most per-
sistent pests which require heroic measures. Johnson grass and
~ morning-glory are the most prominent of these.* The only
successful treatment consists in cutting constantly with a weed-
eutter (a sharp horizontal knife), operated so as to pass under the
whole surface and run so often that the plant is never allowed to
show a shoot on the surface. It is of no use merely to cultivate or
‘‘weed-cut’’ as for other weeds. This spreads the pest more and

*Special publications on reduction of morning-glory and other running
Aare and grasses, can be had by application to the College of Agriculture,
Berkeley.

142 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

more; but if the rising shoots are continually cut under the surface,
and never allowed to get the light, it will kill the plant surely, but
it may take two seasons to do it. Weed-cutting knives of this de-
scription are usually contrived by local smiths and are attached to
sleds or fitted with plow handles, or used with a pair of thills and
cultivator handles or other rigging as the operator may choose. The
vital point is a blade of sheet steel, very sharp and rigged to run just
under the surface. It must be used as often as once each week during
the growing season of the plant.

MULCHING A SUBSTITUTE FOR CULTIVATION

The use of a mulch or covering of the ground with a litter of ight
materials to prevent evaporation, is practised to a small extent in
this State. Though mainly used for berries of different kinds, re-
course has also been had to mulching by vineyardists. The materials
used are various, such as partly-rotted straw, coarse manure, dam-
aged hay, corn-husks, corn-stalks, vine prunings and leaves, and even
fine brush from adjacent thickets. The practice has been found of
ereatest value on hillsides where cultivation is difficult, and danger
of washing of loose soil is great. There are cases where vines have
been grown several years in this way to the satisfaction of the owner.
The danger of fire in our dry climate when the surface is covered
to a depth of several inches with a dry mulch is considerable. As a
rule, the mulch employed by the California grower is a perfect pul-
verization of the surface soil.

CHAPTER XIV
FERTILIZERS FOR TREES AND VINES

It was a popular doctrine among early Californians that Cali-
fornia soils would never need fertilization, and that there is some-
thing in our soil and climate which would release us forever from
repaying anything to the ground for the wealth of produce which
we take from it. Such a view is, of course, without foundation, and
yet it is not difficult to see how it arose. Early attempts to enrich
the soil by the turning under of coarse stable manure, as is done in
other countries, was undertaken here on light soil in a region rather
short of rainfall. The manure did not decompose, and its coarse
materials made a soil, already too light to retain moisture well, so
open and porous that its moisture was quickly carried away by
evaporation, and crops did not grow so well as upon adjacent land
which had not been manured. So the fiat went forth against manure.
The corrals became undisturbed guano deposits, and manure piles
were fired in dry weather to get the ‘‘soil poison’’ out of the way.
Innumerable tons of bones were gathered and ground in San Fran-
cisco and shipped away to countries which need fertilizers! Nature
did much to foster the popular delusion, for field crops were glori-
ously large, and trees and vines grew rampantly and bore fruit the
weight of which they were unable to sustain. How could there be
more conclusive evidence that manure was a detriment to California
soils?

A few decades of experience have swept away such fallacies and
now California growers, especially those handling citrus fruits, are
not only freely investing in commercial fertilizers but are buying
and shipping considerable distances all available animal manures.
They are also untiring students of the art of fertilization and the
sciences underlying it. It was in response to that demand that the
California Legislature in 1903 passed a fertilizer control law giving
the University Agricultural Experiment Station regulation of the
trade in fertilizing materials. All dealers are required to register
and submit samples of their brands and there is constant inspection
to detect departures. Semi-annual reports are published for public
information and these, with special instructions for taking samples
when purchasers desire analyses on their own account, can be had
by application to the Experiment Station at Berkeley. The total
amount of sales reported under the law for the year ending June 30,
1912, was 50,995 tons. During the war the consumption of com-
mercial fertilizers decreased. The sales for the year ending June,
1917, were 43,964 tons and for the fiscal year 1917-18, 32,036 tons.

During the last few years the University Experiment Station
chemists and bacteriologists have continued studies of California
soils and their relation to fertilization and have conducted prolonged
experimentation toward the establishment of fundamental facts and

144 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

the interpretation of their practical significance. In the course of
this work they have made notable contributions to the science of
soils and plants which may be described as revolutionary in their
relation to older tenets and points of view. There is good reason to
believe that the progressive effort which is now being made for fuller
understanding of facts and reasonableness of practice will reconcile
the conflicts which have so long prevailed both in scientific doctrine
and in horticultural experience and point the way to more efficient
and profitable recourses in soil restoration and plant feeding. For
the purpose of presenting to fruit growers in popular language con-
crete conclusions involving the latest results of thought and research
on these subjects Dr. C. B. Lipman, Professor of Soil Chemistry and
Bacteriology in the University of California, who is a leader in both
philosophy and research, has kindly written for this work all which
follows in this chapter and merits the gratitude of the reader for this
generous service.

OLD AND NEW VIEWS OF FERTILIZATION.

The popular conception of a fertilizer, held both by the manu-
facturer and consumer, and by many experts, is that it is a substance
which contains some chemical element or elements essential to plant
growth, and which by application to the soil takes the place of
similar material extracted from the soil solution* by plant roots or
lost in the leaching of soil by rain or irrigation water. By this
conception, fertilization constitutes a method for the so-called main-
tenance of a somewhat mysterious something spoken of as ‘‘soil
fertility.’’ Like most popular conceptions, the foregoing contains
a germ of truth, but when taken literally, it is more mischievous than
useful and is responsible for much erroneous and unprofitable farm
practice, and an endless amount of loose and fallacious thinking, and
expensive and wasteful experimentation. If the purpose of fertil-
izers were merely to make good the losses of certain chemical con-
stituents in the soil moisture occasioned as above explained, the
problem would be indeed a simple one of maintaining the crop-
producing power oi any soil at a high level; and the very simplicity
of the idea is probably what constitutes its attractiveness, and
accounts for the tenacity with which it is held. Unfortunately
for the man on the land, however, the matter is not simple, and
recent investigations have shown conclusively that while the task
just mentioned may be one of those performed by fertilizers, it
is probably only a minor one in most cases where fertilizers
are used, and in many cases where they are of distinct benefit
to plant growth, they may not function in that way at all.
Thus, this very attractive popular theory of the function and
purpose of a fertilizer must be largely discarded. We are not deal-
ing with a simple matter of subtraction and addition of certain

*The soil solution is the medium in which plant roots and soil bacteria grow and,
so far as we know, now consists of most of the soil moisture, which makes a solution

of soil salts (nutrient and non-nutrient), and is distributed around and between the soil
particles.

SUBSTANCES REQUIRED BY PLANTS 145

chemical elements to soils, but with a very complicated series of
phenomena in the soil and in the plant, which, despite the rapid
progress of our knowledge during the last five years, are far from
being understood. This is not the place to discuss these important
considerations which will form the subjects of future treatises on
the interrelationships between soils and plants. Nevertheless, we
may, with profit, consider briefly a few essentials to a more rational
conception of the fertilizer and fertilization problem than the simple
and attractive; but wholly inadequate, one mentioned above.

THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS ESSENTIAL TO PLANT
GROWTH

Careful investigation has shown that there are at least ten of the
eighty-odd chemical elements known, without any one of which
green plants cannot live. These elements are carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
sulphur, and iron. The first three of these are supplied from the
carbonic acid gas of the air (carbon and oxygen) and from the water
in the soil (hydrogen). The air is never short of all the carbonic
acid gas which may be needed by plants. A proper supply of water
to soils can be readily insured in most cases. The problem of the
supply of the essential elements for plant growth in soils, therefore,
is limited to the other seven elements named above. Nitrogen is
supplied very largely from the soil’s organic matter supply and is
transformed from the organic, insoluble, and complicated form
therein, to a simple soluble, inorganic form (principally nitrates),
by the action of certain micro-organisms (bacteria and fungi) which
live in the soil. The other six elements are to some degree also
furnished by the decomposition resulting in simplification and
mineralization of the soil organic matter, but are chiefly derived from
the mineral particles of the soil which take their origin in turn from
the rocks and minerals originally disintegrated by weathering
agencies to form the more or less powdery mass making up a primi-
tive soil. Even the small amounts of minerals contained in the de-
-eaying organic matter were derived originally from the purely
inorganic, mineral sources upon which the plants initially composing
it obtained them. This is also true of nitrogen. In fact, the original
rock from which the first soils were formed probably contained no
organic matter, and hence the primitive plants which first made their
appearance on the rock surfaces of the earth from some unknown
source must have subsisted, as do our green plants today, on the
mineral elements from which they synthesized organic compounds
and, on their death, left organic residues from which more resistant
portions have accumulated such organic matter supplies as we find
in our soils today.

Now, while all of the ten chemical elements named above are
indispensable to the life and normal growth of our green plants,
every one of them is not needed in the same quantity as every other
one for the constitution of plant tissue. Very nearly the entire

146 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

weight of a plant consists of three elements, viz., carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen, derived as above explained, from an ever abundant
supply of carbonic acid gas and water. For example 97.4% of the
corn kernel consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and in timothy
hay the same three elements make nearly 95% of the total substance.
Only a very small proportion of the weight of plant substance, there-
fore, consists of the other seven essential elements. The amounts
of these substances contained in some of our fruits is shown approxi-
mately in the following table, taken from analyses made by Professor
G. E. Colby, formerly of the California Agricultural Experiment
Station:

Quantities of Soil Ingredients Withdrawn by Various Fruits.

Fresh Fruit Total Potash Lime Phosphorie Nitrogen
1000 pounds Ash lbs. Pounds Pounds Acid lbs. Pounds
J/Nilra gion 0\(0 ti Phget Seda a ea 17.29 9.95 1.04 2.04 7.01
PA ETCOUS Mee nis iste fel ala ei os 5.08 3.01 16 .66 1.94
NDDNES oc cee ccchae heise eee a 2.64 1.40 11 <a0 1.05
AMANAS@. slelsteck oie c ees tdies 10.78 6.80 .10 ay IT
HELRTIES Woche dt site ore ke 4.82 PAT CT .20 2 2.29
AGHESTMIMES | 2 on cokauiere ee oie 9.52 3.67 1.20 15S 6.40
TEES ans he heps ee olay: SE Ser oes, Ol 7.81 4.69 .85 .86 2.38
GTADESH Tan Rie ater ete cs 5.00 2.55 .25 ai la 1.26
TISTMONMS ra ece weno aad Son ks 5.26 2.54 1.55 -58 1.51
OUIMES Ah Teese om Selene ra 13.50 9.11 2.43 125 5.60
OranZes pee ecee sie oR 4.32 2 AL 97 53 1.83
IPEACHNES ET Fr stalcists wns Sees 5.30 3.94* .14* -85* 1.20*
PCAN Stee tis otras icky cout 2.50 1.34 19 04 -90
Prunes, Birench ©. ; 3). ):..22 4.86 3.10 Py .68 1.82
IERIRITIASE eeticionin so No wee eae 5.35 3-41* sao hom 1.81
Wie ES is el ee 12.98 8.18 1.55 1.47 5.41
yincluding hulls. * Estimated.

Why Such Analyses May Not Be a True Guide in Fertilization.—
A little calculation on the basis of the data in the foregoing table
will make it quite clear that a ten-ton crop of fresh grapes would
only remove from the soil about 51 pounds of potash, 5 pounds of
lime, 2.2 pounds of phosphoric acid and 25.2 pounds of nitrogen.
A very large crop of fresh apricots (about ten tons) would remove
from the soil about 60 pounds of potash, 3.20 pounds of lime, 13.20
pounds of phosphoric acid and 38.80 pounds of nitrogen. Now even
a very poor soil contains in the upper three feet per acre, which are
only a portion of the plant roots’ foraging area, about 12,000 pounds
each of potash and lime, about 6,000 pounds of phosphorie acid and
about 3,000 pounds of nitrogen. Moreover, some of the portions of.
the fruit are frequently returned to the soil, and irrigation waters,
where such are used, most commonly carry in solution large enough
quantities of the essential elements to more than make up for the
losses sustained through the removal of the fruit crop. This kind
of reasoning, coupled with the fact that even moderately good soils
may contain ten times as much potash and lime, twice as much
phosphoric acid, and three times as much nitrogen as the poor soil
cited, and also the fact that much more than three feet of soil in

WHAT ARE PLANT FOODS? 147

depth are frequently available for root development, make it very
clear that the essential elements are found’ in nearly all soils in
quantities sufficient to last for centuries. Of course, these are
definite quantities and if we consider our obligations to posterity
we should contemplate ways and means for preventing unusual and
unnecessary losses of the essential elements from our soils, but there
must be some other reason or reasons than that for the good effects
obtained by fertilizer applications to fruit crops, especially on new
or very young lands. The most readily advanced reason, of course,
is that while the soil minerals contain the essential elements in
plenty, they are not ‘‘available.’’ Let us now study the meaning of
this term ‘‘available’’ and see if the consideration of ‘‘availability’’
is adequate to the explanation of the condition in question.

“PLANT FOODS’’ AND ‘‘AVAILABLE PLANT FOODS.’’

The term plant food is a misnomer. It is intended to apply to
the essential chemical elements above mentioned, which enter into
the composition of plant food, and which is a term that should apply
only to the starches, sugars, proteins, and fats which really serve
to sustain the plant and which are products of the plant’s own
activity. The term is, therefore, used incorrectly by most people
and should be supplanted by the term ‘‘essential elements’’ to plant
erowth.

With this idea clearly in mind, we may next inquire what is
meant by the expression ‘‘available plant food.’’ Here again the
term plant food is used erroneously, as already explained. But the
term ‘‘available,’’ as commonly used, is intended to mean that the
substance to which it is applied is soluble in the water of the soil
when introduced there. Recent studies in the chemistry of the soil
have revealed the fact, however, that availability of a chemical
element or compound from the standpoint of the plant, as well as
that of the soil, is not merely the simple question of the solubility
of that substance in the soil water, but of something more. <A sub-
stance, to be available to the plant’s roots, must not only be soluble
in the soil water, but it must be so balanced with the other con-
stituents of the soil water (soil solution) as to be assimilable, which
is by no means always true under soil conditions. Moreover, a
substance to be ‘‘available’’ in the broadest sense must not only
possess the two attributes just discussed, but, in addition, should
not be poisonous at the concentration at which it is found in the
soil solution. -

It follows from what has just been said that a fertilizer salt or
other substance does not necessarily become usable and available
to the plant merely because it dissolves in the soil water. It may
indeed dissolve in the soil water when first applied to the soil, but
soon thereafter become insoluble by reacting with some soil mineral
and from such reaction a new soluble substance may be formed and
a new insoluble substance, which latter contains in it the essential

148 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

element which it is desired to make available. This leads us to
conclude that the application to a soil of a soluble fertilizer salt like
nitrate of soda or sulphate of potash does not by any means insure
the increased supply thereof by that amount in the soil solution.
On the contrary, it may mean no increase of that substance at all
in the soil solution available to the plant’s roots. This important
fact has been brought out by an investigation recently conducted in
the writer’s laboratory, which proved that lime and gypsum have
very different effects on different soils, depending on the kinds of
minerals and other substances which are contained in the soil origi-
nally. The addition of calcium in the form of lime increased the
amount of calcium in some soils, but not in others. This disposes
of the belief so tenaciously held by nearly all, soil and fertilizer
experts included, that the chief and only function of a fertilizer
consists in its furnishing a certain one or more plant food elements
which it contains to the soil solution. We can never really be certain
when we apply any fertilizer element to a soil that we enrich the
solution of that soil with respect to that element. That may occur
in many soils, but may not occur in many others. On the other hand,
it is likewise true that when a fertilizer element applied to a soil does
not enrich the soil solution with respect to itself, it may do so with
respect to another element theretofore insoluble. For example, we
may apply sulphate of potash to a soil without enriching the soil
solution there with respect to potash, but we may enrich it with
respect to calcium, magnesium, sodium or some other element which
may or may not be needed by the plant. While all this is true, how-
ever, the reader will doubtless readily grasp the significance of the
general situation, which may briefly be put in another way for
emphasis. If fertilizers carrying essential elements to plant growth
when applied to soils do not necessarily furnish those essential ele-
ments to the soil solution and still benefit the crop, the improvement
may be due to the increased supply, through the agency of the fertil-
izer, of some other element not necessarily essential, or an essential
element heretofore regarded as of minor importance which stimu-
lates the plant, not because it furnishes a lacking element, but be-
eause it causes increased cell growth in some other manner not now
understood by us. This may mean that we shall be able to use many
cheap salts or minerals for fertilizers to set free the essential ele-
ments already contained in the soil minerals or to stimulate plant
growth otherwise. Certainly, it may mean that in many soils we
shall be able to obtain an ample supply of soluble potassium in the
soil by applying, not potash fertilizers, but some substance which
does not contain potash, but which will set it free from its combina-
tions in the insoluble soil minerals. The reader will readily see that
this situation may affect profoundly the economies of the fertilizer
situation. The question that naturally arises next is how to de-
termine in practice the proper procedure in soil treatment by fertil-
izers. This will be taken up in detail in a special section below, after
a few other essential matters have been discussed.

WHAT FERTILIZERS DO FOR PLANTS 149

THE ‘“‘SPECIFIC’ EFFECTS OF THE ESSENTIAL
ELEMENTS ON PLANTS.

The text books on soils and those on plant physiology teach, so
far as I know, with a rare exception or two, that the so-called plant
food elements of fertilizers—nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium—
are not merely essential to plant growth but that each produces a
specific effect on the plant which is outwardly visible. For example,
nitrogen is supposed to stimulate leaf and stalk development ; phos-
phorus is presumed to increase seed production and to hasten
maturity, and potassium is presumed to have a vital connection with
early maturation of a crop, and with sweetness and quality in fruit.
Many other such statements have been made in the literature with
respect to the specific effects of these three chemical elements in
plant growth. Moreover, some authors have gone so far as to say
that certain colors, textures, or other characteristics of plants in
growth indicate a lack of sufficiency of a given one of the three
elements in question.

There is little or no basis for all such statements and assumptions,
because it is a fact that color of foliage may in most cases be a guide
to the determination of whether or not an ample or a deficient supply
of available nitrogen is present in the soil or other growing medium.
Thus, a deep green foliage is usually an indication of a plentiful
supply of available nitrogen. Yellow, or light green foliage is fre-
quently an evidence of a deficiency of available nitrogen. But even
those indications are not always correct and particularly is this true
of the yellow color of leaves. Likewise, an excess of nitrogen does
seem to encourage rank stalk and leaf development, resulting with
the cereals even in ‘‘lodging,’’ but this too might be taken as evi-
dence of a badly unbalanced condition of the nutrient medium of
growth (the soil solution) rather than a specific effect of nitrogen.
It is, nevertheless, true that the encouragement of heavy stalk and
leaf production by nitrogen is very marked with some plants and
comes nearest being a manifestation of a specific growth-producing
effect of an element which we know about. As for the idea of the
specific effects mentioned above as being characteristic of phos-
phorus and potassium and others found in the literature which I
have not mentioned, there is absolutely no unexceptionable evidence
to support it. We have no data upon which to base the common
belief that phosphorus hastens maturity of plants; or that a lack
thereof manifests itself in some abnormal appearance of the plant
which has been definitely recognized and correlated with it. The
same statements will apply to the potassium question, and we thus
find no justification for the idea that there has been established a
certain well-defined correlation between the appearances, colors, or
other qualities of plants and a deficiency of any one of the essential
elements to plant growth, unless, possibly, it be nitrogen. This does
not mean, however, that each of the mineral elements does not per-
form a specific function in the metabolism of the plant, for there is
some good evidence that it may. It does not even mean that every

150 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

one of the elements may not specifically affect the plant by its
sufficiency or by its inadequacy in such a manner as to be indicated
characteristically in the appearance or quality of the plant which
human senses can discern. It does mean that if such specific effect
or effects for any of the mineral elements except nitrogen exist, we
know nothing about them to date.

The denials of the common beliefs and of the current teachings
in our text-books, which are made above, are not intended, however,
as disclaimers of the existence of other visible effects on plants which
a deficiency of a given mineral element may induce. For example,
it is pretty well established now that it is necessary not only to have’
the nutrient solution of a plant of a certain concentration but also
that there be a proper balance among the various constituents there-
of. It is clear, therefore, that a plant may show an unthrifty con-
dition, due to too low a concentration of its nutrient medium or to
an improper balance of the different elements, without giving us
leave to correlate the unthrifty condition with a specific effect of a
given element. To put it another way, for emphasis, we may assume
that a plant will show a stunted condition or an abnormal color which _
will be removed and the plant brought to a normal condition by the
application, let us say, of phosphorus or of potassium. This does
not argue that a deficiency of the element applied specifically and
characteristically causes the abnormal condition in question, but
may merely mean that a deficiency of any element by bringing about
an unbalanced condition in the nutrient solution may induce ab-
normal growth and development.

This statement is intended not merely to deny and disprove the
statements on the subject which appear in text-books but also those
pernicious assumptions to the same effect which constantly appear
in the literature of the fertilizer trade. It is well to understand the
following clearly:

(1) Certain chemical elements in the soil solution, including at
least nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, calcium, magnesium, iron and
potassium, are essential to normal plant growth.

(2) These elements must be present in sufficient concentration
and the whole nutrient solution must be sufficiently concentrated.

(3) Those elements must, regardless of the total concentration of
the solution, be in a proper balance among themselves.

Beyond these conditions, we know little about the soil solution
which is above question. This is particularly pertinent regarding
the specific effects of the individual*elements or the characteristics
of plants which the human senses can discern.

WHAT ARE FERTILIZERS AND WHAT THEIR SOURCES?

The problem of fertilizers and their application to soils. as it
stands today, is essentially a practical one. The truly scientific
phases of it which are being studied have not yet progressed far
enough to allow of much application of their results. Of necessity,
therefore, most rules and standards in fertilizer practice and in the

REQUISITES IN FERTILIZERS 151

fertilizer industry must be more or less arbitrary. This includes,
of course, the determination of what constitutes a fertilizer material.
Nevertheless, it remains true beyond a peradventure that the final
decision in such matters must remain with the scientific investigator
of soil-and-plant problems. The reason for this is that he has delved
so deeply into the subject as to be cognizant of the numerous diffi-
culties and pitfalls which inhere in it, and thus knowing the limita-
tions of it can prescribe with much greater precision and justice
what should be adopted as a guide or guides. In accordance with
this conclusion and without bias or prejudice, let it be attempted
to draw up a statement as to what constitutes a fertilizer and what
materials may be included under that head.

A fertilizer is any substance, subject to the qualifications given
below, which furnishes to the soil any one or more of the following
chemical elements—nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, and
ealcium; or which furnishes organic matter. The substances con-
taining the chemical elements named must, in addition, possess the
following qualifications : ,

1. They must contain, if they are largely insoluble in water, no
less than the following percentages of their respective elements or
compounds: 3.0 per cent nitrogen, 20 per cent phosphoric acid, 20
per cent potassium oxide, 20 per cent sulphur, and 35 per cent
calcium oxide.

2. They must contain, if they are largely soluble in water, no
less than 1 per cent nitrogen (as nitrate or ammonia) and 1 per cent
each of phosphoric acid and potassium oxide. Sulphur and calcium
materials do not in the present state of our knowledge need to be de-
limited in accordance with solubility.

3. In either insoluble or soluble form a material to be a fertilizer
must not -be toxic to plants even when applied in large quantities,
such as 1000 pounds per acre for the soluble and ten tons per acre
for the insoluble. This does not include sulphur, which should pre-
ferably not be applied even in the form of flowers of sulphur at rates
exceeding 100 pounds per acre.

4. A material to be a fertilizer must, in addition to the foregoing
qualities, possess a more or less fine or powdery consistency so as to
allow of facile distribution in the soil; and it must be of a nature
to allow free handling without danger to man or animals.

5. An organic material to be a fertilizer must either contain the
quantities of the elements above indicated in either soluble or in-
soluble form, or must be of a nature which is readily decomposed
in the soil (four to eight weeks in the summer) and preferably carry-
ing a large bacterial population. Even organic substances contain-
ing 3 per cent of nitrogen, mostly insoluble in water, must be of a
nature to decompose readily as above indicated if they are to be
considered as fertilizer material.

In accordance with these definitions, the following common sub-
stances can properly be regarded as fertilizers or as sources of
serviceable organic matter:

152 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.
NITROGENOUS MATERIALS

Sodium nitrate Fish scrap Guano

Ammonium sulphate Castor pomace Rat guano

Ammonium nitrate Horn meal Slaughterhouse tankage

Ammonium phosphate Acidulated leather Garbage tankage

Calcium nitrate Linseed meal Meat meal

Cyanamide Fish meal Hoof meal

.Cottonseed meal King crab Wood and hair waste

Dried blood

Rape meal

PHOSPHATIC MATERIALS

Raw ground phosphate
rock

Phosphatic meal

Raw ground bone

Bone black

Potassium chloride

Potassium carbonate

Kainite

Kieserite

Potassium-Magnesium
sulphate

Kelp Char

Wood ashes

Flowers of sulphur
Calcium sulphate
Sodium sulphate

Calcium oxide (quick
lime)

Bone ash

Basic slag

Acid phosphate
Double acid phosphate

POTASH MATERIALS

Manure ash

Cement plant potash
Blast furnace potash
Potassium sulphate
Potassium nitrate
Double manure salts
Carnallite

Potassium
Magnesium carbonate

SULPHUR MATERIALS

Magnesium sulphate
Sulphide minerals

CALCIUM MATERIALS

Calcium hydrate (water
slaked lime)

Steamed ground bone
Bone tankage
Dissolved bone
Apatite

Kelp ash

Dried kelp

Plant ash

Brine residues

Leucite or other potash
minerals containing at
least 20% potassium
oxide

Any of the sulphates men-
tioned in the other lists

Calcium’ carbonate
(ground limestone or
air slaked lime)

SOLUBLE CALCIUM MATERIALS

Gypsum

Barnyard manure
Cow manure
Sheep manure
Poultry manure

Calcium nitrate

ORGANIC MATERIALS

Legume straws
Horse manure
Hog manure

Calcium cyanamide

Goat manure
Green plant tissue
Sewage sludge

It may transpire through present and future investigations that

the carriers of other elements than those considered may have to be
properly included among fertilizer materials whether those elements
be essential to plant growth or not, but thus far, there seems to be
no warrant for going farther than as enumerated above. At the
same time, the limitations drawn above will rule out such fake
materials as bacterized peat, dried peat, solutions carrying fertilizer
elements, cultures, ete.

OLD IDEAS MUST BE CHANGED 153

THE VARIABILITY OF SOILS.

Recent studies at the California Agricultural Experiment Station
have shown that we must modify to a great extent our ideas relative
to all matters pertaining to soils because of the high degree of
- variability of the latter. Everybody recognizes that, in a given
field, soils may show considerable variability, which is evident to
the eye and touch of the inexperienced. Few people appreciate to-
day, however, that even in a soil which seems entirely uniform there
may exist an enormous variability in the smallest distances. Such
variability may concern the physical properties of a soil such as
moisture-holding power, just as much as the soil’s content of the
essential mineral elements discussed above. An experiment in fertil-
ization or any other which is carried out on a few trees or vines,
therefore, may give results which have little application to a whole
orchard or vineyard. Much fruitless work on fertilization and soil
inanagement generally, as well as laboratory studies, have been
carried out all over the world because of ignorance of this funda-
mental fact and it behooves us to take cognizance of it in the work
of the future. This is particularly true in its application to orchard
and vineyard problems, because of the relatively small number of
plants used per acre and hence because according to the laws of
chance, we have no opportunity of averaging the effects of the soil’s
variability.

LONG-TERM FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS.

One would naturally expect that the results of experiments on
the fertilization of soils which have been in progress for long periods
uninterruptedly like the celebrated ones at Rothamsted, England,
at Wooster and Strongsville in Ohio, and at State College in Penn-
sylvania, can be reckoned on as reliable guides for fertilizer practice.
Unfortunately, however, these experiments were planned, and have
been carried on without reference to the important principles of soil
chemistry, plant physiology, and the variability of soils which are
discussed above. Their results may, and may not, possess, therefore.
the requisite cogency and utility for the average orchardist and
particularly as regards California conditions. In none of these ex-
periments, moreover, has there been ascertained the magnitude of
the errors attaching to the work, and hence increases in crop sup-
posedly due to fertilization may, and may not, be significant. Then,
too, when the errors are properly allowed for as has been done in a
series of studies carried on at the California Agricultural Experiment
Station and which will soon be published, the question as to whether
or not the increases are sufficiently great to pay for the cost of fertil-
ization and allow a good profit, still remains to be settled. This is
all true in addition to the conclusion, which follows from the dis-
cussion above, that any results obtained in such an experiment have
no necessary application on any other tract of land than that on
which the experiment is conducted.

154 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

LEARNING TO USE FERTILIZERS.

It follows from what has been said above that the best method
available to us now of determining the fertilizer needs of an orchard
or a vineyard soil is to try fertilization wherever the question arises.
It is important, moreover, that the fertilizer be tried on a large tract,
preferably no less than three to five acres in size, and that a control
or check lot of trees or vines of the same number as in the treated
plot be left untreafed as a means of determining the effects exerted
by the fertilizer. It is the writer’s judgment that this is the only
rational method yet discovered of determining the fertilizer needs
of a given orchard or vineyard. The fruit produced on the fertilized
and unfertilized plots, respectively, should be carefully measured
and the results calculated from the point of view of the cost of the
fertilizer and its application, and the profit accruing from its use.

Fertilizers may be broadcasted or drilled in. In any ease, an
attempt should be made to incorporate them with the soil thoroughly
and preferably five or more inches beneath the surface. If this is not
done, there is danger, especially where deep and constant summer
cultivation is practiced, that the fertilizer will remain in the dry
surface soil mulch, which is not accessible to the feeding roots. If
the fertilizer is broadcasted, it may be cultivated, plowed or disked
in. The above precaution relative to thorough and deep incorpora-
tion of fertilizers is particularly pertinent and important in the case
of the insoluble fertilizers ike dried blood, high-grade tankage, rock
phosphate and similar materials.

Choosing the Fertilizer for the Test.—Based on practical ex-
perience and observation in the field, the writer believes that under
most orchard and vineyard conditions in California and especially in
the Great Valley and under the more arid conditions, nitrogenous
fertilizers are the most likely, of all the commercial brands, to yield
profitable responses. Among these, sulphate of ammonia is, in gen-
eral, to be preferred to nitrate of soda, but the latter may be used
where heavy rainfall and a tendency to soil acidity is the rule. The
organic nitrogenous fertilizers are all suitable, and when nitrogen
in that form can be purchased more cheaply than in either of the
forms just mentioned, it should be so employed.

If it is desired to test other fertilizers, then phosphatic fertilizers
should receive second consideration, and then it is well to treat a
plot of five acres with nitrogen alone, one of the same size with
superphosphate alone, and one with a combination of the two, always
having a control plot in addition, as above explained. Similarly, if
it is desired to test potash or sulphur, these fertilizer materials may

be used alone or together with the others in much the same manner ~-

as described for nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers.

The mixed commercial fertilizers are strongly advised against,
because much more is paid for every unit of the necessary elements
in- that form than in the form of the so-called simples like those
listed above. Besides, it will be found rare under California orchard
and vineyard conditions that potash fertilization, in addition to

HOW AND WHEN TO USE FERTILIZERS 155

nitrogen and phosphorus, can be made to pay, and yet the price of
potash is very high.

How Much Commercial Fertilizer to Apply.—In using nitroge-
nous fertilizers, a fairly safe standard for amounts, in the absence
of more definite information than we have now, is the following,
which is merely furnished as an example:

co EEN EUGL Sa] 010 C2" lah A a Roe ne 150 Ibs. per acre
Pmiphate OF ammonia ou 100

Dried blood or high grade tankage .......... 104 Mie dete
migierpmosphate: 00.28 i ee SOUR ra Seren ts
Sulphate or chloride of potash ................ p21) SR Ms rt
LOND EI ae ae Ae ag Ce ean ea EDO i ee

In mixing these they should be combined in the same proportions,
but home mixing, as already explained, is, above all, desirable.

Owing to their cheapness, lime and gypsum are not ordinarily
classed with the commercial fertilizers, but they (especially gypsum)
may exert similar effects to the potash and sulphur fertilizers, and in
some ways to the other fertilizers in accordance with the concep-
tions explained in more detail in the opening paragraphs of this
chapter.*

Time to Apply Commercial Fertilizers—As more and more ex-
perimental evidence accumulates regarding the responses of plants
to the treatment of soils, on which they are grown, it is becoming
increasingly clear that the time of application of certain of the plant
food elements, or of other chemicals, is an important consideration.
Unfortunately, however, the evidence which we have does not per-
mit, as yet, of the formulation and definition of an accurate plan
for the time of fertilization of soils. We are obliged, therefore, to
fall back for the present upon the best observations which we possess
relative to that question. Summarizing such observations under
California conditions, it seems proper to say that the months of
February and March are the best periods of the year to make fertil-
izer applications. The choice of those months usually secures the
requisite supply of moisture in the soil for the solution of the fertili-
zers directly or indirectly. Besides the low temperature of the soil
at those periods does not permit of the energetic bacterial and fun-
_ gous action which will insure the solution of enough of the soil’s own
supply of the necessary elements to supply the rapidly feeding roots,
hence, the value of the supplementary materials furnished by the
fertilizers at that time.

Generally, the whole fertilizer application may be made at once,
though there is no objection to dividing it into two or three appli-
cations made three or four weeks apart. There are no results of
experimental work to give a more trustworthy guide than this for
the present.

*Detailed information relative to the use of lime and gypsum on California soils will

be found in Circular ITI of the California Agricultural es Station, which will be
sent free to anyone on request.

156 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

THE PURCHASE AND COST OF COMMERCIAL
FERTILIZERS

Commercial fertilizers are sold exclusively on the basis of their
content of three of the essential elements to plant growth, viz., nitro-
gen, phosphorus, and potassium. The adoption of this arbitrary
standard has something to commend it, but it is, nevertheless, purely
arbitrary, as has been made clear above. The production by large
syndicates of commercial fertilizers for the market, and especially
the mixed fertilizers, is largely responsible for the standards set and
the prices adopted. Such prices are usually very high and frequently
render the use of fertilizers on some crops unprofitable, even where
the fertilizer elements may be needed. It is incumbent upon the pur-
chaser to choose his fertilizers and to make his determination to use
them only after careful deliberation and with great discrimination.
The advice of the agricultural experiment station should always be
sought in such matters, since their experience has been broad
enough, even without definite scientific basis, to constitute a more
reliable guide in such matters than the experience of the individual
orchardist or vineyardist.

The elements essential to plants are sold in fertilizers on what
is known as the ‘‘unit basis.’’ A unit in this connotation is the
equivalence of one per cent of a ton. Thus, if nitrate of soda is sold,
with nitrogen, at a $4 a unit, it means that for every 20 pounds( or
1 per cent) of nitrogen which a ton contains, we pay $4. If nitrate
of soda contains 15 per cent of nitrogen, the fertilizer sells at 4
times 15 of $60 per ton. Such simple calculation will readily make
clear to the grower the basis upon which he purchases his fertilizers.

DOES IT PAY TO USE FERTILIZERS?

It should be clear from the foregoing discussion that this ques-
tion, which is so frequently asked, cannot be answered without much
reservation and qualification. From practical experience and such
excellent evidence as that furnished by Professor Stewart at the
Pennsylvania Experiment Station in working with apple orchards,
there can be no question that fertilization of orchard soils is profit-
able under some conditions. But we must also remember that under
somewhat similar conditions at the New York Experiment Station
at Geneva, Professor Hedrick was unable to obtain evidence that
fertilizers pay, while under the totally different conditions of Cali-
fornia, we could not expect either set of results to apply. Both of
the investigators just named are doubtless correct, each for his own
set of conditions, and this emphasizes the importance of the testing ~
of fertilizers in every orchard and vineyard to determine the best
practice for it, until such time as our scientific experiments may
~ yield us something less empirical. The only orchard experiment in
fertilization which we have in California which is at all usable as
a guide is that carried on at the Citrus Experiment Station at River-
side for the past ten years or more. That teaches us that nitroge-
nous fertilizers on that piece of land make a considerable increase

IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIC MANURES. Hy

in tree growth and fruit production, but has not demonstrated that
it pays to fertilize even at that. It shows us very little, if any, ef-
fects from phosphatic and potassic fertilizers, and it has proved the
injurious effects to that soil, under those conditions, of nitrate of
soda. But the results obtained there, meager as they are, are not
even applicable to any other piece of land necessarily. This em-
phasizes again the point of view advanced with regard to the neces-
sity of fertilizer trials in every vineyard and orchard.

Above and in addition to all, it should be borne in mind, always,
that fertilizers are merely supplementary measures for eking out
directly and indirectly the necessary supply of the essential plant
food elements in the soil. They constitute very little alone, but they
may be markedly effective through the changes which they cause in
the chemical equilibrium of soils, both directly and through their
effects on the micro-organisms of the soil.

ORGANIC MATTER IN FERTILIZATION

Indissolubly linked with the question of fertilizers on soils is that
of organic matter. No soil can be, or remain, fertile for any length
of time without organic matter. By organic matter we mean, in this
connection, residues of plants like the tops, roots, or stubble, and
the excrements of animals. The reasons for the importance of or-
ganic matter to soils may be stated popularly as follows:

Ist. It is the chief source of the soil nitrogen which is needed
by plants.

2nd. It furnishes the element carbon as a source of energy, as
coal serves for the engine, for certain important bacteria which
alone have the power of adding nitrogen from the air to the soil;
and for other bacteria and fungi which are concerned in changing
essential substances in the soil from an insoluble and otherwise un-
usuable form to a soluble and usable one.

3rd. It improves the water-holding power of sandy soils by
ceiving them more water-holding surface, and, incidentally, prevents
them from becoming packed and hence relatively impervious to
roots and to air.

4th. It improves the heavy clay soils by giving them a more
crumb-like and porous structure and hence tends to prevent water-
logging and allows of freer movement of air and roots. For the
same reason it prevents baking of the soil and renders tillage much
easier.

The foregoing statements must render clear the outstanding im-
portance of keeping soils well stocked with organic matter and the
question naturally arises, how can this best be done? By applying
to the soil and incorporating therewith any and all quantities of the
following materials that the economic conditions in a given orchard
or vineyard will permit:

Horse, cow, sheep, goat, hog and chicken manures.

Green manures, meaning the plowing under in spring of a winter

grown crop, preferably a leguminous crop like melilotus, burr clover,
or vetch.

158 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Pruning from trees and vines.
Apple, grape, and other fruit pomace and cannery waste.
Grain straws—preferably composted, and similar materials.

_How to Apply Organic Matter—Animal manures should be
broadcasted, or put on the soil with a manure spreader. They
should then be plowed under or thoroughly cultivated in. Green
manures should be thoroughly plowed under. Prunings of various
kinds should be cut up into small pieces, spread evenly over the sur-
face of the ground and then plowed under. Fruit pomace and can-
nery waste may be applied broadcast or by means of irrigation
water.

Amount of Organic Matter to Apply.—It is impossible to apply
too much organic matter to soils and still maintain economic condi-
tions on a farm. The relatively high cost of animal manures will
render it unprofitable to apply enough to injure the soil. For that
reason the thing to guard against is not too large, but too small an
applheation of organic matter. When animal manures are used, the
following amount should be considered as minima per annum:

Per acre.
PAGESC TAANUPE GC te) oooh eae Date Sees as 10 tons
Oey THAT PS S52 Pao A eee he 6 ees
Pe AANUEG. 35.03 Ree Soe ee ey Sa Sis
pheep: Or Poa Manure >See ae Buns

Green manure crops, of course, cannot be too large to plow
under. Every effort should be made to prepare the seed bed and
irrigate so as to obtain the largest possible yield of green matter.*

Precautions in the Use of Organic Matter.—To be of much serv-
ice to the soil, organic matter must decay with a fair degree of
rapidity. Such decay cannot occur without the presence in the soil
of an ample supply of moisture. It is, therefore, obvious that much
organic matter should not be applied to soil in the absence of suf-
ficient moisture. Indeed, such practice may lead to distinct injury
to the soil, owing to the drying out of the soil through the mechan-
ical effects of the organic matter above discussed and to the use of
moisture by microorganisms attacking it, thus setting up a competi-
tion with the plant. It is essential particularly to give heed to this
warning in connection with dry and not easily decayed organic
matter like grain straws, prunings and stable manure consisting
chiefly of litter.

Most careful attention should be given in such cases, and in the
case of cover crops, that the supply of water is ample, the soil in
good tilth, and the incorporation of the organic matter thorough.
After such incorporation, the surface soil should be harrowed down
to a fine state of division.

*Purther information regarding cover or green manure crops and their use on Cali-
fornia soils will be found in Circular No. 110 and Bulletin No. 292 of the California
Agricultural Experiment Station.

EFFECTS OF ORGANIC MANURES 159

Legume Straws.—A source of organic matter and additional
nitrogen which deserves attention by itself is that of the legume
straws. The most feasible ones to use in California are alfalfa hay,
bean straw, and pea straw, the first two being most important. It
is not sufficiently appreciated by fruit growers how valuable these
materials are to their soils. Especially where they are to be ob-
tained cheaply, these legume straws are to be used wherever possible
in liberal dressings. Four to five tons per acre of any of these straws
plowed under every year for periods of five to ten years will exert
markedly beneficial effects on any orchard or vineyard soil.

EFFECTS OF ORGANIC MATTER ON CALIFORNIA
ORCHARD SOILS

Parallel with the experiment on the effects of commercial fertili-
zers on citrus trees conducted at the Citrus Experiment Station at
Riverside, was one in which organic matter was used. As above
stated, only the nitrogen fertilizers gave appreciable effects on the
growth of the trees and the production of fruit, and even that effect
was not great enough, under the condition there, to prevent any
large degree of mottle-leaf from developing. In the part of the
orchard where the organic matter was applied, however, relatively
little mottle-leaf has developed on the trees, in spite of the fact that
the latter are planted on sandier soil with a poor water-holding
power and undoubtedly possessed of less total and available nitrogen.

CHAPTER XV

IRRIGATION OF FRUIT TREES AND VINES

Whether fruit shall be grown with irrigation or not is a local and
specific question, and it must be answered with due regard for
several conditions, among which are: First, the minimum local rain-
fall; second, the depth and character of the soil and subsoil; third,
the situation and environment of the ground on which the fruit is
to be grown; fourth, the kind of fruit which it is desired to produce.

These conditions are all correlated,.and a knowledge of them all
is necessary to an intelligent decision as to correct practice in any
given locality. For example, the amount of rainfall which is ade-
quate in one locality, or in one situation, even, may be quite in-
sufficient in another, because, first, one soil may be deep and fairly
retentive, into which roots can penetrate and find abundant mois-
ture ; second, another soil may have sufficient depth, but be so porous
as to lose its moisture by evaporation, or so leachy as to lose it by
drainage ; third, still another may be shallow, and quickly dried out
under a fervid sun, or quickly drained by reason of a sloping sub-
stratum of rock or hardpan, while another similar soil, differently
situated, may receive abundant moisture from the drainage of the
slope above it; fourth, possibly in all the soils cited there might be
adequate moisture for deciduous fruits, but citrus fruits would re-
quire irrigation; or enough for young, but not for bearing trees.

Thus it appears that even to decide whether a location has suffi-
cient rainfall for the growth of fruit without irrigation, one must
pass judgment upon all conditions first mentioned. It is hardly
worth while, then, to discuss such a topic upon theoretical grounds,
or to attempt to answer the general question, Shall irrigation be
employed in the growth of fruit? The true guide is enlightened local
experience, and the true test is the growth of the tree and the ex-
cellence of its fruit. So long as the grower is able to secure every
year a generous amount of good-sized and excellent fruit by natural
rainfall, he need concern himself very little about irrigation; if his
tree shows distress, and his fruit, even when properly thinned out,
is not up to market standards every year, he may do well to provide
himself with irrigation facilities, either for constant use or to supple-
ment rainfall when it is occasionally deficient.

Of course it is not commended that the grower wait until the tree
shows signs of distress before applying water. This is a very bad
plan of proceeding, but the visible language of the tree is mentioned
as indicating that the tree needs help, either at regular intervals or
occasionally, and after such a warning the grower should be able
to tell by examination of the soil and by study of the local rainfall
record when this need occur, and apply water in advance of the
need.

Recent experience has enabled fruit growers in all parts of Cali-

Plate IV.

Cement ditches and irrigation by check system.

(See page 171.)

Plate V.—A good start toward an apple orchard.—(See page 205.)

MISTAKES ABOUT IRRIGATION. 161

fornia to arrive at a truer conception of the relation of irrigation
to the growth of fruits. Many who long scouted the suggestion that
irrigation was necessary for deciduous fruit trees in their districts,
“have found that water, in addition to the rainfall, was very profit-
able, either to enable large, bearing trees to produce larger fruit, or
to maintain in full vigor their later summer growth and to make
strong fruit buds, which insure the following year’s production. It
has also been widely demonstrated that a tree which is adequately
supplied with water, no matter whether it be directly from the clouds
or through the irrigating stream, yields fruit of better size, aroma,
flavor and carrying quality than a tree which, from any cause, falls
even a little short of an adequate supply. It is clear then that neither
irrigation nor non-irrigation are in themselves principles, but are
merely methods to be employed when conditions demand the one or
the other.

Several claims against irrigated products may be stated and
opposed in this way:

(1) The claim that nursery trees grown by irrigation are, from
that mere fact, inferior is based upon experience in transplanting
trees unduly forced by over-irrigation. Immense growth from the
bud in a single season of an inch and a half in diameter and ten feet
in height tempted buyers who wanted to get as much as possible for
their money. The result of setting out such trees created a strong
prejudice against irrigated nursery stock. It is now clearly seen
that moderate, thrifty growth is the ideal in a young tree, and if the
soil does not hold rainfall enough to secure this, water enough to
secure it must be applied.

(2) The claim that irrigated fruit lacks aroma and flavor is
based upon observation of monstrous, insipid fruit forced into such
abnormal character by excessive irrigation. Growers who concluded
therefrom that irrigated fruit was necessarily inferior, denied water
to their trees and gathered small, tough, unmarketable fruit, because
there was not enough rainfall to enable the trees to perform their
proper function. As it is now conceded that the highest quality,
including the delicate aromas and flavors, can be secured only by
adequate moisture, it matters not how long since it fell from the
clouds nor by what route it reaches the roots of the trees.

(8) The claim that irrigated fruit could not endure shipment
was based upon the bruising and collapse of fruit which was unduly
inflated by over-irrigation. The best fruit for shipping is the perfect
fruit and that is secured as just stated. The fact that the greater
part of the fresh fruit shipped across the continent from California
has been more or less irrigated, according to the needs of different
localities, has settled the point beyond further controversy.

(4) The claim that canners objected to irrigated fruit was based
upon the early experience with over-irrigated fruit, which lacked
quality and consistency. At present the canners encourage irriga-
tion and all other arts of growing which bring the product up to the
standards they insist upon.

(5) The claim that irrigated fruit is inferior for drying has the

162 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM :

same foundation as the preceding claims and is just as clearly based
upon misapprehension. Watery fruit is obviously inferior for drying,
but such fruit is the fault of the irrigator, not of irrigation. One
of the plainest deductions from experience is that small, tough fruit
makes unprofitable dried fruit, and that the best development of the
fruit is essential to the best results from drying. Many comparative
weighings have shown that the greatest yield in dried form has been
secured from trees which have had water enough to produce good,
large fruit. Even to bear fruit for drying, then, the tree must have
moisture enough to develop size and quality. If lacking moisture,
the tree serves its own purpose in developing pit and skin and re-
duces the pulp, in which lie the desirability and value of dried fruits.

Of course the water should be applied at proper times, in proper
amount, and in a proper way.

HOW MUCH WATER SHOULD BE USED?

This is by its very nature an elusive question and any attempt to
answer it by a definite prescription is more apt to produce folly than
wisdom. For as it appears that whether irrigation is at all needed
or not depends upon several conditions which must be ascertained
in each place, so the amount of water, which is really an expression
of the degree of that need, depends also upon local conditions of
rainfall, of soil depth and retentiveness, of rate of waste by evapo-
ration, of the particular thirst of each irrigated crop, ete. The result
secured by the use of water is really the ultimate measure of the
duty of water in each instance. In the case of fruit trees and vines,
then, whatever amount of water secures thrifty and adequate-wood
erowth and strong, good-colored foliage, but not excessive nor rank
growth; and abundance of good-sized and rich, but not monstrous
and watery fruit, is the proper amount for that place and that
product,—and to the ascertainment of that amount by local ex-
perience of himself and others, the grower should employ his most
earnest thought and his keenest insight.

During many years the writer has continually renewed his data
of the irrigation practice of California fruit growers by systematic
inquiry and has prepared four bulletins* which have been published
by the Irrigation Investigations of the U. 8S. Department of Agri-
culture.

A study of local practice shows that infinite variety exists and in
the nature of the case must exist, and that any definite prescription
of the duty of water under various conditions is impossible. In some
eases the amount of water at each irrigation must be small, and
applications frequent because the soils are shallow, overlying bed-
rock, and a small amount saturates them. In other places an acre-
foot of water is readily absorbed and retained in the deep soil. The
annual rainfall also has little relation to the amount of irrigation,

*Farmers’ Bulletin No. 116, ‘Irrigation in F_ uit Growing’’; Farmers’ Bulletin No. 138,
‘Trrigation in Garden and Field’’; Bulletin of Experiment Stations No. 108, “Irrigation
Practice Among Fruit Growers of the Pacific Coast’’; annual report of irrigation and

drainage investigations, 1904, ‘‘Relation of Irrigation to Yidld, Size, Quality, and Com-
mercial Suitability of Fruits.”

~~ cee?

IRRIGATION AND RAINFALL 163

because neither fine shallow, nor deep coarse soils, can retain the
volume of water which falls upon them during the rainy season.
Then the varying rate of evaporation, the character of the tilth, ete.,

enter as factors and it becomes clear that he is fortunate who knows
how much water to use on his own place.

It is interesting to note that results of close inquiry by the Irriga-
tion Investigations of the U. 8S. Department of Agriculture to ascer-
tain the amounts of water used by measurement of water running
in main ditches and by estimate of the acreage to which the water
is applied, do not agree closely with the growers’ estimates of the
amounts of water which they actually use. There are, of course,
always issues between water-purveyors and water-buyers which can
not be entered upon in this connection. A rough conclusion from
data secured from the ditch flow, etc., is that from 12 to 30 acre-
inches of water are used annually in irrigated orchards and vine-
yards, according to local conditions involved. It is quite clear that
the amounts chiefly used would not be the average but would tend
toward the lower figure. The details of these inquiries are found
in the publications on irrigation of the Office of Public Roads and
Rural Engineering, U. 8. Department of Agriculture.*

RELATION OF RAINFALL TO IRRIGATION

The amount of rain and the time it falls are clearly the most
important factors in determining the necessity for irrigation. Ab-
sence of rainfall makes a desert of the richest soils at all elevations
and at all exposures. Its only remedy is irrigation. But there are
degrees of poverty in rainfall, and thorough tillage will often lessen
the ill effects of a scanty supply, so that an oasis may be made to
appear without water beyond that supplied from the clouds. This
is the triumph of tillage in the arid region which is to be considered
in another connection.

The line between adequate and insufficient rainfall can not be
closely drawn. In the growth of common orchard fruits, irrigation
is not resorted to at a number of points where the local rainfall some-
times is as low as 15 or 16 inches, but with less than that amount,
unless the soil receive additional moisture by underflow, it is essen-
tial. On the other hand, irrigation is regularly practiced in some
localities where the rainfall rises to 45 inches. Under average con-
ditions of soil depth and retentiveness, the amount of rainfall which
may be considered adequate for deciduous orchard trees under good
cultivation is about 20 inches. So definitely is this amount fixed in
the minds of some California growers as meeting the needs of the
tree for satisfactory growth and fruitage that, when rainfall for a
season is less than that amount, irrigation is at once resorted to to
supply the shortage.

But owing to local conditions of soil and climate, the rainfall, no
matter how large, may not always be relied upon to carry the trees

*Definite citation is not made because these publications are continually appearing
with additional-data on the effective use of water. The whole series should be examined.

164 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

through the dry season. The fact is that the soil is not capable either
of receiving the heavy rainfall or of long retaining such portions as
actually enter it. There is, then, a considerable part of the rainfall
which is worse than worthless, because it does injury by soil washing
and soil leaching, and places where extremely heavy rainfall occurs
may be actually worse off than other places with less rainfall. Some
localities of large rainfall lead in amounts of water supplied by
irrigation. The converse is also true, for some localities of light
rainfall report success with deciduous fruit trees with a minimum
amount of irrigation water.

Deciduous Fruits—Without making too much of individual
reports there appear instances enough to warrant the conclusion that
the deciduous fruit tree can winter successfully with a small moisture
supply and is, in fact, in less danger from lack of moisture than from
over-supply at this time of the year. If there be enough moisture to
prevent injury from evaporation, the tree will start good growth as
the season advances and continue it if irrigation is given promptly
and in sufficient quantity. There must always be a determination of
what is an adequate supply by reference to local conditions, but as
an estimate of necessary rainfall has been made at 20 inches, it is
evident that adequate irrigation may be very much less than that.
The rainfall of 20 inches is distributed through six or seven months.
Some of it consists of light rains, with long, dry intervals, where
there is slight penetration and quick evaporation. Some of it is lost
by run off and by drainage. It is not surprising, then, that some
erowers having deep valley loams to render their irrigation effective,
report success with deciduous trees with 8 or 10 inches of water
applied just before the time of the tree’s greatest needs and used,
no doubt, with maximum efficiency. It seems to be a warranted
deduction, from all data known to the writer, that 10 inches of
water, applied at the right time to soils of good depth and fair
retentiveness, and accompanied by good tillage for conservation, is
an adequate supply for five months of growth and fruiting even
when the rainfall is only about enough to prevent drying out during
the winter season. Some growers report use of less than this. Cer-
tainly less will do for young trees under favorable conditions, and
some of the least amounts are reported from the newly planted
regions. As the trees advance in age and bearing, larger amounts
will be required. Instances of greatest frequency of application
may be taken as indicating soils lacking retentiveness, either through
shallowness or coarseness, or either of these accompanied by extreme
summer heat and aridity.

Citrus Fruits.—<As these trees are evergreens, and as their habit is
to make their chief fruit growth in the autumn after the work of the
deciduous tree has been finished for the season, the irrigation season
for them is much longer. As they are, in fact, almost always active
and sustaining uninterrupted evaporation from their leaf surfaces,
they must always be provided with moisture or ill will result to tree _
or fruit. They thus require more water than do deciduous trees.

HOW MUCH WATER TREES NEED 165

There is the same relation between irrigation and rainfall with citrus,
as with deciduous fruit trees, but the degree of relation is different.
Many trials have shown that it is practically impossible to grow
satisfactory citrus fruits without irrigation, unless there be under-
flow, and this is often attended by the usual difficulties of high
ground water and may be undesirable. There is no combination of
heavy rainfall, or winter irrigation, and soil retentiveness which will
supply the summer and autumn thirst of the’orange or lemon in
California. Irrigation, too, must be maintained both summer and
winter wherever the rainfall is not well distributed and adequate.
Jn the chief citrus regions of the State rainfall is seldom adequate
except during January and February, and not always then. Under
such conditions an estimate of the average requirements of citrus
fruit trees in bearing would be about 20 inches of irrigation, irre-
spective of rainfall, although there are localities of larger rainfall
and more retentive soils where crops of these fruits can be made
‘with 10 inches used at just the right time.

RELATION OF SOIL TO IRRIGATION

As already stated, the desirability of irrigation is unquestionably,
in many cases, conditioned upon soil depth and character. This
relation has received careful attention from soil physicists, and an
understanding of it involves problems of plant growth and the move-
ment of water in soils, the leading facts of which are available in
popular form.*

Analysis of such phenomena can not be undertaken in this con-
nection but a few striking contrasts in existing practice are very
suggestive.

On the famous river-bank fruit land of the Sacramento Valley,
with loams of great depth and good retentiveness, and with an aver-
age rainfall of approximately 20 inches, irrigation is resorted to only
in years of minimum rainfall, when the precipitation is perhaps only
about half the average. At nearly the same level, as already cited,
where the soil is shallow and overlies hardpan, irregular irrigation
is required. But still more marked contrast is found in the foothills
within sight of these valley fruit lands, where with twice the average
rainfall irrigation must begin early in the summer and continue until
autumn is well advanced, because, first, the slope is so rapid that
much rainfall is lost by run off; second, the soil is too shallow above
bed rock to hold much water. Even here, however, there comes
in a local variation of measurable effect. When the soil lies upon
vertical plates of bed rock much water is retained between them,
and is capable of being reached by tree roots, while soil lying upon
flat plates of rock has no such subterranean reservoir. In the foot-
hill region there also occurs exceptional exposure from slopes facing

*Relations of soils to climate, U. S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bureau Bul. 3 Water as a
factor in the growth of plants, Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1894, p. 165. Some inter-
esting soil problems, Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1897, p. 429. The movement and re-
tention of water in soils, Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1898, p. 399. The mechanics of soil
moisture, U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of Soils, Bul. 10.

166 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

the midsummer sun in an atmosphere whose dryness is but slightly
ameliorated by the influence of air currents from the coast.

In the valley and foothill contrast, just cited, the unirrigated
valley looks up to the irrigated foothills. There are also places
where unirrigated hillslopes look down upon irrigated valleys. The
uplands of San Diego County are nearer the coast than those above
the Sacramento Valley. They, too, have a rainfall usually ample for
deciduous fruits suited to their elevation. Their rolling plateaus of
deep soil, free from excessive heat and evaporation which occur on
the highlands farther inland and 500 miles farther north, produce
very successfully without irrigation. In this region, however, the
rainfall in the valleys below is often less than the needs of even the
deciduous fruit trees, and waters flowing from mountain snows |
through a region of unirrigated uplands must be used to irrigate
them.

Still another striking contrast, and one involving another and
wholly different factor, is found in the San Joaquin Valley. Near
Visalia 2 feet above river bottom and 4 feet above the surrounding
plains, there is a large area of deep alluvial soil with much decayed
vegetable matter. The land is moistened by underflow from the
river, and, though the rainfall is but 71% inches, deciduous fruits are
grown without irrigation. In the same county, and only 18 miles
distant, there are areas of rich loam mixed with granitic sand 16 to
18 feet deep. In this locality, though the rainfall is 1144 inches,
irrigation is practiced freely, as the loss of moisture in summer is
very great.

RELATION OF TILLAGE TO IRRIGATION.

Tillage, particularly during the dry season of the year, under
some conditions, directly determines the need of irrigation, and is
to a certain extent, as the popular phrase goes, a substitute for irri-
gation. Under all conditions surface tillage by promoting conserva-
tion of soil moisture, is determinative of the actual duty of water,
whether it be from rainfall or irrigation. The effect of frequent
surface tillage has been accurately determined by investigation and
experiment, both in humid and arid regions. These experiments
fully support the view taught by the experience of more than half
a century in California, in accordance with which thorough ‘tillage
has been so widely practiced in the arid sections as an essential to
successful fruit growing. :

As already maintained in Chapter XIII, the relations of tillage to
soil moisture include both reception and conservation. For the re-
ception of moisture, deep work with the plow, and sometimes with
the subsoiler also, is almost indispensable. To retain this moisture
and to prevent, as far as possible, its escape into the thirsty air ot
the arid region by surface evaporation, less depth and more thorough
surface pulverization are required. Recent practice has been tending
toward deeper summer cultivation, so that, as previously claimed, 5
or 6 inches of loose, finely divided soil is now obtained where for-

CULTIVATION AND IRRIGATION 167

merly half that depth was considered adequate. It has also been
shown that frequent stirring of this fine surface layer checks evapo-
ration, even when no water is applied to compact the surface ot
where no weeds grow to draw upon the soil moisture. In a word,
the aim of tillage in the arid region, so far as it relates to moisture
supply in the soil consists in opening the soil to rain, or to irrigation,
and in subsequently closing it to evaporation. These are the prin-
ciples which were recognized and applied in California seventy years
ago and are now enjoying somewhat sensational renaissance in the
‘‘dry farming’’ agitation in the interior of the United States.

A Negative Declaration.—It is interesting that current practice
-affords full demonstration of the foregoing claims both positively
and negatively. The negative argument in favor of moisture con-
servation by clean summer cultivation is found in the fact that
growers in regions of heaviest rainfall approve the growth of cover
crops, like clover, after the trees reach bearing age, and also that
others employ scant summer cultivation, or cultivation for a short
period only. The idea of these growers is that such practices relieve
the soil of excessive moisture, either by the growth of the cover
crop or by facilitating surface evaporation, and so prevent the tree
from being stimulated to too large wood growth, or maintaining
growth so late in the season as to enter the frost period in too active
a condition and with new wood not properly matured. Quite in
contrast with this is the practice, which is gaining ground in the
hottest parts of the irrigated region, of growing alfalfa as a cover
crop for the purpose of shading the soil and thus reducing soil tem-
perature and, perhaps, of avoiding the ill effects of the reflection of
burning sun heat from a smooth surface of light-colored soil, or the
ill effect of ‘‘burning out of humus”’ by clean summer culture. In
such cases more irrigation is needed to supply enough water for the
erowth of both trees and cover crop. But at present these excep-
tions are of rare occurrence.

Cultivation Not Determined by Irrigation—The adoption of a
policy of clean cultivation in the dry season is not conditioned upon
the amount of moisture available either by rainfall or irrigation.
It is pursued both where irrigation is practiced and where it is not,
and also where the rainfall is greatest and where it is least. It pre-
vails in the humid region where rainfall may rise to 60 inches or
more, and in the arid region where it may not exceed one-tenth as
much. As a matter of fact, there does not appear to be a good fruit
soil so deep and retentive that it can retain enough even of a very
heavy rainfall to effect good tree growth and fruit bearing if it is
forced to sustain the loss by evaporation from a compact surface
during the long dry season following. There may be, it is true, soils
weak in capillarity, in which water does not rise to surface evapora-
tion and in which deep-rooting plants may find ample water in the
subsoil, providing it is held there by impervious underlying strata.
There are many more instances where loss by natural drainage is
added to loss by evaporation. But, disregarding exceptions, the loss

168 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

of moisture by both drainage and evaporation during the dry season
is so great that the soil to a depth of several feet loses practically
all the water which is available for plant growth, and the trees fail
or become unprofitable. Loss by drainage can not, practically, be
prevented, but loss by evaporation can be so reduced that trees and
vines will be adequately supplied in spite of the loss by drainage.
Because, therefore, the soil can not retain enough water in its natural
state, no matter how much it may receive, clean summer cultivation,
involving quite complete and more or less frequent stirring of the
surface to the depth of 5 or 6 inches, as discussed in Chapter XIII,
is the almost universal practice, irrespective of local rainfall or of
irrigation—except where irrigation water is so abundant that it can
be used to grow summer crops of legumes for plowing under as well
as to supply the moisture requirements of the trees.

Cultivation, However, Determines Success of Irrigation—The
prevailing motive for cultivation in the dry-summer region is mois-
ture retention. In this respect good surface tilth is so effective that,
though enough moisture can not be retained without it, so much can
be retained with it that, even where irrigation or rainfall is moderate
in amount, it may serve all purposes of the tree or vine. Thus culti-
vation enters into the fruit-growers’ practice in the region under
consideration, not to make large rainfall effective as it does in some
parts of the region, but to make moderate rainfall effective, or to
make small irrigation effective, by increasing the duty of water
which is applied. It becomes not only a ruling consideration in the
effectiveness of a certain amount of rainfall, as has already been
suggested in another connection, but it also determines the success
of irrigation and the amount of water required; for, although it was
an early and crude practice to rely upon irrigation to support un-
cultivated fruit trees and to irrigate more and more frequently as
the ground became harder from its use, this policy has now no stand-
ing in commercial fruit growing. Not only was it wasteful of water,
but it was otherwise detrimental to the thrift of trees.

Tillage and Irrigation Work for Soil Improvement.—Rational
tillage, both in winter and summer, has other very important ends
in view. It opens the soil and promotes aeration; it encourages
deeper rooting and thus encourages the tree to take possession of a
greater soil mass both for moisture and other plant food. It is part
of the very valuable policy of increasing organic matter by plowing
under the natural growth of weeds or specially sown legumes. This
affords opportunity to use water, beyond the amount the trees re-
quire, for soil improvement.

WHEN TO IRRIGATE

When to irrigate is governed by local conditions and the needs of
different fruits, and can not be stated in general rules. There are,
however, some principles involved which may be hinted at.

Winter Irrigation —On lands with sufficient depth of fairly re-
tentive soil, the grower may artificially supplement a scanty rainfall ~
by thoroughly soaking the land by winter irrigation and then by

li Be aT

WHEN TO IRRIGATE TREES 169

careful summer cultivation he will be able to conserve enough water
in the soil to carry deciduous fruit trees or vines through bearing
and autumn bud formation without further water supply. But there
are other situations in which no amount of winter irrigation nor
rainfall will suffice for these ends. There are foothill orchard areas
in which the winter rainfall is two or three times as great as in the
valley situations where fruit is successfully grown without irriga-
tion, and yet water must be applied in summer on those foothills or
the fruit would be unmarketable and the trees in distress. The forty
or more inches of rainfall falling on a shallow soil underlaid by
sloping bedrock in some eases nearly sluices the cultivated soil from
its foothold, and yet the over-saturation in winter avails nothing for
summer growth, because most diligent cultivation can not retain
moisture enough in shallow soil thus situated to sustain bearing trees
in good erops of full-sized fruit. The same is true of valley soils
underlaid by hardpan. In such cases winter irrigation could add
nothing but distress to the soil over-soaked by rainfall, and summer
irrigation, well-timed and adequate, is the secret of success in the
orchard. The same conclusion, although for very different reasons,
must hold for soils underlaid by gravel or sand, and thus too rapidly
dried by leaching.

But even this generalization must be accepted only for situations

endowed with conditions which justify it. There may be sloping
hills with shallow soil where winter rainfall does not amount to
-saturation. Then winter irrigation to supply such irrigation is
desirable, and then, too, summer irrigation in proper amount and
at proper intervals, will also be demanded. Among the foothills,
also, there may be localities with depth of retentive soil in which
water enough can be applied in winter to carry trees through the
year. Thus we come again to the only safe generalization which can
be made, and that is, that everywhere water must be adequate to
the demands of the tree at the time it is needed, and whether it can
best be applied in summer or winter, or both, or whether it is not
necessary to make any artificial application at all, depends upon
existing conditions which the grower must ascertain, and to which
his policy and practice must conform. It is a fact, however, that, in
all situations of good rainfall, and for all soils, which are fairly deep
and retentive, winter irrigation, when water is most abundant, and
usually carries most sediment, can be made to go far toward making
summer irrigation unnecessary for all deciduous fruits.

As to winter irrigation, practice varies, some relying upon a single
heavy flooding by using checks on contour lines, by which, perhaps,
a foot in depth or more of water is allowed to soak into the soil;
others use the same method of application in winter as in summer,
and, therefore, give a number of irrigations in winter. There is, of
course, much less danger of injury by water to deciduous growths
in winter, because they are dormant, though an eye should be kept
on drainage for excessive irrigation as for excessive rainfall. The
grape and the pear are known to endure long submergence, but some
other fruits are susceptible to serious root-injury.

170 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Summer Irrigation— When this shall begin and when end are to
be locally determined. In some places even the earliest fruits can
not reach satisfactory size and quality without.irrigation. In others
rainfall with winter irrigation will suffice for proper development of
early fruits, but not for late. In both cases the fruit may be satis- -
factory, but the tree unable to hold its leaf vigor until the work of
the growing season is properly completed. It is then apparent that
local practice must vary in order to reach the universal fact, and
that is that all through the active season the tree must have constant
and adequate moisture supply. Many evils in lack of bearing, in
dying back, in unseasonable activity and the like are due to in-
adequate, intermittent and, in some cases, to excessive moisture in
the soil.

Cultivation and Irrigation.—Although the relations of irrigation
and cultivation have been freely discussed, it must be remarked in
this connection that with such an extension of irrigation practice as
is now realized, there is danger that those who have previously
trusted so fully upon good cultivation may swing to the other ex-
treme and trust too much to the stream of water and too little to the
plow and cultivator. There is a temptation this way when one finds
that he can run water in large amounts very cheaply. Not only is
there danger of over-irrigation in the growth of tree and fruit, but
the ill effects of water upon the soil, when unattended by good culti-
vation, are constantly threatened. The tree needs air as well as
water; it needs a certain free condition of the soil for its best root
action. These needs can be amply secured when adequate applica-
tion of water is quickly followed by soil-stirring. Irrigated soil when
amply supplied with organic matter, is delightfully mellow and free
and of condition to invite the fullest activity on the part of the tree.
Irrigated ground not properly treated becomes compacted, fissured,
cloddy and generally hateful, losing moisture rapidly, setting around
the roots like cement and tearing them by its subsequent shrinkage.
These conditions do not oceur on the lighter soils, and yet even these
are best when cultivated in a rational manner.

METHODS OF IRRIGATION

There are various methods employed in California for the con-
veyance and application of water to trees and vines. Some of the
principal ones will be described.

As this writing does not pretend to be a treatise on irrigation
engineering, no attempt will be made to describe the more ambitious
undertakings, which should never be entered upon without the en-
gvagement of a qualified engineer. Nor is it possible to discuss the
numerous devices which are covered by patents. Investment should
always be preceded by visits to irrigation works now in operation,
and procedure should be guided by observation. The hints presented
herewith relate chiefly to things the irrigator can do for himself.

Free Flooding.—Flooding—that is, the free flow of water over

HOW TO USE THE CHECK SYSTEM 17L

the whole surface, or the flow between rows with furrows near the
trees to retain the water in the interspaces—is only employed on
some flat lands where winter irrigation is used to supplement rain-
fall when the latter is occasionally below normal. In such eases
water is available in large quantities, and the lay of the land favors
quite even distribution. Even under these conditions the experience
of growers soon leads to the adoption of deep furrows or lateral
ditches, or some simple check system, as superior to flooding.
Summer flooding is done only by those who are unacquainted with
better methods or who count their trees of too little account to
warrant extra effort. It seems, therefore, a fair conclusion that
flooding is only resorted to as a temporary expedient, and has little
standing.

The Check System.—With soils of such character that vertical
percolation is very rapid, flooding in checks, by which water is held
upon a particular area until it sinks below the surface, is considered
necessary. There is a tendency to change from this method to a
furrow system wherever practicable, because the former requires
more soil shifting, a larger head of water for economical operation,
more labor to handle it, more working in water and mud, and more
difficult cultivation to relevel the land and to reduce a puddled
surface to satisfactory tilth. For these and other reasons, perhaps,
on loams of medium fineness one may find two adjacent growers
pursuing different methods, while on coarse porous loams the check
or basin system prevails, and on fine, retentive loams, the furrow
system is without rival.

The check system can be seen on the most extensive scale in the
upper part of the San Joaquin Valley, where the land is so level and
water so abundant that the checks can be measured by acres or
fractions of acres. In its most perfect form it is found in Orange
County and some parts of Los Angeles County, where the checks are
measured by feet, rarely by rods. Very large checks are chiefly used
for field crops, although also employed for winter irrigation for
vineyards and orchards of deciduous fruits. With fruits, however,
even in the same district, the tendency is toward using smaller checks
carefully leveled before planting. With the large-check system per-
manent levees, either in rectangular form or on the contour plan,
are generally used. The small-check system is chiefly laid off with
temporary levees, quickly made with special appliances and as
quickly worked back to a level as soon as the ground dries suffi-
ciently after irrigation, and the whole surface kept well cultivated
until the time arrives for a restoration of the levees for ‘the next
irrigation. The latter is the leading horticultural mode. It is care-
fully described by Mr. Sydmer Ross, of Fullerton, Orange County,
California, as follows:

The check system, as carried out in the best-handled orchards, entails
much hard work, but after you are through with an irrigation you know that
each and every tree has had its full supply of water or you know the reason
why. The ground must be cultivated, say, about 5 inches deep, so as to have
plenty of loose soil with which to throw up a high ridge. Then a four or six

172 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

horse “ridger” should be run once each way through the rows, if it is a citrus
or deciduous orchard, or twice should the trees be walnuts, because these
trees are grown about 40 feet apart. After this is done the ridger should be
run entirely around the outside of the piece to be irrigated, so as to have as
perfect a ridge as possible on the outside. One man will ridge about 15 acres
in a day. The ridger should be built with a steel plate extending along the
bottom on both sides, bolted to the inside and projecting about 2 inches, so
as to take good hold of the ground. Then with one horse attached to what is
locally known as a “jump scraper,” one side of the checks should be closed
up, for the ridger in making the cross ridges breaks down the first ridge at
its intersection. These repairs were at first made with a shovel, but the jump
scraper, also called locally the “horse shovel,” closes up the gaps very
quickly. The practice generally followed is to close up the high side of the
checks if the land does not cut by running water, but if it cuts, close up the
lower side.

After closing up the checks the ditches are plowed out and then the V-
shaped “crowder” is run twice through them. On lands inclined to cut it is
advisable that the length of the rows to be irrigated should not be over 250
feet, but in heavy land this distance can be considerably increased, if neces-
sary, without danger of cutting the ridges by too long a run of water.

If the checks have been closed up on the low side of the ridge, it is better
to run the water to the ends of the ditch and water the last row first; but if
the high side has been closed up, it is best to water first the row nearest the
gate or the main ditch, as the case may be, as in each instance dry earth will
thus be available, if necessary, to close up the checks. The water is run
down the row to the end tree, and as soon as the last check is filled it is
closed up, and so on till all are filled and closed, when the water is turned
down the next row.

To do good work it is usual to allow three men for every 50 inches of
water, but in our own practice we have had much better results by dividing
up our water and running from 35 to 40 inches to a ditch and allowing two
men for such streams. In doing this we get better work and find it much
easier for the men. If everything is well im hand, each man will irrigate
about 30 acres in a day.

For turning the water from the ditches into the checks metal dams or
tappoons are used. Some of these have a gate for the division of the water
when the stream is too large and is divided, and two rows are watered at
the same time. The gate is not a great success, as the water is apt soon to
cut its way under the tappoon, but it may be much improved by having a
shelf for the water to drop on after it passes through the opening. The
common practice for dividing water is to throw a tappoon partly across the
ditch, putting a gunny sack on the opposite side to prevent cutting by the
water. This is, on the whole, fully as satisfactory as using the tappoon with
a gate.

All who follow this system should get ready for the water before it
comes. A great many seem to think that if they ridge up their land, close
up the checks, and plow out their ditches, everything necessary has been
done. Such is not the case, as ditches that are liable to cut should ‘be fixed
in the weak places with brush or burlaps. Old gunny sacks cut open and
spread out are excellent for this purpose. Occasionally there are places
where it is impossible to get a perfect ridge. These should be looked up
and fixed with a shovel. The jump scraper will not entirely close up a
check; it generally requires a shovelful or two to complete it. It is usual
after the water is turned down one row to fix up the next one. but it is an
excellent plan to have a few rows fixed up ahead, for there come times when
breaks occur and there is not time to make the necessary repairs, and when
water once gets the start there is apt to be much trouble and hard work
before it can be put under control, besides doing poor work.

After the ground is dry enough to work, the ridges are split with a listing
plow or furrower attached to a cultivator. Then the ground should be run
over with a harrow, setting the teeth to go well in, so as to pulverize the
surface thoroughly. By using the harrow the ground can be worked about

IMPLEMENTS FOR CHECK SYSTEM 173

one day earlier than with the cultivator, and it also prevents the ground
from baking till such time as it can be worked with the latter implement,
besides doing far better work than with the cultivator alone, especially when
there is much land to go over, as some of it is certain to get too dry before
it can be reached, and then it will not pulverize well. All trees should be
worked around by hand with either a fork or hoe, as soon after irrigation
as the ground becomes dry enough and before it becomes hard.

Specifications for Homemade Implements for the Check System.—
The following implements, used in pregaring the ground for irriga-
tion by the check system, were made on the fruit ranch of J. B. Neff,
Anaheim, California, with the tools ordinarily found on a ranch, and
with but little help from the blacksmith:

The Ridger.—This has sides of 2 by 16-inch pine 7 feet long,
standing 18 inches apart at the rear and 5 feet apart at the front
end. The sides may be made of 2 by 8-inch pieces with 2 by 3-inch
battens bolted on securely. The front crossbar is 2 by 4-inch pine
6 feet 2 inches long, and is set 20 inches from the end. The rear
crossbar is of 2 by 4-inch pine 4 feet 4 inches long. It is set 7 inches
from the end of the sides. The diagonal braces are 1 by 38-inch pine
6 feet 10 inches long. The short side braces are 2 by 3-inch pine 15
inches long. The lower inside edge should be protected by a strip
of steel or iron 14 by 2 inches extending to and around the front
ends, which should be beveled to a sharp edge. The inside should
also be lined with sheet iron 6 or 8 inches above the \& by 2-inch
piece, and should have sheet iron pieces extending 16 inches beyond
the rear end of the sides, tapered and braced in the manner shown
in the cut, for the purpose of making the ridger firmer at the top.
Every part of the ridger should be firmly bolted with %¢-inch bolts,
except the 14 by 2-inch iron, which should have 3-16-inch bolts, and
the sheet-iron, which may be put on with nails. The hooks on sides
for hitching draft chain are %% by 11% inches, and the draft chain is
8£-inch eable chain.

TZ,

The “Ridger.”

For levee making in the check system of irrigating trees and vines.

The V-shaped Crowder or Ditcher.—This has sides of 2 by 12-
inch pine and cross-brace of 2 by 9-inch pine. The long side is 7 feet
8 inches long and short side 3 feet 6 inches long. This is also pro-
tected by a piece of steel or iron extending entirely around the

174 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

ditcher and bolted with 3-16 inch bolts. The sides come together in
a point and stand at an angle of 45 degrees. The brace is placed
2 feet 10 inches from the point on short side and 3 feet 10 inches
from the point on long side. It also has two handles, as shown in

=
FESS
= —P

The “Crowder.”
Used in the preparation and distribution of water in the check system.

cut, 3 feet long. These are made of 2 by 3-inch pine reduced so as
to hold conveniently. The sloping handle is bolted to the short side.
When in use this implement stands with the short side elevated at
an angle of about 35 degrees, and a floor is placed in the triangular
space so that it will be level when in use. An ordinary wide clevis
is used for the draft and is placed as shown in the cut. A vertical
hole may be made in front of the clevis pin and a small rod driven
in to strengthen the hold of the clevis.

The “Jumper.”
Used to complete levees by the “ridger’’ for the check system.

The Jump Scraper or Horse Shovel.—This is used for filling gaps
in the ridges, and is the work of the blacksmith. The beams are 4
by 114 inches and 30 inches long from the draft ring to the bend -~
downward. The shovel is of No. 16 sheet-iron, 24 inches long by
18 inches deep. The handles are those used on any cultivator. The

FURROWS WITHIN CHECKS 175

beams are bent to stand 6 inches forward of a square placed on top
of the beams. The braces are of 34-inch round iron. The shovel is
slightly cupped to make it hold more earth.

The Portable Gate or Tappoon.—These are for shutting ditches,
and are made of No. 16 sheet-iron 2 feet wide and of any desired
length, but usually 3 feet, 4 feet or 5 feet long. The corners are cut
off to a circle, starting about 1 foot back of the corner. The handles
are made of 2 pieces of 1 by 3-inch pine, 12 inches longer than the
gate, and are placed one on each side of the sheet iron and secured
by 14-inch bolts.

The Combined Check and Furrow Method.—An effort to escape
in some measure the puddling of the surface which results from
allowing water to sink away upon finely pulverized soil, lies in the
direction of breaking up the soil roughly in the bottoms of the
checks, which facilitates the quick passage of the water into the
subsoil. This is done by running a small plow or three large culti-
vator teeth attached to a single frame before the ridger is used to
form the levees. Mr. A. D. Bishop of Orange County, California,
uses a combined furrow and check system, as shown in the accom-
panying diagram. He furrows the land first with a three-tooth
furrower at right angles to the direction in which the water is to
flow, and then uses the ridger to make levees in line with the water,
laying out the work so as to get the closest approximation to a level.
When the levees are made, the jump scraper is used and the end of
each third or fourth furrow bank is connected with the levees at
alternating sides of the check made by the levees. This causes the
water to flow through the furrows from side to side and distribute
itself evenly over the whole ground. The number of furrows which
can be passed before connecting with the bank depends upon the
slope of the land—the nearer level the land the greater the distance
that can be left between the connections, and vice versa. In this
way the water is taken slowly down a grade where it would flow
too rapidly were it admitted to furrows in the direction of its flow.

Another combination of the check and furrow system is found
where the lowest spaces of a slope irrigated by furrows are laid off
in checks to catch the overflow from the furrows and compel its
percolation at a point which would otherwise receive too little water.
The parts of a furrow system which lie farthest from the source of
supply are obviously least supplied, because long flow can not be
maintained there without much loss from overflow. Holding the
water in checks at the lower end—usually for two rows of trees—
is quite a help toward even distribution.

The Basin System.—The term basin should be restricted to in-
closures which do not aim at covering the whole surface, but only
a smaller area immediately surrounding the tree. The check system
is clearly a more rational and perfect method of flooding. When
basins were used on ground capable of irrigation by the check or
furrow systems, it was probably due to a misconception which has
prevailed also in the practice of fertilization, that the tree derived

176 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

its chief benefit from the soil immediately surrounding and beneath
its bole, and that distant applications were likely to be wasted.
Years ago it was held that the lateral root extension of a tree was
equal to the spread of its branches, but recent investigations have
shown that under favorable soil conditions the root extension is
much greater. It is not reasonable then to restrict water or other
plant food to the region chiefly occupied with the stay roots and
not the feeding roots of the tree, and it is a frequent observation
that basined trees do not do so well and that they show distress
sooner than those under systems which secure more complete water
distribution.

To the basin system may, however, be conceded these possibili-
ties: (1) Trees may be grown on hillsides too steep for other means
of irrigation unless the hillside be previously terraced; (2) the
basins afford an opportunity to use a very small stream of water
. = FURROWS EN

SEERA RARE 3 URES,
> Kei sad FY Cmicatinatienn

Combined check and furrow irrigation.

by allowing it to run for a long time in each basin, thus making a
miniature reservoir at the base of each tree; (3) for young trees
a small amount of water may sustain growth, while with other
methods the same amount of water would be almost wholly lost by
evaporation or percolation, or both; (4) the expense of wider appl-
cation of water and the necessary after-cultivation is obviated.

In planting on hillsides, terracing is the foundation of the basin
system. Terraces are plowed and scraped out until they have width
enough to accommodate a line of basins and-a ditch at the foot of
each bank to supply them. The terraces are given a little fall, alter-
nating in direction so that the water, starting from the ridge above,
is dropped through a box, or otherwise let down, from the low end

BASINS AND TERRACES 1%

of one terrace to the high end of the next, and so on until the stream
reaches the bottom of the slope. As a basin is ‘reached it is filled
and closed and the water sent along to the next and so on. As these
basins are usually small and shallow they are filled two or three
times in succession at each irrigation.

Wherever water can be handled in contour ditches or furrows,
terracing should seldom be undertaken for commercial purposes.
With slopes which do require terracing, basins on the steeper
parts are largely made by hand labor, after plowing to loosen the
whole surface, and the operation consists of moving the earth from
the upper side of the tree so as to form a circular levee on the lower
side, until the tree stands in a level, roundish pan as large as can be
made without too much excavation and filling. As the slope becomes
less the basins enlarge and reach a diameter, finally, where the sides
can be made by turning a small horse or mule around the tree with
a plow, the rim being further raised and shaped by hand so as to
hold 3 inches or more of water without danger of breaking away.

The basins are filled with a small stream by ditch or hose or pipe
line, according to the ground and notion of the irrigator. They are
filled at such intervals as the water supply admits or the growth
seems to need. The basin bottom is rarely disturbed. The cracking
soil is finally given another dose of water to close up its wounds;
meantime the frequent surface soaking puddles the soil and the
conditions unfavorable to growth arrive sooner or later, according
to the disposition of the soil to run together by water settling. Dry-
ing and cracking is lessened by filling the basin with manure or
rotten straw or other light rubbish, or by a layer of coarse sand on
the bottom. As the tree grows the foliage shades the basin and thus
reduces evaporation.

Where the surface is uneven or the soil too leachy to carry water
well in a ditch, portable and adjustable carriers are used to advan-
tage. Of these, slip-joint pipes of non-rusting metal or of wood, are
most satisfactory and are coming to be largely used.

The Furrow System.—The furrow system is the prevailing
method of irrigating fruit trees except with some soils which can be
better handled with less water by the check system. The furrow
system has, however, a very marked theoretical advantage in the
escape from saturating the surface soil, which has to dry out again
before it can be cultivated, and it is only with difficulty reduced to
fine tilth after such puddling. Another advantage is in saving the
water used in moistening soil which has to be dried by evaporation.
Other theoretical advantages lie in the even distribution of the
water with the least displacement of the soil and the introduction of
the water to the subsoil, where deep-rooting plants should derive
their chief sustenance. It is becoming quite clear that all these
theoretical advantages have not been realized by the furrow system
as generally practiced, and a number of modifications are now being
introduced which promise their fuller realization. The changes now
taking place tend toward reducing the difference between what are

178 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

known as the “‘large-furrow’’ and the ‘‘small-furrow’’ methods, be-
cause the improvement lies chiefly in introducing the water more
deeply in the soil as will be shown later, and this is done by using
fewer and deeper furrows.

Irrigating by Large Furrows.—Where one to four furrows are
used, these are large furrows, while the small-furrow system uses
from five to eight or more between two rows of trees. Large furrows
are made with the double-moldboard plow, or with a single plow fol-
lowed by the ‘‘crowder,’’ or by plowing out dead furrows between
the rows, etc. Their number depends upon the size of the trees and
the fitness of the soil for lateral seepage. They are wide enough and
deep enough to earry or hold a large stream of water. This method

»— HEAD DITCH

Large furrow.
Large furrow irrigation of orange trees at Palermo, Butte County, Cal.

is used chiefly for winter irrigation on land which is so nearly level
that the water will flow slowly into the furrows and stand there until
it disappears by percolation. It is also used where one or two sum-
mer irrigations is all that is required to carry the trees through. It
is obviously adapted only to land of slight and uniform grade. Ir-
rigation by a single furrow cut near to the row of trees is a widely
prevalent method with young trees. When the trees are larger, or
when inter-cultures are undertaken, the large furrows are multi-
plied. In this case the water is admitted to the furrows from a
board flume. Large furrows are often used in a bearing orchard,
the furrows being filled from a lateral ditch, this lateral being par-
allel to the main ditch. In this case the board dam is used to divert
the lateral into one large furrow after another, and when the furrow

THE LARGE FURROW SYSTEM 179

is filled dirt is thrown in to prevent the reflow of the water into the
lateral.

The great variety in large furrow practice is suggested in the
foregoing. A systematic manner of proceeding is that of Mr. A.
Trost, of Palermo, California, as described by himself:

The soil is red, gravelly clay, the upper 12 inches without rocks; below
this the gravel is more rock. At the depth of 3 or 4 feet the red clay changes
into a whitish one and water enters it very slowly. My orchard is 12 acres—
1,120 feet long from north to south and 510 feet from east to west. The
northeast corner is the highest. Here the water ditch enters, and I run my
head ditch along the east side from north to south. There are 51 rows of
trees in that direction, the north and south outside rows being olives. There
are 23 orange trees in the row from east to west and 1 olive tree on the west
end. All trees are 20 feet apart. I use 24 miner’s inches per day for 5 days
in the following manner: I use 4 furrows about 5 or 6 inches deep and
about 3 feet apart between rows, leaving the rows nearest the trees from 5
to 6 feet from the trunks. The 4 lower rows on the west side I cross-furrow
with 2 furrows between the trees. I divide the 24 inches into 51 equa!
streamlets by using one gate for each 4 rows. First turn this amount into
the furrow south nearest to tree. When the water has moved to the olive
tree, I divide the water beween the 4 furrows for the lower 6 trees and
through the cross furrows. The next morning I divide the water at the
tenth tree for the 4 furrows. On the third day I let only one-half the water
go down in the furrow south of tree, the other in the one north nearest to
tree. On the fourth day I turn part of it in the middle furrows near the
head ditch, and by the fifth day I have my place equally wet from one end
to the other, taking care that the top soil near the trunks of trees remains
dry on the surface. I keep the soil around the trunks of the trees about 2
inches higher for a width of 3 feet. In this way I use all the water without
running any off, and lose only the evaporation. The whole amount of water
used is 120 inches, equal to 10 inches or 130,000 gallons per acre, or 4.5 acre-
inches, or 1,200 gallons per tree.

I irrigate about every four weeks, running the water five days and turning
it on again three weeks after it is taken off. I have irrigated as early as the
ist of April and as late as the middle of October, depending on late rains in
spring and early rains in fall; usually from five to six irrigations per year.
After four or five days I cultivate 14 feet wide between the trees from 6 to
8 inches deep; for this I use a 7-foot cultivator and four horses. Near the
trunk of the tree I work about two inches deep and a little farther away 4

inches deep, using the three-cornered orchard plow with a cultivator 4 feet
wide and two horses.

Irrigation by Large Furrows Without Summer Cultivation—An
exception to the continuous cultivation of orchard ground which is
prevalent in the irrigated regions of the Pacific Coast is found in
the foothills of the Sierra Nevada in California, where furrows are
made at the beginning of each irrigating season and used continu-
ously during the summer. The ensuing winter plowing and early
spring cultivation are relied upon to keep the soil in good condition.
Although this constitutes an exception and the practice is widely
followed for what seems to the growers of the region to be a good
and sufficient reason, it does not militate against the truth of the
continuous summer cultivation policy which elsewhere prevails, nor
does it follow that this policy would not be better in some respects
even in the region where it is abandoned. It is a district of very
large water supply, and the arrangements of the water company are
such that the grower must pay for a certain number of inches of

180 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

water by the year, and is entitled to this amount of continuous flow.
He has to use it or neglect it as it flows, and cannot get more at one
time by not using it at another. For this reason he has not the mo-
tive for close observation which prevails under other conditions,
and to escape the cost of summer cultivation and fresh furrowing
out he has recourse to frequent flows in the old furrows. The fol-
lowing interesting acount of the prevailing method was prepared
by Mr. W. R. Fountain, of Neweastle:

Water is supplied almost exclusively by one company, which has met
requirements up to date, and seems fixed to supply in excess of demand. It
is supplied by the miner’s inch; price $45 per inch per season for a constant
supply. The inch is measured under 6-inch pressure.

Beginning May ist, five months is called the irrigating season, but the
purchaser can have the water twelve months per annum if he wants it. The
water company collects monthly. The purchaser cannot start the season
with little and increase at pleasure, except upon payment for the full season
on the basis of the largest amount used at any time.

With this constant supply we use it constantly, piping to high points and
moving it from place to place. When no fruit is ripening it is attempted to
water a block of trees in twenty-four hours. The water is not checked back,
but is run in ditches, mostly in one, but occasionally in two, along each row
of trees or vines. When a variety of fruit is ripening more water is given
the trees, while after a variety is picked and before any other is nearly ripe
the effort is made to water each tree every ten or twelve days. Level land
and low spots stand a good chance, as a rule, to get too much water, and a
larger stream is used per row to force the water through quickly. Then
it is taken off in a shorter time than it would be where the trees are on a
side-hill and have a good drainage.

About 1 inch for each 8 acres is generally used. This is for deciduous
fruits. The citrus fruits and berries require watering about once a week;
if there is good drainage they would prosper if watered every three days.
In such ground I have not heard of their getting either too much water or
too much fertilizer. The general practice is to plow, cross plow, and then
after each rain cultivate, with no cultivation whatever after beginning the
use of water. I think an occasional cultivation after watering would help.

There is a tendency for the ditches to become packed after water has
been flowing through them for some time, in which case but little water
soaks into the ground. When this occurs I dig a pot hole in the ditch to
allow the water to soak in, or else loosen the ground about the trees with
a spade and carry the ditch through this loosened ground. I block out my
ditches so that I can get my stream through the last tree in about sixteen
hours. Where the water has not reached the end of some of the ditches, I
turn the water into it from a stream that is flush, and by keeping a man with
a hoe constantly with the water, I manage to get it over the field at about
4 p.m. I wet about 350 trees in a block on hillsides; on a flat I wet less,
using more water in each stream, and changing it about every twelve hours
instead of every twenty-four hours. My trees grow about 130 to an acre.

Systematic Distribution of Water on Hillsides—The common
method of carrying water in pipes to the various high points of
several slopes or ‘‘irrigated faces’’ from which it can be admitted
to large furrows crossing or descending those faces is open to some
difficulties and disarrangements. P. W. Butler, of Penryn, had in
successful operation for several years a system of zigzag ditches for
carrying and distributing and for catching outflow and redistrib-
uting on a lower face. This is also a system which makes ditches
and furrows but once a year, and dispenses with summer cultivation.

HILLSIDE IRRIGATION 181

Mr. Butler’s account, as illustrated by the accompanying diagram,
is as follows: ;

The amount of water generally used in this section for the irrigation of
deciduous fruit trees is 1 inch to 5 acres of orchard (miner’s inch under 6-
inch pressure), and is applied to each row of trees by one stream of water
of sufficient quantity to just reach the end of the row. Much of the water
is thus wasted because of inability to properly adjust its distribution. It is
usually run twenty-four hours, then changed to other parts of the orchard
until the whole is covered, which takes about three weeks’ time, when the
process is repeated, continuing throughout the summer, or from May 1 until
October 1. There is no cultivation in the meantime, and at each irrigation
the water is run in the same ditches. This system is followed in nearly all
the orchards of Penryn and vicinity, some on quite steep hillsides, which
suffer when the water is thus applied. I have never liked this method, and

Ss

aagqvusd ssat Gals "ITH dais

HART ATUVIN

NEARLY LEVEL

Zigzag ditches

Large furrow system on hillsides with zigzag ditches for distribution,
catchment, and redistribution.

for many years have used a different system in irrigating all orchards over
which I have had control. In my home orchard I have a reservoir on the
highest land, from which water can be conveyed as desired to every part.
M-- ditches are run on a grade with a fall from 2 to 3 inches to the rod and
from 5 to 8 feet apart. At each irrigation the water is run about thirty-six
hours before changing. The round of the orchard is made in ten to four-
teen days. None of my small ditches exceeds 400 feet in length. When I
begin to irrigate a section I turn on from the reservoir water sufficient to
cover the section in a few hours, then lessen it until it just reaches the end
of each row; but see that it reaches the end of each row if a little surplus
passes over. This surplus I take up in the main ditch, to be again used on
lower ground. This is continued until the lowest part of the orchard is
reached, and very little water is ever wasted. By running on a grade that
is so nearly level the water is applied uniformly, even on the driest parts of
the hill slopes. I run the main distributing ditches in a zigzag manner, tak-

182 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

ing water from these ditches to cover the lower sections. I formerly used
pipes to lead the water down the steepest grades, but this system I have
abandoned and now use open zigzag ditches for mains. From the main
zigzag ditches I do not take the water at the turning point, as there is more
liability of breakage than if taken when running straight, or at whatever
point is necessary to keep the distributing ditches on an average of 8 feet
apart. The length of the zigzag ditches varies according to the slope of the
hillside. When steep, the ditch, before turning, must be of greater length
than where the ground is more level. (See diagram.) I use no gates, but
bush the openings with coarse swale hay. I also bush the turning points of
ditches as they are in permanent-use throughout the season, and after the
first few days’ use require but little care to keep them in order. These
ditches are torn up during the season of cultivation and have to be renewed
every year.

I use a level set on a frame 8.25 feet long and about 2.5 feet high (one
leg longer than the other) to make any grade desired. Then I drag its
length on the ground after getting the level, and can mark the line of ditch
nearly half as fast as a man can walk.

I have used many thousand feet of pipe in irrigating, but found it too
expensive to be practicable, and it frequently gets clogged, causing much
trouble. The zigzag method of taking the water down hills on the dry
ridges, distributing to right and left, picking it up again in zigzag ditches
at the end of the rows or system, to be used again on lower ground, brings
into use the largest quantity where it is most needed and utilizes it all with-
out waste.

Lrrigating by Small Furrows.—It has already been suggested that
recently the small furrow method of irrigation is undergoing certain
modifications. The occasion for the change is that in certain of the
heavier soils, particularly, the use of water in many shallow furrows
followed by cultivation results in the formation of a compact layer,
and this prevents the percolation of the water into the subsoil. This
discovery led many Southern growers to resort to fewer and deeper
furrows, and to new devices to enable the tree to get the benefit of
the water. There has been wide use of the subsoil plow, with a
wedge-shaped foot attached to a slim standard rising to the ordi-
nary beam. The standard opposes its thin edge to the soil so as to
cleave it with the least difficulty, and the foot, passing through or
beneath the hardpan, lifts and breaks it. The result of the subsoil-
ing is to open a way for the water to sink and spread below the
hardpan. It is usual to run this plow once through the center of the
interspace between the rows of trees, sometimes at right angles to
the irrigation furrows. When this is done the water is admitted to
the furrows as usual, but instead of flowing along smoothly it drops
into the track of the subsoiler and runs there a long time before
rising again to continue its course down the furrow. It is the ex-
perience of some growers that the water has taken five or six days
to reach the lower end of the furrows, a distance which would have
been covered in twenty-four hours if the subsoiler had not inter-
vened. This has been shown to result in much water for the subsoil
and a notable invigoration of trees which had been famishing,
although shallow-furrow irrigation had proceeded regularly.

Changes in the furrow method at Riverside, California, are de-
seribed by Mr. J. H. Reed as follows:

CARRYING WATER TO FURROWS 183

The handling of the water in the orchard has materially changed in recent
years. Instead of flooding up, basining, or using shallow furrows, deep
furrows, from 3 to 5 feet apart, are most generally used. In heavy adobe
soils more furrows are used than in the more porous granite soils. The most
usual length of furrows is 40 rods. Every precaution is taken to have the
surface wetted as little as possible.

The amount of water run at a time is materially lessened. Formerly the
common practice was to run 3 inches per acre for twenty-four hours each
thirty days. Now 2 inches continuous run for seventy-two hours is
found to serve a much better purpose, except on loose soils. The general
practice in the valley is to irrigate once each thirty days. A few of the most
eareful orchardists had found that by intelligent and thorough manipula-
tion of the soil they obtained as favorable results from the application of
water every sixty days or more, using the same amount as they formerly did
at intervals of half that time. The writer has watched with much interest
an eight-year-old orchard that during the three years preceding the present
received in all but ten irrigations, the usual amount of water being used only
at each four irrigations the first year and three irrigations each the second
and third years, with results comparing favorably with those on trees of the
the same age on the same soil in neighboring orchards that received the
ordinary thirty-day irrigations. While there are few orchardists who have
the skill and patience required to secure such results, they show the possi-
bilities of improved cultivation in conserving moisture. So long as water is
abundant and not expensive, more frequent irrigations will probably be gen-
erally practiced; but the advantage of running the water for a longer time,
in furrows as deep as possible, covering the saturated bottoms as soon as
practicable and keeping the surface perfectly pulverized and in loose condi-
tion, is being generally recognized.

The usual practice is now to have six deep furrows in 20-foot
spaces. The number varies according to the character of the soil,
but is in any case less than in the small, shallow furrow system
which formerly prevailed.

The recourse to deeper furrows and to the subsoil plowing has
been made in several citrus fruit districts of Southern California.
Its success depends upon conditions. There are cases in which too
deep use of the subsoiler has admitted the water at a point too low
for best results to the tree which grows on a leachy subsoil, and the
cutting of roots by the subsoiler has in some cases brought shallow-
rooting trees into temporary distress. The general conclusion, how-
ever, is that deeper introduction of water favors deeper rooting and
is very economical of water by preventing the loss by evaporation
from the surface, which, theoretically, is dry, but which actually,
with shallow furrows over an irrigation hardpan, becomes too often
saturated over nearly the whole space between the trees.

Cement Pipes and Flumes for the Furrow System.—The use of
cement in the construction of flumes, pipes and outlets for distribu-
tion has advanced so rapidly during recent years that in nearly all
districts local cement works can be found, at which irrigation struc-
tures and appliances of latest design can be studied. Other devices
are first described and afterwards regularly advertised in our horti-
cultural journals. Analysis of them is beyond the scope of this
treatise, but they are none the less important and all who contem-
plate laying out irrigation systems, both large and small, should
consider them carefully. It is the function of this work to deal
chiefly with home-made appliances.

184 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

The Board Flume and the Furrow System.—Although in the
older regions the cement flume is advancing in popularity, important
service will always be rendered by the home-made board flume
where suitable lumber is cheap. A detailed account of its construc-
tion and operation will be widely useful. The following is con-
tributed by Mr. A. S. Bradford, of Orange county:

I consider the board flume best, because it is in many places cheapest
and because it will last fifteen or twenty years in California if made of good
soft redwood. The common redwood lumber is generally so, but the so-called
flume lumber is hard, generally, and will warp the flume out of shape. Even
in the common redwood lumber hard pieces will be found, and these should
be avoided. My first flume has been in use nine years and is apparently as
good as ever.

The first thing to be considered is getting a flume put in properly, as
this alone will cause much trouble if not done right. A flume should run
nearly on a level. It should be placed about two-thirds in the ground at the
commencement, and as soon as it comes out of the ground to about two-
thirds of its height, there should be a drop made of 1, 2, or 3 inches, is
necessary, and then carried along as before, so as to keep the entire length
of flume practically on a level.

Sixteen-foot lumber is better than longer, as it is lighter to handle. I
prefer 8-inch sides with 18-inch bottom, or, on some cases, 10-inch sides
with 16-inch bottom. The first section, however, should be about 2 feet
wide, narrowed to the size of the flume, so as to control the stream. Collars
should be put around the flume every 8 feet of distance; that is, one in the
center and one to cover the joints at each end. These collars should be 2
by 3 inch stuff on the bottom and sides and 1 by three inches on top. This
makes a strong, durable flume. The length of the flume should be divided,
so that the stream will decrease as it goes along. The width should be
decreased also, say from 16 inches to 14, 12, 10 and 8 inches, the sides being
the same throughout or reduced so as to have 10-inch sides on the 16-inch
bottom and 8-inch sides on the rest, nailed to the side of the bottom, making
7 inches depth inside. Two-inch holes should be about 30 inches apart and
2-inch gates placed on the inside instead of outside, as they will collect less
trash, the hole through the wood, if uncovered, making a lodgment for
leaves, etc. In the narrow and flat flume it is much easier to fix the gates.

From 8 to 9 furrows for trees set 24 feet apart is sufficient. The streams
should be run from one-eighth to one-half the capacity of the holes in the
flume, according to the soil and fall of ground. I commence the stream
small and increase it if necessary later on. The streams should be kept as
near together as possible, and when the end is reached the gate should be
nearly closed down, so as to allow the stream to just trickle to the end. In
this manner the soil will become thoroughly wet from one end to the other.
The streams should be run very slowly on most of our soils. A great many
failures have been made on hard soils by running the stream too large and
chen reducing it. This seems to “slick” or cement the soil so that it will not
take the water, and the consequence is a poor and unsatisfactory irrigation.
On the other hand, if the streams are started small and allowed to soak
the ground as they go along, it is simply astonishing how much water can
be put in the ground. On sandy soils the streams should be larger. A little
practice would give anyone the desired information.

About three rows of trees at the lower end should be blocked up, pro-
vided one has no place where the overflow water could be used. This last
provision is the better, however, as there would be only about 10 inches of
water run over the last three or four hours, and a thorough job would be
done from one end to the other.

In making furrows I have an extension made for my cultivator to bolt on
each side and use four plows. With this extension I can wet the whole
ground thoroughly. The furrows will extend under the limbs of the trees,

LAYING OUT DITCHES 185

and by making a slight curve around each tree the ground will become
wet in the rows as well as between.

As compared with the check system, the furrow method, properly handled,
makes the soil light and loose, while the check system is ape to pack the
soil, rendering it lifeless and leaving it so that it will not retain moisture
long. Besides, the cost of ridging and extra labor in handling water in
checks for one season will nearly pay for the flume, by which one man can
do the irrigating. Two horses will furrow out 10 acres in half a day, and
a little hand labor at the flume will connect the furrows. In the check
system generally a disk is run first where the ridges are to be made, and
then the ridger is run with four horses; then jump scraper is run to stop
up one side of the blocks; then ditches must be made; then from 2 to 3 men
are required to handle the water by shutting up the checks when filled.
Afterwards the ridges must be plowed down before the ground can be har-
rowed and got in condition to cultivate. At a glance one can see that it
costs fully three times as much to irrigate by the check system as by the
furrow system, and with the latter the soil acts more as it does after a rain.

OVERHEAD IRRIGATION

Although Californians have always been strongly impelled by
the desire to get irrigation water away from contact with the air
and into the soil as directly as possible, to escape losses by evapora-
tion and to maintain a loose soil-surface, sprinkling methods have
recently become matters of considerable expenditure. Such systems
are in operation in the orange orchards of Robert Baird of Porter-
ville and R. D.. Williams of Exeter. The former has overhead perfo-
rated pipes supported on redwood posts; the latter has underground
pipes with a stand-pipe rising through the center of each fourth
tree and surmounted with a revolving sprinkler. The cost of in-
stallation at prices which prevailed before the war in each case was
about $150 per acre.* The desirability of such sprinkling methods
is still to be demonstrated. In both cases the water is forced into
the pipes by pumps.

DEVELOPMENT AND STORAGE OF WATER

It is, obviously, beyond the limitations of this work to attempt
an extended review of irrigation enterprises and practices. The
enterprises undertaken by capitalists, or by co-operation among
settlers, require the services of competent engineers. All these
matters are too great in extent and variety to be discussed in this
work. As, however, it has been the aim of the writer to aid the
inexperienced planter to help himself in small efforts, a little space
will be given to suggestions as to how a planter may develop and
use such small water supply as may be derived from spring, small
ereek or well, on his own land without employing an engineer.

Running Lines for Irrigating Ditches—How far to go up a
ereek in order to bring water out upon a given piece of land is a
question which frequently arises in individual practice. There is
also doubt as to how much fall should be given to the ditch. The
fall required by a ditch or canal depends upon the amount of water

*Details are given in the Pacific Rural Press, July 13, 1912.

186 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

which it is desired that it shall discharge, and upon the width and
depth with which it is intended, that the water should flow. It may
also be dependent upon the character of the soil in which the ditch
is to be constructed, and upon the peculiarities of the water itself.
A strong current in soft soil may cause mischievous erosions. Water
carrying much sediment must never be allowed to move sluggishly,
as clear water sometimes may. It is best to state the requirements
to a competent engineer and act on his suggestion, or secure the
counsel of a neighbor who has had experience with similar soil and
water.

Having decided what fall to give the ditch, the nearest point of
which water can be taken out of the creek to be brought to a certain
piece of land is found by commencing with the point at which the
water is to be delivered (generally the highest point of the land to
be irrigated), and running up stream a line which has the inclination
intended for the ditch.

To stake out this line when no special hindrances are in the way,
use a home-made leveling instrument constructed as follows:

With sound, straight-edged lumber a triangle is made, as indicated in the
sketch. The three pieces, A B, 10 feet long, B C, 12 feet long, and C A, 4
feet long, are made fast to each other at A, B, and C. The board, A D is
fastened to the triangle at right angles to B C near A on the Board, A D,
plumb-line is made fast. The plumb, like a mason’s plumb, hangs in a hole
at F, so that when A D is vertical, the string hangs very near the surface of
the board, A D.

It will be seen that when A D is exactly vertical, B C is exactly hori-
zontal, if the angles at D are true right angles. An ordinary carpenter’s
square used in the construction of the apparatus will insure sufficient
accuracy in the position of A D.

In marking on the board, A D, however, the line in which the string of
the plumb will hang when B C is exactly horizontal, more care is required.
Two pegs are driven, as far apart as B and C, for these points to rest on.
The highest one is driven into the ground until the plumb-line follows about
the center line of the board, A D. Having marked this position of the plumb-
line, the triangle is reversed so that the end B rests on the peg, where
before we had the end C, and vice versa. Should the plumb-line be in a
position at variance with the first one marked on the board, then the correct
position for the B C horizontal will be exactly in the middle between the two
found by the aid of the two pegs.

It will frequently be found convenient to have a scale of feet marked off
on BC. Holes in the pieces A B and C A at EE, or handles, will make the
triangle convenient to carry. Only two men are necessary in using it.

To use this instrument for locating the line of the ditch, calculate
the amount which your line should rise between each two pegs.
Drive a peg at the starting point with its top say six inches from
the general surface of the ground. Hold one end of the leveling
apparatus above this peg by exactly that amount which the line
arises per each instrument length (B C), and swing the other end
around into the direction from which the ditch is to come, until, when
level, it is just six inchesiabove the ground. Drive a peg here, which
will, like the first, be six inches high, and proceed as before. Care
should be taken to give the top of each peg exactly the correct eleva-
tion. The level must be horizontal when resting on any peg, and

LOCATING CONTOUR LINES 187

raised exactly that amount which the line rises per level length,
above the preceding peg. It will be found convenient to use a care-
fully prepared block to hold on.the top of each stake at the rear end
of the level instead of trusting to measurement each time.

Locating Contour Lines for Checks or for Distributing Ditches.—
This work can be done with the aid of the level above described.
For instance, to locate a contour (a line of equal elevation), as re-
quired in the construction of a check levee, drive a peg until its top
has a convenient elevation from the ground, say one foot. Rest one
end of the triangle on this peg and swing the other around until,
when B C is horizontal, this other end has exactly the same elevation
from the ground as the top of the peg. At this point drive a second
peg and proceed as before. If the tops of the pegs be chosen as the
height of the levee, they may be retained as grade stakes as well as
line stakes for the embankment.

A home-made leveling instrument.

Storing Water from Small Sources.—For individual uses quite
a respectable water supply can sometimes be developed from ap-
parently mean sources. This can be done by clearing out and
opening up hillside springs, and often by tunneling into the hillside
to intercept subterranean water-flows, or by pumping from a well.
Even a small spring, yielding but two quarts per second, would be
sufficient to irrigate several acres in fruit trees. To derive the
greatest benefit from small springs, however, a reservoir is necessary,
in which the flow of twelve to twenty-four hours, or even a longer
period, can be accumulated, and then discharged as required. It is
by using water in driblets that many springs are wasted. A spring
supplying even one and a half inches of water would be wholly
swallowed up by a thirsty soil within two hundred feet of its source,
when, by arresting the flow and accumulating it in a reservoir and
discharging at intervals in a volume four times as large, it would
more than cover eight times the surface. A spring flowing two
quarts per second will discharge forty-three thousand two hundred
gallons in twenty-four hours. This would require a reservoir forty

188 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

by twenty feet, and seven feet deep, or double that width if the
depth is decreased one-half. The shallower it can be made the better,
for many reasons, but especially on account of the temperature of
the water. That of springs is generally too low in summer for
immediate use, and its value is greatly enhanced by being raised to
an equal or greater temperature than that of the air. This is quickly
done by exposure in a shallow pond. A reservoir can be constructed
entirely in the ground where the slope will admit of it, and by lining
the bottom and sides with clay well puddled, will answer for most
purposes. Some are built of adobe, backed with earth and plastered
on the inner side with hydraulic cement. Concrete of lime, sand,
and broken stone, is however, the best material, where lime can be
readily obtained, and any person with ordinary mechanical skill can
construct them. The following hints on a dirt reservoir may be
suggestive :

A reservoir should be built on the highest part of the tract sought to be
irrigated by scraping the earth from the outside and from such a large area
as not to affect the utility of the land from which it is taken. With a levee
all around 5 feet high, 5 feet of water could be carried safely. The slopes
ought to be two to one on the inside. A reservoir 20 feet square and 4 feet
deep would hold 12,000 gallons. With the slopes as above the reservoir
should be measured two feet from the bottom, or half way up the 4 feet of
water; consequently, to lay out a reservoir to hold 12,000 gallons, put the
stakes 12 feet square and build. For any other size one take 8 feet off the
same as this: A reservoir 25 feet square will hold 18,750 gallons and would
be 17 feet square at the bottom; one 30 feet square would hold 27,000
gallons and would be 22 feet at the bottom; one 35 feet square—27 at the
pottom—will hold 36,000 gallons; one 40 feet square—32 on the bottom—will
hold 48,000 gallons. This spread upon the surface of an acre would be a
little more than 134 inches of rainfall.

Almost any loam or soil will hold water with a little puddling. The
cheapest way to puddle is to build a pen the size of the entended reservoir,
including at least a portion of that to be under the embankment, wet it very
wet, put some hogs in the pen and keep feeding them barley, a little at a
time, so as to make them not only walk around, but root for the barley. A
half-sack of barley fed to eight or ten hungry hogs in half a day will make
a good puddle. If it did not work satisfactorily, the water could be taken
off and the bottom covered about an inch deep with coarse sand mixed one
part to five with Portland cement, put in dry, and let it be covered slowly. -
A barrel of cement may be counted at about 4 cubic feet and with the mix-
ture above would cover the first-named reservoir about 1%, inches. This
would make it tight. The supply pipe should come up from the bottom, so
that the lift would never be more than the height of the surface.

Loss of Water by Seepage.—The great loss of water by seepage
during a long run has led to the cementing of ditches, and to the use
of miles of large wooden, concrete and iron pipe by the irrigation
companies of Southern California; also, where the slope is rapid,
paving ditches with rock has been resorted to. Similar efforts
naturally suggest themselves to the user of a small supply to save
his flow from loss. The lining of ditches to prevent seepage were
tested by the California Experiment Station at Berkeley, and publ-
cation of results were made.* Where lumber is cheap the use of a

*Bulletin 188 and Circular 144, University of California Experiment Station, Berkeley.

LIFTING WATER FOR IRRIGATION 189

board flume is an available means of saving water, when the soil is
coarse and leachy.

Irrigation from Flowing Wells.—A considerable area of orchard
is irrigated from flowing wells in different parts of the State. Nearly
everywhere in the artesian districts there are local well-borers who
have kept records of the strata traversed in their work, and can
estimate closely the cost of securing water by this method.

Lifting Water from Flowing Ditch or Stream.—Where a stream
has a rapidity of two miles or more per hour, and a lift to a height
of six to sixteen feet will give head enough to distance the water
over a considerable area, there is nothing cheaper than the current
wheel which is largely used in this State. The engraving gives an
end view of such a wheel. Hight pairs of arms, carrying flat buckets
like those of a steamboat paddle-wheel, extend from a hub rotating
on metal bearings. At either end, or both ends, of each bucket are
fixed wooden or tin water boxes which fill themselves on entering
the water, and on being brought to the highest point of rotation
empty themselves into a receiving trough. This trough supplies the

Lypessi

likm: We
nN

fe AWAY
\

End view of irrigating wheel.

distributing ditches, etc., and its inner end is so placed that it comes
under the projecting buckets of the wheel without interference with
the motion of the arms. The current of water in the channel under-
neath forces the buckets down stream, the latter delivering in the
opposite direction at the top. By using a double set of boxes, one at
each end of each bucket, the water may be delivered on both sides
simultaneously. A little experimenting will indicate the proper size
boxes, which depends upon the velocity and volume of water in the
channel, as well as to the amount to be delivered.

At the Fancher Creek Nursery, in Fresno county, a wheel is used
eighteen feet in diameter, and carries sixteen buckets, which empty
into a trough sixteen feet above the ditch. The wheel lifts about one
cubic foot in two seconds.

190 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

PUMPING FOR IRRIGATION

The use of pumps for irrigation is continually increasing. The
capacity of pumps, their ease and cheapness of operation in this land
of oil wells and ponderous waterfalls whose power can be trans-
formed into electric energy, warrant the conclusion that in many
places water can be lifted from below more cheaply than it can be
brought long distances by ditch; and that the supply is more con-
stant and subject to the users’ command and convenience. In all
parts of the State well-boring and digging and pump construction
have advanced very rapidly. Pumping plants of all capacities, from
the greatest of the gasoline class, lifting five thousand gallons per
minute from a depth of twenty-five feet, down to the plant with a
throw of three hundred gallons per minute, all styles of motors and
pumps are being constantly multiplied. These plants are being
placed upon wells in the orchard or in the vicinity, or upon adjacent
streams or ponds. Many new designs by California inventors are
coming into use. It would require a volume to contain any adequate
account of California’s recent progress in these lines. Hconomic
pumping is governed by so many considerations that no general
statement would be conclusive in any specific case. Each orchardist
must ascertain his own conditions and then confer with trustworthy
manufacturers or their agents as to what will meet his require-
ments:*

WATER MEASUREMENT

The Miner’s Inch—Although the miner’s inch, as commonly
measured, is open to objection because of inaccuracy, from an engi-
neer’s point of view, it is so easily applied that it must remain a
popular recourse. It consists in causing the water to flow through
an opening, the capacity of which is known, and which is readily
capable of adjustment to the flow in any case. A simple form of this
device and its use is shown in the illustration, which represents a
board 1 inch thick, 12 inches wide, and about 8 feet long. The open-
ing is 1 inch wide and 50 inches long, and the distance from the top
of the board to the center of the opening is exactly 4 inches on the
up-stream side. On the down-stream side the opening is beveled so
that the hole presents sharp edges to.the stream. A sliding board is
hung upon the top of the first board, with a strip screwed along its
upper edge, this sliding board being wide enough to cover the open-
ing on the up-stream side. In the slot there is a closely-fitting block,
made to slide on the beveled edges and fastened by a screw to the
sliding board. It is obvious, then, that when the sliding board is
moved backward or forward, by means of its end, which is extended
for a handle, the block moves in the slot and determines the length
of the opening.

In operation the board is placed in the stream as shown in the

*Full details of the cost and flow from pumps drawing from various depths and operated
by various motors are given in the publications of the Irrigation Investigations to which

reference has previously been made. Also, Circular 117, California Experiment Station:
“The Selection and Cost of a Small Pumping Plant,’ by B. A. Etcheverry.

ee a

a ao

MEASURING WATER 191

figure, so as to dam the flow completely, and the sliding board is
moved backward and forward until the water is all passing through
the slot, the water being kept up to the top of the board, or 4 inches
above the center of the opening. The length of the opening measures
the number of miner’s inches of water flowing through. If the flow
is too great to pass through the opening 1 inch wide, the opening may
be made wider, the water still to be kept 4 inches above the center
of the opening. The laws of several States provide that in devices
for measuring water for sale by the miner’s inch the opening shall
be 6 inches high and shall be provided with a slide as shown in the
picture. The number of miner’s inches then discharged is equal to
the number of square inches in the opening. The assumption made
that the discharge is proportional to the size of the opening is not
true, but the error in measuring small quantities is not great enough
to be taken into consideration. By converting the results of measure-
ments in miner’s inches to gallons, cubic feet, or some other familiar
unit, it may be determined how long it will take the stream to fill a
reservoir or cover a given field with the necessary depth of water.
This unit is readily convertible into cubic feet or gallons or acre-
inches of water, according to the time the water flows.

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Measuring miner’s inches in a small stream or ditch.

The following data will be helpful in computations: One miner’s
inch, as described above, equals 0.1496 gallons per second, 8.976 gal-
lons per minute, 538.56 gallons per hour, 12,925.44 gallons per day;
0.02 cubic feet per second, 1.2 cubic feet per minute, 72 cubic feet
per hour. One acre-inch of water (that is, 1 inch in depth over an
acre of surface) equals 27,152 gallons, or 3,630 cubic feet, and 1
miner’s inch will supply this quantity in about 50.4 hours. Thus a
simple calculation shows that a little stream of 5 miner’s inches will
supply enough water to cover an acre 2.3 inches deep in about 23
hours—a fair amount for one irrigation of soil of average character
if it has not been allowed to become too dry before the application.
In fact this is an average amount actually used for an irrigation of
shallow-rooted plants like most field and garden crops.

192 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Weir Measurement.—The term ‘‘weir’’ is not always understood
by those who use it. The term can properly be used only for struc-
tures designed to allow the water to flow over the crest with a con-
siderable fall on the down-stream side. There are a large number of
forms of weirs, taking their names from the shape of the weir notch,
or the form of crest. The triangular weir has a V-shaped notch.
The rectangular weir has a horizontal crest with vertical sides. Both
of these forms of weir are good, when used by the expert irrigator or
engineer who understands the principles and factors which enter into
their calculations. Water measurement as practiced by irrigation
companies is however rather more a question of engineering than of
fruit growing and cannot be pursued in this connection. Several
publications on the subject are readily available.*

DANGER OF ALKALI IN IRRIGATION WATER

Ever since Prof. Hilgard’s original observations on alkali were
published, Californians have been aware of the danger of using
waters containing alkali for irrigation purposes, but they have not
realized, until recently, of how much significance this is. Investiga-
tions and observations made by the California Agricultural Experi-
ment Station show that many of the well waters used for irrigation
purposes in orchards contain so much alkali, usually including
common salt, that though beginning with a soil free from alkali, one
ean readily impregnate it with salts enough in a few years to ruin
an orchard. The investigations emphasize further some general
alkali problems in orchards, even where fairly good waters have
been used, and render the alkali question one of the most important
in soil management problems in arid parts of California. The fruit
planter should never plan to use water from any source for irrigation
without having proper samples analyzed and the analysis interpreted
by the Division of Agricultural Chemistry, Berkeley, California.
River and stream waters are usually found to be purer and better
than well waters in the citrus districts, in which the investigations
cited were carried out. Nevertheless, recourse to analysis is always
a safe guide.

RANDOM SUGGESTIONS

Without attempting an impossible thing, to-wit, to furnish ex-
plicit directions for the practice of irrigation, for much of it every
man must learn for himself by experience, a few suggestions may be
noted, even though more important ones do not come to mind.

Usually water should be prevented from actual contact with the
trunk of the tree. Citrus trees are especially sensitive to such con-
tact, and resent it by ‘‘gum disease,’’ which was formerly far more
prevalent in the State than now. Care must, therefore, be taken not

*Bulletin 247 of the California Experiment Station on ‘‘Some Measuring Devices Used
in the Delivery of Irrigation Wtaer’ (Jan., 1915): ‘“‘Farmers’”’ Bulletin 813, U. S. Dept.
Agr., on “Construction and Use of Farm Weirs’” (June, 1917): Circular 36, Utah Experi-
ment Station, Logan, Utah, on ‘Practical Information on the Measurement of Irrigatior
Water’ (January, 1919).

SUGGESTIONS ABOUT IRRIGATION / 193

to set trees which are to be irrigated too low. It is better to raise
them up a little and draw the earth around them to prevent approach
of the water, but this must not be overdone.

If possible, the ditch should be run on the shady side of the tree,
because reflected sunshine from the water surface may burn the bark.

In examining soil to ascertain dryness, one must dig deeply, for
often an upper layer will be fairly moist, if well cultivated, while
lower layers, where the feeding rootlets are, will be arid. Therefore,
when trees, or vines are suffering, dig far down in examining the soil.

In irrigating, thorough, deep soaking is necessary, and examina-
tion must be made to see if an artificial hardpan which prevents the
descent of the water has been formed.

Be careful not to continue irrigation too late in the season. It
will prevent the proper dormancy of deciduous trees, and if more
fall irrigation is given citrus trees than they need for perfecting the
fruit, the trees will continue growing tender shoots until they are
injured by severe frosts. On the other hand, it is often desirable to
give deciduous trees a draft of water after the fruit has been
gathered, if the soil is so dry that the tree is likely to drop its leaves
too soon, and wake from its dormancy with the first rains. Many
times the fall blooming of deciduous trees, which is very undesirable,
may be prevented by keeping them growing later in the summer by
moderate irrigation.

If trees or vines, in regions usually irrigated, are to be grown
without irrigation, it is important that the grower be more than
usually thorough and constant with his summer cultivation. In try-
ing the non-irrigation experiment, one should, of course, begin with
young trees which have not been irrigated, and not usually expect
success by withdrawing the water from trees- which have been
accustomed to it, and have developed a root system accordingly.

While waiting for an ‘‘irrigating system,’’ young trees can be
kept going with a water wagon. With a galvanized tank on a wagon
three men went over a 60-acre orchard three times, taking four days
for each irrigation. One man went ahead to scoop out around each
tree, and after the water was put on he covered it up, to keep the
soil loose and prevent loss by evaporation. He could keep ahead
because of the loss of time of the team going after water and return-
ing. From the tank ran two large hose, the water being siphoned
off at the basin near each tree till about four or five gallons of water
were put on. Then the hose was bent back so the water could not
flow out, and they advanced to the next tree.

SUB-IRRIGATION IN CALIFORNIA

The word ‘‘sub-irrigated”’ is freely used in California to describe
land which is moistened below by underflow or seepage from streams
or springs, or from open irrigation ditches, traversing higher levels.
This land is sub-irrigated, it is true, but there is no system about it,
except the natural distribution of water, which is to seek its level.
Some of our most productive lands are of this character, and where

194 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

the soil and subsoil are fitted to the movement of this living water,
and not apt to retain it up to the point of saturation, most satisfac-
tory growth of deep-rooting field crops and of trees and vines are
secured. But this is not sub-irrigation in the ordinary signification
of the term.

Several systems of sub-irrigation by subterranean pipes have been
devised by California inventors, but none have passed beyond the
experimental stage, and no acreage has been continually operated.
This, of course, has no reference to carrying water in subterranean
pipes to outlets for surface distribution. Such distribution systems
are largely used.

DRAINAGE IN CALIFORNIA

There was for a long time a very erroneous popular generaliza-
tion that California soils do not need drainage; that in a dry state
the aim should be to retain the moisture, not to part with it. It is,
of course, true that we have vast areas of naturally well-drained soil,
upon which any money spent for drainage would be in a great part
thrown away, but we have, also, both in the valley and on the hill-
sides, localities where, by peculiar character and conformation of the
subsoil, water is held in the soil until evaporated from the surface,
and the result is a boggy, miry condition, which prevents proper
winter cultivation, and at the same time injures the roots of the trees
or vines. This defective cultivation, added to the puddling effect of
standing water, makes the soil dry out completely under the fervid
sun of summer, and the result is that the wettest soil of the winter
is the driest in the summer, and plants which are injured by soaking
in winter suffer again from lack of moisture and sustenance in
summer. Thus it is a fact, clearly proven by observation and ex-
perience, that thorough under-drainage removes surplus water in
winter, and ministers to the retention of moisture in summer. More
than this, a soil puddled by standing water can not present its con-
tents in available form for plant nutrition, and besides, it loses the
fertilizing effects of atmospheric currents, which pass through an
open, well-dried soil. Wet land is cold and late in spring, and hot
as a baked brick under the summer sun;; it is no fiction of*the imagi-
nation to say that well drained land is warm in winter and cool in
summer—that is, cool to a degree which favors quick and free root
growth, and cool enough to escape the parching effect of deeply
baked soil.

These, and a host of similar considerations, which have made
under-drainage popular in older countries, are of weight in Cali-
fornia. Possibly, as a rule, because of our vast area of deep, kind
loams, the proportion of land needing drainage in this State is less
than elsewhere, and yet there is a vast extent of country to be im-
proved by tilling. There have been large losses of trees from plant-
ing upon soils defective in this respect. The evil has resulted from
excessive rainfall and excessive irrigation, either direct or by under-
flow from adjacent irrigations. In some places this latter movement
of water has brought alkali to assist in the ruin of the trees and

IMPORTANCE OF DRAINAGE 195

vines. The cure is drainage to sufficient depth and with good outlet
for the drainage water.

Information on the construction of under-drains is too available
through other sources to call for its presentation in this connection.

Drainage and Irrigation.—A special importance attaches to com-
plete and systematic drainage in connection with irrigation: There
is pressing need of such provision where the soil has become over-
loaded by seepage water from irrigation ditches, and it is well that
people in such situations are waking up to the need of coupling
drainage outlets with their irrigation inlets. Another matter closely.
allied to this is the action of alkali on soils thus artificially water-
soaked. This has been made the subject of a special publication, to
which allusion has already been made in Chapter III. Drainage is
plainly essential, both in individual farms and in districts where the
water level is rising too high, and the striking statements given
below by Professor Hilgard should incite all to give immediate atten-
tion to the needs of vines and trees in this regard:

In the valleys and plains of the arid irrigation countries the soils are pre-
dominantly of a light, sandy or silty nature, easily penetrated to great depths
by water and air. With these the roots of plants also reach to such depths,
drawing therefrom not only moisture, but also plant food, which in these
soils is, as a rule, very abundant. The plants of the arid region thus are
enabled to utilize nearly as many feet of soil mass as in the regions of
summer rains inches would be drawn upon; and it is evident that this advan-
tage, which postpones for a long time the need of fertilization, should not
be lightly thrown away. Each farm in the arid region has several similar
ones underground, which with proper management can be fully utilized.

But this presupposes that the water, air and roots can all penetrate under
irrigated culture as they do in the natural condition. It means that the
ground water level shall not be allowed to rise to such an extent as to pre-
vent the penetration and healthy life of the roots in the depths of the soil
mass. If by intentional or careless over-irrigation, or by the leakage from
the ditches, the water level is allowed to rise within a few feet of the sur-
face, the wonderfully productive lands of the arid valleys are reduced to
the same condition as are those of the humid countries; a shailow layer
of surface soil, within which alone the roots can exercise their functions
of plant nutrition. The natural result is that this layer soon becomes ex-
hausted, and copious artificial fertilization is required to maintain prolfic
producton.

And even this is the most favorable case. When, in addition, the upward
movement of the soil water carries with it the entire mass of salts of various
kinds which exist in all arid soils, and brings them within reach of surface
evaporaton, these “alkali” salts impregnate the soil to such an extent as to
render the cultivation of many crops unprofitable, or sometimes altogether
impossible.

Summarizing the advantages of systematic land draining it may be said
that:

1. It prevents the drowning out of the deeper roots of plants by the rise
or fiuctuations of the ground water, by which the vineyards and orchards are
so frequently rendered unprofitable.

2. It prevents, or at least limits definitely, the shallowing of the soil
caused by high-lying ground water, resulting in the need of early and
copious fertilization, which would otherwise not have been called for in
many years. The annual cost of such fertilization would soon exceed the
first cost of drainage.

3. Drainage does away definitely with the alkali evil. When drainage is
established the land can easily be so handled as either to remove all the

~

196 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

alkali, or to leave in the soil so much of it as may be rationally considered
beneficial, on account of its usual content of valuable and highly available
plant food. To prevent the waste of much of this soluble plant food, the use
of gypsum is also valuable; but subsequent swamping of the land would
cause a return of the black alkali unless drainage were provided for.

In view of the facts that water-logged lands are still being sold
to the unwary for fruit planting; that sometimes lands are offered
with the attractive promise of an irrigation supply when they
actually need a drainage system; that on such lands every year of
large rainfall brings areas of trees into distress and inflicts consider-
able losses, these declarations of Professor Hilgard should be most
earefully kept in mind.

PART THREE: ORCHARD FRUITS

CHAPTER XVI

COMMERCIAL FRUIT VARIETIES

What fruit to plant, or what kind of a bearing orchard to buy as
an investment, are questions which can not be answered, in this
treatise. The planters on new land and the investors in improved
land must answer them for themselves—forming their judgments
after securing facts which seem to them a proper basis for such a
business decision. It is the conviction of the writer that all fruits
which have demonstrated commercial suitability in California, when
properly placed under the soil, temperature and moisture conditions
which favor their best growth and productiveness, may be counted
as yielding nearly equal net returns, considering the investment in
land, water, waiting for bearing and handling of the product. So
far as the writer has observed, all our commercial fruits have reached
maximum and minimum returns during the last quarter of a century
which are practically identical. Therefore to plant good fruit in the
best place, for it, to handle the trees and products most intelligently,
both in production and marketing, holds out substantially equal
promise of profit. If it could be demonstrated that any particular
fruit had the especial advantage over others in net returns, this
advantage would immediately disappear because planters would
rush to it and take away this advantage by undue increase of its
acreage. Therefore the choice of fruits must remain an open ques-
tion for each one to determine by his own experience and observa-
tion, at least to the extent of determining his own line of production.

It is one of the purposes of this treatise, as they will be disclosed
in succeeding chapters, to impress upon the local planters the con-
viction that their clearest path toward satisfactory income lies in
choosing varieties which have demonstrated two fundamental char-
acters, viz.: adaptation to the locality and to the uses of the fruit
trade—rather than in choosing novelties, no matter how alluring
they may be.

It may surprise the casual reader to find that our production
proceeds so largely upon old standard varieties. Anyone, however,
who is acquainted with commercial fruit growing knows that it is
neither wise nor easy to revolutionize an established and profitable
industry by the substitution of new varieties for the old standards.
It takes several years to determine whether a new variety is really
trustworthy and suitable, and it takes much longer to get a large
acreage in bearing either by grafting or new planting because
people are slow and conservative in making changes. As the period
of trial of each novelty passes, however, new varieties are accepted,

198 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

if for any good reason found suitable, and become prominent as their
merits justify.

Another reason why new varieties do not figure more largely in
California fruit growing is the smallness of the amateur interest. —
There is, in fact, almost an absence of pure amateurs—enthusiastie,
eritical, discriminating, athirst for novelties. Even suburban plant-
ers follow the lead of commercial orchardists and plant chiefly that
which has shown adaptations to local growing conditions, and few
are averse to making what they can by sale of small surpluses. The
result is that California fruit growing is almost wholly commercial
in spirit, policy and point of view, which is perhaps only natural in
a state where the fruit products reach an annual aggregate value of
something like two hundred and fifty millions of dollars. The effect
is to concentrate attention upon varieties which have achieved fame
for profit, and to repress amateur devotion and indulgencies.

At the same time there is, and has always been, quite a disposi-
tion toward trial of novelties among commercial growers, especially
manifested in search of specific characters which are seen to be
desirable rather than desire for newness for its own sake, which is
often a point of pride among amateurs. To this enterprising and
discriminating search is due the prominence of some of the leading
varieties, which were chance seedlings recognized as meeting special
requirements and having grown great because they really did so.
The California grower is, therefore, quite certain that he needs not
varieties new throughout and of startling characters, but improved
varieties which hold the good points of the old and add other points.
For instance, he calls for trees resistant to disease, for improvement
of the fruit in beauty, flavor and keeping qualities; for varieties,
similar in kind, which fill gaps in the ripening season so that he can
employ help continuously, and shippers and canners agree with him
so that they can keep the cars moving and the cannery plants at
work. The grower says he must be careful not to plant something
different from what is already growing and selling well in his region,
and this is also the advice of the trade to him. He can not risk
much on varieties of entirely different types, although most growers
are always doing a little experimenting. Nor should he undertake
too many varieties, because a profitable orchard is not a pomologi-
eal museum. There must be a large quantity of uniform fruit to
make any district commercially prominent.

For these reasons the number of varieties now planted is but a
fraction of what it was a third of a century ago, and, stopping at
this point, one might get the idea of the California grower as a
monument of conservatism and lacking in enterprise and adventure.
Subsequent chapters will, however, show that he has very definite
ideas of the suitability and desirability of the varieties which he
chooses for planting.

It should therefore be noted by the reader that the preference
for certain varieties, which is embodied in this statement, does not
involve pomological standards as a leading factor. The claim is dis-
tinctly not made that these varieties are chosen exclusively on the

BEST COMMERCIAL VARIETIES 199

basis of quality, beauty, hardiness or health. In the case of nearly
all the fruits, there are other varieties which might equal or even
surpass them in one or more of these respects. The choice is made
because they are most profitable to grow; not alone because they are
good, but because they are good for something. This particular
suitability or serviceability may involve pomological considerations
and commercial and manufacturing considerations as well. The
planter must use these lists in connection with what he may find
about the varieties in subsequent chapters, without neglecting to
confer with older growers in the district in which he may plan to
plant.

Perhaps an intelligent use of the statement can be concretely
suggested by briefly discussing the first group of varieties men-
tioned—the apples most approved in California. First comes the
yellow Newtown Pippin, and that means that most apples commer-
cially grown are winter apples and this variety is, on the whole, the
most profitable of them. But a planter in a hot interior valley
should usually reject them, for all winter apples are apt to be un-
satisfactory, and, if he plants apples at all, should choose early
varieties, because they ripen early, thus escaping the highest heat
and at the same time being ready for the early market. Similar
comments might be made upon the varieties of other fruits.

During the year 1919 the writer made a careful review of the
experience of growers and propagators to determine which fruit
varieties were considered most satisfactory in commercial planta-
tions in California.

The varieties grouped below are arranged not according to ripen-
ing season but roughly in the order in which the greatest number
of growers consider them worth planting:

Apples.—Newtown Pippin, Bellflower, E. Spitzenberg, W. W.
Pearmain, Gravenstein, Red Astracan, W. Astracan, Carolina Red
June, Skinner, R. I. Greening, Alexander, Rome Beauty, Jonathan,
Winesap, Stayman, Winter Banana, Grimes, Delicious, King David,
Arkansas Black, Baldwin.

Apricots—Royal, Blenheim, Moorpark, Tilton, Hemskirk,
Peach, Neweastle.

Cherries.—Royal Ann, Black Tartarian, Bing, Black Republican,
Lambert, Chapman, Burbank, Purple Guigne, May Duke, Centennial,
Black Bigarreau.

Peaches.—Muir, Phillips, Lovell, Elberta, Salway, Early Craw-
ford, Tuskena, Foster, Late Crawford, Orange Cling, Susquehanna,
Sellers, Lemon, St. Johns, Henrietta, Hale’s Early, J. H. Hale, Alex-
ander, Heath, Triumph, McKevitt, Mayflower, Strawberry.

Pears.—Bartlett, Winter Nelis, Easter, Du Comice, Glout
Morceau, D’Anjou, Hardy, Barry, Lawson, Seckel, Winter Bartlett,
Wilder.

Plums.—Climax, Diamond, Beauty, Hungarian, Tragedy, Wick-
son, Burbank, Kelsey, Yellow Egg, Red June, Giant, Washington,
Green Gage, Jefferson, Grand Duke, Santa Rosa, Clyman, Formosa.

200 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Prunes.—French, Imperial, Sugar, Robe de Sergeant, Standard,
Silver.
Raisin and Shipping Grapes. —Museat, Tokay, Thompson, Em-

peror, Malaga, Cornichon, Black Prince, Sultana, Sweet Water, Gros
Colman, Pierce, Concord.

Figs—White Adriatic, Calimyrna (Smyrna), Mission, White
Endrich (Kadota), Brown Turkey, White San Pedro.

Almonds.—Nonpareil, Drake, IXL, Ne Plus Ultra, Texas Prolific,
Peerless.

Walnut.—Franquette, Mayette, Concord, Eureka, Placentia,
Santa Barbara Softshell.

Orange.—Washington Navel, Valencia, Mediterranean Sweet,
Paper Rind St. Michael, Ruby Blood.

Lemon.—Eureka, Lisbon, Villa Franea.

Pomelo.—Marsh.

Olives.—Mission, Manzanillo, Sevillano, Ascolano.

Blackberries—Mammoth, Lawton, Logan, Himalaya, Crandalls.

Raspberries.—Cuthbert.

Strawberries.—Dollar, Brandywine, Jessie, Arizona, Marshall,
Melinda, Banner.

This compilation indicates the popularity of varieties in the
State as a whole. It should be taken as a guide to planting in any
particular district only as it may be revised, for local adaptations
and special purposes, by the fuller data for each kind of fruit in the
special chapter which will be devoted to it. In these chapters other
varieties will also be enumerated—inecluding those now considered
exceptionally promising and likely to displace some varieties which
appear in the foregoing category.

CHAPTER XVII

THE APPLE

During the last decade notable progress has been made in apple
growing in California. The old idea that our conditions did not
favor excellence in the apple has given away to full assurance that
in wisely selected elevations and exposures the very highest points
of size, beauty, flavor, keeping and shipping qualities are secured.
Even before the wonderfully satisfactory test of both Northern and
Southern California apples at the New Orleans World’s Fair, it was
clear that the right variety grown in the right place yields an apple
in California than which a better can not be grown anywhere, and
during the last decade California early apples have been in sharp
request for shipment to all regions of the Northwest and British
Columbia, and California winter apples have been sold at the high-
est prices east of the Rocky Mountains and in Hurope.

Because of her achievements with other fruits California’s stand-
ing in apple production is not usually considered. By the U. 8.
Census of 1910, California ranked ninth among apple growing states
of the country. The crop of 1917 advanced the State to fifth place,
with a product of 1,474,000 barrels—our boxed crop being reduced
(three to one) to its equivalence in barrels, which are never used in
California. The Pacific Coast leads the country in apples. The
largest producing state is Washington and the fifth California; the
combined product of these two states being greater than that of
New York, Virginia and Illinois, which rank second, third and
fourth, respectively.

The product of dried apples increased notably during the war
and canning requires quite a large tonnage. The relative acreage
and product-value of apples to other fruits is shown in Chapter VI.

Localities for Apples—Speaking generally, it may be laid down
that the great valleys of the interior are not well suited to the apple ;
also, there are some situations which are much better than others.
In the early regions of the Sacramento Valley and foothills, how-
ever, excellent early apples are profitably produced. In the great
valley and lower foothill region of the State, the late apple usually
lacks character and keeping quality. On the great plains the tree
is liable to sunburn, or sun blight, as it is called. Some varieties,
because of the character of their foliage, are less liable to this injury
than others, and it is possible that this evil may be finally overcome
by the selection of varieties with blight-proof foliage, as will be
mentioned later. In the great valley, however, on the rich river-
bottom land of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin and its tribu-
taries, the apple roots deeply, attains good size, bears good fruit,
with fair keeping quality, while but a few miles away on the plains
it is inferior. On these deep, rich river-bank lands excellent early
apples are produced.

202 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

In the interior, adaptation to the late, long-keeping apple lies at
an elevation on the foothills on both the east and west rims of the
great valley. Its limits are not well defined, but there are flourish-
ing orchards at an elevation of about four thousand five hundred
feet on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and from two
thousand to three thousand five hundred feet is commonly regarded
the best apple region of the mountains. The trees attain larger
size and bear heavily, and the fruit, of well-adapted varieties, is
large, crisp, juicy and has exceptional keeping qualities. This
district, which is practically as long as the State, is still awaiting
development in commercial apple production.

Along the coast the apple succeeds well from end to end of the
State, and very close to the ocean excellent fruit is produced on
good soil—usually without irrigation but sometimes advantaged by
it. In this coast region are situated the chief commercial apple
districts of the State. Named in the order of their acreage in 1919
they are as follows: Santa Cruz and Monterey counties (Watson-
ville district); Sonoma (Sebastopol district); Los Angeles; Santa
Clara; Humboldt. As the coast is not an early region, the product
is almost exclusively fall and winter apples.

There is a certain advantage in elevation in the coast region as
well as in the interior, but the advantage is not so marked nor is the
required elevation so great. Coast valleys in the central and upper
portion of the State, where the soil is suitable, produce most excel-
lent apples, but even here the lower hillsides, with deep, well-
drained soils, are, perhaps, preferable to the floors of the valley.
Departing from immediate coast influences and approaching the
interior, with its greater heat and aridity, the greater elevation
becomes desirable. The apple, excepting the very early varieties,
does not relish the forcing heat which brings such perfection to the
peach, but to insure late ripening and long keeping, with accom-
panying crispness, juiciness, and flavor, it must have atmospheric
surroundings which favor slower development.

Loealities for apple growing in Southern California are to be
chosen with much the same rules as in the upper part of the State.
As has already been said, valleys in which coast conditions largely
predominate produce good apples, on suitable soils, but away from |
the coast, proper elevations must be sought, and they should be
above the so-called thermal or frostless belts. Good apples are
grown on low lands near the coast in Los Angeles and Orange
Counties. Sixty miles inland, in San Bernardino County, winter
apples fail in the valleys, but are most excellent at a sufficient
elevation upon the slopes of the surrounding mountains or in ele-
vated valleys like the Yucaipa Valley above Redlands, where a Rome
Beauty of excellent quality was grown in 1903 to a weight of twenty-
seven ounces and a circumference of fifteen inches. In the elevated
interior of San Diego County, as in the Julian and Smith Mountain
districts, excellent apples are produced in large quantities and profit-
ably carried long distances.

SOILS AND PLACES FOR THE APPLF. 203

Second and Third-Crop Apples.—There is a peculiar behavior of
the apple tree, most noticeable when winter temperature is mildest,
and that is blooming and fruiting out of season. In the ease of
early apples the second bloom may appear about the time the first
fruit ripens and the third bloom when the second crop is half
erown. Even such behavior may be followed by regular blooming
the following spring. Second crops of apples are not of amount
nor regularity enough to be of much economic importance, as the
second crops of pears and grapes sometimes are. The third crop
occasionally ripens. An instance is on record at Chino, San
Bernardino County, where in 1903 a tree ripened its first crop in
June, and its last fruit was picked on Christmas day following.
Such behavior, of course, indicates conditions ill suited to the apple.

Exposures for the Apple.—The choice of exposure for an apple
orchard may almost be inferred from what has been said about
localities. In regions with high summer temperature the apple will
do best on cool, northerly slopes, and this exposure becomes doubly
desirable when the location has high temperature with only moder-
ate annual rainfall, or where the soil is not well adapted to the
retention of moisture. With such prevailing conditions, the apple
will be grateful for the cooler air and the greater moisture of the
northerly slope. Where the temperature is moderately cool, and
the rainfall adequate, the matter of exposure is of less account, and
the grower can make the existence of the best soil the test of loca-
tion for his orchard. At elevations on the sides of high ranges
where late cold storms are liable to rush down from higher snow
fields, protection from the usual course of such storms, or from the
course of cold winds generally, must be sought; and directly up the
coast, especially in the northern part of the State, in certain places
where the peach does not usually succeed, even the apple needs pro-
tection, and the benefit of all heat available, and then a southerly
or southeasterly exposure becomes desirable. The choice of ex-
posure is thus seen to be largely a local question and to be deter-
mined by a knowledge of local conditions. A newcomer in a region
ean best learn these conditions by conference with older residents,
or by personal observation of older orchards.

Soils for the Apple—Experience with the apple in California
confirms what has long been set forth as its choice of soils in older
regions. If one avoids an extremely light, sandy soil on the one
hand, and a very stiff clay or adobe on the other, he may plant
apples on almost any soil which allows extension of the roots to a con-
siderable depth without reaching standing water. The apple thrives
in a moist soil, but it must be well drained, naturally or otherwise. A
soil which may be called best for the apple is a deep, rich, moist,
ealeareous loam, but the tree will thrive on coarser materials. The
subsoil, whatever its nature, must be sound and open to the passage
of moisture. The most unfavorable condition for the tree is a sub-
soil of clay which holds water. There is some difference in varieties
as to choice of soil. The Yellow Bellflower, for instance, will do
well on a lighter soil than the Yellow Newtown Pippin.

204 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

PROPAGATION OF THE APPLE

The apple is chiefly propagated by root-grafting upon apple
seedling roots, either whole roots or root pieces. Budding is also
practiced up to a certain extent. For dwarf trees the Paradise
stock is used. Repeated trials with working the apple on the pear,
chiefly by top grafting, have secured growth of limited life but
without fruiting.

The resistance of certain roots to the woolly aphis has been fully
demonstrated by local experience in the use of the Northern Spy
and Winter Majetin, chiefly the former. Seedlings of Northern Spy
can not be relied upon as resistant to the woolly aphis. It is neces-
sary to get a root actually grown from the Northern Spy wood. The
best way to get a start is to buy some Northern Spy trees from
some reputable nurseryman, specifying that they shall be Northern
Spy root and top. With these resistant roots and wood growth for
scions or cuttings can be grown. Resistant trees are made by root
grafting the scion of the variety which it is desired to propagate
upon a piece of Northern Spy root and then being careful that the
scion does not send out roots of its own, but is wholly dependent
upon the Northern Spy root. It is customary with nurserymen
selling resistant trees to save the root pieces which are removed in
digging and packing for subsequent propagation. It is also possible
to get a resistant tree by starting from the cutting of a Northern
Spy. To facilitate the rooting of these cuttings a small piece of any
kind of apple root is put in by side graft near the bottom of the cut-
ting. This acts as a starter, but the cutting will also make roots of
itself. At the end of the first year then the cuttings are taken up, the
piece of root used as a starter is cleanly cut away and the rooted cut-
ting replanted; henceforth it is dependent upon its own roots and is
resistant. The variety desired is then grafted in a little way above
the ground surface so that there will be no danger of its making
its own roots. By either of these processes it is more troublesome
and takes more time to produce a tree with a resistant root than
in the ordinary way, and for that reason trees on resistant roots are
sold at a higher price, and this may explain why resistant trees are
not yet largely used in this State.

Other suggestions applicable to the growth of young apple trees
are given in Chapters VIII and IX.

DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE APPLE

The apple is subject to various diseases and insect enemies which
must be resolutely fought or they will render the trees unprofitable.
Chief of these diseases are the ‘‘pear blight’’ and the apple scab, and
the apple mildew. Of the insect enemies, the codlin moth, the apple-
leaf aphis, the various leaf-cutting caterpillars and several scale
insects must be kept in check and the latest approved means of
reducing these troubles will be described in detail in Chapters XLI
and XLII.

PRUNING THE APPLE. 205

PLANTING AND CARE OF THE APPLE ORCHARD

The chapters on planting, and pruning contain suggestions to
which the reader is referred. Care should be taken to obtain trees
with clean, healthy roots, not knotted and scarred by woolly aphis.

Distance in Planting.—The distance between the trees is of the
highest importance. All the old apple orchards are overcrowded.
More recently trees have been set at greater distances, and such
planting is now generally advised. There is some difference of
opinion as to proper distance, but certainly twenty-five to thirty
feet is near enough, and some of the best new orchards have been
planted at forty feet, the ground being used for a time with other
crops or planted with early bearing trees, for which the soil is
suited, between them. Blackberries are largely grown in young
apple orchards in the Sebastopol district.

Pruning the Apple.*—The manner of shaping fruit trees de-
seribed in the chapter on pruning succeeds admirably with the
apple. Yearling trees are usually planted, and they are regularly
pruned until proper form is secured.

Mr. C. H. Rodgers, during his life-time a leading apple grower
of the Watsonville district, near the coast in central California,
gave the following excellent outline of a simple and economical, yet
successful, method for apple tree building under ordinary condi-
tions:

First Year: On planting cut the stem from 30 to 36 inches in
height, with the terminal bud toward the southwest. In the spring,
when growth begins, strip off all shoots from the ground up to
about 20 inches. Above this point let all growth remain during the
summer. If for any cause during early summer a bud does not start
where wanted, a short transverse cut through the bark just above
the bud will cause it to develop into limb.

Beginning of Second Year: Cut off all limbs except those selected
to remain permanently. Two, three, four, and not more than five
limbs should be allowed to remain, the number depending on their
position. It should be the aim to distribute them evenly on all sides,
and to give all possible space between limbs up and down the trunk.
This latter precaution is to give room for expansion of limbs in after
years. Cut back the limbs that are to remain, taking off from one-
third to one-half of the previous season’s growth. If the tree is of a
spreading habit, and it is desired to have it grow erect, cut to inner
buds. If desired to spread the top cut to outer buds.

Beginning of Third Year: Allow two or three lateral limbs to
remain on each of the main branches. Top the tree again, taking off
from one-third to one-half the previous year’s growth. Continue
this method during the first four years, at which time the tree should
begin to bear, and if surrounding conditions are favorable, it will
prove strong, vigorous and capable of sustaining a heavy load of

*A detailed account of apple pruning, especially in the treatment of the bearing tree

and preserving large amputations from decay is given by W. H. Volak in Monthly Bulletin
of the State Commission of Horticulture (Sacramento) for March and April, 1917.

206 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

apples. The after treatment will consist mainly in keeping the top
properly thinned.

After coming into bearing there must be intelligent pruning
according to the growth-habit of the variety. Some varieties, lke
the Yellow Bellflower, resent heavy pruning after coming into bear-
ing, and slow growers like the Yellow Newtown Pippin, do not need
it. On the other hand, varieties like the Winesap and Smith’s Cider
are apt to make long slim branches and bear at the ends. This can
be corrected by cutting back to secure more short shoots which will
bear better fruit. Some varieties, like the Jonathan, will make
plenty of short spurs under this treatment, while others, hke Rome
Beauty and Rhode Island Greening, are persistent tip-bearers, but
ean be gradually drawn in without reducing the crop too much.
The grower must study his varieties not only with reference to this
but in forming the tree, cutting to an inside bud all varieties which
naturally take a horizontal direction, and cutting to an outside bud
varieties which have a tendency to send up tall, straight shoots.
By thus throwing the new growth upward in the first case, and
outward in the second, one can shape each kind to greater symmetry
and strength for fruit carrying, and bring up all spreading varieties
to a form which admits near approach of the plow and cultivator.
This manner of shaping the tree must continue as long as seems
necessary to secure a tree which will come to bearing age shapely
and strong, and within reach.

Bearing trees should not be allowed to carry too many branches,
and pruning will largely consist of thinning out surplus shoots and
removing interference between branches. It is not desirable to
shorten in the apple as is done with the apricot and peach. Some
growers do not cut back after the third year.

A successful treatment of bearing trees, long practiced in the
Sebastopol district, is described by Mr. W. I. Newcomb as follows:

While trees are young, their new growth is cut back one-half to two-
thirds. When they become older they are not topped at all to speak of.

As long as you cut the ends off from branches, they will grow more new
wood; if you leave them alone, their tendency is more to very slow growth
and heavier fruiting down on the old wood. When thinning is necessary,
cut off the entire branch.

Wood is allowed to grow quite thickly in the center of the older, but is
thinned out to prevent rubbing, however. Fruit spurs are induced to set in
the body of the tree rather than far out on the limbs where a heavy load is
dangerous to the tree and fruit too. Some spurs on the older trees have
borne half a dozen crops each, and will continue.

Summer Pruning.—Summer pruning to reduce wood growth and
promote bearing is practiced to a limited extent in some districts
upon varieties inclined to shy bearing. In regions of the most in-
tense summer heat, less pruning is admissible than in the coast and
elevated regions. It is necessary that the foliage be dense to protect
the tree and the fruit from sunburn. Nor does the tree seem to
relish cutting back. Slight thinning out if the tree becomes too
brushy, seems to be the best treatment in some of the hot valleys.

In summer pruning to secure form and earlier fruiting of the

SUMMER PRUNING THE APPLE 207

young. tree, there is much variation in method. Very systematic
work is credited to Mr. J. W. Fulton of Yucaipa, San Bernardino
County, as follows:

The orchard includes ten acres of Rome Beauties and ten of Stayman
Winesap, Arkansas Black, Black Ben, and Vanderpool Red. The summer
pruning is done in June and again in August. In June the new growth is
eight or ten inches long on the average. It is not cut back, but thinned out
to keep the trees open enough but not to allow sunburn. Suckerous growth
especially is removed. The only cutting back at that time is to- direct the
growth of undesirably-pointed limbs into another direction. Rome Beauty
especially is hard to spread enough, so all cutting back is done to an outside
bud. The Winesaps naturally spread, and may need direction upward. A
branch may be growing in a direction where it would cross another by
winter and have to be taken out then. There is much less wasted energy
if it is cut out early. Late in August comes the really vigorous pruning,
when the new growth is two to four feet long. It is cut back and thinned
some more. Then in winter there is only some small brush to cut out.

Mr. F. W. Dunscombe of Beaumont, San Bernardino County, has
for a number of years promoted bearing in young apple trees in
this way:

After four years old, there is usually no need to prune an apple tree
for increased size. Turn the tree’s energies into bearing instead of wood
growth. Do not prune in winter except to cut out dead wood and interfering
branches, and to thin out where brush is too thick. Top back the new
growth (not heavily) all summer, preferably in August. The stoppage of
sap flow will force side buds to become fruit buds and spurs. When enough
spurs have been started by a few years’ Summer pruning, leave the trees
alone except to thin them out and keep them open to the sun for vigorous
fruiting and high coloring inside the tree. In cutting back in summer, leave
a branch or a promising bud just below the cut.

Thinning the Fruit—One of the most important items in the
handling of an apple orchard is the faithful thinning out of the fruit
of all varieties which are prone to over-bear, and this work is now
regularly provided for by the leading commercial growers. Only
one apple should grow at a place and spacing of four to six inches
is commended. Although this work is tedious and expensive, it is
profitable, because of the improved price which can be had for the
larger fruit which will be secured, and it is desirable in the effects
of thinning on the tree. It will be relieved from the exhaustion of
overbearing, induced to yield annual crops, and often saved from
breaking down with a too heavy burden.

Cultivation and Irrigation — All that has been urged in measures
to secure adequate moisture supply has full force with the apple.
Excepting the early varieties, it is a fruit with a long growing
season and therefore requires continuous moisture to secure size and
quality. Most California apples are grown on deep, retentive soils
in regions of large rainfall and if this is conserved by thorough
cultivation, good fruit can be secured, though irrigation to increase
size of fruit is often desirable. It is doubtless true that apples in
coast valleys would sometimes be improved by irrigation just as
they are in interior and mountain districts where adequate irriga-
tion is essential. .

208 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Fertilizers have been thus far but little used in California apple
orchards, but they are manifestly needed. .

There has arisen recently evidence of the unfinished character
of the fruit in some districts because it has shown blemishes after _
picking and during shipment which can not be attributed to any
parasitic encroachment. This is probably due to some unfavorable
condition in the local climate or to some other stress upon the tree
which prevents it from doing perfect work.

GATHERING AND STORING APPLES.

The disposition in this State, as elsewhere, is to allow the fruit
to hang too long upon the tree before gathering. It was long ago
demonstrated that an apple for long-keeping must be picked. a little
in advance of full maturity. As late fall weather in California is so
delightful, there is more temptation to delay the picking than where
the approach of winter admonishes the grower to get his fruit under
cover. Picking apples for shipment should be done just when the
seeds begin to blacken and when the fruit yields to pressure. If
left on until fully ripe, and the seeds all black, the fruit is apt not
to keep well. This rule applies to fall apples for shipment to dis-
tant markets, or for apples to be stored at home. But this is a rule
with exceptions. A. W. Tate of Watsonville does not pick Arkansas
Black Twigs until the latter part of November, when they are well
sugared but firm and matured—a nice color and very desirable for
the holiday trade. The King is often picked too early—before it
has the color or size it ought to have. Apples are picked early to
escape the drop, but in the Watsonville district canners and driers
pay good prices for sound windfalls and the late picked apples sell
at a good price.

An Apple Storage House.—Mr. C. H. King of Sonoma County
has a storage house with a capacity of 7,500 boxes or more. The
building is 40x60 feet, has no refrigerating equipment, but is kept
eool by night ventilation. The floor and sides are of sawdust held
in place by board sheeting inside and out, 8 inches apart. The ceil-
ing has two layers of sheeting and 14 inches of sawdust, above
which is six feet of air space, then the regular gabled roof. The air
space helps shield the ceiling from the heat on the roof.

Along the peak of the roof is a low, open, continous cupola. On
each of two sides are seven doors about two feet square, built like
the sides, and located just above the level of the floor. At night
these are opened. A wire screen on each prevents exit or entrance
of any codling moths or rodents. At the end of the season, the
house is closed tight and sulphur burned to kill any insects which
may be carrying over.

The fruit is stacked in trays 22 inches square and 3 inches deep.
Their bottoms are of eight laths, so spaced that apples rest squarely
on them. One lath on each side leaves plenty of chance for ventila-
tion.

Trays are stacked 30 deep in piles so there is an aisle from each

PICKING AND PACKING APPLES. 209

door to the one on the other side of the house. A gentle draft of
cold air flows in at night while the warmer air flows up through the
cupola. Some Wageners and Yellow Newtowns have been success-
fully held until April 15 with less than two per cent of loss by decay.

A rather more, open house is used in the coast region of Southern
California, by Mr. T. W. Ward, of Carpinteria:

It is a slat house made of strips 1x214 inches, put on one inch apart. The
roof is similarly constructed. There are two passages, on either side of
which are two shelves, one above the other, i. e., eight in all. The shelves
are made of slats placed one-half inch apart, with sides a foot high. The
apples are spread on these shelves a foot or more deep. The floor is made
of slats, and there are bins on this also. The first must receive a thorough
sprinkling weekly, unless sufficient rain falls. The slats are close enough
to prevent birds doing damage, and the whole building is raised six inches
from the ground.

In the mountain regions arrangements must be made for frost
exclusion—a consideration which does not apply to the valley and
coast.

PICKING AND PACKING APPLES ON A LARGE SCALE

Mr. C. H. Rodgers, whose pruning prescription has been cited,
gives the best methods of handling apples for market as follows:

In the matter of picking, experience has evolved a number of rules which
should be strictly adhered to:

(1) Do not pull the apple off the tree. By so doing, the stem may be
detached from the apple, thus making a second grade of what otherwise
would be choice. 8

The proper method of plucking the apple is to grasp it with the full hand,
not with the fingers only, and by a gentle twist and lateral movement detach
it with the stem attached. Especially must finger pressure be avoided in
the picking, as bruises thereby produced injure jthe value.

(2) The apple must never be dropped into a’receptacle or from box to
box, but should be transferred as carefully as so many eggs.

(3) Under all circumstances use vehicles having springs in moving the
fruit.

Once within the packing-house the more perishable varieties should be
handled immediately and forwarded to market, while the long-keeping vari-
eties, especially those intended for export, should be held at least a month
before sorting and packing. This latter precaution enables the packer to
discover and eliminate all diseased and defective fruit—a thing that would
be impossible if the fruit were packed at an early date after picking.

Three grades or qualities are recognized in the “trade’—first, second
and third. First grade includes only perfect fruit. Second grade includes
the fruit having a trivial surface blemish or stem absent. The third or cull
class includes all wormy, badly bruised or skin-broken apples.

Though grading for size varies somewhat in different localities, in the
Watsonville district, the leading apple-producing center of the West, there
are but three sizes recognized. These are 314, 4 and 4% tier. The unit of
size is the 4-tier, which comprises all apples running from 2% to 3% inches
in diameter, and derives the name from the fact that when packed in the
box there are four rows of four apples each, both vertically and horizon-
tally across the end of the box. Apples in excess of 3144 inches are classed
as 314-tier size. The third size, or 41%4-tier, includes those apples ranging
between 2144 and 254 inches in diameter. Both the 314-tier and 414-tier
are packed in the manner known as “diamond” pack or “pear” pack. Apples

210 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

smaller than 414-tier are thrown into the cull pile. The sorter ascertains
the size by passing the apples through circular holes in a board.

In this state the standard box is made of pine. Redwood boxes are used
only for cheap grades of apples packed for the local market.

After being sorted, the apples are passed to the packer, who, before
placing them in the box, wraps each apple in a piece of paper prepared for
the purpose.

The apples must be so packed in the box as to permit the nailing firmly
of the lid at each end, and at the same time allow a gradual swell of about
three-fourths of an inch at the middle wf both top and bottom. On account

of the resultant shape of the boxes, they can be stacked up with safety only
on their sides.

The packed boxes, after being neatly labeled, are next transferred to the
cars and stacked four or five tiers high. An air space of three or four feet
is left between the top tier and the roof of the car, also the entire space
between the doors is left vacant for the better circulation of air. The boxes,
after being systematically placed in the car, are so braced with timbers as
to prevent any movement. The usual carload consists of about 650 boxes.
Refrigerator fruit cars are employed mainly for apple shipment, but no ice
is used.

Under the California ‘‘Standard Apple Act of 1915,’’ any box
labeled ‘‘standard’’ shall be 10% inches deep, 111% inches wide, 18
inches long, measured inside without distension. The ordinary Cali-
fornia apple box is 984x11x22 inches. Oregon boxes are 10144x11144x
18 and Colorado boxes are 1114x1144x18. There is no Federal
standard apple box. There is no weight limit. The weight will
vary with the size of the apples and the bulge.

Summer and Fall Apples——In some regions noted for early
maturing of fruit, it is profitable to grow early apples, providing
there are facilities for reaching profitable avenues of trade. Ex-
cept to minister to some special local or distant trade which can be
thus foreseen, it must be said that very early apples are hardly
worth the attention of the commercial planter. These sorts are apt
to come into direct contest with the magnificent peaches, grapes
and other summer and autumn fruits, and suffer thereby.

On the other hand the fall apples, chiefly the Yellow Bellflower
and Gravenstein, are so good and profitable in regions where they
bear well that they are among the varieties which constitute our
chief commercial reliance. Bellflowers are also encroaching on the
field of winter apples because they come out so well from cold
storage.

Winter Apples—For large ventures in apple growing, in localli-
ties carefully chosen for especial adaptations, a few of the finest
varieties of winter apples should generally be selected. It is the
judgment of the most experienced apple growers, many of whom
have old orchards including many varieties, that new plantations
of winter apples should contain only about six sorts. Of these, in
all parts of the State, two would be the Yellow Newtown Pippin
and White Winter Pearmain; the other four would vary in different
parts of the State, as can be learned from the table which will
follow.

Apples for Long Shipment.—There has been for years quite an

POLLINATION OF APPLES 211

i

important trade in shipment of California apples to various ports
in -the South Pacific Ocean, and recently there has been a sharp
demand for California apples for shipment to the Eastern States
and England. The characteristic size, quality and keeping of the
fruit, together with the size and style of package, have strongly
commended the fruit. The center of this trade is Watsonville, in a
coast valley, in the central part of the State. The two apples which
are most popular are the Yellow Bellflower and the Yellow New-
town Pippin. It is an interesting fact that these varieties have
overcome the popular fervor for a red apple, though at Watson-
ville some Red Pearmains are grown to fill orders which insist on
having some color.

For the Interior Valleys.—In choosing varieties for the hot val-
leys of the State those making a heavy growth are to be preferred.
The Spitzenberg, for example, is a failure in the valleys of the in-
terior, though satisfactory at points on the valley borders. From
experience already had it seems likely that some of the Russian
varieties, with thick, large leaves, will prove best for such situa-
tions. The behavior of the Astracans, the Duchess of Oldenburg,
and others of Russian origin, are illustrations of this fact. Other
varieties have been on trial for several years, but no great distribu-
tion of them has yet been attained.

SELECTION OF VARIETIES FOR CROSS-POLLINATION

The suspicion long held by growers that productivity of the apple
is largely conditioned on ecross-pollination, at least in the case of
some leading commercial varieties, is being sustained by careful tests
by the pomologists of the University of California begun in 1918 in
the Watsonville district. The first year’s results indicated that the
Yellow Newtown Pippin is self-fertile and the Yellow Bellflower
self-sterile ; also that, though they bloom together, the latter is not
satisfactorily influenced by the former. In all cases the set of fruit
was largely increased by providing hives of bees to act as pollinating
agencies. These experiments will be continued and results currently
published. The present inference is that planters should provide
potent pollinizers and not narrow down too closely in planting what
the trade seems to require.

For the Sebastopol district Mr. O. E. Bremner observes that the
Gravenstein, the basic local variety, is assisted in bearing by Esopus
Spitzenberg, and Baldwin; while Wagener, and Rome Beauty or
Hoover, Rhode Island Greening and Red Astracan, are well adapted
for alternate planting.

It should be noted, of course, that with the apple as with other
fruits, early blooming and early ripening are not associated—that
some of the latest maturing and longest keeping apples bloom with
or even earlier than some of the so-called summer and fall varieties.
It is therefore possible to select good pollinators without going out
of the class found profitable to grow.

212 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Association for cross-pollination can be arranged with a number
of our most popular varieties by consulting the following dates of
blooming as prepared by Mr. Frederick Maskew based upon ob-
servations in the coast region of Los Angeles County:

Blooming Season of a Group of Popular Varieties.

Tv

Varieties. First bloom. Full bloom. Bipot
White Winter Pearmain ............ April 11 April 27 May 5
FUCA ASPCA CHIN nes rire ashley stiene tone erate fe April 17 April 30 May 12
SHAM O Wier) Macatee a ocis cae einer eieie eievesace aie April 20 April 30 May 16
BEVEL NETO PENS pears st cnete terete eietecerspeome oben vines April 20 May 5 May 15
Rhode Island Greening= ....6/6..55.- April 20 May 5 May 15
Kentucky Red Streak .............. April 20 May 10 May 20
a Ey MMERATVOST lus itcle c.cisieps.aleue neste aeieta-e April 21 May 6 May 12
SSN OC Raby, eeteeraicus tide vo craletlveetekebene cone teuatanie tah siete April 27 May 15 May 20
PETER ETVETTIS pane bcc oi cis terete ich oasanecd. etiereiaiecaus re April 27 May 15 May 22
ER SIVND AVIS a ee cetera ale cectclarenaciaeNete ter aves pie April 29 May 15 May 23
ANE TAVIS OWS GIR ERE epee Age cee eer May 5 May 17 June Il
Voellow: Transparent |. 0400. .ean eee May 5 May 16 June 1
PVOWVC HSCS eselevehes Sievers hie alone soot ceseraiions May 7 May 16 June 1
NISSOUTE EID DID meal tetnatn coarse ec eaonel May 10 May 20 June 1
PNileev-a2h 040 (2) RA PUNO ICN MORE RESETS Oa May 15 May 25 June 1
Sits Ciderd neeea nie sh. ate selves el aeucte May 15 May 25 June 6
Transcendent, Craw, <i. « orthiclerstse aisteye Mar. 30 April 7 April 22
EDV SLOP OLA maciere c clnistiels eiereteienevece te tee oe April 11 April 22 April 30
WOME easy CTA Dy ie acts wee seu are eer eerleraers April 16 April 24 May 7

This is a later range of bloom than will be found in many parts
of the State. but the same relation may be expected everywhere.

VARIETIES OF APPLES CHIEFLY GROWN IN
CALIFORNIA

Of the hundreds of varieties tested in California comparatively
few are now grown, as has already been suggested. Those named
in Chapter XVI are most largely grown. Including these the follow-
ing showing is made of practically all varieties which are now being
propagated for planting. The arrangement is, approximately, in
the order of ripening.

Carolina Red June (Southern) —Medium size oval, irregular, inclined to
conic; deep red covered with light bloom; slack in small cavity; calyx
closed; flesh white, tender, juicy, subacid; core rather large.

Early Harvest (American)—Medium size, roundish; straw color with
few faint white dots; stalk half to three-fourths inch, slender, set in mod-
erate cavity; calyx in shallow basin; flesh very white, tender, crisp, pleas-
ant.

Early Strawberry (New York).—Medium size, roundish, narrowing to-
ward the eye; skin smooth, deep red on yellow ground; stalk one and a
half inches. rather slended and uneven, in deep cavity; calyx small, in
shallow basin; flesh white, tinged with red next to the skin, tender sub-
acid, sprightly.

Red Astracan (Russian).—Large roundish; skin deep red, save greenish
yellow in the shade; pale white bloom; stalk short, and deeply inserted;

VARIETIES OF APPLES. 213

calyx partially closed and set in slight basin; flesh white, juicy and crisp,
pleasant acid; tree hardy and vigorous, and an early bearer. The main
reliance in California for an early apple.

White Astracan (Russian).—Large, roundish; skin smooth and nearly
white, with faint streaks of red, and covered with white bloom; flesh white.
Considerably grown in the Sacramento Valley and foothills for early ship-
ment. Sometimes attains a weight of 29 ounces. Excellent in the Modesto
district of the San Joaquin Valley.

Duchess of Oldenburg (Russian)—Large, roundish, oblate; yellow,
streaked with red; calyx large, nearly closed, set in wide, even hollow;
flesh juicy, subacid.

Skinner’s Seedling (name approved by California State Horticultural
Society, November, 1887); syn. Skinner’s Pippin, Santa Clara King.—Orig-
inated with Judge H. C. Skinner, of San Jose. Fruit large to very large;
form oblate, conic, slightly mixed; color rich lemon yellow, faintly striped
with bright red; flesh yellowish white, very tender, juicy, sprightly, mild
subacid; quality best. Season, September and October. Excellent for home
use and local sale. Difficult to pick without breaking the spurs.

Grayenstein (German).—Large, rather flattened; a little one-sided or
angular; broadest at base; stalk short, strong, deeply set; calyx large,
closed, in a large basin; skin yellow, freely marked with light and deep red
and orange; flesh tender, crisp, highly flavored, aromatic; a strong-grow-
ing and heavily-bearing tree; a standard fall apple in this State.

Red Bietigheimer (German).—Large to very large, oblate, slightly coni-
cal, regular, smooth, whitish or yellowish white, shaded with light and dark
red, and purplish crimson in the sun; stalk short, rather stout, calyx closed
in large, deeply, slightly corrugated basin; flesh white, firm, juicy, brisk
subacid. Declining in favor.

Maiden’s Blush (New Jersey).—Rather large, smooth, regular; yellow,
with evenly shaded red cheek; stalk short, in rather wide, deep hollow;
calyx closed in moderate depression; flesh white, tender sprightly.

Fall Pippin.—Very large, roundish, a little flattened; stalk three-fourths
inch, projecting considerably beyond the fruit (which distinguishes it from
the Holland Pippin); calyx open, not very large, rather deeply sunk in
round, narrow basin; skin smooth, yellowish green, becoming pure yellow;
brownish blush and few scattered dots; flesh white, tender, mellow, rich,
aromatic. Being discarded by planters.

Alexander (Russian).—Very large, showy, conical. greenish yellow,
streaked with red in shade, bright red in sun; calyx large, in deep basin;
stalk slender, long, in deep cavity; flesh yellowish white, crisp, tender, and
juicy. Tree vigorous, but not always a good bearer.

Gloria Mundi.—Very large, roundish, oblate; ribbed; greenish yellow.
A popular show apple on account of great size attained in this State. (See
table.)

Fameuse; syn. Snow Apple (Canada).—Medium size, roundish, somewhat
flattened; deep crimson, nearly concealing pale yellowish ground; flesh
snowy white, tender, juicy, slight perfume; stalk slender, one-half inch, in
narrow funnel-shaped cavity; succeeds well in the foothills, but losing pop-
ularity.

King of Tompkins County.—Large, globular, angular, inclining to conic;
yellowish, mostly shaded with red, striped and splashed with crimson; stalk
short and stout, in large, somewhat irregular cavity; calyx small, closed;
flesh yellowish, rich, juicy, vinous, aromatic; chiefly grown in mountain
regions. Popular in Humboldt County.

Ben Dayis.—Large, roundish, sides often unequal; light red and deep
red on yellowish ground; stalk medium, rather slender, in deep, narrow
cavity; calyx partially open. Being discarded by planters. Displaced by
Black Ben Davis and Gano to some extent.

Baldwin (Massachusetts).—Large, roundish, narrowing a little toward

214 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

the eye; deep bright red over a yellow ground; a few russet dots; calyx
closed and set in narrow basin; stalk one-half to three-fourths inch, rather
slender, set in deep cavity; flesh yellowish-white, crisp, juicy, sub-acid.
Best in northern and elevated regions; coloring varies greatly according to
locality. a

Hoover (South Carolina).—Large, roundish, slightly oblique; yellowish,
mostly overspread with red, with conspicuous light dots; stalk rather long,
in large cavity; calyx open in furrowed basin; flesh yellowish, juicy, crisp,
acid. Sells well in Sonoma County.

Rhode Island Greening.—Large, roundish, a little flattened, pretty regu-
lar; dark green, becoming yellowish green; calyx small, woolly, closed, in
shallow basin; stalk three-fourths inch, curved, thickest at the bottom;
flesh yellow, fine grained; tender crisp, juicy, aromatic, slightly acid; tree
healthy and the variety widely popular. Sells well to apple driers.

King David.—Large, deep red, suffusing rich yellow, and delicious flavor.
Largely planted for the fall trade.

Jonathan (New York).—Medium to large, roundish, conical or tapering
to the eye; light yellow, nearly covered with red stripes and deep red in the
sun; stalk three-fourths of an inch, rather slender, in deep, regular cavity;
calyx in deep, broad basin; tender, juicy, rich, vinous; a great favorite in
California; specially commended as a market apple; keeps till midwinter.

Winesap.—Medium size, roundish oblong; dark yellow with traces of
yellow in the shade; stalk nearly an inch, slender, set in an irregular cav-
ity; calyx small, in regular basin; flesh yellow, crisp, high, rich flavor;
largely grown; tree a good bearer. :

Stayman Winesap.—An old improvement on the Winesap now becoming
more prominent. Some growers reporting favorably on Winesap have this
variety, which is larger and better, and the tree a stronger grower and
more productive. ¥

Ortley; syn. White Bellflower, etc. (New Jersey).—Large, oblong, green-
ish yellow, becoming fine yellow with slight blush; stalk medium, slender,
set in deep, acute cavity; calyx closed, set in abrupt corrugated basin;
flesh white, fine grained, juicy, subacid; disappearing from propagation.

Lawver.—Large, roundish, oblate, dark red, covered with small dots;
stalk medium, cavity deep, regular; calyx small, closed in medium fur-
rowed basin; flesh white, sprightly, aromatic; late keeping variety, but
being discarded. :

Yellow Belleflower (New Jersey).—Very large, oblong, irregular, taper-
ing toward the eye; smooth; lemon color, with blush; stalk long and slen-
der, in deep cavity; calyx closed, in rather narrow basin; flesh tender,
juicy, crisp, with sprightly subacid flavor; keeps well into the winter; tree
a strong grower and healthy; one of the universal favorites of California.

Esopus Spitzenburg (New York).—Large, oblong, tapering roundly to
the eye; smooth, nearly covered with rich, lively red, dotted with distinct
yellowish russet dots; on shaded side, yellowish ground with streaks and
broken stripes of red; stalk rather long, three-fourths inch, slender, pro-
jecting beyond the base and inserted in wide cavity; calyx small and closed,
in shallow basin; flesh yellow, rather firm, crisp, juicy, with a delicious
rich, brisk fiavor. A largely grown variety; tree a good, upright grower
and healthy; fruit keeps fairly.

Smith’s Cider (Pennsylvania).—Large, roundish, oblate conic; yellow,
shaded and striped with red, sparsely covered with gray dots; stalk slen-
der, in deep, rather narrow cavity; calyx closed, in broad, shallow basin;
flesh whitish, juicy, crisp, acid; tree a strong grower, and fruit keeps till
midwinter.

Rome Beauty (Ohio)—Large, roundish, approaching conic; yellow,
shaded and striped with bright red, sprinkled with light dots; stalk one
inch, in large, deep cavity; calyx partially closed, in deep narrow basin;
flesh yellowish, juicy, sprightly; fruit keeps late. Particularly fine in the

VARIETIES OF APPLES 215

mountain valleys of Southern California, though popular also in northern
coast districts.

Missouri Pippin (Missouri).—Large, roundish oblate, slightly oblique,
somewhat flattened at the ends; shaded, striped and splashed with light and
dark red, often quite dark in the sun; many large and small gray dots;
stalk short, small; cavity large, deep; calyx closed or half open, basin
rather abrupt deep, slightly corrugated; flesh whitish, rather coarse, mod-
erately juicy, subacid. Formerly largely planted, but losing favor for lack
of keepins quality in coast valleys.

Winter Banana.—Medium to large; golden yellow, shaded red; flavor
rich, subacid. Late fall. An early bearer.

Northern Spy (New York).—Large, roundish, oblate, conical; pale yel-
low, purplish red stripes in the sun; stalk three-fourths inch, slender, in
wide, deep cavity; calyx small, closed; flesh white, mild, pleasant; highly
esteemed in a few localities, but abandoned in others for shy bearing.

White Winter Pearmain.—Large, roundish, oblong conic, somewhat ob-
lique; pale yellow with slight blush, many minute brown dots; stalk short,
in deep cavity; calyx nearly closed; flesh yellowish, tender, crisp, juicy,
very pleasant, subacid, extra high flavor; grown everywhere and fruit keeps

late; tree a strong grower and healthy. Greatly advantaged by cross-pol-
lination.

Grimes Golden.—Medium to large; rich yellow with many gray dots;
beautiful; flavor good. Late fall.

Delicious.—Resembling Bellflower; yellow; almost covered with dark
red; very mild acid, quality good; a late keeper. Strongly approved in
elevated districts, and recently largely planted.

Arkansas Black (Mammonth Black Twig).—Large, round, sometimes
oblate and conic; dull green becoming deep yellow, overspread with deep
red, obscurely striped with deeper shade. Late fall.

Yellow Newtown Pippin.—Large, roundish, oblate and oblaque, more or
less flattened, yellow with brownish red cheek; stalk very short; flesh firm,
crisp, juicy, and with very rich, high flavor. Generally considered the best
winter apple in California.

CRAB APPLES

Hyslop.—Fruit large, growing in clusters; roundish ovate; dark rich
red, covered with thick blue bloom; stalk long, slender; calyx closed; flesh
yellowish.

Large Red Siberian.—Roundish ovate with large and prominent calyx;
pale red and yellow skin.

Large Yellow Siberian.—Fruit similar in size to foregoing, roundish oval,
flattened at base and crown; light clear yellow, inclining to amber, with
warm cheek.

Tranecendant.—Medium to large, roundish oval, flattened at the ends,
slightly but regularly ribbed; golden yellow, with rich, crimson cheek, or
nearly covered with red; delicate white bloom; stalk long and slender, in
open, deep cavity; calyx closed; flesh creamy yellow.

Montreal Beauty.—Large, roundish, oblate; bright yellow, mostly cov-
ered and shaded with red; one of the most beautiful of crab apples.

Whitney’s Crab.—Large, handsome, greenish yellow, striped with crim-
son.

216 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF APPLE VARIETIES.

It was strongly held for some time that varieties of apples named
show wide divergence in their adaptations to California conditions
and that choice of varieties for planting should be determined by
local determination of such distinctive adaptation. Although there
unquestionably are such preferences they have never attained the
euiding significance expected from them. On the other hand it has
been quite clearly demonstrated that varieties should be chosen with
reference to their early and late maturing habits in connection with
the growth-character of the region in which they are planted and
the trade to which they are to minister. Though there is some
difference in degree of popularity of varieties in the several apple
regions (and the actual reasons for this should be closely investi-
gated) it is a fact that the same varieties are found productive and
profitable and are prominent in all regions ministering to similar
commercial demands. The varieties named in Chapter XVI are
grown in all regions, according to the suitability of their maturing
season to local growing conditions and the avenues of profitable
trade which have been developed.

CHAPTER XVIII

THE APRICOT

California has nearly four million apricot trees which stand in

the open air without protection of any kind and bear large, luscious
fruit. That apricot trees can do this constitutes one of the unique
features of California fruit growing and proclaims it different from
fruit growing in other States, for, excepting a few localities in other
parts of the Pacific slope, California has a monopoly of commercial
apricot growing, and nowhere else in the world does the fruit attain
such commercial importance. Although the apricot has been grown
here from the earliest days of American occupation, and though
since the opening of the export trade in canned and dried fruits,
the apricot has gained in popularity, the planting of apricot orchards
has not proceeded recently with great rapidity, although indications
are that our distant patrons are only just beginning to recognize
the desirability of the fruit, and their demands will make it well-
“nigh impossible for us to extend our production beyond profitable
limits. The reason the apricot has not kept pace with the advance
of some other fruits in California is to be found in certain limita-
tions of suitable area which will be mentioned presently.

Though the apricot has some pests and diseases to contend with,
they have thus far proved slight evils, and the tree is generally
regarded as one of the healthiest and most vigorous, as it certainly
is one of our most, beautiful orchard trees. It is long-lived and
attains great size. There are here and there groups of trees nearly
half a century old which have a height of fifty feet; the main trunks
like forest oaks, and the first branches of limbs twelve and fifteen
inches through. The smaller limbs and foliage are at least fifty feet
across ;.a half dozen of them shade an acre of ground and they some-
times yield per tree a ton of fruit. But such trees do not meet
orchard requirements and are only mentioned to show what the tree
may do when it has its own way.

The apricot is a rapid grower and an early and heavy bearer in
California. In the interior and in the southern coast valleys it yields
a paying crop during its third summer in the orchard, and from
eight to fourteen tons to the acre was reached for several years in
succession, in Judge Blackwood’s old orchard of Royal apricots, in
Alameda County. The trees, even of some varieties which are un-
certain bearers, are large and vigorous growers, and have warranted
the suggestion that there is a use for the apricot tree for a wind-
break for the protection of other trees. The trees may be planted
near together in strong land and make a windbreak that will pay
its way without regard to such fruit as it may incidentally produce.

Apricots are chiefly marketed as a dried fruit and the operation
of drying will be described in the chapter devoted to such processes.
The amount used in canning is, in a year of full production, about

218 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

one-quarter of that used for drying, while the weight of fruit sold
fresh to consumers, near and far, is about one-quarter of that used
by the canners. It is historically interesting to note that in 1918
apricot pits of the crop of 1917 sold at $32.50 per ton for war
purposes.

LOCALITIES FOR THE APRICOT

In discussing localities for the apricot, reference is, of course,
only made to its growth as a standard orchard tree without pro-
tection of any kind. It shows even in California that it does not
forget the conditions which destroy its thrift elsewhere, for late
frosts in our upper coast counties render it, as a rule, unprofitable.
Speaking broadly, the quarter of the State lying northward of the
Bay of San Francisco and westward of the high ridge of the Coast
Range is not suited for commercial apricot growing; though here
and there are places where bearing may be regular and abundant
enough to make trees satisfactory for home gardens. The mountain
regions everywhere in the State above an elevatien of 1200 feet are
also to be excluded. The lowest lands of the great interior valleys,
except here and there, where frosts are prevented by proximity of
broad streams or by favoring air currents, are unsuited for apricots,
and the bottoms of small valleys whence cold air could not find drain-
age outlet, are also treacherous. It is evident then, that even in
regions of general adaptation to the fruit local discrimination must be
exercised in selecting land for apricots, and the occurrenee of spring
frosts, which are usually governed by topography, must be guarded
against. This is not the same problem which arises in the selection
of land for citrus fruits, because apricots are not open to injury
during December, January and February, and consequently they
may be successfully grown in places where winter temperatures
might injure the evergreen trees of the citrus family. Still, next
to the almond, the apricot is most Hable to frost injury of all our
deciduous tree fruits, and commercial success depends largely upon

the selection of a proper place for them. The occurrence of even

light frosts during the blooming and setting, or soon after, may
strip the tree of its burden of fruit without injury to even the softest
of twig and leaf; consequently, regular bearing of the apricot can
not be expected where the temperature is apt to fall four or five
degrees below the freezing point during the months of March and
April, even though the duration of such temperature may be very
brief. For this reason the area of California which is well suited
to apricot growing is limited when compared with the great area
of the State, though when counted by acres it is ample enough to
supply all the fresh, canned and dried apricots which the markets
of the world can be expected to take at profitable figures.

It is often claimed that situations directly subject to ocean in-
fluences are best for the apricot. It is noted by many observers
that the apricot ‘‘points its best branches to the ocean, in the very
teeth of the constant breeze, and the landward limbs and twigs bend
up and endeavor to reach the same direction. This is patent in every

LOCALITIES FOR THE APRICOT 219

tree, and in the long orchard rows is very striking.’’ This is taken
to signify the special liking of the tree for the vicinity of the coast.
It is well enough to interpret it that way, providing one does not
lose sight of the perfect success of the apricot in the interior as well.
It is true that the fruit near the coast attains higher color, and the
less rapid growth of the tree makes it somewhat easier to handle,
but the earlier ripening in the interior, coupled with freedom from
fog and constant sunshine for drying, are points of the highest in-
dustrial importance. The fact is that the apricot has a very wide
range in California, and though the trees have been cut out at some
points it has been chiefly because too frosty locations have been
chosen or because some other fruit has seemed to be locally more
desirable, for one reason or another.

In some valleys in the upper part of the State opening directly
to the ocean, there is sometimes complaint of the cracking of the
fruit on the sunny side. The alternation of sunshine and fog seems
to have something to do with this, for in favorable years, when fogs
are few, the fruit is sound.

Locations for early ripening of the apricot are to be chosen with
reference to the influence of topography, as laid down in Chapter I.
In a general way, it may be said, in regions directly subject to coast
influences, both in Northern and Southern California, the apricot is
late. On the west side of the Sacramento Valley, on slightly elevated
places, in small, hill-locked valleys, the earliest apricots have been
grown for years. Protected situations in the foothills of the Sierra
Nevada, on the eastern rim of both the Sacramento and San Joaquin
Valleys, share in the production of the earliest ripening fruit. There
is probably about a month’s difference in the ripening of the same
variety in the earliest situations and in the coast valleys of both
Northern and Southern California.

In the interior of Southern California, in irrigated situations, on
the west side cf the Colorado River and in adjacent parts of Arizona,
apricots rival in earliness the product of the famous valleys of in-
terior Northern California.

Recently a measure of success with the apricot has been attained
in irrigated sections of Eastern Washington, Idaho and Utah. If
winter temperatures are low enough to keep the tree dormant and
yet not low enough to injure the fruit buds and frosts are absent
after growth begins, success ought to be attainable.

STOCKS AND SOILS FOR THE APRICOT

Because of the success with which the apricot can be budded on
various stocks, it has a wide range in adaptation to different soils.
Budded on the peach root it may be grown successfully on the light,
warm, well-drained loams in which the peach delights. The peach
root is, in fact, largely used for the apricot. It gives the tree quick
growth and early fruiting, and the fact that the gopher does not
like the peach root is a consideration with some planters. In grow-

220 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

/

ing stocks, pits of a strong-growing yellow peach are believed to
yield more uniform and thrifty seedlings.

For deep, rich, well-drained, loamy soils, the apricot on its own
root makes a magnificent tree. Apricot roots for budding are easily
secured. The pits sprout as readily as corn. Sometimes, where
cutting and drying are done in the orchard, the ground the next
spring will be almost covered with a volunteer crop of seedling
apricots. These little plants, taken up and set out in nursery rows
in March, are ready for budding in June or July. Large numbers
of trees are sometimes secured in this way. In the upper San
Joaquin Valley there are situations in which the apricot seems more
productive on its own roots than on the peach, and in the moister
parts of the San Fernando and tributary valleys in Southern Cali-
fornia the apricot root has recently advanced in popularity. It is,
however, rather more sensitive to soil-drouth than the peach root,
and in the Imperial Valley is regarded as less tolerant of alkal than
the peach root.

When it is desired to grow the apricot in moister and heavier
soils than have been described, or where a light soil is underlaid by
a heavy, retentive subsoil, recourse should be had to the plum root.
Only a non-suckering plum stock should be used. For this purpose
the Myrobalan has been considerably used. Some growers complain
that the root has a dwarfing effect on the tree, and object to its use,
but recently its use has increased. It is however not adapted to the
lighter soils in which the peach root may thrive. The manner of
securing Myrobalan stocks has been deseribed in the chapter on
propagation.

Apricot and Almond.—The almond should as a rule be rejected
as a stock for the apricot. Hundreds have tried it, and found that
the scion does not make a good union with the wood of the stock but
is knit to it only by the bark, and is, therefore, easily broken off by
the wind. It may grow well and sometimes gets to be two or three
inches in diameter before it breaks off. Whole orchards worked in
this way have been a loss and disappointment.

A few growers, however, approve the almond and use it with the
idea that it gives larger fruit. It has been claimed that the Royal
apricot will take well on the almond seedling by root grafting in-
stead of budding, using the side graft. Cut off the top of the stock
about four to six inches above ground, scrape away the dirt, bend -
the stock, and, with a sharp, thin knife, cut into the root to the
center, making the cut perpendicular, so that the graft will be that
way when inserted. The scion should be made wedge-shaped. After
insertion, draw the loose earth around it, and the work is done until
the graft has made a growth of eighteen to twenty-four inches. This
is given as a record of experience, but still caution is urged against
the use of the almond as a stock for the apricot.

The apricot may also be made to hold on the almond by double
working, growing on the almond seedling first a shoot from a peach
or plum bud and then working an apricot bud higher up in the new
shoot.

PLANTING THE APRICOT. Pap AS

In addition to the specifications of certain stocks for different
soils, it may be remarked, in a general way, that the apricot seems
to thrive better on a tolerably heavy soil, with enough sand to make
it work easily, than on a very light soil. It does well on soil rather
too heavy for the peach. It also enjoys moisture better and gives
signs of distress unless its roots are fairly supplied all during the
season, but it dislikes standing water and should not be planted on
undrained situations.

PLANTING THE APRICOT

The apricot becomes a large tree in California, as has already
been remarked, and it should be given plenty of room. Twenty-four
feet each way is certainly the minimum distance for so large and
long-lived tree, and some orchards have been planted at thirty feet.
If nearer planting is done it should be with reference to subsequent
removal of part of the trees, which, however, is very seldom done.
Twenty feet apart, with later removal of half the trees to double the
distance was proposed by H. D. Briggs, of Azusa, in this way:

In setting out an orchard it seems advisable to double set the ground, as
an apricot twelve to fifteen years old should have not less than 800 to 900
square feet of ground. This can easily be obtained by setting 20x 20 feet;
then when nine or ten years old remove every other tree, making them
forty feet in the row, with rows twenty feet apart, of course, taking them
out diagonally. The trees will very quickly tell the orchardist when they
are too thick. When the outside rows have twice the fruit of those inside,
it is quite evident that the time spent in pruning, etc., on half of the trees
is worse than wasted. I have cut roots forty feet from a nine-year-old tree.

The apricot makes such rapid growth and so much depends upon
giving it proper form, as will be seen presently, that one year’s
growth is all that should be allowed in the nursery. Some growers
would rather have a dormant bud than a two-year-old tree, and
cases have been reported from dormant buds outgrowing yearling
trees planted at the same time in the same orchard. But in growing
from a dormant bud in the orchard great care should be taken to
develop a short trunk, with properly-spaced branches, by pinching
the side shoots near the ground. Trees started from dormant buds
and allowed to branch from the ground, have developed very un-
satisfactory form, and: have, in some situations, lost their lower
branches by the wind. The tree should have a low head, but a short
trunk seems to give a better tree, and more elasticity to the
branches.

PRUNING THE APRICOT

Of all California orchard trees, the apricot seems most in need
of the constant attention of the orchardist to give it proper shape
and strength. It is a rampant grower, and in its zealous haste for
size and fruitage it over-reaches itself and becomes the prey of
specific gravity and wind force. Thousands of trees have been
ruined by literally breaking to pieces with the weight of their fruit,

999 CALIFORNIA FRUITS:- HOW TO GROW THEM

and being torn by winds of only ordinary velocity. Thousands more
have been rescued from such a fate by bolting the branches to each
other. This excessive growth and consequent weakness of the
apricot is greater in some parts of the State than in others, because
of the difference in degree of forcing conditions, but everywhere
the apricot needs watchfulness and timely aid in building up its
strength. The general principles to be observed in securing branches
strongly attached to a short trunk have already been discussed at
length in Chapter XII.

There has been a very marked change during the last few years
in pruning the apricot. Summer pruning, immediately after the
fruit is picked, has become much more general, and winter pruning
has proportionally decreased. Young trees are winter pruned to
promote low branching and short, stout limbs; bearing trees are
summer pruned to promote fruit bearing and check wood growth—
the excess of bearing shoots being removed by thinning during the
winter.

The apricot tree bears upon old spurs, like the plum; also upon
the new wood, like the peach. This fact has to be borne in mind
when winter thinning of the new growth is undertaken.

A very clear record of procedure is given by J. B. Neff, of Ana-
heim, Orange County, who built up one of the best apricot orchards
in the State as he describes:

Pruning the apricot requires some skill and considerable judgment.
Trees of four to five feet in height are preferable for planting, and when
planted should be trimmed to a single stem and cut off at eighteen inches
from the ground. These will throw out shoots vigorously, and frequently
two or three shoots from one point. These shoots should be thinned out,
leaving not more than four or five, no two of which should come from one
point, nor be directly opposite. The first shoot should start twelve inches
from the ground, the others in such a manner as to divide the space and
make the branches balance, leaving the top shoot to form the central part
of the tree.

It will be necessary to go over the trees several times the first year to
remove shoots that may start where not wanted, but no general heading
back should be done, as it tends to dwarf the tree; though if some of the
limbs are making an overgrowth they should be pinched back to keep the
head balanced.

In the pruning of the second year, the first year’s growth should be cut
back to within five or ten inches of the body of the tree, and all forks
should be cut out, even if it necessitates forming a new head, as it is much
better to lose some growth on a young tree than to take the risk of split-
ting down when the tree begins to bear fruit.

The second year will require much more attention than the first year, in
order to keep off suckers and all lateral growth that may start on the under
side of the new limbs, the object being to make the limbs grow as nearly
upright as possible.

In pruning for the third year the second year’s growth should now be
cut back to within fifteen to twenty inches of the old wood, except the cen-
tral stem, which may be left twenty-four to thirty inches long, depending
on the number of laterals it may have thrown out. When the new shoots
start they should again be thinned down to two or three on each limb, and
all taken off that tend to turn down or out at right angles, but do not take
off the fruit spurs. ,

During the third season’s growth, go over the trees about three times
before July to remove suckers and lateral growth that may start on the

PRUNING THE APRICOT 223

lower side of the limbs, as the tendency in the third year is to make an
immense growth of downward laterals, and these must be taken off so as
to develop wood that is to be left for fruit. If the orchard is on good land
and has been properly irrigated and cultivated there will be a few speci-
mens of the fruit the third year, and as soon as these are gathered the
trees should be summer pruned for the first time, care being taken that
the land shall have been allowed to become moderately dry so that the
trees may be partially dormant. If the downward growth of the laterals
has been kept cut off, all that remains to be done is to cut off about one-
half of all this season’s growth all over the tree, using the same judgment
as before with reference to prevailing winds and symmetry of tree. If this
is properly done and water at once turned on the orchard, a new growth
will be made and the fruit buds for next year fully developed.

The only pruning necessary in the following winter will be to take out
any cross limbs and sprouts that may have been overlooked in the summer.

After the trees begin to produce regular crops they will not grow so
vigorously, and the numerous prunings of the first three years will not be
necessary, aS almost all can be done by summer pruning until the trees
get so old that they need the old wood taken out.

Vase-Form With Less Shortening.—The foregoing is a careful
outline of the method of short-cutting of the tree until it comes into
bearing which has been generally practiced in California. There
has always been variation in practice in the way of less shortening-
in of main branches. The following is a sketch of the way in which
the 140-acre Losse apricot orchard in the Santa Clara Valley was
brought to an age of twelve years and notable production:

The trees were cut back to 15 or 18 inches when set out some ten or
twelve years ago. Three or four main limbs were allowed to grow so as
to balance the tree and were cut back to about three feet at the end of the
season. About each cut end, several new “leaders” grew out and at the
end of the season all but one of these were cut off; and it was cut back a
little shorter than the length on which it girew. Only one new leader is
left on each limb, because too many would shade and stunt buds inside the
tree.

In selecting which of many leaders to save, the upright growers are
preferred, for the weight of fruit will make them bend over to spread the
tree enough. But if there is a space beside that upright leader, and an-
other limb grows close to its other side, the upright one is cut back to
the old wood and the one projecting into space is reserved. HEvery effort
is made to leave no large openings to the center of the tree; but to fill
them thinly with fruit-bearing wood. Hach leader that is left is cut back
according to the vigor of the tree. After a dry year, or a heavy crop, it
would be cut back shorter.

These leaders of new wood may bloom but are not likely to set fruit
that will mature. Their principal business is to put forth new spurs which
will fruit the year following. Only enough opportunity for new spurs
should be left so all that come may be vigorous enough to support the
fruit that sets on them. New growth is left long on young trees in order
to get a large surface for fruit bearing as soon as possible.

The top of the tree is shaped into a hemisphere to expose a large sur-
face to the direct sunlight, and not so thick but that sunlight may filter
to the interior quite freely. If the interior is shaded too much, all fruit
wood there will die.

Mr. Losse believed that his success with the Hemskirke variety was
due to not cutting back but simply thinning out interfering, surplus, or
weakened branches. He expected to cut them back every five years se-
verely enough to grow new wood. tie

Open-Bowls Unsatisfactory —During the last few years apricot

224 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

growers of the Winters region of Yolo County have been growing
an open tree which is aptly described by D. J. Whitney:

‘“‘Tt is called the open-top system of pruning. Hold in mind a
wide, shallow bowl with long legs bent inward and joining at the
bottom coming down rather regularly from rim to base and you
know what a typical open-top apricot tree looks like. The idea
seems to have leaders to come up along the outside of the tree, none
in the center at all, to have the center of the tree open, or occupied
only by fruit wood and not much of it. In the yearly pruning the
development is all outward. There is an effort to have fruit wood
along the leaders down to the crotch, but often without success.
Looking over an orchard from above, one sees a lot of flat green disks
set regularly twenty to thirty feet or so apart.’’

This highly artificial style of pruning has not worked as well as
anticipated and it has been quite successfully impeached by Prof.
W. P. Tufts of the University of California as promotive of sunburn
on the main branches, as reducing the crop below what can be
reasonably expected from the tree and as reducing the thrift of the
tree itself.* Some of these flat trees have been restored to fuller
vase form by encouraging a second-story growth with apparently
better results.

Early Fall Pruning.—Fall pruning, as noted in Chapter XII, is
the rule with the apricot where summer pruning to repress growth
is not followed. It is done in the Santa Clara Valley in September—
too late to start new shoots. It is held that though there is a loss
of nourishment to the tree by early removal of green leaves, the
early pruned trees stay green later and so perhaps make up this loss,
besides using the energy more profitably for the grower by filling
out the fruit buds.

Winter Pruning of Bearing Trees.—The evident defect of many
old apricot orchards is the failure of the low-bearing wood and the
thicket of brush near the ends of long bare limbs. Such trees need
renewal of the top by vigorous winter pruning, which should perfer-
ably be done toward the close of the dornamt season rather than
early in the winter as formerly. Old and unprofitable trees have
been reclaimed in this way.

Winter pruning is still the regular method in some parts of the
State where the conditions do not favor excessive growth of the tree
and where summer pruning does not seem to be called for. The
practice is to remove half or two-thirds of the new growth and thin
out, by removing entirely enough new and old wood to prevent the
tree from becoming thick and brushy. In shortening the bearing
shoots it should be remembered that the larger fruits usually grow
nearer to the tip than to the base of the shoot.

THINNING THE APRICOT

All free-fruiting varieties of the apricot must be thinned to secure
size acceptable to purchasers. It is the experience of the oldest

*“Why prune bearing apricot trees heavily?’’ by W. P. Tufts, Monthly Bulletin, State
Commission of Horticulture, Sacramento, January, 1919.

Plate VI.—Typical aspect of a bearing apricot orchard.

(See page 217.)

Plate VII.—_Young cherry orchard in good form.—(See page 234.)

IRRIGATING THE APRICOT. 225

growers that though thinning is an expensive operation, it is very
profitable. When half the fruit is taken off in thinning, the remain-
der reaches as large aggregate weight as though the whole were
allowed to mature and thinned fruit is worth about twice as much
per pound. Even if less weight is secured, and in most cases the
purpose should be to get less weight, the tree is spared the exhaus-
tion of over-bearing and the owner escapes a year of little or no
fruit. A discussion of this subject is given in Chapter XII.

Where conditions are favorable, the tree will set more fruit than
it can bring to full size, and for this reason thinning or spacing the
fruit on the twigs by hand-picking, while the fruit is about the size
of a pigeon’s egg, is almost a universal practice among the best
commercial growers. This is necessary to bring the individual fruits
to the diameters required by canners or overland shippers and which
they seale in price according to size: Extras, 214 inches; No. 1, 2
inches; No. 2, 144 inches. Fruit of less size is hard of sale unless the
crop happens to be very small. It has also been found that thinning
to regulate size is quite as important when the fruit is to be dried
by the grower as when sold as fresh fruit.

IRRIGATION OF THE APRICOT

Whether the apricot shall be irrigated or not is answered in the
chapter on irrigation. In many locations, with proper pruning,
thinning and cultivation, perfectly satisfactory fruit can be grown
with the usual rainfall. In others a single winter irrigation will
satisfy all the needs of the tree; in others a single irrigation just
after fruit picking and summer pruning will carry the tree through.
It is a fact, however, that as the trees advance in age some supple-
ment to the average rainfall is often desirable and in dry years
irrigation is the saving of two crops. Some idea of the amount of
water used can be had from the chapter on irrigation. The follow-
ing account by Mr. Neff applies to this practice in Orange County,
which is an average situation as to rainfall and atmospheric humid-
ity, and is as good a general statement as could be made:

If rains are copious, winter irrigation may be dispensed with during the
first two or three years after planting the orchard, but when the trees
reach the age for bearing fruit the rain water should be supplemented by
irrigation water until the soil is thoroughly wet 5 feet deep, and in order
to do this, at least 20 inches of water, including rainfall, must be put on
the land. Three irrigations should be given the trees during the first sum-
mer, but it is not necessary to wet more that a strip 5 or 6 feet wide along
the tree rows. The orchard should have three irrigations during the sec-
ond summer and a strip 12 feet wide should be watered, as the roots are
reaching farther and the trees require a greater amount of water. The
irrigation for the first two years should always be done before the trees
show any want of water, so as to keep them growing vigorously.

All the space between the trees should be watered the third year and
afterward; but two irrigations will be sufficient for the summer. The best
time for the summer irrigation of bearing apricot trees is when the fruit
is about half grown, which is usually about the second or third week in May.

If well watered at this time the fruit grows to its largest, and has time
to ripen slowly as the ground gradually dries, until it has all the sugar

226 — CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

which will go into the fruit. An orchard in full bearing that has been well
watered in the winter should now have as much as full 100 inches of water
for two hours on each acre (equal to four acre-inches).

The second irrigation should be given as soon as possible after the sum-
mer pruning is done, in order to start the trees growing and develop the
fruit buds for the next year. This will not require so much water as the
irrigation in May, but ought to be as much as 100 inches of water for one
hour on each acre.

_ Winter irrigation of apricots on deep soils, as supplementary to
rainfall and largely reducing summer irrigation, is a very satis-
factory recourse in some districts.

DISEASES ‘OF THE APRICOT

Though the apricot tree, as has been said, is regarded as one of
the healthiest fruit trees, it is subject to some maladies. Trees perish
from being set in unsuitable situations, and in these cases, if the evil
be stagnant water in the soil, or penetration to alkaline subsoil, the
root shows it. Sometimes, however, a branch or a whole tree withers
and dies without apparent cause early in the summer, and while the
root is still sound. The disease is evidently acute, but its cause is
not known, nor a remedy proposed. It is an old trouble of the
apricot, and not peculiar to California.

The so-called ‘‘gum disease’’ sometimes causes injury to trees.
Some forms of gumming have recently demonstrated to be due to
bacterial invasion, as described in the Pacific Rural Press of May 24,
1919, by Prof. J. T. Barrett of the University of California. Gum-
ming also attends invasion by the brown rot fungus which also
attacks the fruit. When gumming becomes prevalent on the bark
the best treatment is to cut away the diseased part down to healthy
wood and cover the wound with asphaltum or common lead and oil
paint, putting on sparingly so as not to flow over healthy bark.

Some years certain varieties in particular are blackened at the
pit and rendered unsalable, but the trouble has not thus far proved
serious generally, except with certain varieties, which have generally
gone out of use for that reason. i

There are several troubles affecting the twigs, foliage and fruits
which are indicated in the following preventive treatment recom-
mended for the apricot by Professor R. E. Smith of the University
of California when these troubles threaten:

The best known treatment for apricots in the San Francisco Bay region
or other localities near the coast is as follows: For bearing trees spray
with heavy Bordeaux mixture (6-8-50) or lime sulphur (1-12) between No-
vember 15 and December 15. The object of this is to prevent infection of
the buds with the Coryneum (peach blight) fungus and also to clean up, as
far as possible, the spores of this fungus and those of the brown rot (Mo-
nilia). Just before the buds open in the spring a spraying with 1-8 lime
sulphur may be advisable, particularly if there is any trouble with scale
insects, peach worm, or any of the various forms of shot-hole fungus. Then,
just as the first blossoms are opening, a spraying with lime sulphur 1-25
may be of value in preventing the blossom and the blight caused by Mo-
nilia, although in most cases this infection seems to be dependent upon
frost injury. Where this is likely to occur, and it is usUally called “sour-

VARIETIES OF THE APRICOT 227

sap,’ a heavy coating of whitewash applied about November 15 and re-
newed, if necessary, during the winter, is believed to be the best preventive.

A disease which is prevalent in some districts is called ‘‘black
heart’’; a pith disease which sometimes does great injury. No treat-
ment except that of pruning back to healthy wood has thus far
been proposed. Root knot is also a serious trouble of the apricot as
of several other trees. It will be considered in the chapter devoted
to disease of fruit trees.

Until recently the apricot has been generally free from seale in-
sects, and it is not affected by those species which are worst on some
other fruit trees, but rceently it has been seriously infested in some
cases with black and brown scales, which will be considered in a
later chapter.

The ripe apricot is sometimes seriously assailed by the diabrotica,
a small green beetle, with twelve black spots upon its wing covers.
Driving the insects away with smoke smudges has been, used to some
extent. Fortunately, the insect only occasionally occurs in large
numbers.

VARIETIES OF THE APRICOT

Though nearly all standard varieties of the apricot have been
introduced and planted in this State, comparatively few are found
on the list of the orchard planters. Many local seedlings have been
brought to notice and propagated to some extent but finally aban-
doned, and the disposition is to restrict planting to a few old
varieties. There is, however, still a need of new varieties; combining
size, quality and regular bearing, but their characters must be
demonstrated by sufficient fruiting before it is safe to plant them.
The following are now commercially grown in California:

Royal.—A French variety, for many years the leading California apricot
and now dividing first honors with the Blenheim. Of large size (when well
thinned out), free stone, fine color and flavor, good bearer, and fruit ripens
evenly, when well grown; a favorite with the canners, and an excellent
variety for drying. Fruit roundish, large, oval, slightly compressed; skin
dull yellow with orange check, very faintly tinged with red, and a shallow
suture; flesh pale orange, firm and juicy, with a rich vinous flavor.

The Derby Royal is grown in the Winters district; like the standard
Royal but two weeks earlier.

The Barry is grown in Alameda County as an improved Royal.

Large Early Montgamet.—Large, orange yellow, reddish on sunny side,
firm.

Blenheim or Shipley.—This is a valuable variety in this State, standing
with the Royal in popularity; was described by John Rock as follows: “A
very good variety, above medium, oval; orange, with a deep yellow, juicy
and tolerably rich flesh; vigorous grower and regular, prolific bearer.” This
behavior of the variety was first demonstrated fully in the University or-
chard at Berkeley, where it was for years the best of twenty varieties. It
is now popular in all parts of the State. Fruit runs a little larger than the
Royal, and is usually better distributed on the tree, but it must be well
thinned. This variety has been approved by canners. Ripens a little later
than the Royal.

Losse Blenheim and Knobel Bleinheim are selected strains growing in
Santa Clara Valley.

228 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Hemskirke.—A fine English variety quite widely grown in California;
ripens later than Royal; described by Downing as follows: “Fruit large,
roundish, but considerably compressed or flattened on its sides; skin orange,
with red cheek; flesh bright orange, tender, rather more juicy and sprightly
than the Moorpark, with rich, lucious, plum-like flavor; stone not perforate,
rather smaJl and kernel bitter.” Esteemed in California, because the tree
is more hardy and a more regular bearer than the Moorpark, and the fruit
ripens evenly on both sides. Sometimes drops worse than other varieties.

Peach.—A variety from Piedmont of the largest size, about two inches in
diameter, roundish, rather flattened, and somewhat compressed on iis sides,
with a well-marked suture; skin yellow in the shade, but deeply orange
mottled with brown on the sunny side; flesh of a fine yellow, saffron color,
juicy, rich, and highly flavored; stone can be penetrated like Moorpark, and
has bitter kernel. This has been a very successful sort in the warmer parts
of the State especially, and a favorite in the Sacramento Valley, but is now
in less favor because of rapid ripening and inferior appearance in canning
and drying. It ripens just ahead of the Moorpark.

Routier’s Peach.—Originated with Joseph Routier, near Sacramento.
Large, yellow in shade; deep orange, mottled or splashed with red in the
sun; flesh juicy and rich, high flavor and a good market variety. Blooms a
week later than Peach. Very popular in Sacramento and San Joaquin
Valleys.

Moorpark.—A standard of excellence and an old variety which originated
in England. Fruit large, roundish, about two inches and a quarter in diam-
eter each way; rather larger on one side of the suture than on the other;
skin orange in the shade, but deep orange or brownish red in the sun,
marked with numerous dark specks and dots; flesh quite firm, bright orange,
parting free from the stone, quite juicy, with a rich and luscious flavor;
stone peculiarly perforated along the back, where a pin may be pushed
through; kernel bitter. In California the Moorpark reaches grand size, but
has the fault of ripening unevenly in most localities. The tree is tender and
bears irregularly, which leads to its rejection by most planters, though
some growers cling to it because of its size and quality and occasional grand
crops. The San Jose districts lead in the production of this variety, and
in some parts of the Santa Clara Valley the Moorpark seems to ripen uni-
formly. The same behavior is reported from localities in the upper San
Joaquin Valley, where it also seems to be a more regular bearer. The
variety is almost wholly rejected in Southern California.

Neweastle.—Originated with C. M. Silva & Son, of Newcastle, Placer
County, in 1881; size medium, round, with spherical pit; freestone; not
quite as large as the Royal, nor quite as rich in flavor, but more highly
colored; rather darker on the side to the sun. Harly, regular and good
bearer, a medium grower, being more upright than the Royal. Its time of
ripening has been reported as seventeen days earlier than the Harly Golden,
and twenty-five days earlier than the Royal. Especially profitable in Im-
perial Valley.

Tilton.—Chance seedling first noticed about 1885 on place of J. E. Tilton,
near Hanford, Kings County, and distinguished by regular bearing. Prop-
agated and introduced by J. W. Barstow, of Hanford. Fruit large; free-
stone; symmetrical, ripening evenly and one week to ten days later than
Royal. Tree vigorous and prolific. Widely planted recently and very
promising, though condemned for shy bearing in some places. Colors in
advance of ripening and is often picked too green for best quality in drying.

CHAPTER XIX

THE CHERRY

Although the amount of cherries grown in this State is small as
compared with the aggregate weights of some other fruits, the
cherry, from the growth of the tree and the size and quality of the
product, is entitled to rank as one of the grand fruits‘of California.
The size of the California-grown cherry is a matter of pride with
the residents, and a marvel to visitors. It is related that, many
years ago, one of the most distinguished Eastern pomologists, who
was taken to an Alameda County cherry orchard during picking
time, could not recognize the varieties, though he had himself propa-
gated and shipped to California the very trees which were bearing
the fruit, the size of which so far surpassed all his mental standards.
And quality is commensurate with size. Whatever disagreement
there may be concerning the flavors of our other fruits as compared
with Eastern, the richness and excellence of the California cherry
has never been impeached. Recently the shipment of cherries to
Eastern markets and the extension of the canning interest, have
considerably enlarged the opportunity for profitable growth of the
fruit.

Famous Old Trees—The longevity and productiveness of the
cherry tree in this State is naturally of interest. Cherries that were
planted in some of the earliest settled parts of the State are still in
full vigor. One of the famous trees is a Black Tartarian, which was
brought from France by Dr. L. E. Miller, and planted by him in 1854,
on land afterwards owned by Robert Hector in Placer County, just
below Rattlesnake Bar, on the American River, about eight hundred
feet above sea-level. It is described as above seventy feet in height,
the branches covering a space between seventy feet and seventy-five
feet in diameter. The trunk branches about six feet above the
ground, and at that point has a girth of over ten feet. <A, close record
of its crop, kept for a number of years when the tree was over thirty —
years of age, showed that it yielded from a ton to a ton and a half
a year. Such trees are too large to be profitable, for the fruit has
to be picked with the aid of extension ladders securely guyed, by
men slung in swings from such ladders or the forks of the tree. At
last reports there were about fifty of these large trees. Other large
trees were to be seen near Woodside, San Mateo County, and near
Oroville and Chico in Butte County, some of which have borne a ton
of fruit in favorable seasons.

LOCALITIES FOR THE CHERRY

In California there are many districts in which the cherry does
not do well, and situations for the fruit must therefore be selected
with discrimination. The chief product is made in the coast valleys

230 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

adjacent to the Bay of San Francisco, including its extension east
of the Coast Range, known as Suisun Bay, for in all these regions
there is a modification of climate due to the influence of ocean tem-
perature and moisture. Away from these influences the cherry also
thrives on the alluvial bottoms of large rivers and their tributary
ereeks, both on the low lands of the valleys and the foothills, while
on broad valley plains and foothill slopes it is not usually satis-
factory. In the mountain valleys cherries also thrive in suitable
soils which are kept reasonably moist by irrigation or cultivation as
may be required to do it.

How far atmospheric conditions which are beyond control in-
fluence the growth and fruitage of the cherry, can not yet be fully
determined, but ample trial seems to demonstrate the unsatisfactory
character of the tree, manifested in small fruit and sunburned
foliage, on the plains of interior valleys, although the soil is kept
moist enough. There is, however, still the chance of securing
varieties of the fruit which have been developed under conditions
similar to those prevailing in the interior of California. The Russian
cherries, which are largely grown in a region subject to high
summer heat and dry air, will succeed in parts of California where
the varieties originating in West Europe fail. Though this was
suggested long ago, the effort has not yet been made.

SOILS FOR THE CHERRY

The cherry thrives in free deep soil, in which water does not
stand too near the surface. It delights in deep deposits from old
water courses, and does not dislike a moderate amount of sand. A
loam underlaid by a sandy subsoil is acceptable if it is not allowed to
dry out in the late summer, but a loam underlaid by clay has shown
its unfitness by the early failure of the trees, because. of standing
water in the rainy season, while those on deep loam near by have
remained vigorous and profitable. The trees are, however, more
resistant of too retentive soil, if a wise choice of roots is made, as
will be discussed presently.

On the foothills the cherry thrives in the light, mellow soil and
fails in the tight clay either in soil or subsoil, as it does in the adobe
of lower lands; and yet a clay loam of no great depth upon a clay
subsoil may grow good trees if the clay be so disposed that surplus
water from winter rains can escape and water is at hand to guard
against summer drouth. Commercial orchards should have a good
depth of sufficiently retentive soil. The great cherry trees just
mentioned are growing right on the bank of the American River,
where the soil is a pure, sandy loam, in some places over sixty feet
deep, as proved by an old shaft once dug near the center of the
orchard.

But though the cherry dislikes a wet soil, it is particular about
its water supply and insists upon enough, its requirements being
greater than some other trees. During the dry year 1898-99, also in
1912-13, trees came into distress where they had never suffered be-

REQUIREMENTS OF THE CHERRY 231

fore, and many large valuable trees died. The only new condition
they encountered was lack of soil moisture. It thus appears that
while the cherry is undoubtedly injured by excess of water in the soil
it is still very exacting in its requirement of an adequate supply.
If this cannot be retained in the soil by cultivation, irrigation must
be resorted to. Thus the cherry growers in the famous Willows
district of San Jose, usually find it an advantage to give their trees
an irrigation between the spring rains and the ripening of the fruit,
and another irrigation after the fruit is gathered.

Irregularity in the moisture supply also causes the cherry to
bloom and fruit unseasonably. There has been bloom in October
and ripe fruit in January, due to the fact that trees became dormant
in late summer from soil-drouth. January cherries may be evidences
of salubrity but they betoken poor horticulture.

These facts show that the cherry must have water enough or it
will not succeed. Sometimes young trees which have made a good
summer growth die outright on leachy soils which dry out before the
fall rains begin. On the other hand, there must not be excessive
moisture in the soil either from irrigation or by moisture. Cherry
trees in Southern California, planted with orange trees and giver
similar irrigation, have failed utterly. Planting on naturally moist
land in low places has also failed, and observed facts some time ago
led to the conclusion that at the south the cherry should be planted
on well-drained land, which could be irrigated (as the behavior of
the tree indicated its need of water), rather than on naturally moist
land, because of the likelihood of excessive moisture in such situa-
tions. More recent experience has declared mellow, well-drained
soils, of the higher lands well adapted to the cherry and on such
soils, when well cultivated, cherries have done well with little irri-
gation at Pasadena, Pomona and elsewhere. The commercial cherry
product of Southern California comes, however, from mountain val-
leys and high plateaux—the chief regions being the Yucaipa Valley
and the Beaumont District in San Bernardino County, the Mesa
Grande region in the interior of San Diego County, and other sec-
tions with similar conditions.

In California, as elsewhere, the Dukes and Morellos may succeed
where the Hearts and Bigarreaux fail. The May Duke seems espe-
cially hardy, and bears well in Nevada, where other sorts fail utterly.

Delayed Fruiting of Cherry Trees.—Though the cherry in favor-
able situations bears early, the grower, especially on strong, rich
lands, will often have many years of disappointment from falling
blossoms and fruit. During this time the trees will be making mar-
velous wood growth, and this apparently suppresses the fruiting
function. Usually these trees will ultimately bear when their exu-
berant growth declines. They can be thrown into fruit sooner by
allowing the trees to go uncultivated, or by root pruning, through
digging a trench around about eight feet from the tree, and severing
the roots thus encountered, or by summer pruning. Because of this
over-growth, growers give such strong soil to the apple or the pear
rather than the cherry. Sometimes the non-bearing of the cherry is

‘
232 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

inexplicable. Though everything seems to be right, and the blossoms
are profuse, the fruit will not stick.

CROSS-POLLINATION OF CHERRIES

Lack of bearing is often due to improper association of varieties
in planting. Experiments in cross-pollination of cherry varieties
were conducted from 1916 to 1918 in several cherry districts, under
direction of Dr. W. L. Howard of the University of California. The
following is an outline of observations:

The Black Tartarian, Burr’s Seedling, Pontiac, Black Republican, Rock-
port and Governor Wood will pollinate with the Royal Ann, and the Royal
Ann will pollinate the Pontiac.

The Black Tartarian, Burr’s Seedling, Royal Ann and Governor Wood
varieties may be used with the Rockport.

The Black Tartarian and Pontiac may be used on the Bing and the Black )
Tartarian pollinates the Advance.

Black Tartarian and Black Republican cross well, the former being also
the best pollenizer for the Purple Guigne, Chapman, Advance and Black-
heart.

Black Tartarian and Pontiac cross the Lambert, the former being pref-
erable. Royal Ann’s best performance was with Pontiac.

It is fortunate that the few cherry varieties which are commer-
cially grown in California will cross-pollinate each other, and the
planter need not have recourse to several varieties named above
which are of no commercial account. These are, however, desirable
as garden cherries for amateur planting.

There is full demonstration that keeping bees in the vicinity of
cherry orchards has increased the bearing. But varieties must be
provided which will act as cross-pollinizers.

EXPOSURES FOR THE CHERRY

Exposures for the cherry are chosen both with reference to pro-
tection from frost injury and to early ripening of the fruit. The
cherry blooms early; though hardly as venturesome as the apricot
and almond. In protected situations, guarded from cold northerly
winds, and open to sunshine on the south and southeast, the fruit
advances to maturity very rapidly. In Vaca Valley about a month
of good weather after the blossoming will ripen an early cherry and
ripe cherries have been shipped as early as March 31. The pioneer
cherry growers of Vaca Valley went there from their old homes in
Napa Valley, because they could gather and market cherries in their
new locations before the same varieties were ripe in Napa Valley.
They chose places protected on the north and west by steep hills.
The two things to secure are, apparently protection from the sweep
of cold winds and elevation above the deposits of cold air, which
occur in depressed places.

In localities where fruit ripens late, as near the coast, there is
no need to seek forcing conditions, for the extra early varieties
should not be planted except for family use. Early varieties are

GROWING YOUNG CHERRY TREES. 233

comparatively poor in quality, and will not sell profitably, as they
will reach the market alongside the better later sorts from earlier
districts. The places for the cherry in the later districts is on the
most proper soil, according to the requirements which have been
laid down, avoiding, however, so far as possible, wind-swept spots,
and seeking amelioration of direct ocean influences by elevation or
intervention of hills and windbreaks.

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING THE CHERRY

In the chapter on propagation is given a successful method oi
erowing cherry seedlings. California cherry trees are almost exclu-
sively propagated by budding on seedlings of the Black Mazzard. The
Mahaleb root is still more hardy than the Mazzard and is less sub-
ject to injury by standing water in the soil during the winter season.
It is also more hardy against injury by summer drouth on shallow
soils, which is one of the causes of die-back of the cherry tree in some
parts of the State. While there may be particular places in which
the Mahaleb is the better root, the conclusions of fifty years’ expe-
rience in California cherry growing, which approve the Mazzard,
are on the whole trustworthy. The Mazzard is a better grower and,
where moisture conditions are fairly good, leaves little to be desired.
The Mahaleb, however, though credited with a dwarfing influence,
does make a good-sized tree under our conditions. It seems a fair
general conclusion that Mazzard roots make larger trees, but Maha-
leb roots make hardier trees which bear younger. Recently the Mo-
rello, or sour cherry seedling, has found favor with some growers
on the Sacramento River, although it is inhospitable to the buds of
some varieties, like the Early Purple Guigne and Royal Ann, and
double working has to be resorted to which is expensive, both in
outlay and time. The Black Tartarian takes well on the Morello and
other varieties can be budded upon the Tartarian top growth.

The planting of the cherry is covered by the general considera-
tions already given for the planting of orchards. The distance which
cherries should be set apart is a disputed point among planters.
When planted twenty feet apart the trees have interlaced their
branches when sixteen years old, and the spaces between the rows
have been covered in like colonnades. In the Hayward region the
branches of twelve-year-old trees set twenty-eight feet apart have
nearly reached the other, though continually cut back. Much de-
pends in the matter of distance upon the manner of handling the
trees. The trees can be grown much nearer together by continuous
pruning than where the usual way of cutting back for the first few
years and letting the tree take its natural growth after that, is fol-
lowed. James E. Gedney, of Mesa Grande, San Diego County, prac-
tices close planting and cutting back which may work better on his
upland than on deeper, moister soils. He says:

I plant my trees twenty feet apart each way. My method is to plant thus
closely and then keep my trees low, by cutting back every year; this facili-

tates gathering the fruit very much. I prefer this way to setting the trees
farther apart and allowing them to attain too great a height. By the former

234 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

method I secure fully as good, if not better, results per acre, to say nothing
of the difference in gathering the fruit. Another advantage in keeping the
trees headed low is that the wind does not affect them nearly as much as
it does tall trees.

The best distances are 24 or 28 feet on such deep soils as have
been described as best befitting the tree and, though one may fix his
distance in planting according to the method of pruning he pro-
poses to follow, he should remember that the cherry is naturally a
large tree, and most old orchards are now over-crowded.

As with other trees, orchard planters prefer trees with one year’s
growth on the bud in the nursery, because they usually get, then, a
straight switch with well developed buds all the way down, and the
head can be formed as desired. For garden planting, older trees,
properly pruned in the nursery, can be used to advantage.

PRUNING THE CHERRY

All our best growers agree in the advantage of a low head for
the cherry, and all aim to have trunks of young trees from the
ground up to the limbs literally covered all around with leaves,
which completely shelter the bark from the rays of the sun. In
planting, therefore, the side buds are carefully preserved—not to be
grown into branches, but to be cut or pinched back when they have
come out a few inches, leaving just growth enough to clothe the
tree with a covering of its own foliage. These spurs not only furnish
leaves to shade the trunk, but soon become fruit spurs and bear well.

Low Heading with a Central Stem—Some of the trees in the
older orchards have been shaped by earrying up a leader with a
regular system of side branches. Head back at planting to two feet,
pinching off the shoots below the head as stated, and allowing the
shoots which form the head to grow larger, but they, too, are all to
be pinched except the leader, which is allowed to grow as long as
it pleases during the summer. During fall or winter pruning cut
back the leader to about twelve or sixteen inches from its starting
point and cut back the side branches to about six or eight inches.
This is done year after year, cutting back and thinning out the
side shoots, pinching the laterals, and allowing the leader to grow,
never interfering with it until the winter pruning and always letting
it predominate over the side shoots. By cutting short, wood is in-
creased, but at the end of six years the tree goes into fruit very
rapidly. As the tree increases in fruit it decreases in wood, and by
the time it is ten or twelve years old there will be but little cutting
to do, except to shorten in and thin out, and this requires some judg-
ment and experience, to know where to cut, and when to cut. To
shorten in, never cut down to an old fruit spur. It is very difficult
to get healthy wood out of such; but whenever you can find last
year’s wood, there you can cut with safety anything that is less than
one inch in diameter.

This system of pruning must be accompanied by constant pinch-
ing during the summer time. It should commence when the lower

PRUNING CHERRY TREES 235

shoots are about six inches long, and be followed up closely all
through the growing season. Those on the trunk should never get
longer than eight or ten inches, under any circumstances. After
these are pinched, let the trees rest ten or fifteen days, or until the
branches in the top get a good start. Then pinch everything clean
but the leader, in every main branch in the tree. The leader takes
its own way all through the growing season, to prevent the effects of
over-pinching or checking the growth. If only the side shoots are
kept back, the leader or head of the branches receives the current or
flow of sap and maintains and carries on life and vitality in the
tree. One object in pinching or spur pruning is to keep back sur-
plus wood and create fruit spurs, throwing all the little twigs and
branches into fruit, thereby utilizing all the wood the tree can pro-
duce, not allowing it to grow at the tree’s expense, and then have to
eut it off. And another object in side-shoot pruning is to make the
tree produce fine large cherries, all closely nestling around the big
wood, and no long, slim branches hanging down like weeping willow.
All such branches are always more or less sunburnt on the top and
full of worms, one of the evils tending to the destruction of the tree.

This method is commended to those who like a tree with a cen-
tral leader and are willing to give their orchards such constant at-
tention. Unless pinching and consequent multiplication of shoots
and foliage is faithfully followed such a tree is apt to become tall
and rangy and to expose the bark all the way up to sunburn and
borers.

THE USUAL METHOD OF PRUNING THE CHERRY

As has been said, all cherry growers agree on low heading and
on the advantage of pinching the lowest shoots as soon as they make
a bunch of leaves. In forming the head, and in after treatment, the
usual method is quite different from that we have described. It fol-
lows the vase or goblet form, which has been discussed at length in
the chapter on pruning. Of the application of this method to the
cherry, W. W. Smith, in an address before the State Horticultural
Society, said:

The cherry may be pruned the same as any other deciduous fruit tree
until it is about five years old; after that the less pruning the better, except
when necessary to cut out a dead or crossing branch. Pruning the cherry
is more or less likely to produce gum (and this, decay) and should be avoid-
ed as much as possible. Cherry trees, however, should be trained with low
heads not to exceed eighteen inches from the ground to the first branches;
fifteen inches is better. From three to five branches are enough to form the
head of the tree; all others should be removed early. Three are better than
five; two make a forked tree, which is likely to split in after years.

At the end of the first season we have a neat little tree with three to five
branches. During the following winter these branches should be cut back
to six to eight inches. The next season these should be allowed to produce
two branches each (no more); then, at the end of the second season from
planting out, we have a tree with from six to ten branches. The following
winter the new growth should be cut back again to from twelve to eighteen
inches—according to the amount of growth the tree makes—the less the
growth the more you cut. The same process should be repeated the follow-

236 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

ing winter, treating each branch as an individual tree, until the tree is
about five years old; it takes at least five years to get the head of a cherry
well established. After this, as some varieties will persist in throwing out
branches near the ground, they should be removed during the summer. At
this age the-tree, if well grown, will have top enough to shade its body from
the sun, and there is no further need of branches on the main trunk.

If necessary to remove large branches it should be done in midsummer,
as that is the only season when the gum is not more or less exuded. We
made it a rule to go over and dress up and prune our cherry orchard im-
mediately after the crop is gathered—which in our part of the State is the
last of May. All wounds made then by the removal of branches or other-
wise will heal over the same season. All large wounds made at any time,
however, should be coated over with paint.

The method thus described by Mr. Smith is that by which prob-
ably nine-tenths of the cherry trees of this State are shaped.

In selecting the shoots to form the head of the young tree they
should be as far apart as possible on the short stem and on different
sides, as explained in detail in Chapter XII. It is especially desir-
able to avoid the basin which is so often formed in old cherry trees
by growth of three or four main limbs closing up to form a central
cavity, which will be discussed on a following page.

In the cherry tree there should be the same observation as to
cutting inside and outside buds as with other trees; in fact, the out-
side bud is the rule, because so many varieties make a directly up-
ward growth. In removing limbs, cutting to the collar or swelling
at the base of the limb is especially important, also the covering of
the wound to prevent checking of the wood.

GRAFTING OVER THE CHERRY

Since canning of cherries began on a large scale, there has been
a vastly increased demand for white cherries. The Royal Ann (a
local name for Napoleon Bigarreau) has been the favorite. Other
white sorts are also used for canning. This rise in favor of the white
cherries has vastly increased their proportionate production as com-
pared with the choice black and red varieties, which are still popu-
lar as a table fruit.

It is the experience of growers that the cherry is grafted over as
easily as the pear or apple, if the tree is healthy. In large trees as
many as fifty or one hundred grafts may be set, choosing the smaller
limbs, even if you have to go pretty high in the tree. J. W. Cassidy,
of Petaluma, used to advise grafting before the sap begins to flow
in the winter, or if not done then, wait until the buds are well ad-
vanced or the tree in bloom. He had trees which were over thirty
years old before they were re-headed, and they made fine tops of
new and healthy wood, and produced abundantly. The cherry is,
in fact, a very easy tree to graft by the usual top-grafting methods
described in Chapter IX.

PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE CHERRY

The disease of the cherry which is most heard of is the ‘‘gum,”’
or overflow and condensation of sap, which, if left to itself, often

TREATMENT OF GUMMING. 2a

induces decay of adjacent bark and wood. Without attempting to
explain the causes of the unhealthy exudations, which are several,
it may be said that prompt treatment of certain manifestations is
desirable, and in others the tree should be cleansed from the flow.
Where the gum exudes on the side of trunk or limb, the thin outer
bark should be pared away with a sharp knife, the accumulation of
eum and sap removed, and the wound painted with asphaltum or
lead and oil paint, or covered with grafting wax. A rational treat-
ment of infectious gumming of the cherry, studied closely by Prof.
H. P. Barss, of the Oregon Agricultural College, is as follows:

The disease starts out late in winter, enlarging old cankers and becom-
ing a source of new infection. It is caused by organisms which live over
winter in the discolored bark at the edges of old cankers. The gumming
is simply incidental and is not always noticeable, neither does gumming
always indicate the disease. The only remedy is to cut all the bark and
wood close to the disease, taking enough to be sure to get all the organisms
newly working in bark not yet discolored. Then wash with a 1 to 1600
solution of corrosive sublimate prepared under direction of the druggist
who sells the tablets, and apply pruning paint or white lead mixed with
raw (not boiled) linseed oil. Close watch through the spring and summer
for new cankers or blighted spurs and twigs will probably reveal some to
be cut out. Always dip cutting tools in the sublimate solution, which is
deadly poison to bacteria and human beings. The disease on twigs and
branches is easily handled without great loss by cutting them out.

Gum in the crotch should be cleanly brushed out when softened
by the winter rains. If allowed to remain, it becomes sour and offen-
sive and may injure the tree. In places where two or three limbs
come out closely together a kind of cup is formed (as just mentioned
in the discussion of pruning), which will hold the gum from one
year’s end to another, and in its soft state, leaves, sticks, cherry pits,
dust, and dirt will stick and hang and sometimes the mass becomes
very foul. By this collection also, a nest is made for all manner of
insects, bugs and worms. Another evil in letting the gum stay on
is, if the rain does not wash it off clean, it runs down the trunk of
the tree and makes the bark look bad, and if it is very thick on the
bark when it dries, it will contract and crack the bark crosswise,
and is very injurious to the tree.

Gumming in the crotch can be largely avoided by starting the

young cherry tree as advocated in the chapter on pruning. Branches
which emerge from the trunk at separate points and at wide angles
seldom gum; those which are crowded together or emerge at acute
angles gum badly. In shaping young trees a gumming joint some-
times may be clearly cut out and those branches selected to remain
which start out at a wider angle; in older trees there is nothing to
do but keep the fork clean, as already described.

There are cases reported in which gumming of old trees has been
stopped by allowing the ground to lie uncultivated, weeds being cut
down with the hoe. As a rule, however, the cherry thrives with
eood cultivation.

Die-back of the Cherry.—The dying back of cherry branches is
more or less common in all regions, and the immediate cause thereof

238 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

is not known. It is apparently sometimes a root trouble, as is the
dying back of other fruit trees. This might have resulted from
standing water in the winter in the soil, although the same condition
may result from lack of sufficient moisture during the late summer
and autumn. Anything which causes the destruction of the root
hairs is apt to cause die-back and other forms of unthrift in the top.
Early vegetative activity in the branch, followed by frost, seems also
to occasion die-back in some eases. Fortunately, this can occur
without injury to the rest of the tree, though it is sometimes and in
some places destructive to the tree in the end. The only treatment
is removal of the affected wood, and if this can be done during the
erowing season, as soon as signs of injury appear, it is all the better.

The Gopher.—One of the most dangerous foes of the cherry is
the gopher, for he seldom takes less than the whole tree, young or
old. Traces of his presence should be constantly watched for, and
killing methods described in a later chapter adopted. If a tree is
seen to wilt suddenly, the probability is that a gopher has girdled
it. Covering the wound sometimes saves the tree, but not usually.

Insects injuring the cherry will be mentioned in a subsequent
chapter.

IRRIGATION OF THE CHERRY

As already stated, the cherry is very sensitive to drying out of
the soil and should be protected against it by irrigation when neces-
sary. In the chief cherry regions the local rainfall is sufficient to
mature the crop, and the stress comes later in the season. In that
ease a good irrigation after the fruit is gathered may be quite
enough to keep the tree growing until the fruit buds for the fol-
lowing year are plumped out well. If not, as learned by local ob-
servation, a late summer irrigation must be given. Where regular
irrigation is required, it is usual to irrigate every four weeks after
dry weather comes on, until just before the fruit begins to color at
two-thirds of full size. This makes the cherries fill out; but no more
water is given until after picking, as that would make the fruit too
soft to carry well. Fall irrigation is continued as required by- local
conditions to keep the foliage active sufficiently late in the season.

VARIETIES OF THE CHERRY

Many varieties of the cherry have been tested in this State, and
many have been abandoned from one cause or another. The claims
to value upon which a variety is judged are several: Extra earli-
ness, an important consideration in early districts for shipment, and
elsewhere for local sale or family use; firmness to withstand mechan-
ical injury by jarring in transit and durability to escape decay
during the long journey to distant markets; firmness and fixed color
to stand processing in the cannery, and to prevent coloring the juice;
lateness to extend the cherry season.

In classification of cherries it was originally considered that

VARIETIES OF CHERRIES 239

there were four classes of cherries. The Hearts were the tender and
half-tender sweet cherries, while the Bigarreaux were the firm-
fleshed ones; but these have been so intermingled and blended to-
gether by hybridization that no distinct line can now be drawn
separating them. There is really but one class of these, whose main
characteristic is the large, vigorous growth of the tree. The Duke
and Morello cherries, also wanting a natural division, really con-
stitute but one class.

The cherries chiefly grown for fruit shipping and for sale to
canners are enumerated in Chapter XVI. The following list in-
cludes those now being propagated for planting. There are many
others found in the older orchards, but they are not now considered
desirable for commercial planting, nor are they necessary to a satis-
factory collection for home use.

BIGARREAUX AND HEARTS

Early Purple Guigne.—Small to medium size; purple; tender, juicy, and
sweet. This variety is considered the earliest good cherry.
high flavor; a shy bearer until the trees attain age.”

Knight’s Early Black.—“Large, black, tender, juicy, rich, and excellent;

Rockport Bigarreau.—Large, pale amber in the shade, light red in the
sun; half tender, sweet and good; a very excellent and handsome cherry;
good bearer; highly esteemed for canning and shipping.

Cleveland Bigarreau.—A thrifty, strong, spreading grower, and produc-
tive large; clear red and yellow; juicy, sweet, and rich.

Black Tartarian.—Fruit of the largest size, bright purplish black. Flesh
purplish, thick, juicy, very rich and delicious. Tree a remarkably vigorous
erect, and beautiful grower, and an immense bearer; the best of the black
cherries. :

Governor Wood.—Large; light yellow shaded with bright red; flesh
nearly tender, juicy, sweet, rich and delicious; a vigorous grower and very
productive.

Black Eagle.—A very excellent English variety, ripening in June; large
size, deep purple, or nearly black; flesh deep purple, tender, with a rich,
high-flavored juice.

Mezel, Monstreuses de (Great Bigarreau).—A foreign variety of the larg-
est size; dark red or quite black; firm and juicy; late.

Pontiae.—Large; dark purplish red; half tender, juicy, and agreeable.

Napoleon Bigarreau (Royal Ann).—A magnificent cherry of the largest
size; pale yellow, becoming amber in shade, richly dotted and spotted with
deep red, and with a bright red cheek; flesh very firm, juicy and sweet.

Tree a free grower and an enormous bearer, when properly pollinated. The
great commercial cherry of California.

DUKES AND MORELLOS

Early Richmond (Kentish),—An early red, acid cherry; valuable for
cooking early in the season.

May Duke.—An old, well-known, excellent variety; large, dark red,
juicy, subacid, rich.

English Morello.—Large, dark red, nearly black; tender, juicy, rich,
acid, productive and late.

Belle Magnifique.—Fruit large, roundish, inclined to heart-shape; skin a
fine bright red; flesh juicy, tender, with sprightly subacid flavor; one of the
best of its class; a fine table fruit when fully ripe.

240 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

PACIFIC COAST SEEDLINGS

California Advanece.—Large, black, and early. Introduced by Leonard
Coates.

Chapman.—A seedling of Black Tartarian; very early; black; sweet, and
a great bearer. Introduced by Leonard Coates.

Early Burbank.—Originated by Luther Burbank; a seedling of Early
Purple Guigne and sold in 1903 to a group of Vacaville growers. Very early,
earlier than its parent variety. Large, rich deep crimson, resembling Black
Tartarian in quality. Tree medium upright grower, large leaves, prolific.

Lewelling—Black Republican (Black Oregon).—‘Seedling by Seth Lewel-
ling, Milwaukee, Cregon, from seed planted in 1860; first fruited in orchard
in 1864. Widely distributed in California. Large, black, sweet, with purple
flesh; ripens ten days after Black Tartarian.’—James Shinn. “Large, late
black cherry, good flavor, long keeper; dries and ships well. Seems to
succeed better on foothills than in the valley.’”—Robert Williamson. “Sup-
posed to be a cross between Napoleon Bigarreau and Black Tartarian,
having the solid flesh of the former and the color of the latter; very late.”
—John Rock. “I am of the opinion that the Black Republican and Lincoln
came down from the seed of the Black Hagle, but I have little idea of what
variety they were crossed with.’—Seth Lewelling.

Bing.—Originated by Seth Lewelling, from seed of Black Republican.
“Fruit large, dark brown or black, very fine, late; a good shipping variety.”
—Seth Lewelling. Tree vigorous, and foliage heavy. Fruit ripens so that
trees can be cleaned at one picking.

Centennial.—A seedling of Napoleon Bigarreau, raised by Mr. Henry
Chapman in Napa Valley, and fruited by him for the first time in 1876.
Propagated and introduced by Leonard Coates, then of Napa, in 1885. It is
larger than its parent, more oblate in form, and beautifully marbled and
splashed with crimson on a pale yellow ground; exceptionally sweet and of
remarkable keeping quality. Described by Committee of American Pomo-
logical Society (1885) as follows: ‘‘Size large, slightly oblate; amber, with
dark crimson marbling; .flesh, firm, sweet, and rich; quality best; condition
excellent (after crossing continent by mail), showing its good shipping qual-
ities.” The Centennial has been little planted recently, because of superior-
ity of Royal Ann.

Lambert.—Seedling of J. H. Lambert, Milwaukee, Oregon, 1887; pre-
sented to Oregon State Horticultural Society; right to propagate sold to
Oregon Nursery Co., 1896, and introduced by this company; very large,
roundish, heart-shaped; stem long, slender, suture medium depth, acid;
smooth, glossy, dark purplish, flesh dark purplish red, firm, flavor rich,
quality good. Ripens ten days to two weeks after Black Tartarian.

CHAPTER XX
THE PEACH

From the first years of the American occupation for about forty
years the peach was the leading deciduous fruit grown in California.
In the later 90s grain and other field products were low priced and
people were told that cured prunes could be put up in sacks more
cheaply than wheat. So they took to planting prune orchards all
through the wheat districts of the great valley, and even carried
the trees where no one would think of planting wheat—cutting up
shallow-clay upland sheep pastures andj even yucca sand wastes
into prune-growing colonies. Figures of prune trees in orchards
rushed far beyond the peach figures. This over-planting of prunes
naturally brought loss and disappointment, and interest turned
again to peach planting, so that in 1907 the peach had secured
notable advance beyond the prune. The peach held the leadership
until 1915 when the demand for dried peaches fell below the cost of
production, planting was arrested and some orchards sacrificed.
The situation was however radically changed in 1917 by the organ-
ization of the peach-growers’ association and by the rapid advance
of prices under such control. Still as the prune experienced no
such set-back planting proceeded and the relation of the two fruits
in 1918 is shown in Chapter VI. It is however not at all certain
that the peach will not regain ascendancy over the prune. Still,
although the peach now stands below the prune in California pro-
duction, the California peach still has national leadership, for the
report of peach production in 1918, by the Bureau of Crop Esti-
mates of the United States Department of Agriculture, placed the
national product of peaches in 1918 at 20,573,000 bushels, of which
California produced 11,633,000 bushels—or more than all other
states combined.

The peach was the first fruit to ripen on the improved trees
brought here by the early American settlers, and the magnificence
of the peach was consequently the key-note of the refrain which
ereeted the ears of the world in which the California gold cry was
ringing early in the fifties. In fact, the gold from the mine and the
gold from the tree were very nearly related. In old Coloma, where
gold was discovered, there was a peach tree which bore four hun-
dred and fifty peaches in 1854, which sold for $3.00 each, or $1,350
for the crop of one tree, and in 1855, six trees bore one thousand
one hundred peaches, which sold for $1.00 each. Some of these
pioneer trees are said to be still living and bearing fruit.

LONGEVITY OF THE PEACH IN CALIFORNIA

There are many other facts to establish the claim that the peach
tree, if planted in a suitable soil and situation and cared for with
any devotion and skill, is not a short-lived tree in California. Cali-

242, CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

fornia is too young to mark limits of duration, but there are instances
in the earliest-settled places in the State, where peach trees above
fifty years old are still vigorous and productive. Some trees have,
in fact, gone along in thrift until they have a bark below which
looks like that of a forest tree, and framework of main branches
sound and stalwart throughout because they have never been
allowed to sunburn until protected by their own roughness, and
have never been pruned with an axe, and never lost a limb nor had
a wound into which decay could penetrate and descend to the root.
When the peach has a fair chance in its aerial parts and is in a soil
which favors health of the roots, it shows itself to be very long-
lived in California. When trees break to pieces and show decay
wounds, they are in bad places, and have suffered through natural
stress or have been weakened by cultural errors.

Renewal by Cutting Back—In favorable soils the peach is
stronger and longer lived in the root than in the top, and some-
times triumphs over neglect by discarding old, wind-broken, sun-
burned and bark-bound branches, and forms a new head of its own.
Such renewal is sometimes very rapid. In the interior valley new
shoots on a cut-back Muir tree have grown twelve feet in one season,
with a thickness of one) and one-half inches at the base. Such
shoots will bear the following summer and proper selection should
be made from them to shape the new tree—all others being removed.
Cutting back for a new head kills some trees, probably those which
through hardship are weak in the root, but most peach trees take
to it kindly. This is generally done by heading back all the limbs
to a foot or two from their start from the trunk in the latter part
of the dormant season and whitewashing the stumps thoroughly.
Some growers advocate a gradual renewal, cutting back one main
branch a year so that the loss of a crop may not occur. Peach trees
are also cut back for grafting or budding over, as will be described
presently.

It is through this disposition to renewal of good wood that the
intelligent system of pruning which is now prevalent, ministers to
the longevity as well as the profitability of the tree, aiding it to con-
stantly renew its youth by restraining its exuberance, and at the
same time furnishing it sound new wood on which to grow its fruit
foliage. But while these are facts, there is some difference in
opinion as to the point at which an old tree becomes less valuable
than a young one. Along the Sacramento River some count about
a dozen good crops as the limit, and thus replace the trees when
about fifteen years of age. This is a point which may vary greatly,
according to local conditions.

Early Productiveness.—Quite as important as the longevity of
the peach tree are the facts of its rapid growth and early produc-
tiveness. It is the first of our fruit trees to attain size and yield a
profitable crop. In localities best suited to its growth it will mature
some fruit the second summer in the orchard if the small shoots are
not pruned away from the main branches, and during the third

WHERE PEACHES ARE GROWN 243

summer averages of forty to fifty pounds per tree have been secured
from considerable acreages. These facts are stated to show what
the peach of good variety may do in a good situation and soil and
with the best of care. Of course they are not to be taken as average
results, although greater than those given are sometimes attained.
For example, on the rich, alluvial land near Visalia, an Admiral
Dewey yearling tree planted in March, 1904, had in October, 1905,
attained these dimensions: Near the eround the trunk was eleven
and three-quarter inches in circumference, branching two feet from
the ground it had four main branches, each seven inches in circum-
ference ; height of tree, twelve feet; ‘spread of branches, ten feet.
It grew near a crack in a cement ditch and so had all the moisture
it could use, and being in a free, open soil was not impaired by
standing water.

As for possible productiveness of the peach, one Susquehanna
tree in Kern county yielded twenty-seven forty-five | ‘pound picking-
boxes—twelve hundred and fifty pounds in one crop—about four
times as much as good trees may average.

LOCALITIES FOR THE PEACH

The peach has a wide range in California, and finds many districts
suited to it in the several ways in which the trade delights in it.
As compared with the apricot, the peach thrives in the sheltered
valleys of the district north of the bay and west of the Coast Range,
in which the apricot is of little commercial moment; it yields those
peerlessly beautiful ‘‘mountain peaches’’ from one to two thousand
feet higher in the Sierra foothills than the apricot can be trusted; it
goes everywhere in the lower foothills and over the great valleys
that the apricot will go, and beyond it also, because it is less restless
in the spring and escapes some frosts which injure apricots.
Counted from trees in orchard the peach is about three times as
great as the apricot.

Nearly every county in California reports the possession of peach
trees. Above an elevation of four thousand feet on the sides of the
Sierra Nevada, they may be subject to winter killing, and lower still
the careful choice of situation has to be made to avoid frost at
blooming time—the peach in such places being subjected to some
dangers which beset it in the Eastern States. Below these points,
however, lies the great fruit belt of the foothills of the Sierra, where
the peach is the chief fruit grown and its excellence is proverbial.
Size, beauty, richness, delicacy of flavor and firmness, which endures
carriage to the most distant markets, are all characteristics of the
foothill peaches of California.

In the great interior valleys of the State wherever proper con-
dition of soil and water supply can be found, the peach also thrives,
the tree making a wonderfully quick and large growth, and the
fruit attaining great size. The San Joaquin Valley is the greatest
peach district in the State.

In the small valleys on the west of the great valley and on the

244 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

eastern slope of the Coast Range, there are also extensive areas
suited to the peach, and sheltered places on the eastern and western
edges of the Sacramento Valley have produced the earliest fruit for
a long series of years. Recently the contest for the earliest fruit
of these districts, with the foothill district on the east side of the
Sacramento Valley and special locations in the upper San Joaquin
Valley, has been quite close.

In the coast valleys, opening upon San Francisco Bay and the
Pacific Ocean, the peach is also a leading fruit. Its success is great-
est, however, where good shelter is had from direct coast influences.
Even where open to these influences, good peaches can be grown by
choosing the smaller range of varieties, which do well by protecting
the trees from harsh winds, and by seeking elevation above de-
pressed valleys, whose frosts are frequent. The occurrence of curl-
leaf is a factor of much importance, which will be considered pres-
ently. In the coast counties north of the Russian River Valley the
danger to the peach from unfavorable atmospheric conditions in-
creases as one goes northward, and situations must be chosen with
ereater care. And yet by such exercise of care, peaches for home
use and local markets can be successfully grown.

South of San Francisco Bay the coast influences soften as you
proceed southward, and the peach draws nearer to the ocean, choos-
ing, however, elevations and avoiding broad, wind-swept areas and
narrow defiles where drafts and fogs are frequent. At considerable
elevations, as on the Santa Cruz Mountains, some varieties of peaches
are notably excellent. The general rule holds with the peach, as
with other fruits, that coast influences retard ripening and the season
of the fruit is late.

In some valleys and at elevations in Southern California the
peach is largely grown and high excellence attained while on the
mesas and plains there is often too high a temperature which starts
erowth out of season and follows with a dormacy and die-back when
the tree ought to be most active. It has recently been demonstrated
that varieties like Lukens’ Honey, descended from the Peen-to or
flat peach of China, resists such irregularities better than the com-
mon sorts which are largely of Persian origin.

SOILS AND EXPOSURES FOR THE PEACH

Though the suitability of soils for the peach can be somewhat
extended by the choice of stock for budding upon, as will be con-
sidered presently, its range of soils is narrower than that of the
apricot. The best peach soils are light, deep, sandy loams, rather
dry than moist, but under all circumstances well drained. It will
thrive on land with a considerable mixture of coarse sand or gravel,
providing it contains also needed elements of fertility ; for the rapid
growth and heavy fruitage of the peach requires abundant nutrition.
Though it accepts coarse materials both in soil and subsoil, it
relishes fine sediment and perhaps finds no more congenial location
than in the deep, sandy loam, or sedimentary deposit bordering the

CONDITIONS AFFECTING PEACHES. 245

ereek beds of our warm valleys, and will send its roots deep to
secure long life and abundant fruitage. Such soils, whether along
existing streams or deposited by prehistoric water courses, which
have left their mark by the elevated ridges of rich sediment above
the prevailing valley soils, are warm, deep, and thoroughly drained,
and delight the peach. Peaches are grown very successfully on
what is called hardpan in some parts of Fresno County, providing
the hardpan is blasted as described in Chapter XI. In these situa-
tions the hardpan is near the surface and has a deep free soil below
it into which the roots can extend.

At elevations on the hillsides there are free loams which result
from decomposition of the underlying rocks, and on them the peach
thrives, both where the soils themselves are deep and where the
underlying rock is loose and open, permeable by roots and affording
escape for water. Success has been reported even when holes are
partly excavated in these rotten rocks as in the soft sand rock on
the hills east of Vaca Valley, or in the broken chalk rock in what
is called Blackburn Gulch, near Santa Cruz. The superior warmth
of such soils is supposed to minister to earlier ripening of the fruit,
though the escape from cold air by elevation is no doubt a greater
factor to the end.

The influences of comparatively slight difference in elevation is
very marked. E. R. Thurber, of Pleasant Valley, Solano County,
had for many years a plot of peach trees on a natural terrace about
seventy-five feet higher than the general level of his orchard. On
the terrace peaches ripened and were disposed of before the same
varieties ripened in the orchard below.

As in the valley a short distance to water is to be avoided, so on
the hills too great percolation from higher levels is undesirable. Of
course, natural defects of this kind ean be corrected by adequate
under-drainage.

Still, though such be the general soil conditions best suited to the
peach, the tree can be well grown for home use or local markets on
somewhat heavier soil, providing there is good drainage, but drain-
age must be insisted upon, for thousands of trees have perished
because planted in retentive soils without drainage. Alkaline soils
which are usually rather heavy should, however, be avoided, as the
peach, when grown on its own roots, seems to be of all fruits most
sensitive to alkali.

As to exposures for the peach the same rules hold as for other
fruits which are liable to injury when in bloom or young foliage.
Thus low places where cold air settles should be avoided, also low
gulches through which cold drafts prevail. In frosty situations an
incline away from the morning sun will often allow the trees to
escape serious injury.

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING

More than nine-tenths of California peach trees are grown on
peach roots. The chapter on propagation gives the general method

246 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

of growing and budding peach seedlings. In selecting pits, prefer-
ence is usually given to those from strong-growing, yellow peaches,
at least for working on the same colored fruits, while others use pits
of the Morris White, others the Strawberry, and others still will use
only pits from vigorous seedling trees. In this State the peach is
usually so healthy and vigorous, and the ‘‘yellows’’ not known, that
less care may be needed in selecting pits; still there is certainly
nothing lost by making every effort for a good stock.

The hard-shell and sweet almonds have long been used as a stock
for the peach. It is held that they give a hardier, stronger root, in
dry coarse soils especially, but neither have been largely used.

When it is desired to grow the peach on moister soil than suits
its own roots, the St. Julian plum may be used. The Myrobalan
has been used to some extent, but experience generally does not
favor any plum stock for the peach and our largest propagators
have abandoned its use.

The so-called ‘‘peach-almond’’ has often been urged as a stock
for the peach but has been little used, probably because the straight
peach and straight almond are so satisfactory and available. It is
a fruit having the pit of a peach but the pericarp of the almond, that
is tough and tasteless and disposed to split like an almond hull.
Early in the fifties a chance hybrid of this sort appeared in the
nursery of W. B. West, of Stockton, and its pits were used for
nursery seedlings which, when budded to the peach, produced good
trees. Trees bearing the peach-almond are found here and there all
over the State. Mr. Burbank produced a hybrid of the Wager
peach and the Languedoc almond.

Distance in Orchard.—Distance observed in planting peach
orchards differs greatly, according to the views of different growers.
Regarding the peach as a catch crop to plant between apricot, pear,
cherry, walnut, fig or other slow-growing, larger trees, the trees
may be set comparatively close; that is, with the latter trees at
thirty to forty feet, and alternate rows of peach to be removed at
the end of ten to fifteen years. If the peach is to have the ground
to itself, some planters plant at eighteen feet in equilateral tri-
angles, or twenty to twenty-four feet on the squares, the present
tendency of the peach, as with other trees, being to give more room
than was the custom a few years ago.

Age of Trees.—In planting peach orchards yearling’ trees are
generally preferred, though June buds are freely used and more are
planted in dormant bud than of any other kind of fruit trees. The
reason for this is easily found in the disposition of the peach to
make a tree the first year from the bud. It springs almost at once
into a full outfit of laterals. Some growers employ this disposition
to form a head the first year in the nursery. When the bud has
grown out eighteen inches, pinch it off at the top and force out lat-
erals, which make long growth the same season. When planted out
in orchard the following winter, cut back to ten or twelve inches.
In this way anyone can get a yearling with the equivalent of a two-

PLANTING PEACH TREES 247

year-old head on it. The common practice is, however, to let the
growth from the bud proceed as it chooses, and when the yearling
is set in orchard, cut back to a single bud the laterals which are de-
sired to form the head and removing others. If there is a dormant
bud on the stem where a branch is desired and it is obstinate in not
starting, a cross-cut through the bark just above it may concentrate
pressure and force it out. Proper starting of the young tree is pro-
moted by cutting away cleanly all laterals which have grown from
stem-buds. In such cutting back the dormant buds at the base of
such laterals should be preserved. The development of form from
a yearling branched in the nursery is illustrated in Chapter XII.

Planting Dormant Buds.—The chapter on planting describes the
planting of yearling trees. The lifting of dormant buds from the
home nursery and planting in orchard is described-by P. W. Butler,
of Placer County, as follows:

Have the ground prepared and stakes placed in position in the orchard
in early February, if possible, and begin the planting at once, while the
treets are in dormant bud. Take no more trees from the nursery than can
be planted in half a day. Plow a furrow on each side of the row, six inches
from the trees, turning the soil from them, then two men with heavy
spades or shovels, one on each side of the tree, can readily take it up with-
out breaking many of the roots; and what are so broken should be
smoothly trimmed with a sharp knife. Place the trees in a tub of water,
near where they are to be planted, and take them from it only a few ata
time. Put them in a basket or box and cover with wet sack, that they
may be kept moist until placed in the ground.

On planting place the bud one inch below the level of the ground, but
do not cover it until after it has grown to the height of a few inches. The
stock should be cut off at the bud with a thin, sharp knife (and not with
shears, as is often done, as the latter method will sometimes split the
tree), when it will take in moisture and not heal readily.

Some growers do not cut back the young seedling tree until
erowth has started out well on the dormant bud, girdling the bark
above the bud to force its growth. The tender shoot is protected
somewhat by the old stem to which it can be tied. The removal of
the old stem should not be too long delayed, for the wound by its
amputation should heal over the first summer.

Rather more care is needed in handling dormant buds both in
planting and in their young life in the orchard. Lookout must be
kept for suckers and against injury in cultivation. Success with
dormant buds is notable. In good hands they commonly outgrow
yearlings planted at the same time, and the percentage of loss from
failure of the bud to start is very small. Of course, every bud
should be examined before planting, to see that it has a healthy
color.

In the selection of peach trees for planting, a clean, healthy root
only should be taken. During recent years there have been a good
many young roots affected with knots or swellings from some ob-
secure cause. Such trees should be burned. If planted, the knot
sometimes grows to an enormous size and little or no top growth is
made.

248 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

PRUNING THE PEACH

As has already been stated, the peach will carry a top of great
fruiting longevity if the grower will do justice to the tree by regu-
lar shortening of the growth and forcing out new wood, upon which
alone fruit is found. Not only does regular pruning do this, but it
promotes longevity and vigor in the framework of the tree upon
which these bearing shoots come. Left unpruned, the peach soon
becomes bark-bound, and the bark itself becomes hardened and
brittle. Lower shoots are apt to dwindle, and the tree becomes an
umbrella of foliage and fruit held aloft by bare branches bark-
burned by the sun, invaded by borers, exuding gum, covered with
moss and lichens—a picture of distress and unprofitability because
its owner does not give the tree a chance to re-invigorate itself with
large fresh leaves from the new wood which alone can carry them.

Vase-Form with Continuous Leaders.—The common vase form
of the peach tree is amply described in Chapter XII, where it is
used to illustrate the development of the prevailing California
method of shaping fruit trees. Recently there has appeared a dif-
ferent form which, though not new, is being given local names. It
consists in building the tree with continuous ribs or leaders, a va-
riation in the vase-form which has been used in Europe for centu-
ries, perhaps. The following very clear account of it is prepared by
Mr. GC. F. Collins, horticultural commissioner of Tulare County:

Another method of vase form, known locally as the Sims method, has
been practiced for many years by William, Sims, of Farmerville, and is now
practiced by the California Fruit Canners’ Association in its large orchard
near there, by Hunt Bros. in their orchards near Exeter, and by many in-
dividual growers in that vicinity. The trees are cut back to 18 inches at
planting, and at the first winter’s pruning four or five of the most upright-
growing branches are left to form the head. These are cut to a uniform
height and as great a length as the season’s growth will allow. On a vig-
orous tree this will be about 6 feet. All laterals are removed from these.

The second winter retain one strong upright branch emerging from near
the end of each branch of previous season’s growth, and remove all later-
als from the tree larger than a lead pencil Top these main branches at a
uniform height of 10 or 12 feet from the ground, accarding to the growth
made. Sometimes a lateral is allowed to grow from one of these main
limbs to fill in an open space in the outline of the tree. At the end of the
second winter’s pruning, we have a low-headed tree with four or five main
branches 10 or 12 feet long, and so upright that the tree is only 6 or 7 feet
across the top. Enough small laterals are left for abundant shade. After
this each season remove all large laterals, leaving only the small fruiting
wood, and cut this back to the required amount.

Some of the claims made for this system are that no propping is re-
quired to support the limbs, and as these are so nearly perpendicular in
growth the orchard is more easily worked close to the trees and the trees
are magre easily kept down to a proper height than when pruned by the
ordinary method. This system certainly works admirably in the sections
where it is used, and in my opinion, on true peach soil, where the trees
are vigorous and grow large, strong limbs, it is far superior to the old
vase form, but it is a question if it would prove as satisfactory in many of
our orchards where the trees make a more feeble growth, and especially
with a tree of as slender a growth as the Muir. Of course, with a less
vigorous tree it might require three or even four years to get the tree to
a proper height by this method.

METHODS OF PRUNING PEACHES. 249

Special Points on Peach Pruning.— Whatever plan for low, vase-
form be adopted, there are variations in the use of it by successful
peach growers in various parts of the State. A few instances will
be given:

In pruning the peach I have found it a great advantage not to cut the
new wood until after it has done its work. This is my method: A new
shoot grows out to three feet this year. Don’t cut it back next winter; but
let it grow. There will be a few peaches on it and a great many strong
buds will develop to set and mature a crop the following year. After that
crop is off, cut off the whole shoot back to the main branch. Other buds
will grow from about the same place and below it on the big limbs to go
through the same cycle. While this shoot is bearing its heavy crop, others
will be growing and setting fruit buds for the year when the first men-
tioned one has been cut off. :

When you cut off a new shoot several others start next season near the
cut, and draw all the sap from the buds below. They are stunted and
probably killed. The several new shoots use a lot of sap that ought to go
to fruit, for it is well known that the cutting back stimulates undue wood
growth. You will have your trouble of cutting back year after year; and
as time goes on, you build the tree higher and higher out of the reach of
fruit pickers. By my method after a tree is large as convenient to prune
and pick from, the fruit is forced out all along the limbs where it can be
most securely held up and most thoroughly nourished. The tree does not
grow appreciably higher, there is very little waste wood growth, for the
shoots unpruned grow only a very few inches and that few inches is good
for the production of necessary leaves. If the tree seems too prolific, take
out more wood—always at its junction with the limb from which it springs.
The tree is kept open enough always to supply light to the inner fruit
spurs, but enough new wood is left to protect it from sunburn. New spurs
are constantly growing among the bearing ones, so that the old limbs con:
tinue to bear. Should the new spurs get a little too thin, or the tree seem
to need more leaves, a few shoots may be cut back for the sole purpose
of providing new wood.—Hd. Ames, Newcastle.

Unless the growth is systematically cut back it will be spindly and will
not come low down on the limbs which could hold the weight of fruit de-
sired. Without proper cutting hack, the new growth will come from the
terminals of last season’s growth and on ordinary ‘soil will be short, weak,
and spindly, and the following year will produce little fruit. If such a
tree is on low, moist soil, the growth from terminals will be longer and
will set more fruit, but will be so spindly that it cannot hold up or mature
the crop it sets. Cutting’ back the new growth stiffens it and the limb it
comes from. After a tree is mature, the wood which bore fruit last year
should be removed so far as practicable; and where new growth is too
thick it should be thinned. This, with the cutting back of new wood, will
force new growth throughout tha tree.

In the cutting back, the habit of the variety in locating fruit buds must
be observed. With Hlbertas and Muirs fruit buds are made near the junc-
tions with larger branches, so cutting back of fruit laterals only is neces-
sary, and they may be cut pretty short, especially far out on a branch.
With Lovells the branch itself may preferably be cut back, leaving fewer
laterals and these considerably longer, because their fruit buds are scarce
near the junctions.—C. B. Weeks, Red Bluff.

The peach is renewed every year by cutting into the older wood so that
there will be ample growth of young shoots which bear the coming crop,
and this cutting is more severe after the tree has reached maturity, in
order to get the desired result. The tree should not be allowed to become
too large or straggling but should be pruned so that young growth is
always plentiful from the bottom up. While girowth is very vigorous a
summer thinning of surplus inside growth is beneficial—Leonard Coates,
Morgan Hill.

250 _ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Spur Pruning Peaches.—Peach varieties vary in their tendency
to set fruit buds close to the base of new growth. On this charac-
teristic depends to a considerable extent, the severity of pruning
back new growth. F. C. Dyer, of Ontario, has spur-bearing Lemon
clings, looking almost as rough as pear trees. They bear fruit buds
to the very base of the new growth. If the trees are old, not over a
few inches of growth are added to the spurs each year beyond the
fruits, though two or three feet of last season’s growth are cut out
of the tops. This lack of vegetative vigor makes it desirable to
shorten back the spurs to not over three fruit buds, since only one
fruit is desired per spur and since such winter pruning on such old
trees does not induce too vigorous wood growth. This is somewhat
true of the down-turning branches of most any variety. All the
fruit wood possible is developed and saved along the main limbs.
If spurs are too thick, they are thinned out to prevent shading the
rest. Practically all of the new top growth was cut off from the
Lemon clings. Lovells can be pruned back to spurs almost as short,
Muirs a little longer, while Tuscans bear fruit buds only close to
the tips which must be left on, or the branches thinned out. The
bearing habits of varieties must be observed by the grower.

THINNING PEACHES

Thining out fruit on the peach tree is not only the secret of ob-
taining good, marketable fruit, but joins hands with pruning in pre-
serving the health and future production of the tree. The import-
ance of thinning has been urged in a previous chapter, but the fol-
lowing is a very strong statement, by Mr. J. P. Cane, of the Cali-
fornia Peach Growers—the co-operative association of the produc-
ers of the fruit:

The weight of fruit will be approximately the same whether the tree is
thinned severely, lightly or not at all, but the great advantage in thinning
properly is the greatly increased size of the fruit, the larger sugar content
and the minimum expense of harvesting and curing. The cost of thinning
is overcome at picking time when in handling one large peach the pickers
get the same weight as if they had handled four small ones. There is a
similar gain in time required to cut a ton onto the trays. Our records
show that the weight of one extra fancy dried Muir is equal to three and
three-quarters standard grade Muirs.

Since size and quality are so important in dried peaches, everything-
possible should be done to increase the diameter of the fruit. Perhaps the
ideal distance of peaches when properly thinned should be about two and
one-half times their diameter when matured. This would mean that the
peaches should be six to eight inches apart when thinning is complete.
In thinning, see that the undersized specimens, which are certain to fall
later, are removed, or at least allowed for, in spacing those that are to
remain.

The time for thinning peaches is as soon as one can be sure which
are likely to remain on the tree and which will drop off of their
own accord. Nothing can be gained by trying to separate doubles.
Remove them if there are enough singles to make the crop.

BUDDING OLD PEACH TREES 251

IRRIGATION OF THE PEACH

As the peach is the greatest deciduous fruit of the interior val-
leys and foothills, it is also the deciduous fruit which is chiefly
grown with irrigation. Most of the specific conclusions set forth in
Chapter XV are based upon experience with the peach and the
reader is advised to consider them from that point of view. One of
the most important points of success in irrigating the peach is to use
enough water earlier in its growth so that application need not be
made within about three weeks of ripening. Enough water before
that will usually insure size on properly thinned trees and the with-
holding of water near ripening will secure good quality. After the
crop is gathered, irrigation can be resumed to continue the late
summer growth for next year’s fruit buds and to save the tree from
injury during the long autumn drouth. Very great disappointment
in thrift and bearing of peaches has resulted from lack of irriga-
tion in the early autumn in the interior valley. Even in places
where the trees make a good crop by rainfall or underflow, there
may be great injury to the tree by inadequate soil moisture during
the remainder of the growing season.

There is some variation in practice of irrigation in relation to
maturity of the peach. It is held that peaches for drying should not
be irrigated during the last three or four weeks before maturity—if
possible to get size without it. Peaches for shipping and canning
may be irrigated later, say two or even one week before picking.
Cling peaches will take water late more safely than freestones.

WORKING OVER PEACH TREES

The fashion in peaches changes from time to time according to
the demands of the canners or the market for dried fruit. The
erower often finds varieties which he first selected, less healthy, less
productive, or, for other reasons, less desirable than others. There
is, therefore, often occasion for working over trees. Budding is
often resorted to, buds being successfully set in quite old wood,
providing buds from well-matured wood are taken. Wood buds
from young trees unaccompanied by fruit are best, but because of
ereater certainty of securing the variety desired, it is common to
take wood and fruit buds together from bearing trees. A larger cut
of bud and adjacent bark is taken when working in old bark than
for use on seedlings. The best time to bud peaches in the old bark
is as early in the summer as well plumped buds can be had on the
new growth, and this can be hastened by pinching the tips of the
shoots which it is desired to take buds from. Such buds should be
forced to grow by cross cuts in the stock above the buds) or by
breaking down part of it when the bud is seen to have ‘‘taken’’—
cutting away cleanly when the bud has made a few inches of
growth. Some growers thus bud and break part of the branches,
allowing others to remain unworked, to maintain the growing
processes of the tree. These branches and those in which buds have

252 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

not taken, are cut off and grafted the following spring. The almond
is successfully grafted over the peach, and this course has been fol-
lowed with thousands of unproductive almonds.

Peach and almond trees are also worked over by beheading the
trees at the close of the dormant season and budding into the new
shoots late in the summer—allowing the buds to remain dormant
until the following spring, when the buds are started by cutting
back to them as in the case of budded seedlings. As this wastes a
year, budding in old bark for immediate growth is usually pre-
ferred.

Grafting the Peach.—Grafting the peach by the ordinary top-
erafting with a cleft graft seldom succeeds. A side graft with saw
and knife is better. It is described by J. W. Mills, an experienced
peach grower of Yuba County, as follows:

Saw grafting is rapidly taking the place of cleft grafting, for it does
away with all difficulties arising from splitting, and there is no cavity left
in the heart of the limb or tree. The process is to saw off the limb at the
desired place as in cleft grafting, then saw across the corner and down
the side at an angle of about 45 degrees and trim out with a’sharp knife.
Place the knife blade a little to one side of the saw ‘cut, a little farther
from the edge at the top than at the bottom, and by pressing onthe knife
the whole sides of the crevice will be trimmed smoothly at one‘stroke; this
operation repeated on the other side of the saw cut will make a neat!notch
in the end of a solid limb. By cutting a little deeper from the saw cut at
the top than at the bottom, and if the amateur does not trim his scion at
the right angle, he can insert it gently in the crevice or'notch and see just
where to trim. If he is so slow that the fresh cut shows signs ‘of discol-
oration, he can make a fresh surface by placing the knife parallel ‘to the
edges and shaving off a thin slice. He still retains the same angle, but'the
scion will set a little deeper, which is no objection. By cutting a thin
layer off the top of the stump next to the notch will show exactly where
the inside layer of the bark is. The inside of the scion must be even
with the inside layer of the bark of the stump or limb that is being
grafted. If the scion is inclined slightly out or in at the top, it will make
a correct union at some point and be sure to grow. If the inclination is
very slight the union will extend over considerable length, and will make a
much better start than if the union is at only one point, owing to the en-
larged surface through which the sap is transmitted. One of the most
important points in grafting is to have good wax and go over the grafts
a few days after they are put in and rewax them.

DISEASES OF THE PEACH

Curl-Leaf.—The most prevalent trouble with the peach tree in
California is the curl-leaf. It was noticed from the first planting
of peach trees by Americans, nearly sixty years ago, and free con-
jecture as to its cause was indulged in until it was shown to be a
specific fungus, and its prevention by washes of fungicidal charac-
ter demonstrated. The treatment will be described in the chapter
on tree diseases. The facts of its occurrence may be stated as fol-
lows:

Curl-leaf is much more prevalent in some sections than others,
and in one place than another in the same section, and some sections
are practically free from it. Some varieties are much more subject
to curl-leaf than others; generally speaking, some curl nearly every-

DISEASES OF THE PHRACH. 250

where, others curl in one place and not in another, others are prac-
tically free from curl in all situations.

Curl-leaf occurs in various degrees. Mild cases do not seem to
injure either tree or fruit; severe cases destroy the fruit and some-
times the tree itself. The disease is almost always at its height
when the young fruit is about the size of small peas. If the curl is
‘‘bad,’’ the fruit will fall to the ground, there not being healthy
leaves enough to afford the required support. If, however, the
curl is moderate and partial, only a part and sometimes none of the
fruit will be lost. The disease, as it well known, is of brief duration,
say twelve to twenty days, after which the tree resumes a healthy
appearance in every respect, and if the fruit has been able to sur-
vive the ordeal, it also appears to grow and become as perfect as if
no check had been given to its growth. But it is better to save the
tree the burden of a new foliage growth.

Mildew.—This disease, which occurs in the form of whitish
felted patches on leaf and twig early in the spring, and finally af-
fects the fruit, has long been troublesome in this State, and-occurs
on certain susceptible varieties in many localities from the coast to
the Sierra foothills. Observation in this State has fully affirmed
the statement of Downing, that the serrate, glandless-leaved varie-
ties are liable, and those with good glands on the leaf stems are free.

The conclusion would be that where mildew prevails, varieties
with serrate, glandless leaves should be avoided. But it has been
found that some glandless-leaved varieties, although subject to mil-
dew, resist curl-leaf. Therefore it may be worth while to combat
the mildew. This has been done effectually by treatment which will
be described in a later chapter.

As with curl-leaf, mildew is prevalent some years and slight in
others.

Peach Blight.—The most serious disease which has thus far
striken the peach in California is locally known as the ‘‘peach
blight,’’ the work of a shot-hole fungus (coryneum). This also has
been satisfactorily checked by spraying, as will be described in the
Chapter on Diseases of Trees and Vines.

Split-Pit— A common trouble of the peach known as ‘‘split-pit,’’
has recently been studied by the California Experiment Station and
the tentative conclusion has been reached that splt-pits are psysio-
logical phenomena and not caused by disease germs. Whether this
abnormal growth is due to weakness of variety or to cultural condi-
tions is not determined. It is true that varieties differ in amount
of splitting, and selection is being made to some extent on that
basis.

Insects infesting the peach are discussed in Chapter XLI.

VARIETIES OF THE PEACH

Nearly all varieties of the peach have been tried in California,
and, as with other fruits, it has been found that varieties must be

254 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

chosen with reference to their success in special locations. Choice
is, however, chiefly made according to the purpose of the grower,
whether for early marketing, for sale to canners, for drying, or for
distant shipment or for late marketing. As with apples, there is
little use of planting early varieties (unless it be for home or local
use) except in very early regions. An early peach from a late re-
gion is killed by competition with better middle season sorts from
. the earlier regions.

In an early region one can plant early, middle, and late varieties
to advantage, and thus secure a very long-fruiting season. The
peach season in interior districts begins about the first of June and
continues to the end of November with local seedlings—giving six
months of peaches. Of course, the very early and very late sorts
are only of use for marketing as table fruit. The most important
series is a fine succession of mid-season peaches suitable either for
canning, drying or distant shipment. Such a selection can be made
from the tables and descriptions which will be given later.

Color is a most important item in the peach. While canners and
Eastern shippers use the beautiful white peaches to advantage, the
fashion for canning and drying is now strong in support of the yel-
low-fleshed clingstone varieties. The yellow freestone peaches are
also in greatest demand. The color about the pit is also an impor-
tant point. Canners demand a peach, whether white or yellow,
which is almost free from color at the pit, because the extraction
of the red color dyes the juice; in drying, the demand just now is
for a yellow peach with a red center, because the colors give the
dried fruit a more attractive appearance. Of course there is a mar-
ket for dried white peaches but the preference is for yellow.

The peaches chiefly grown in California are named in Chapter
XVI.

PEACHES APPROVED IN CALIFORNIA

The following are the peaches commercially grown in California,
arranged approximately in the order of ripening:

Briggs’ Red May (California) —Originated a chance seedling in nursery
row, on the farm of John G. Briggs, on the Feather River, about one mile
from Yuba City, about 1870. It was found to be about ten days earlier
than the Harly Tillotson, which was then the stand-by for an early peach.
Fruit medium to large, round; white skin, with rich, red cheek; partially
free, a standard early variety; subject to mildew.

Mayflower.—Introduced to the Pacific Coast by California Nursery Co.
as “the earliest ,peach known,” and it still holds that title. Red all over,
with white flesh of excellent flavor. As large as Alexander and ripens two
weeks earlier. June.

Sneed.—Large, creamy whilte, with blush cheek; tender, juicy; valu-
able for early shipping. June.

Alexander (Illinois)—Most widely grown as best early variety. Fruit
medium to large; greenish white, nearly covered with deep red; flesh firm,
juicy, and sweet; bears transportation well; pit is partly free.

Triumph (Georgia)—Medium sized, early, yellow, partial cling; very
good.

VARIETIES OF PEACHES 255.

Admiral Dewey.—Large; yellow with red cheek; flesh yellow; perfect
freestone; flavor good. One of the best early yellows. Ripens soon after
triumph. July.

Honey (Lukens).—Medium, oblong pointed, white mottled carmine; very
sweet; related to Peen-to.

Peen-to.—Flat peach or saucer peach of China; good in Southern Cali-
fornia.

Early Imperial (California).—Originated by W. W. Smith, Vacaville, and
planted to secure a yellow freestone earlier or larger than St. John. Most
growers find it no improvement on St. John. July.

Yellow St. John (New Orleans).—Iarliest yellow peach; averages
smaller than Yellow Crawford, but classed as large; roundish, orange yel-
low with deep red cheek; juicy, sweet and high flavored; freestone. June
and July.

Hale’s Early (Ohio) Medium to large, nearly round; skin greenish,
mostly covered and mottled with red when ripe; flesh white, melting, juicy,
rich and sweet; fair for local market and shipping; widely grown; free-
stone. July.

Strawberry (New forces) Medium size, oval; stem cavity deeply sunk;
suture extending half way round; skin almost wholly marbled with deep
red; flesh whitish, juicy, rich and delicate: tree healthy.

Foster (Massachusetts)—Uniformly large, slightly flattened; slight
suture; stem moderately depressed; flesh yellow, very rich and juicy, color
déep orange, dark red in the sun; freestone; tree hardy and productive;
very widely grown in California and popular. Ripens before Early Craw-
ford, which it sometimes resembles, but is of better quality. Very largely
grown.

Crawford’s Early (New Jersey).—Very large, oblong, swollen, point at
the top prominent, suture shallow; skin yellow, with red cheek; flesh yel-
low, rich and excellent; freestone; tree very healthy and productive; once
the most largely planted variety in California, now declining in popularity.

George the Fourth (New York).—Large, round, deeply divided by broad
suture; sides unequal; skin pale yellowish white, dotted with red and red
cheek; flesh pale, red at pit, from which it parts freely; quality good.
Somewhat troubled with curl-leaf. Chiefly grown in Southern California.

Mary’s Choice (New Jersey).—Large, yellow, resembling Early Craw-
ford, but ripening later.

Tuskena (Alabama or Mississippi)——Wrongly called “Tuscan” and
“Tustin” cling in this State; largely planted in interior valleys and foot-
hills; very large yellow cling; the earliest fine cling variety; very valua-
able for early shipping. Ripens with Crawford’s Harly. Very largely plant-
ed. Improved selections being claimed.

Oldmixon Free .(American).—Large, roundish or slightly oval; greenish
or yellowish white, marbled with red; flesh white, tender, and excellent,
juicy and rich; high flavor.

Libbee Cling.—Originated in Selma, commences to ripen shortly after
the Tuscan. The skin is highly colored and the flesh deep yellow; fruit
very large. The tree is of exceptionally robust habit and a heavy producer.

Blood Cling. ree; skin deep claret with deep red veins, downy; flesh
deep red, very juicy, vinous and refreshing; esteemed for pickling and pre-
serving. September.

Morris White.—Large, oval; skin white with creamy tint when fully
ripe; flesh white to the stone, which is free; melting, juicy, sweet and rich;
especially good for home use and canning; somewhat subject to curl-leaf.

Muir (California).—Originated as chance seedling on the place of John
Muir, near Silveyville, named and first propagated by G. W. Thissell, of
Winters. Fruit large to very large; perfect freestone; flesh clear yellow,
very dense, rich and sweet; pit small; tree a good bearer and strong grow-
er, if on rich soil, to which it is best adapted; free from curl,in Vacaville

256 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

district; fruit a good shipper and canner, and peculiarly adapted to drying
because of exceptional sweetness and density of flesh; yield, one pound
dry from less than five pounds fresh. One of the best California seedlings.
Claimed by some to be identical with Wager.

Muir variations with large flowers, with fruit like Muir, but not split-
ting at pit, reported by W. A. Rosander, Kingsburg; A. S. Coon, Fresno,
and H. R. Shaw, Selma.

Muir Cling by W. R. Fletcher, Green Valley, Sonoma County. Commend-
ed by Green Valley Cannery.

Wheatland (New York).—Large, roundish; skin golden yellow, shaded
with crimson; flesh yellow, rather firm, juicy, sweet, and of fine quality.

Elberta (Georgia).—Very large; round-oval with deep suture; golden-
yellow, faint red stripes; flesh yellow, fine, juicy, rich and sweet; tree pro-
lific; perfect freestone. Largely grown for fresh fruit shipping; not pre-
ferred by canners. Several types are being introduced called “Early, “Fay,”
“June” Elbertas.

J. H. Hale.—Valuable for shipping and drying, not for canning; smooth
skin, almost fuzzless; very firm; ships almost like an apple; yellow free-
stone; flesh tender, excellent quality; larger than the Hlberta and ripening
about the same period.

Crawford’s Late (New Jersey).—Very large, roundish, yellow with dark
red cheek; flesh deep yellow, juicy, and melting; flavor rich and excellent;
a popular and widely-grown variety, but very subject to curl-leaf in some
localities; freestone.

Lemon Clingstone (South Carolina) Large, lemon-shaped or oblong,
having large, projecting, swollen point like a lemon; skin fine yellow;
flesh firm, yellow with sprightly vinous subacid; slightly red at the pit,
which adheres firmly.

Orange Clingstone.—Large, round; suture distinctly marked and ex-
tending nearly around the fruit; no swelling at apex, like Lemon Cling-
stone; deep orange color, with red cheek; flesh yellow, firm, juicy, with
rich flavor; somewhat subject to mildew. Though largely grown, this va-
riety has been largely supplanted by the following sub-varieties, which are
seedlings from it.

Selma Cling.—Originated on Lewis ranch at Selma and introduced by
Fancher Creek Nurseries. Golden yellow, very uniform; somewhat flat-
tened; slight color on the sunny side; flesh clear yellow to pit, fine grained,
excellent. Cans with clear syrup and no rag. Ripens between Tuscan and
Phillips.

Sellers’ Golden Cling (California).—Originated on the farm of S. A. Sel-
lers, Contra Costa County, and introduced by James Shinn. Very large,
rich golden color; tree healthy; one of the very best of clings; ripens with
Late Crawford.

Runyon’s Orange Cling (California) —‘“Originated with Mr. Sol. Runyon
on the Sacramento River. Superior to the common Orange Cling. Run-
yon’s Orange Cling has globose glands, and is not subject to mildew like
the common sort. Fruit very large, yellow, with a dark crimson cheek;
rich, sugary, and vinous flavor. Highly esteemed and extensively planted
in the Sacramento region and elsewhere.’”—John Rock.

Nichols’ Orange Cling (California)—Originated by Joseph Nichols, of
Niles, introduced by James Shinn. Large, yellow, with purple cheek; flesh
yellow and good. Tree healthy and a heavy bearer.

Susquehanna (Pennsylvania).—Large, nearly globular, suture half-
round; skin rich yellow, nearly covered with red; flesh yellow, sweet, juicy,
with rich, vinous flavor; freestone; tree healthy. Very widely distributed
and popular.

Lovell (California) —Originated as a chance seedling with G. W. This-
sell, and named by him in 1882; propagated by Leonard Coates, of Napa.
Yellow, freestone; size uniformly large, almost perfectly round; flesh fine,

(‘Teg osed 99g)—sorends Ul UOeSIMA MOTINy doop YIM pxreyo1o YOVog—TITA 91d

Plate IX.

Profuse bearing of vine by long pruning.
(See page 313.)

VARIETIES OF PHACHES 257

texture firm, solid, clear yellow to pit; tree a good grower and bearer;
superior for canning and shipping and dries well. Said to curl in some
places. “The richest peach I ever saw on a tray.”’—H. A. Bonine, Los An-
geles County. The most popular yellow freestone for canning and drying.
Sometimes reported as “heavier” than the Muir.

MeKevitt’s Cling (California).—Originated as a chance seedling in apri-
cot orchard planted by M. R. Miller, on place owned later by A. McKevitt,
Vaca Valley; named in 1882 by nurserymen who propagated it. A white
clingstone; fiesh very firm, fine-grained, sugary, and rich, high flavor,
white to the pit; skin strong, and fruit excellent for shipping or canning;
tree remarkably strong in growth and free from disease.

Wylie Cling.—An old seedling by John Wylie, Green Valley, Sonoma
County, increasing in popularity in northern Sonoma County as superior
to Orange Cling in not splitting at the pit, and not dropping from the tree.

California; syn. Edward’s Cling (California) —“Originated in Sacramen-
to. Very large, round, regular, nearly covered with dark, rich red; flesh
deep yellow; flavor delicate, rich vinous.’”—C. W. Reed.

Picquet’s Late (Georgia).—Large to very large; round, sometimes a
little flattened; yellow, with red cheek; flesh yellow, melting, sweet, rich
and fragrant; freestone; not subject to curl-leaf.

Salway (English) —Large, roundish oblate; suture broad, deep, extend-
ing beyond the apex; skin downy, creamy yellow, rich, clear, crimson
cheek; flesh deep yellow, red at the pit; juicy, rich, sweet, vinous; free-
stone; a standard late peach in California; tree very healthy.

Phillips’ Cling (California) —Originated with Joseph Phillips, of Sutter
County; propagated by J. T. Bogue of Marysville. Fine large yellow cling,
no color at pit, which is very small; exceedingly rich and high colored;
described by Mr. Skinner, superintendent Marysville Cannery, as the best
peach he ever used. The most popular yellow clingstone. Ripens pro-
gressively so that picking can cover two weeks without falling from tree.
Requires good land and ample moisture. Haus’s and Sim’s cling are being
planted as “improved Phillips.”

Heath (Maryland).—Described by Downing as the most delicious of all
clingstones. Very large; skin downy, creamy white, with faint blush of red;
flesh greenish white, very tender and juicy, with most luscious flavor, best
adapted to interior regions, or places free from curl.

George’s Late Cling (California).—“Originated in Sacramento. Large;
white flesh, colored around the pit; beautiful yellow color, striped and
splashed with bright red; a very heavy and uniform bearer; a good ship-
per, and in its season of ripening there is no peach grown in Placer County
that yields the grower so much profit.’—P. W. Butler. Subject to mildew.

Albright’s Cling (California).—“Originated with Mr. Albright, near
Placerville. Very large; yellow, with bright cheek; rarely equaled in qual-
ity and flavor. Described as larger, more highly colored, of better flavor,
better shape, and the tree a more prolific bearer than the Orange Cling.”—
P. W. Butler. Endures long shipment even after being well colored.

McDevitt Cling— “Originated with Neal McDevitt, of Placer County.
Uniformly large, rich, golden yellow, becoming red when ripe; flesh very
firm and solid; superior in flavor; excellent shipper; tree good and regu-
lar bearer.

Levy’s Late; syn. Henrietta (District of Columbia).—Above average
size; yellow flesh, red cheek; late; clingstone. Very popular in San Joa-
quin Valley.

Bilyeu’s Late October.—‘Large greenish white with red cheek; flesh
whitish, freestone; tree a rapid grower and attains great size; prolific
bearer; fruit ships well, and where it will mature no peach can take its
place; does particularly well in the foothills.”—P. W. Butler.

Decker (California) —Grown for eastern shipment, in Vaca Valley, and
in Sutter and Butte counties.

CHAPTER XXI
THE NECTARINE

The nectarine reaches perfection under California conditions, as
does its close relative, the peach. The fruit is, in fact, as Downing
says, only a variety of the peach with a smooth skin; only a distinct,
accidental variety of the peach; and this is rendered quite certain,
since there are several well-known examples on record of both
peaches and nectarines having been produced on the same branch.
Nectarine pits usually produce nectarines again, but they occasion-
ally produce peaches. Peach seeds occasionally produce nectarines ;
the Boston variety originated from a peach stone. All these facts
which are recorded of relation between the peach and nectarine
have been verified by California observation.

The practice of growing nectarines is also exactly like that em-
ployed with the peach. It is propagated and pruned in the same
ways. The peach and nectarines are the same in natural adapta-
tions and requirements, and in diseases, so that what has been given
concerning the growth of the peach in this State has application
to the nectarine.

The success of the nectarine worked on almond stock, as has
been demonstrated by the experience of many, has led to the graft-
ing over a good many unprofitable almond trees to nectarine, though
this has not been done to the extent to which the French prune and
some other plums have been worked on old almond stocks.

Comparative Production of Nectarine and Peach.—It may be
wondered, considering the similarity of the peach and the nectarine,
why the former comes so near being our leading deciduous fruit and
the latter is the least grown, but one, of all temperate zone fruits,
only the lowly quince being less in importance. The explanation
is that the fruit buyer, both in California and at the East, prefers
the peach, whether it be fresh, or canned, or dried, and some of
those who have tried even a few acres of nectarines have found
many occasions to wish the ground had been given to peaches. How
much of this preference is due to lack of knowledge of the nectarine,
and how much to its somewhat different flavor, it would be difficult
to actually determine.

That the nectarine would advance in popular favor has been
prophesied for some years, because of the wonderful excellence of
the nectarine as grown in our interior valleys, and the passing
beauty of the amber translucency of the dried nectarine, both when
sun-dried and when produced by machine evaporators. The excel-
lence of the canned nectarine has also figured in the anticipation.
It is, however, questionable how far this anticipation has been
realized, for it is estimated that the amount of dried nectarines is
less than two per cent and of canned nectarines less than one-half
of one per cent of the respective forms of peaches. Nor does the

VARIETIES OF THE NECTARINE 259

demand call for change in this proportion, for there is a slight
advantage in the market value of the peach even in its great pre-
ponderance of supply. During the last decade many nectarines
have been rooted out to be replaced by peach trees, or have been
grafted over into peaches. There are, however, some growers who
are confident that the nectarine will in the future rank much higher
in the California fruit product. It would please growers and fruit
driers and canners to popularize the nectarine, for its smooth skin
makes it as easy to handle as an apricot, and the beauty of the
product, which certainly exceeds that of the peach and is rather
more easily attained, is very gratifying to the producer. There
have recently been discerned some indications that these things
may be realized, and plantings have increased.

VARIETIES OF THE NECTARINE

Varieties of the nectarine, as of the peach, show different local
adaptations, and are valued by growers accordingly. The varieties
grown, are, however, comparatively few. The following have been
found most satisfactory in California:

Gower.—Introduced by Fancher Creek Nursery and named for E. Gower,
of Selma. Harliest of all nectarines. Ripens with Early Crawford peach;
fruit very firm; freestone; ships like a clingstone peach; very early; de-
licious flavor; tree strong grower, bears heavily.

Advance.—Large, round, green, marked with red and brown; flesh
greenish white; rich and well flavored. The earliest to ripen.

Lord Napier (English).—Large, pale, cream color with dark red cheek;
flesh white, melting, tender and juicy, separating freely from stone; leaf
glands reniform and flowers large. Especially commended as a heavy and
regular bearer; pronounced best in flavor at Pomona Experiment Station.

Downton (English).—Leaves with reniform glands; flowers small; fruit
large, roundish oval; skin pale green, with deep violet red cheek; flesh
pale green, slightly red at the stone, which is free, melting rich, and very
good.

Early Newington (English)—Leaves serrated without glands, flowers
large; fruit large, roundish ovate, a little enlarged on one side, and ter-
minating with an acute swollen point; skin pale green, but nearly covered
with bright red and coated with thin bloom; flesh greenish white, but deep
red at stone, which adheres closely, juicy, sugary, rich, and excellent.

Hardwicke (English)—Leaves with globose glands; fruit very large;
roundish, inclining to oval; skin pale green, with deep violet red cheek;
flesh pale green, slightly marked with red at the stone, melting, rich, and
highly flavored; freestone; a favorite in Southern California.

Boston.—Raised from a peach stone by T. Lewis, of Boston; tree hardy
and productive; leaves with globose glands; flowers small; fruit large and
handsome, roundish oval, bright yellow, with deep red cheek; flesh yellow
to the stone (which is small and pointed), sweet, though not rich, with
pleasant and peculiar flavor; freestone; a general favorite in California.

New White; syn. Large White.—Leaves with reniform glands; flowers
large; fruit rather large, nearly round; skin white with occasionally slight
tinge of red; flesh white, tender, very juicy, with rich, vinous flavor; stone
small and free; commended wherever nectarines are grown in California
and more freely planted.

Stanwick.— Originated in England from seed brought from Syria. Large,

260 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

roundish oval, slightly heart-shaped at base; skin pale, greenish white,
shaded into deep, rich violet in the sun; flesh white, tender, juicy, rich,
sugary, and delicious.

Humboldt.—Very large, bright orange yellow vigorously marked with
crimson; flesh orange, tender, juicy and highly flavored. Described as one
of the best of the newer varieties. Ripens late.

As the future for the nectarine seems to rest upon drying and
eanning of the fruit, the lght-skinned, white or yellow-fleshed
varieties without color at the stone, are most desirable. For drying
there has been thus far a decided preference for freestone varieties,
though possibly the present popularity for cling peaches for drying
may extend to the clingstone nectarines. Much color, however,
either in skin or flesh, will prevent the production of the beautiful
translucent, amber hue of the dried nectarine, which is attractive
to consumers. Color in the flesh is, of course, undesirable in can-
ning, because of the discoloration of the syrup. These facts have
had much to do in fixing the popularity of the varieties named in
the foregoing list.

The largest orchards of nectarines are in interior valley loca-
tions, which are also fine for the peach and are perfectly adapted
both to the growing of the fruit and to the open-air, sun-drying
Or At.

CHAPTER... XXII.

THE PEAR

The oldest deciduous fruit trees in California are pear trees, as
has already been stated in the account of fruits at the old missions,
and some of the trees are still bearing, though it is a century and a
third since their planting. Trees planted by pioneers in the old
mining districts have actually assumed semblance to adjacent oaks.
Notable instances are found in the Stillwater district of Shasta
County and elsewhere. Near San Jose there is a tree over half a
century old, with a trunk seven and a half feet around and yielding
annually about fifteen hundred pounds of fruit, some of which was
exhibited at the Columbian Exposition.

The pear withstands neglect and thrives in soils and situations
which other fruit trees would rebel against. It defies drouth and
excessive moisture, and patiently proceeds with its fruitage eyen
when the soil is trampled almost to rocky hardness by eattle, carry-
ing its fruit and foliage aloft above their reach. And yet the pear
repays care and good treatment, and receives them from California
growers, for the pear has been one of our most profitable fruits.
It is in demand for canning, for drying, and for distant shipment,
and its long season and the slow ripening after picking allow de-
hberation in marketing, and admit of enjoying low rates for ship-
ment by slow trains. One of the most striking demonstrations of
the commercial suitability of the California pear is found in success-
ful marketing in London. Solomons, who is called ‘‘London’s great-
est fruiterer,’’ said in 1903 that California Bartletts from Block
of Santa Clara are the ‘‘best in the world.’’ Even after crossing
the continent they seemed to endure shipment across the Atlantic
better than Eastern pears.

The most obvious marks of the California pear are size and
beauty. The most conspicuous example is the Bartlett, which is
the pear of California, judged by its popularity, fresh, canned and
dried. When well grown, its size is grand, and its delicate color,
aroma and richness unsurpassed. What extreme in point of size
has been reached is not known to the writer, but he saw at the
San Jose Horticultural Fair, of 1886, thirteen Bartlett pears grown
by A. Block, of Santa Clara, which weighed fourteen pounds, the
heaviest of the group weighing twenty-two and one-half ounces.
But there had been larger Bartletts than the writer then saw, for
in 1858 a Bartlett was shown at Sacramento which weighed 27
ounces and was 1314 inches in girth, and to meet incredulity a life-
size outline of the fruit was published in the California Culturist
of December, 1858. Other pears have made standard sizes in Cali-
fornia far in advance of their records elsewhere. There was in
1870 a Pound pear sent from Sacramento to the late Marshall P.
Wilder, president of the American Pomological Society, which

262 , CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM ~-

weighed four pounds and nine ounces, and was reported by Colonel
Wilder to be larger than anything previously reported in pear
annals.* But California has recently done even better, for a pear
from near Marysville in 1904 was reported as nine inches high,
sixteen inches around the base and five pounds in weight. Notes
kept by the writer include five Vicar of Winkfields weighing four
pounds eight ounces; nine Haster Beurre weighing twenty-four and
one-half pounds, the heaviest single specimen weighing two and
three-fourths pounds; thirty-five Beurre Clairgeau weighing thirty-
seven pounds, the heaviest one, nineteen ounces; Seckel pears, nine
and three-fourths inches in cireumference—Downing’s figures make
the Seckel five and seven-eighths inches around.

The pear comes into bearing early if conditions have favored
the thrift and development of the tree. It is a long-lived tree as
already shown unless it is invaded by the blight. It is the judg-
ment of Hayward Reed, whose pear orchards in Sacramento and
Yuba Counties have long been among the best known in California,
that with variations due to climate, soil, drainage, variety, etc.,
a pear tree is mature at 12 to 15 years of age and will average
eight or nine boxes of 50 pounds each. It will pay for its care at
seven to ten years of age.

LOCALITIES FOR THE PEAR

The pear has a wider range than the apple in local adaptations.
It does as well as the apple in the coast regions, if suitable varieties
are grown; it thrives far better than the apple in the interior val-
leys; it rivals the apple in the ascent of the slope of the Sierra
Nevada, and gains from the altitude, color and late keeping, as
does the apple. By rejecting a few naturally tender varieties, or
by proper protection against the scab fungus, in regions where its
attacks are severe, one can grow pears almost everywhere in Calli-
fornia—providing pear blight can be held in check, as will be dis-
eussed later.

The choice of location is governed more by commercial consid-
erations than by natural phenomena. The same facts which make
the Bartlett the favorite variety with planters, also should regulate
the choice of locality for growing it. These facts were expressed
by the late C. W. Reed, of Sacramento, who was in his time one of
the leading pear growers and shippers of the State, as follows:

In the Sacramento Valley proper there is but one variety of pear that
will justify extensive cultivation, viz., the Bartlett. While nearly all va-
rieties may be grown successfully, and many varieties may be desirable
for home purposes, yet for profitable orchards we have to confine ourselves
to this one variety, except in high altitudes, or localities where the fruit
only matures very late. The reason for this will be better understood by
the inexperienced if explained. The Bartlett pear having qualities that
make it a universal favorite for shipping, canning, and for domestic mar-
ket, no other’ variety is wanted while it is obtainable. With the difference
in the time of its ripening in different localities that are adjacent, our mar-

*Tilton’s Journal of Horticulture, March, 1871, p. 87. An engraving of this fruit,
natural size, was given in Pacific Rural Press, November 8, 1873.”

THE SUCCESSION OF BARTLETTS 263

kets are supplied with this variety about four months each season, viz.,
July, August, September and October. While this pear is in the market,
any other variety to compete with it must sell at very low prices.

Of course experienced pear growers, whose taste would soon cloy
with a continuous diet of Bartletts, and who know fully the superior
quality of other varieties which ripen soon after it, would dispute
the position taken by Mr. Reed, but for present California taste and
trade he is undoubtedly correct. As the canners and shippers and
local consumers all call for Bartletts, and as they usually sell at the
East for nearly twice the price of other varieties, the choice of loca-
tion to secure a Bartlett, either very early or very late, is the part
of wisdom, for either end of the season usually yields better prices
than the middle. Some growers are even opening the Bartlett
season by growing Clapp’s Favorite, which sells well because it is
taken for a Bartlett, and closing the season with the Winter Bart-
lett, a local variety recently introduced. The earliest Bartletts
come from the interior valley sometimes as early as the last week
in June; the next, from the valleys adjacent to the Bay of San
Francisco; the next, from the higher foothills of the Sierra Nevada;
and the last, so far as present experience goes, although some coast
and mountain situations are quite late, reach the market from the
Vacaville district. It is an interesting fact that this district, which
has long been famous for marketing the first early fruits, should
also market very late ones. It is true, however, that early fruits
hasten to maturity and late fruits are retarded. Late fruits push
along until about midsummer, then stop growing for a month or two
during the hottest weather, and afterwards proceed on their course
and finish up well.* W. W. Smith, of Vaca Valley, has picked
Bartletts as late as November 19, but that is unusually late. In
years with heavy late spring rains the Bartlett ripens earlier in the
Vaca Valley than in ordinary seasons, and when the fruit sells well
in the Hast, the Bartletts are gathered green and shipped all through
the season, as their first growth usually makes them large enough
for this purpose.

There is produced in some situations a ‘‘second crop’”’ of Bart-
letts and of other varieties, which is of account when pears are
scarce and is sometimes dried with profit. For such fruit the bloom
appears upon the tips of the shoots of the current season’s growth.
The fruit is sometimes coreless and has led to claims of ‘‘seedless
pears.’’ Bartlett pears have actually been picked in the foothills
above Peatz in Butte County on February 25, 1905, and described
as ‘‘fine, delicious and ripe.’’ This fact must be regarded as a
' token of local climatic salubrity and not of economic or pomological
account.

Bartletts can also be successfully held in storage for a time if
fittted for it. The experiments of the United States Department of
Agriculture, conducted in Southern Oregon, show that the Bartlett

*Demonstration of the effect of high heat in retarding the ripening of pears has been
described by R. H. Taylor and E. L. Overholser in Monthly Bulletin California State Hor-
ticultural Commission for March, 1919.

264 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

season can be extended from six to seven weeks by leaving the fruit
on the trees two weeks longer than is at present the practice and
by storing for four or five weeks at a temperature of 32 deg. or 34
deg. F. after the fruit has been precooled.

SOILS FOR THE PEAR

The pear, if it is not allowed to dry out entirely, will generally
do well on shallow soil and over a tight clay hard-pan, where most
other fruits would be unsatisfactory or fail utterly. The trees will
thrive in clay loams, and even in adobe, if properly cultivated. In
laying out fruit farms, which often include a variety of soils, even
in comparatively small area, the pears and plums (if on the right
stock, as will be seen) should be set in the lower, moister, stiffer
soil, and other fruits on the lighter, warmer, and better drained
portions. The pear, however, enjoys the better situation, though
it will thrive on the poorer. The tree seems to attain its greater
growth and heaviest bearing on the alluvial soils of the valleys and
near the banks of rivers and streams. All pears will be later in
maturing and have better keeping qualities if grown on a clay sub-
soil. Thus it appears that the pear will flourish whether the water
is near or far from the surface. On wet land the apple is apt to die
in a few years, or become worthless. On dry land the apple may
live longer than on wet land, but the fruit will be small and taste-
less. But the pear tree may bear good fruit, under both extreme
conditions.

It has been learned by experience that the pear will flourish on
soil somewhat alkaline. At the University Agricultural Experiment
Station at Tulare, this subject was demonstrated in detail. It was
shown that though the pear endures a certain amount of alkali its
limit of endurance may be often exceeded and there is little warrant
to select alkali soil for pears, unless it be to fill a space that would
otherwise be vacant in the orchard. If it is not too alkaline the
pears will thrive. If gypsum be used in planting, somewhat
stronger alkali will be endured than otherwise.

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING

The use of dwarfing stock for the pear has been nearly aban-
doned in this State, though in early years the quince was largely
used. The most prominent orchard on quince stock is that of A.
Block, of Santa Clara, where may be seen dwarf trees originally
planted eight feet apart in squares, but now wider spaced by re-
moving part of the trees; the remainder doing exceedingly well
under liberal manuring and irrigation. It would, however, require
special investigation to determine whether these trees are still de-
pendent upon the quince or whether they have developed roots
from the pear wood above.

It is quite possible that, at least for gardens, there may be in
the future more use made of dwarf trees; but for commercial

DWARF PHARS IN CALIFORNIA 265

orchards there appears no need of dwarfing. The common con-
clusion is that it is better to have fewer trees and larger ones, but
since the pear blight became an issue in this State the Angiers
quince has been advocated as a means of maintaining a sound root
and keeping the warfare above ground. The best known dwarf
pear orchard of recent planting is that of the Hillgirt Orchards in
the Alhambra Valley near Martinez in Contra Costa County. The
reasons for resort to the quince root and the results are thus given
by Mr. Frank T. Swett:

The Bartlett does not make good union with the quince root, but by
working Beurre Hardy on the quince root, and Bartlett on the Hardy, per-
fect unions are obtained. We have a three-story pear tree root, quince;
stem to a height of 12 inches, Beurre Hardy; top, Bartlett. We had a com-
mercial crop of a box to the tree, or 170 boxes to the acre at the sixth year.
Since then, we have had five good crops of pears. Standard trees along-
side are only just beginning to bear commercial crops. We have, there-
fore, had an income for five years which would not have come to us on this
land with standard trees. In 1907 we picked 1200 boxes of fine, clean,
shapely pears from three acres of dwarfs. Our trees are planted 16 feet
apart. I think 14 feet apart would be a little better, giving 221\trees to
the acre instead of 170. The trees are stocky and strong. They are from
6 to 8 inches in diameter a foot above the ground. They are about 10 to
12 feet high, and are broad and spreading.

There are some cultural advantages of the dwarf trees. Our men prune
about 60 of these trees a day as against 16 to 20 standard trees. Spraying
can be more thoroughly done, as the trees are close to the ground. Most of
the pears are picked without the use of a ladder, and only a short ladder
is required to gather the pears higher up. I have seen a good picker pick-
ing at the rate of 60 boxes a day on these dwarfs, where the average rate
on standard trees was 20 boxes a day. We resorted to the quince root to
escape the root aphis, but the quince root is not as resistant to oak fungus
as the French root, and where this fungus is a menace, dwarfs should not
be planted. Dwarf trees suffer just as severely from blight as standard
trees.

The following varieties are commended for cultivation on quince
stock as dwarfs, experience proving them vigorous growers and
abundant bearers in suitable localities: Bartlett, Beurre Hardy,
Doyenne du Comice, Duchess d’Angouleme, Glout Morceau, Pound,
Beurre Diel, White Doyenne, Easter Beurre, Winter Nelis, P. Barry,
Winter Bartlett.

Blight-Proof Roots.—But the pear is usually grown in California
by budding or grafting on its own roots; that is upon pear seed-
lings. Formerly these were almost exclusively imported from
France, but in 1918 more than three-fourths of the nursery trees
were grown on Japanese stock. The seedlings of the Sand pear,
of Asia (Pyrus serotina), are being demonstrated to be inferior to
other Asiatic species which are being introduced and bid fair to
become a main reliance. A very interesting pamphlet describing
these new species was published in 1918 by Mr. A. L. Wisker of
Grass Valley, California.

It is however not demonstrated that these Asiatic species will be
our only reliance in the future, for even if some of them do furnish
a resistant root they do not make a good stem and. therefore it is

266 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

proposed to bud or graft some other resistant wood to make a trunk
and top work the Bartlett upon such a trunk so that only the
branches shall be susceptible to blight. Such a trunk is commended
by Dr. W. L. Howard of the University of California in the use of
the variety named ‘‘Surprise,’’ whose resistance is demonstrated.
Dr. Howard describes this practice thus:

The Surprise is even more blight resistant than the Japanese pear and
makes a beautiful tree, and the plan to follow would be to grow the Sur-
prise on the Japanese root until the trees are perhaps four years old, or
until all of the main scaffold branches have been formed. These may then
be top-worked to Bartlett. In this way, even though blight did get into
the trees, it would not be possible to lose more than one of thea main
branches, and if care were taken this could be again top-worked on the
original Surprise stump.

Distance in Planting.—If the pears are to have the whole
ground, it is usual to plant from twenty to twenty-four feet apart
on the square. As the tree is slower to attain size and full bearing
than the stone fruits, and as it is a long-lived tree, the pears are
sometimes set twenty-four feet with plums in quincunx. Peaches
and apricots are also set between pears sometimes, when the soil
chosen for pears suits them also.

PRUNING

Usually the pear is grown in the vase form, as described in the
general chapter on pruning. With regular, upright growers, head-
ing low and cutting to outside buds results in a handsome, gently-
spreading top, and effectually curbs the disposition which some
varieties, notably the Bartlett, have to run straight up with main
branches crowded together.

The development of the vase-form with a few continuous leaders,
in a general way as prescribed for the peach in Chapter XX, is
practicable. Such leaders are to be covered with short, fruit-
bearing laterals. Thinning and shortening of laterals can be done
by summer pruning.

As with other fruit trees, the pear must be studied and pruning
must be done with an understanding of the habit of the variety
under treatment. Irregular and wayward growers, which, in windy
places, also have their rambling disposition promoted by prevailing
winds, often give the grower much perplexity. The general rules
of cutting to an outside bud to spread the tree, to an inside bud to
raise and concentrate it, and to an outside bud one pear and an
inside bud the next, if a limb is desired to continue in a certain
course, are all helpful to the pruner. But with some pears, of which
the Winter Nelis is a conspicuous example, it is exceedingly hard to
shape the tree by these general rules, and some growers abandon
all rules, merely shortening in where too great extension is seen, or
to facilitate cultivation, and trust to shaping the tree when it shall
have finished its rampant growing period.

In the hot interior valleys, with the pear as with the apple, care
must be taken to prune so as not to open the tree too much to the

IRRIGATION OF PEARS 267

sun, but to shorten in and thin out only so far as is consistent with
maintaining a good covering of foliage.

The pruning of bearing pear trees is much like that of the
apple, to be determined largely by the habit of the tree, and to
secure a fair amount of fruit on branches with strength and stiff-
ness enough to sustain it.

Summer pruning will promote fruiting either in a young or an
old tree and some practice it to secure early bearing of young trees,
but the common practice is winter pruning to secure strong wood
and prevent overbearing.

THINNING PEARS

It is quite important to attend to thinning the fruit on over-
loaded trees. Even the popular Bartlett will often give fruit too
small for profitable sale unless thinned, though successive pickings
as the fruit reaches marketable size, which will be commended
presently, does to a degree reduce the danger of overcrowding.
With pears, as other fruits, thinning should not be done until it is
seen that the fruit is well set. Dropping off from natural causes
sometimes thins the crop quite enough.

IRRIGATION OF THE PEAR

In some situations the pear needs irrigation, though it will
endure drouth which would destroy most other fruit trees. There
is no profit in small, tough fruit. As stated in the chapter on irriga-
tion the wood growth and fruit show whether proper moisture
needs are met or not. Early pears are advanced in development by
irrigation in some parts of the State, and this is an important factor
in their value. On the other hand, late pears may be kept growing
to larger size and later maturity by irrigation. The following is
an interesting concrete instance:

Mr. John McAlister of Santa Clara County got nearly double the price
for his pears one year because he held them back from ripening by timely
irrigation. The weather in August and September when the Bartletts and
Beurre Hardys ripen is a little too warm to accomplish much by irrigation
except to increase the size of the fruit. The Hardys were irrigated two
weeks before picking early in September; and after they were picked, the
Comice, Winter Nelis, and Easter Beurre were irrigated. The Comice were
picked just before the Nelis and the Nelis were three inches in diameter
before they needed to be picked late in November. The Easter Beurres six
weeks after the Hardys, which brought the picking up to January 1. The
Easter Beurres were 3144, 4, and 6 inches in diameter at that time. The
pears had been held on the trees at least a month later than other people,
and some of them were held in storage until March 1 before shipping to the
eastern and coast markets. The pears are right to pick when they are
large enough and the seeds begin to turn brown; but this condition may
be delayed and the size increased by late iyrigation unless early rains are
ample enough to produce the same effect.

268 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

BLIGHT OF THE PEAR

The pear blight appeared in the San Joaquin Valley about 1900.
In 1904, after having nearly wiped out bearing trees in the southern
counties of the San Joaquin Valley, the disease began to devastate
the orchards along the Sacramento River through the vast area of
rich valley land which it traverses and on which is situated our
most extensive pear acreage. In 1905 resolute warfare was made
upon the blight, with a large appropriation of State funds, by the
pliant disease experts of the United States Department of Agricul-
ture and of the California Agricultural Experiment Station, with
the assistance of the local horticultural authorities. It was probably
the greatest campaign ever made against a single tree disease,
although some insect warfares have been greater. The outlines of
the plans followed and the results attained are to be found in the
publications of the institutions engaged.*

Detailed information concerning the treatment of blight as indi-
cated by progressive research and experimentation is also to be
had from these institutions and from California horticultural
journals which record the latest methods and results by pear
erowers who are continually introducing new methods of applying
the only treatment thus far found effective, and that is cutting out
and burning the affected parts. The cutting must be below the
parts seen to be diseased, even to the roots of the tree, and dis-
infecting the tools used in one cut before again cutting into the
tree.t

It is usually best, unless one is thoroughly acquainted with the
disease, to submit specimens of suspected blight to the University
Experiment Station at Berkeley, for a beginner may be easily
deceived. However, that the inexperienced person may have a
general idea of what to look for, the following outline of symptoms
is given:

The most obvious effect of blight to be seen during the growing season,
is the blackening of the leaves and soft wood to which they are attached,
as though these parts had been touched by a flame, and from this appear-
ance comes its old common name, “fire-blight.” More specifically, as Prof.
R. E. Smith has written, the leaves, blossoms and young fruit wither and
turn black on the affected portions but do not fall, ‘remaining tightly at-
tached to the twigs during the winter after the healthy leaves have fallen.
The infection proceeds downwards through the inner bark of the twigs
and branches, and when working vigorously the blight kills the twigs or
whole branches very rapidly. The disease often runs down into the large
limbs, where it remains alive over winter, producing the so-called “hold-
over” blight, which is a source of infection during the following season.

The blighted twigs, branches or trunks show a red, sappy, juicy con-
dition of the inner bark when infected with the true pear blight organism.
If the disease is fresh and active the bark when cut into is very juicy, ex-
uding the slightly sticky sap quite freely and showing bright red color in

*Reports of the California Commissioners of Horticulture, 1901 to 1906, including
Reports on California Fruit Growers’ Conventions for 1905-6-7, Horticultural Commission-
er, Sacramento. Report of Plant Pathologist, University Experiment Station, Berkeley,
1906 and 1908.

;The character of such a fight and what it costs is graphically portrayed by EH. A.
Gammon in the Report of California Fruit Growers’ Convention of 1909, and in Pacific
Rural Press, June 22, 1910.

FIGHTING THE PEAR BLIGHT 269

the inner bark. This symptom is of importance in distinguishing true
blight from such troubles as die-back from sour sap, crater blight and
other causes.

In the smaller twigs and branches the organism dries out and becomes
entirely dead. But, through the agency of biting insects in the young
shoots and suckers, the disease frequently gets into the trunk of the tree
and also down into the roots. Here it spreads and causes the death of
the tree by slow degrees, due to the destruction of the inner bark of the
trunk or main roots: In such cases the leaves of affected trees take on a
peculiar bronzy reddish coloration in the fall, which is quite characteristic
to the experienced eye.

From the “hold-over” blight in the trunks and large limbs an infectious
sap exudes when growth starts in the spring, which sap contains myriads
of the blight organisms. This sap is attractive to insects, which, in feeding
upon it, get the blight bacteria upon their bodies and mouth parts, and
transfer them to the blossoms or green shoots of other trees, thus spread-
ing the infection.

Looking for Blight.—The time to see blight best is while the
tree is in leaf. Discovery and cutting out should be in mind all
summer—especially should thorough work be done in the autumn.
The leaves are still hanging on blighted twigs; trees are least sus-
ceptible to reinfection from careless cutting because they are practi-
cally dormant; insects are not so numerous, and the rain is not yet
soaking newly cut surfaces with drippings from other new cuts.
It is easy to get around the orchard, and mud does not hinder fol-
lowing root blight.

Cutting Out Blight.—Cuts should usually be made about a foot
below visible appearances of blight on the bark; (2) tools are dis-
infected before making the cut; (3) the wound immediately after
the cutting is sponged with a disinfectant—of which the one chiefly
used is one part of corrosive sublimate to 1000 parts of water by
weight; which is one ordinary tablet of corrosive to one pint of
water. Dr. F. C. Reimer of Oregon, the noted pear expert, recom-
mends cyanide of mercury to disinfect cuts and wounds instead
of corrosive sublimate—l grain of pure cyanide of mercury to 500
grams of water (about one pint). Large cut surfaces should be
subsequently brushed or sprayed with Bordeaux mixture or lime-
sulphur wash.

Pear Scab—The scab fungus which seriously affects some
varieties, and notably the Winter Nelis, in the Coast region, 18
identical with the scab of the apple and will be mentioned in the
chapter on tree disease. Because of the liability of the Winter
Nelis, to this disease, and because of its irregular bearing in the
Coast region, there have been many trees grafted over into varieties
better suited to Coast conditions. The Beurre Clairgeau, because
of its health, prolific bearing, and acceptability to shippers, was
largely introduced in this way, but it has not sold as well as ex-
pected.

INSECT PESTS OF THE PEAR

The pear is subject to several grievous pests which must be
resolutely combated or circumvented as described in Chapter

270 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

XLI—where the identification of the pests is determined by the
character of the injury they inflict.

GATHERING AND RIPENING OF PEARS

Many pear growers make the common mistake of allowing the
fruit to hang too long on the tree, instead of gathering and ripening
in a cool, dark place. Pears should ba picked at the first indication
of ripeness, the first sign being a tendency of the stem to part from
the spur when the pear is gently raised up. This test applies
especially to the Bartlett. Picking at this stage and laying away
in the dark ripens up the Bartlett well. When picked at this stage
and sent overland by slow freight, they ripen en route and the boxes
open well on the Kastern markets. There are a few varieties which
shrivel if ripened under cover, but the rule is a good one, and the
grower will soon note the exceptions. Many desirable varieties
have, no doubt, been pronounced poor and insipid because allowed
to ripen on the tree. As a rule pears are ready to pick when of
proper size, seeds beginning to turn brown, and the flesh quite firm.

Some pears size up and ripen before others. Some get oversized
before the general run are ready. If these early pears are picked
first, with some care not to knock the others off, the small ones left
will have all the strength of the tree to increase their size, and the.
earliest ones will not get oversized or over-ripe. Fewer pickers are
required and the job, being longer, is more attractive.

To ripen well, pears should be packed in tight boxes or inclosed
in drawers. They do not do as well as apples on shelves open to
circulation of air. As already stated, the oily-skinned apple endures
exposure and maintains a smooth, ruddy cheek and sound heart in
spite of wind, rain and rough weather. The pear under similar con-
ditions decays rapidly.

POLLINATION OF PEARS

As very few varieties of pears are largely grown in California
and as the Bartlett generally bears well when grown in large acre-
ages by itself, the Eastern claim that the Bartlett is self-sterile does
not seem to be justified in California experience. Recent observa-
tions indicate that even at the East the Bartlett is self-fertile when
conditions are favorable to setting of the fruit and self-sterile when
they are otherwise. As conditions are usually favorable in Cali-
fornia this may be the reason why its self-fertility is more conspicu-
ous here than at the Kast.

The behavior of the Bartlett under systematic fertilization has
been determined at the University Farm at Davis and the results
published in detail.* The conclusions are that the Bartlett is to a
limited degree self-sterile under valley conditions and is seli-sterile
under foothill conditions; therefore it is desirable that another
variety should be interplanted with the Bartlett for cross-pollination.

*“Pollination of the Bartlett Pear,” by W. P. Tufts, University of California Experi-
ment Station, Bulletin No. 307; May, 1919.

BLOOMING OF PEARS 271

The blooming season of eight varieties during a period of five years
at Davis is given as follows:

UE SANINLETII CUP eee Ne eel aie caters (ahei'ahdy ade ele ieee athe March 16 to March 28

EG VI Mann ve tet aaa! Noveeiral bein e oiled See a oa March 16 to March 29
Ra SEIMEI Cone Lohais S ate cea Oiecs two Ok eI pole eee March 16 to March 30
(CUBIS (CGY) pee Sia aR a I ah Lae Abe re iat Bt March 22 to March 28
(STII ELS, SSS ene Se et or ne ee March 29 to March 31
PAT eS EL OU CYA « aioe) oe cicus Soke ee aa cleae aid Beale sa March 23 to March 31
PURER EEO INGE Se) $5 2 aici, «') oy Male LGinas abi kala dn or 6 March 22 to April 2

SAR GLEUL eS et dorays Sain ale soaks a eo eb ee ets cals Warch 19 to April 13

It thus appears that the Bartlett has a very long blooming season
and overlaps the other varieties named—all of which were demon-
strated by hand tests to be capable of cross-pollinating it and to
receive the same service.

VARIETIES OF THE PEAR

Though large collections of famous Eastern and European pears
have been brought to California, the peculiarity of the local market
and demand for canning and shipping has led to concentration upon
very few sorts.* The pears favorably considered in California are
given in the following descriptive list, arranged approximately in
the order of their ripening. The varieties which are being most

largely planted in commercial orchards are enumerated in Chapter
XVI.

Harvest; syn. Sugar Pear (American).—Small, roundish, pale yellow,
brownish in sun, brown and green dots; flesh, whitish, rather dry but
sweet; tree upright, young wood olive yellow brown.

Madeleine (French).—Medium, obovate pyriform, stalk long and slender,
set on the side of a small swelling; pale yellowish green, rarely brownish
blush; calyx small, in shallow, furrowed basin; flesh white, juicy, delicate.

Wilder Early (American).—Small to medium, yellow with red cheek;
sweet, and good. Recently introduced and profitable for local sale in San
Diego County. Should not be confused with Col. Wilder, a California seed-
ling which has gone out of use.

Bloodgood (New York).—Tree short, jointed, deep reddish brown wood;
fruit medium turbinate, inclining to obovate, thickening abruptly in stalk;
yellow, sprinkled with russet dots; calyx strong, open almost without de-
pression; stalk obliquely inserted, without depression, short, fleshy at its
base; flesh yellowish white, melting, sugary, aromatic; core small.

Clapp’s Favorite (Massachusetts).—Tree a strong grower; young shoots
dark reddish brown; fruit large, slightly obtuse pyriform; pale lemon yel-
low with brown dots; flesh fine, melting, juicy, with rich, sweet delicate,
vinous flavor; resembles Bartlett, but lacks musky flavor.

Lawson; syn. Comet (New York).—Medium to large, bright crimson on
yellow ground; flesh fine, rich and sweet.

Bartlett (English) —Tree a strong grower, early bearer, and healthy;
fruit large, smooth, clear yellow, sometimes with delicate blush; stalk mod-
erately long; stout and inserted in shallow cavity; calyx open; flesh white,
fine grained, juicy, buttery; highly perfumed (musky), vinous flavor.

Beurre Hardy.—Large, long, obovate, sometimes obscurely pyriform;
*An illustrated account of the pears chiefly grown in California and cultural matters

also, is given in an excellent publication by George P. Weldon on ‘‘Pear Culture in Cali-
fornia,’’ published in 1918 by the State Horticultural Commission, Sacramento.

272 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

skin greenish with thin, brown russet; stalk an inch long; cavity small,
uneven, oblique, basin shallow; buttery, somewhat melting, rich, slightly
subacid; tree a strong grower.

Flemish Beauty (Belgian).—Large, obovate, often obscurely tapering to
the crown, very obtuse, surface slightly rough, with some reddish brown
russet on pale yellow ground; flesh juicy, melting, and good if picked early
and ripened in the house.

Seckel (Pennsylvania).—Rather small, regularly formed, obovate;
brownish green, becoming yellowish brown, with russet red cheek; stalk
slightly curved, and set in strifling depression; calyx small and set in a
very slight depression; flesh whitish, buttery, very juicy and Resor with
peculiarly rich, spicy flavor and aroma.

Howell (Connecticut).—Rather large, roundish pyriform, light waxen
yellow, often with finely-shaded cheek thickly sprinkled with minute russet
dots and some russet patches; stalk medium, without cavity and some-
times lipped; sometimes in small cavity; calyx open in large, uneven basin;
flesh whitish, juicy, brisk, vinous.

Duchess d’Angouleme (France).—Very large, oblong obovate; somewhat
uneven, knobby surface; duil greenish yellow, streaked and spotted with
russet; stalk long, stout, bent, deeply set in irregular cavity; calyx set in
somewhat knobby basin; flesh white, buttery, and juicy, with rich flavor.

Louise Bonne of Jersey (France).—Large oblong pyriform, a little one-
sided; glassy, pale green in shade, brownish red in the sun, numerous gray
dots; stalk curved, rather obliquely inserted, without depression, or with
a fleshy, enlarged base: calyx open in a shallow uneven basin; flesh very
juicy, and melting, rich, and excellent; very prolific.

Beurre Bose (Belgium).—Large pyriform, a little uneven, often tapering
long and gradually into the stalk; skin pretty smooth, dark yellow, dots
and streaks of cinnamon russet, slightly red on one side; stalk long, rather
slender, curved; calyx short, in shallow basin; flesh white, melting, buttery,
rich, with slightly perfumed flavor.

Beurre Clairgeau (France).—Large, pyriform, but with unequal sides;
yellow, shaded with orange and crimson, thickly covered with russet dots,
sometimes sprinkled with russet; stalk short, stout and fleshy, inserted by
a lip at an inclination almost without depression; when lip is absent, the
cavity is uneven; calyx open; flesh yellowish, buttery; juicy, granular,
sugary, perfumed, vinous; apt to ripen early for a winter pear.

Beurre d’Aniou (France).—Large, obtuse pyriform; stem, short, thick,
and fleshy, in a cavity, surrounded by russet; calyx small, open in small
cavity, russetted; skin greenish, sprinkled with russet, sometimes shaded
with dull crimson, brown and crimson dots; flesh whitish, not very fine,
melting, juicy, vinous flavor, perfumed; tree a fair grower, but somewhat
affected by fungus.

Dana’s Hovey; syn. Winter Seckel (Massachusetts) —Small, obovate,
obtuse pyriform; gresnish yellow or pale yellow, with much russet and
brown dots; stalks rather short; a little curved, set in slight cavity, some-
times lipped; calyx open and basin small; flesh, yellowish, juicy, melting,
sweet, aromatic.

Doyenne du Comics (France).—Large, varying, roundist pyriform, or
broad, obtuse pyriform; greenish yellow becoming fine yellow, shaded with
crimson, slightly marked with russet spots, and thicky sprinkled with
russet dots; stalks short, stout, inclined and set in shallow cavity, often
russetted; calyx small, open, basin large, deep and uneven; flesh white,
fine, melting, aromatic. Very profitable during last few years in eastern
shipments.

Glout Morceau (Flemish).—Rather large, varying in form, but usually
short pyriform, approaching obtuse oval; neck very short and obtuse; body
large and tapering towards crown; often considerably ribbed; green, be-
coming pale greenish yellow; stalk stout, moderately sunk; calyx large

VARIETIES OF PEARS 273

basin distinct, rather irregular; flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, melting,
rich, sweet, and fine flavor.

Block’s Aeme (California seedling, by A. Block, of Santa Clara).—Large
and very handsome, surpassing Beurre Clairgeau in size and color; regu-
larly formed, pyriform, skin pale yellow, covered with russet all over,
which becomes a fine glowing red on the side exposed to the sun; flesh
white, crisp, and melting, juicy, sweet and slightly musky.

Winter Nelis (Belgium).—Medium, roundish, obovate, narrowed in near
the stalk; yellowish green, dotted with gray russet and a good deal covered
with russet; stalk rather long, bent, and set in narrow cavity; calyx open
in shallow basin; flesh yellowish white, fine grained, buttery, very melting,
and full of rich, sweet, oramatic juice.

Forelle——Medium size, handsome, greenish yellow; brilliant red cheek
with brown spots; quality good; often very profitable for shipping, but not
a free bearer.

P. Barry (California seeding, by B. S. Fox)—Fruit large, elongated
pyriform, a little obtuse; skin deep yellow, nearly covered with a rich gold-
en russet; stalk of medium length and thickness, set rather obliquely on
a medium cavity, sometimes by a lip; flesh whitish, fine, juicy, melting,
sweet, slightly vinous and rich. An early and prolific bearer. December to
January. P. Barry is recommended for planting by the Southern California
Nurserymen’s Association. It is, to some extent, displacing the Winter
Nelis as a more healthy tree and more certain bearer. Has sold well in
eastern shipments.

Easter Beurre (France).—Large, roundish, obovate obtuse, often rather
square in figure; yellowish green, sprinkled with many russet dots and
some russet patches; stalk rather short, stout, set in an abruptly sunken,
obtuse cavity; calyx small, closed, but little sung among plaited folds of
angular basin; flesh white, fine grained, very buttery, melting, and juicy,
sweet, rich flavor; was successfully shipped from California to England as

early as 1872. Bears more regularly but usually sells for less than Winter
Nelis.

Pound.—Large, pyriform, yellowish-green with red cheek, esteemed for
cooking; reaches enormous size in this State, as already noted.

Kieffer and Le Conte.——These pears, recently introduced as especially
hardy varieties, are grown to a limited extent in all parts of the State, but
are usually condemned as inferior to the European varieties. The Kieffer
is best in interior regions.

Crocker’s Bartlett (California)—Chance seedling on place of L. L.
Crocker, Loomis, Placer County. Introduced by Mr. Crocker in 1902. De-
scribed in year book, 1905, of U. S. Department of Agriculture; medium to
large, oblong, obovate, pyriform; rich golden yellow, somewhat russetty;

quality very good; keeps until March. Claimed to be blight-resistant and
regularly productive.

Winter Bartlett (Oregon)—Chance seedling in the dooryard of D. W.
Coolidge in Eugene, Oregon. Introduced in California by Geo. C. Roeding,
of Fresno. Closely resembles Bartlett in shape and appearance and flavor
but coarser; ripens four months later than Bartlett in interior situations
in California and promising as a winter pear. Abandoned by some grow-
ers for coarseness and disliked by canners for developing a pink color.

CHAPTER XXIII

PLUMS AND PRUNES*

The plums of California are exceptionally fine in appearance and
of high quality. Both tree and fruit have thus far escaped the
parasites which have wrought greatest injury on the eastern side
of the continent. The curculio has never been found here, and the
‘‘black knot,’’ though detected in some of the indigenous species
of the genus Prunust has never been observed in our orchards.
The tree suffers, it is true, as do most other fruit trees, from various
pests and diseases, but their work is a light affliction compared with
the ravages of the cureulio and black knot which Eastern plum
erowers have to contend against. The plum stands first among the
deciduous fruit trees of California, as noted in Chapter VI. Of the
plums, nearly six-sevenths of the acreage are those varieties
designated as prunes. This is, of course, owing to the profitable
shipping demand for our prune product, while ordinary dried, pitted
plums are expensive in production and do not always command
good prices. There is, however, a large trade at the East in our
fine plums in a fresh state. Some varieties stand shipment, and are
large, handsome and in some cases possessed of unique characters,
resulting from Mr. Burbank’s work with the Japanese species.
Considerable shipments of fresh plums have been made from Cali-
fornia to England.

By choosing varieties ripening in succession, the plum season
extends from May to December, thus enabling the California plum
grower to strike the Eastern markets both early and late. It is on
record also, that second crop plums have ripened. In 1904 Judge
Leib, of San Jose, sent to Luther Burbank, on December 1, ripe
fruit from a tree which ripened its first crop on July 4, of the same
year—but this fact is of no commercial account.

There is also considerable demand for plums by the canners, who
do not use, however, the varieties in chief demand for shipping.

LOCALITIES FOR THE PLUM

The plum has an exceedingly wide range in California. The
trees are thrifty and profitable from the immediate vicinity of the
coast and in coast valleys, eastward across the great interior valleys,
and upwards upon the sides of the Sierra Nevada. In the upper
half of the State, at least, wherever there is sufficient moisture in
the soil, good plums can be grown. The tree is quite hardy, but in
situations open to the sweep of the winds there has been found to
be decided advantage in belts of sheltering trees for protection.

*All prunes are plums, but all plums are not prunes. A prune is a plum which can
be dried without the removal of the pit without fermenting. The result being a fleshy
pulp with a high degree of sweetness. All plums which will not do this are not prunes
even though the word may appear in their California common names.

+Found on prunus demissa in Yosemite Valley and in Coast Range in San Mateo
County by Dr. H. W. Harkness. Report State Board of Horticulture, 1883, pp. 54, 55.

WHERE THE PLUM DOES WELL 275

At some points subject to direct coast influences, there is sometimes
loss by cracking of the fruit. It is seldom encountered in the in-
terior valley, except near the rivers or in draws where the damp
coast air makes its way through. It seems to be worst where there
are marked differences in atmospheric humidity within short periods
of time. Where the percentage is quite uniformly high or low there
seems to be less trouble. Some years conditions usually restricted
to more exposed coast situations prevail in the interior valley, and
the result is unusual prevalence of mildew and other moist fungi
and cracking of fruit also, though they have no relation to each
other except that the same conditions favor both. Only certain
varieties are thus affected, and they can be avoided where the
trouble is found to exist.

It was for a long time held that Southern California was not
adapted to the growth of the plum, but the experience of the last
few years has shown that the conclusion was too broad. The
‘‘Wrench prune’’ demonstrated its success adjacent to the Coast in
Santa Barbara County, and elsewhere, in the low, rich lands of the
Santa Ana Valley, of Orange County, in the interior at various
‘points on the rim of the San Gabriel Valley, in Los Angeles County,
notably at Pomona, and still farther inland in the San Bernardino
Valley, but the Southern California prune product is small because
the land and water can be more profitably used for other fruits.
There is, however, difficulty in some dry uplands where the tree
is shy in fruiting and subject to serious gumming; but this is en-
countered locally in all parts of the State. Irrigation does not
always overcome these troubles, and yet, no doubt, the arrangement
of proper moisture conditions is important. The tree should be
helped to make one good growth and to ripen its wood in the fall.
To have growth checked by drouth and a second start made later
in the season is not desirable.

All the foregoing observations are based upon the behavior of
plums of European origin; descendants of the Prunus domestica.
One of the grandest contributions to the extension of the range of
the plum in California was the introduction of the Asiatic species,
Prunus triflora and simoni. Varieties of these species directly intro-
duced or locally developed by Burbank and others, have proved
productive in places where the domestica varieties were abandoned
as shy or sterile. To estimate the value of these varieties one has
only to visit the home fruit gardens of Southern California or in-
spect the fruit stands of Los Angeles which are continuous exhibits
of fine specimens of these varieties in their seasons. Even in places
where the domestica varieties are largely grown the Asiatic varieties
are also prominent.

SOILS AND STOCKS FOR THE PLUM

With the plum, as with the apricot, the subjects of soils and stocks
are intimately related, but the whole matter has been wonderfully
simplified by the experience of the last few years. This relief has

276 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

come through the adoption of the myrobalan, or cherry plum
(Prunus myrobalana), a general all-around stock for plums and
prunes. Before this practice was taken up the effort to grow the
plum on its own roots generally resulted in getting an orchard full
of suckers, and to avoid this, plums were worked on peach roots
wherever this root would succeed in the soil to be planted. But
some varieties of plums do not take kindly to the peach, and then
‘“double working’’ (putting first on the peach a plum which is
known to take well and then on that plum wood the variety de-
sired) was followed. The use of the myrobalan does away with the
suckering nuisance, and the need of double working. More than
half our plums and prunes are now being budded on myrobalan
seedlings, and our nurserymen usually have large, thrifty myro-
balan trees from which they secure their seed supply. Growing
stock from myrobalan cuttings is not practiced, Experience has
shown that the myrobalan root thrives in this State both in low,
moist, valley lands, in comparatively dry lands, if not too light and
leachy, and in stiff upland soils.

In some soils especially adapted to the peach, peach roots are
preferred as stock for the French prune, but, as already said, all
plums can not be worked directly on the peach root, the Robe de
Sergeant, Columbia, Yellow Egg, Washington, Diamond Tragedy,
Grand Duke, and Sugar Prune, for example. Sometimes the bud
or scion may make a large growth, but the two woods do not unite,
and the trees are likely to break off sooner or later.

Some work the plum on the apricot root because the apricot root
is perhaps more tolerant of a certain amount of alkali in the soil,
but sometimes the French prune top parts from the apricot root
even after growing some time upon it. There are, however, instances
of the French prune thriving, and, apparently making good union
with the apricot root; and some of the softer wood varieties, like the
Sugar prune, take kindly to it.

Some plums do well on the almond root and some do not. The
French prune succeeds admirably both when worked on young
almond stocks and top grafted in old almond trees. But the almond
root is chiefly suited to warm, dry soils. Excellent results from the
use of almond stock are reported from the interior valley and the
Sierra foothills.

Propagating by Sprouts.——The French practice of growing cer-
tain varieties of the plum by means of sprouts from the base of old
trees was successfully followed in this State by Felix Gillet, of
Nevada City, and was strongly commended by him as securing a
tree which will not gum, which is one of the reasons why the same
practice prevails in France. Sprouts growing at the foot of old
and large trees, and but few are found to each tree, are taken off
and planted close together in a bed to make them root well, and the
ensuing spring planted in nursery rows, where they are trained like
any other trees, and transplanted where to remain, when branched.
For this method it is necessary that the parent tree should be upon
its own roots, else one is apt to get suckers from a wild stock.

PRUNING THE PEAR 277

Sprout-grown trees can not, however, be defended unless some
special point like that claimed by Mr. Gillet can be attained by
them.

PLANTING AND PRUNING

As with other trees, there is difference of opinion as to the best
distance apart for plum trees. The present tendency is toward
wider planting; not nearer than twenty feet is the usual advice, and
on rich land, twenty-two, twenty-four or twenty-six feet is better.

The plum, in California, is a most rapid grower; six to ten feet
from the bud or graft in a season, and about as much after the first
winter’s cutting back, is not at all unusual. At this rate of progress

\\

d
7S ok S=—
= A~~| —= —_—« =

Pruning after first summer’s Growth during second summer
growth in orchard in orchard

then, the tree soon runs up and away, in a spindling, sprawling
fashion, unless severely cut back for the first few years. Neglected
trees of some varieties show long, streaming branches, arching out-
ward, and exposing the bark to sunburn (to which it is very sensi-
tive), breaking the tree to pieces as the fruit gets weight, and, even
if supported by props, breaking off at the bearing of the prop. This
condition of the tree can only be obviated by low heading and
moderate cutting back each year, with due regard to limiting the
amount of bearing wood to get large fruit. For such plum varieties

278 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

the suggestions on forming the tree and subsequent treatment in
Chapter XII will be found helpful.

Pruning the French Prune.—Growers of the French prune, and
other varieties of similar growth of strong and pliable wood, have
reached substantial agreement as to the best practice. The old
method of cutting back bearing trees has been abandoned. Cutting
back the young tree to secure sufficient low branching is followed
by thinning of shoots from this low head so that the tree shall not
become too dense or carry too much bearing wood. The strength
in the head depends upon proper spacing and arrangement of the
branches as insisted upon in Chapter XII; and large, well-ripened
fruit, which is essential to successful and profitable drying, is con-
ditioned upon avoiding excess of branches and admission of suffi-
cient light to the tree—but in the interior valley care must be taken
not to open the center of the tree too much.

A rather longer central stem is retained than in the old style,
and a central stem throughout is admissible if one prefers it and
does not desire to dispense with it as the first step toward securing
a more open tree. Some retain the longer stem at planting, others
eut back to eighteen inches, develop three side branches upon that
and train the branch from the top bud for a lengthening of the stem,
and bring out more branches upon that the second year, and then
dispense with its farther extension. The adjacent engravings show
this method of developing the head of a young French prune. The
tree was cut back at planting in orchard to a straight switch about
eighteen inches high. At the end of the first summer this showed
the form in the first picture, which is marked (with short cross
lines) for the first winter pruning. The second engraving shows
the branching developed from this during the second summer’s
erowth, also marked to prune away some undesirable branches.
Upon a tree of this form further cutting back is not desirable as it
has enough well-placed branches to form the tree.

How long cutting back shall continue depends partly upon the
locality and partly upon the notion of the owner. In interior locali-
ties the tree grows with great rapidity and branches more freely.
During the third summer it will bear some fruit if not cut back the
previous winter, and, where growth is so rapid, there is little danger
of injuring the tree by early bearing. In the coast valleys cutting
back may continue another year, and fruiting be thus postponed a
year to get another summer’s freer wood growth. There are how-
ever very good orchards in which the trees were only cut back two
years and summer pinching and winter thinning of shoots and re-
moval of suckers have given good results.

Though cutting back may properly cease early with the French
prune, it is a great mistake to allow the trees to go unpruned.
Removal of defective wood, prevention of branch crowding and
overbearing are of the highest importance, as insisted upon in
Chapter XII. Removing surplus laterals at their starting points,
and cutting back leaders to laterals already grown and not to en-

PRUNING THE PRUNE 279

courage new branching, will result in a more open tree, which is
generally very desirable.

Renewal of French Prunes.—When a French prune tree gets old
and set in an unprofitable way it may be necessary to cut back for
new wood-growth, but if it has not too far weakened and still has
reserves, new fruiting wood can be promoted on old branches in-
stead of removing them. This is done by spur or twig pruning as
practiced by Mr. A. Taylor in the Santa Clara Valley:

Clip all but three or four buds on the twigs on the outside of the tree,
not touching many twigs inside, except to thin them out where too thick.
This is done October to March-—none in summer, because he does not like
the evaporation. The cut is made just above a bud or short fruit spur—not
just above a little limb, except in special cases. In the first year, some
effect, but not extensive, will be seen in the new fruit spurs forced out
from dormant buds further back on the limbs. New wood growth several
inches long will come from the two buds nearest the cut and also on the
unclipped twigs farther down on the limb, which would not have put out
wood growth otherwise.

Having clipped back the twigs for three years in succession, an ordinary
tree will have as much new wood as may be desirable, and no pruning
should be done in the next two years. As a rule each added year of clip-
ping brings out double the length of new wood. Specially vigorous trees
will have too much new wood. This should be thinned out by cutting
entire twigs off at their junction with the next larger ones. None should
be clipped, for that induces more wood. The thinning will not cause new
wood growth for a year or two, but the dormant buds at the base of the
thinned-out twigs may grow into fruit-bearing wood the following season
if end twigs have been clipped.

The job is a slow one, but every cut heals over—there are no rotting
stubs, and it forces fruit growth inside the tree, because the inside is filled
with fruiting limbs and spurs, which are distinguished from the suckers
by their oblique growing and the large number of close-together fruit buds
on them.

Special Studies of Varieties in Pruning.—The points just ad-
vanced apply especially to the management of the French prune.
The grower must be exhorted to study the habit of the variety he
has to deal with. The general rules for handling trees with different
habits of growth are applicable to a certain extent to the plum.
When to apply a rule or make an exception must be learned by
observation and experience. Some plums have something of the
growth habit of the peach, and this is also very true of some of the
Japanese varieties. Cutting back in winter and pinching in summer
are both useful facts in securing lower branching and low-growing
fruit spurs. Longer pruning of plums is successfully practiced in
the Sierra foothills where wood growth is not so free as in valley
situations. Mr. Ed. Ames of Neweastle, whose experience with the
peach is given in Chapter XX, works in this way with his shipping
plums:

With plums, all there is to do is to get them started right and then cut
out only the dead or broken wood. All the sap goes to fruit. The fruit is
generally of the fanciest sizes. The limbs bend to the ground but seldom
break and are seldom propped. They do not swing in any wind we have
here, enough to even brush the bloom from plums; partly because they
are always heavily loaded and low down. Some varieties of Japanest plums

280 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

require removal of some laterals; but Wickson, Formosa, Gaviota, and
Kelsey do not.

The formation of the vase-form with continuous laterals, as dis-
cussed in Chapters XII and XX, is being successfully practiced by
some growers with plum varieties which need shorter pruning than
the French prune requires.

Grafting the Plum.—The plum has been grafted and regrafted
in the constant effort to secure varieties promising superiority in
various directions. Within the scope of their affinities plums graft
easily by common top-grafting methods, and if the roots are strong
the new growth is so rapid as to need special attention. Mr. Luther
Bowers gives these hints about pruning such growths: ‘‘From prac-
tical experience I have found out that the Sugar prune wood should
only be summer-pruned and only cut while the shoots are tender,
or so soft that the top can be pinched out; this will cause the top
to be well branched and this should be done at least twice during
the first year of the graft. This system will avoid long, slender
limbs. After a graft is two years old I would never cut the top off
of a limb. Ifa tree gets too thick a top, I would cut out some of the
main branches.”’

THE PLUMCOTS

One of the most striking achievements of Mr. Burbank is the
cross of the plum and the apricot, which he has very fitly named
the ‘‘plumeot.’’ The fruit is about the size of an ordinary apricot
with a deep purple velvety skin. One of its striking features is the
brilliant red flesh possessed of a strong sub-acid flavor rendering it
suitable for cooking, jellies and jams, and it is in good demand for
such uses, but its economic value is still to be determined. Several
named varieties are now supplied by nurserymen.

HOW A PRUNE QUEST DISTURBED THE PLUM
FAMILY IN CALIFORNIA.

Referring to the distinction between plums and prunes cited at
the opening of this chapter, and to the extent and methods of the
great prune industry of the State which will appear in Chapter XL,
it may be stated here that the California prune product was obvi-
ously undertaken in emulation of the globe-trotting French prune,
which had attained position as the leading commercial dried fruit
of the world long before California arose on the horticultural hori-
zon. Naturally, French settlers in California bethought themselves
of transplanting this great industry to their new home, and Mr.
Louis Pellier introduced scions from the district of Agen to his
place near San Jose in 1856. The product was good, and planting for
a large output was entered upon, though slowly at first. There was
disappointment over the fact that, while all fruits came surprisingly
large in California, the dried prunes were smaller than the great
French prunes in cartons and canisters which sold for great prices.

THE CALIFORNIA FRENCH PRUNE 281

Had we secured the true French prune; did they not have larger
ones which they were holding back from us? This was the great
question of six decades ago. Some nurserymen of that day had
spirits of enterprise larger than their consciences. If the people
demand larger prunes they must have them, surely. Because of
the small average size of the prunes of Pellier’s introduction, they
christened that variety ‘‘petite prune d’Agen,’’ which was subse-
quently corrupted into ‘‘petty prune’’—a free translation and a
mispronunciation at the same time, for a prune which seemed to
be too small and inferior. The people must have something large,
and propagators offered trees of the ‘‘gros prune d’Agen,’’ or the
‘‘Hungarian prune.’’ It was a double misnomer, because Europe
does not have any ‘‘gros prune d’Agen’’ and the variety did not
come from either France or Hungary, but was the old large light
red, English plum, properly called Pond’s Seedling, re-christened in
California to meet a long-felt want. But it did not meet such a
want; it would not dry sweet nor fleshy, but became merely a skin
and pit, with a sour streak between. Still the question persisted:
Have we the true French prune? It was definitely settled by the
late W. B. West of Stockton, who visited France in 1878, and after
close examination of the trees, announced that the variety grown
in California was really the prune d’Agen, and that we had made
no mistake so far as getting the main standard variety of French
prune was concerned.

But still we needed a variety which would run more to large
sizes, and how to get it, with sweetness and flesh, characters which
would resemble the best French product, was, and even now is, still
a question. One of the early introductions to meet this end is now
generally known as Robe de Sergeant. Here again confusion at-
tends the name. Robe de Sergeant is one of the synonyms of prune
d’Agen, and yet the fruit we secured was different. Much dis-
cussion was given to the elucidation of this problem, and the con-
clusion seemed to be that the variety is grown in France, but in
another district, and is generally considered inferior to the prune
d’Agen. Still it runs larger, and has sold well, even though of dis-
tinetly different quality, and would probably have cut a much larger
figure in California prune production if it had shown itself to be
more free and regular in bearing. Next came the ‘‘prune d’ente, or
Imperial epineuse,’’ introduced at about the same time by John
Rock and Felix Gillet, which has been quite widely planted, but
because of shy bearing, especially when attacked by thrips, and
because of the difficulty in drying such a large prune, this variety,
of which so much was expected, has fallen into disfavor for the low
lands of the Santa Clara Valley, though on the mountains west of
this valley and in the prune valleys north of the Bay of San Fran-
cisco 1t has proved very popular and profitable when planted on
uplands.

Other introductions made much earlier, like the German and
Italian, also fell out of the race very early, for shy bearing and for
different flesh characters. Although the latter leads in Oregon and

282 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

other States north of us, it is out of California calculations. The
conclusion of the whole matter now is that we have never secured
from abroad a better than the one which came more than sixty years
ago—the true prune d’Agen. We have learned to grow it better, to
seek places where it grows larger and in full quantity; to use irriga-
tion when it is needed by the tree to do its best; to guard against
overbearing by reducing the amount of bearing wood and excessive
branching; to strengthen the soil by fertilization, and to grade the
fruit into sizes which commend themselves to different demands.
Here we are again, doing our main business at the old stand, but
knowing how to do it better. Have we anything more to expect?
Probably nothing from old varieties, for we have prospected them
all from a prune-making point of view, taking Coe’s Golden Drop
plum, or its seedling, the Silver prune, and canceling all others as
possibly good plums for various uses, but not for prunes.

Probably our only expectation lies along the line of plant breed-
ing, although nothing to supplant the prune d’Agen has yet been
attained. The Giant prune is a large red plum; several Oregon
prunes are simply large red plums. The standard of sugar in the
prune d’Agen as grown in California is from 15 to 23 per cent of
sugar in the fresh juice, according to degree of ripeness and localities
in which the fruit is grown. The sugar in Pond’s Seedling and in
the large red plums just named is less than 10 per cent—sometimes.
very much less. But percentage of sugar in the juice is not the
whole story; there are tissue or flesh characters which are essential
also. Mr. Burbank’s Sugar prune answers the sugar requirement;
it is a free bearer and early ripening variety, and it dries easily
though large, and the small dried product thus far made has sold
well, but it has not the fine grain nor distinctive flavor of the prune
d’Agen, and the pit is large and rough. It becomes a good plum
for shipping and possibly for other plum purposes. But Mr. Bur-
bank has held the plum family in training, and introduced the
Standard prune in 1914. This variety has been widely planted but
its standing not yet fully determined. It is large, handsome, dark
blue while still firm and may take high standing as a shipping plum.
As a drying prune it has several defects: it loses too much weight
in curing; its flesh is too coarse; it must be thoroughly ripened
beyond coloring before picking for the trays and it does not indi-
cate its own maturity by dropping, as the French prune does.

No substitute for the French prune has manifested equality in
flavor, texture of flesh, smallness and smoothness of pit, retention of
weight in curing and ease of handling for a cured prune. Public
interest has turned from the quest of a larger substitute to the selec-
tion of natural variations toward larger size of the French prune
itself, as found on bearing trees. Mr. Leonard Coates of Morgan
Hill has pursued this line for many years and is propagating several
notable variations. More recently other propagators have taken
up the same line and our leading nurserymen are all offering ‘‘im-
proved’’ French prune varieties which seem to indicate that the best
prune possible will be a selection from the type which we secured
from France over sixty years ago.

LEADING SHIPPING PLUMS 283

POLLINATION OF PLUMS

The shy bearing of certain plums is due to lack of pollination,
either through the self-sterility of the variety or lack of acceptable
pollinating agencies. Bearing can! be induced in many eases by
either planting or grafting-in of effective pollinating varieties. For
instance, experience has shown that the Tragedy can be brought to
greater bearing by the presence of Clyman, and the Hungarian is
well pollinated by the Peach and the Grand Duke plums. The bear-
ing of Wickson is greatly increased by association with Climax.
It is clearly demonstrated that planters of plums should pay atten-
tion to association of varieties except in the case of the French
and the Sugar prunes, neither of which require cross-pollination.

Careful studies of prune pollination have been made during the
last five years by Prof. A. H. Hendrickson both with reference to
varieties and the desirability of bees as pollinating agencies and
the results published in Bulletins 291 and 310, which can be had by
application to the University Experiment Station at Berkeley and
they should be studied by all planters.

SHIPPING PLUMS

Shipping plums to distant markets as table fruit is an important
business as shown by the figures of shipments as given in Chapter
VI. Statement is made of varieties most largely planted in Chapter
XVI. Mr. F. B. MecKevitt of Sacramento, a leading grower and
shipper, names the best shipping and bearing varieties as follows:
Beauty, Climax, Formosa, Tragedy, Santa Rosa, Grand Duke, Dia-
mond, Hungarian, Giant, Wickson and possibly the Sugar and
Standard Prune. As styles and demands are changeable, planters
should endeavor to be strictly up to date on saleable varieties in
whatever region they choose to plant plums.

THINNING PLUMS

In shipping plums it is important to thin the fruit systematically
as stated in Chapter XII. Mr. H. A. Bassford, a prominent grower
in the Vaca Valley, says: ‘‘We must thin our shipping fruit to get
fancy sizes.’’ The smaller varieties, such as Beauty, Diamond, etc.,
should be left about an inch apart, while Gaviota, Formosa, Grand
Duke, Santa Rosa and Wickson may. be left two to two and a half
inches apart. Imperfect plums should be removed first, and in all
cases care must be exercised to avoid loosening the stems of those
remaining.

IRRIGATION OF PLUMS AND PRUNES

Irrigation of plums and prunes to secure size of fruit and thrift
of trees, is undertaken in different producing regions as local con-
ditions may require. The discussions in Chapter XVI have par-
ticular applicability to the plum family.

284 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM ;

VARIETIES OF PLUMS AND PRUNES

As with other fruits, comparatively few varieties of the plum
are largely grown in California, and the list is continually changing
by rejection of old varieties. and introduction of new which are
largely of Burbank origin: ,

Simon (Prunus Simoni).—Medium to large, roundish, flattened, with
cavities at base and apex; brick red, small yellow spots; stalk stout and
short; flesh yellow, adhering to flattened pit; grown for shipment in early
interior regions, where it has good quality; lacks flavor and cracks badly
near the coast. Being displaced by Burbank varieties.

Climax (Burbank).—Large; very early; heart-shaped; deep red; flesh
yellow. Popular for shipping in places where it does not crack badly.
Growing in favor.

Beauty (Burbank).—Resembles Climax, but two weeks earlier. Called
the best early plum for shipping.

Clyman (California seedling introduced by Leonard Coates).—Large,
roundish oblong, flattened suture indistinct; mottled reddish purple; beauti-
ful blue bloom; freestone; fiesh firm, dry and sweet; prolific.

Red June (Japanese).—Medium to large, deep red flesh light yellow, firm,
good quality. The best of the early Japanese plums.

California Blue; syn. Vacaville.——Seedling of peach plum by W. W.
Smith, Vacaville; large, good flavor; early; “first really good blue plum.”

Tragedy (California seedling)—Medium to large, suture shallow, wide
and extending beyond apex; dark purple; flesh yellowish green, sweet and
well flavored; freestone. Very valuable for shipping from early regions in
all parts of the State.

Abundance (Japanese).—syns. Yellow-fleshed Botan, Mikado of Hinclay.
Large, globular with point at apex; cherry color covered with white bloom;
flesh yellow, juicy and rich. Popular for shipment from early regions.

Peach (French, prune peche).—Very large, roundish oblate, regular, flat-
tened at ends; suture distinct, shallow; color varying from salmon to light
brownish red. Becoming less prominent variety for early Eastern shipment.

Royale Hative (French).—Medium roundish, slightly wider at base; light
purple stalk half an inch long, stout, scarcely sunk; flesh amber yellow, with
rich, high flavor, nearly free from the small, flattened, ovate stone; shoots
very downy.

Bradshaw.—Large, obovate, with obtuse suture on one side, sometimes
with very slight neck; dark purple, with light blue bloom; stalk three-
fourths inch long; cavity narrow; flesh a little coarse, becoming light
brownish purple, at first adhering, but becoming nearly free when fully ripe;
juicy, good; slightly acid; tree vigorous; shoots purple, smooth. Reported
from Sacramento county as blooming late and seldom injured by frost. Not
in high favor.

Green Gage (French).—Rather small, round; suture faint green, becom-
ing yellowish green, usuelly with reddish brown dots and network at base;
stalk half to three-fourths inch, scarcely sunk; flesh pale green, melting,
juicy, exceedingly rich, and flavor excellent; shoots smooth.

Burbank.—Tree imported from Japan by Luther Burbank. Named by
Professor Van Deman. Tree usually vigorous, with strong, upright shoots,
and large, rather broad leaves; comes into bearing very early. Almost
globular, being five and a half inches around horizontally, and five and five-
eighths inches around vertically; rich cherry red, slightly mottled with
yellow, and freely dotted with same tint; flesh deep yellow, juicy, very
sweet, and of fine, somewhat peculiar, but very agreeable flavor; pit is very
small, three-fourths by a trifle over half an inch in diameter.

Duane’s Purple (New York).—Very large, oblong oval, longer on one
side; slightly narrowed towards the stalk; reddish purple, bloom lilac; stalk

VARIETIES OF PLUMS 285

three-fourths inch; slender; cavity narrow, flesh juicy, moderately sweet,
and moderate flavor, mostly adhering to stone; shoots very downy and
leaves large and downy underneath.

Washington (New York).—Very large, roundish oval, suture obscure,
distinct at base; yellowish green, faintly marbled, often with pale red blush;
stalk half to three-fourths inch; slightly downy; cavity wide, shallow; flesh
rather firm, sweet, mild, very rich and luscious, free from the pointed stone;
shoots downy; very vigorous.

Grand Duke.—lLarge oval, necked; deep purple with blue bloom; flesh
greenish yellow, fair quality. A good shipper, following Hungarian in
ripening.

President (H. A. Bassford).—Large oval, dark purple, with deep bloom;
follows Grand Duke and stands high as a mid-summer shipper.

Wickson.—A crossbred by Luther Burbank; form suggests the Kelsey,
but more symmetrical; in ripening the color develops from a deep cherry
red down to a rich claret as full ripeness is attained. The color is solid and
uniform. The flesh is of amber tint, very juicy and translucent; the pit is
small and shapely, the flavor is striking and agreeable, but likely to be de-
ficient near the coast.

Yellow Egg; syns. White Egg, White Magnum Bonum (English).—Very
large, oval, narrow at ends, necked at base, suture distinct; stalk one inch,
not sunk, surrounded by fleshy ring at insertion; light yellow, bloom thin,
white, flesh firm, rather acid until fully ripe, and then sweet, adheres to
pointed stone.

Jefferson (New York).—Large, oval, base slightly narrowed, suture
slight; greenish yellow, becoming golden, with reddish cheek; bloom thin,
white; stalk one inch, but little sunk or not at all; flesh rich yellow, very
rich, juicy, high flavored and luscious, adheres partly to its long, pointed
stone; shoots smooth; tree a slow grower, but productive.

Columbia (New York).—vVery large, nearly globular, one side slightly
larger; brownish purple, reddish brown where much shaded, with many
fawn-colored dots; bloom blue, copious; stalk one inch, rather stout; cavity
small; flesh orange, very rich and sweet, free from the stone, which is very
small and compressed. Shoots downy, stout, blunt, spreading; leaves nearly
round.

Satsuma; syn. Blood Plum of Satsuma.—Introduced and first fruited in
this country by Luther Burbank of Santa Rosa. Described by Prof. H. E.
Van Deman, U. S. Pomologist, as follows: “Leaves more lanceolate than
those of Kelsey; fruit averages about two and a quarter inches in diameter,
nearly round, and but slightly sutured on one side; surface dark red, under
a thick bloom; dots rather conspicuous and numerous; flesh dark purplish
red; stone very small and pointed.” Chiefly grown in Southern California
for local use and trade.

Red Magnum Bonum; syn. Red Egg.—Large, oval, tapering to the stalk;
suture strong, one side swollen; deep red in the sun; slight bloom; stalk
one inch, slender, cavity narrow; flesh greenish, coarse, subacid; shoots
smooth

Diamond.—Large, deep purple; handsome but not high quality; ripens
after Japanese and sells well at the East as a cooking plum.

Imperial Gage (New York).—Medium size, oval, suture distinct; stalk
three-fourths inch, slightly hairy, evenly sunk; green, slightly tinged with
yellow, with marbled green stripes; bloom copious and white; flesh green-
ish, juicy, melting, rich, and delicious, usually free from the oval, pointed
stone; tree very vigorous and productive; shoots long upright, slightly
downy; leaves with slight shade of blue. A popular canning variety.

Damson (English)—Small, roundish, oval; purple, with thick blue
bloom; melting, juicy, subacid.

German Prune (Common Quetsche, Germany)—“This name has been
applied in this State to numerous plums and prunes which are sold under

286 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

it. The fruit of the true German prune is long oval, and swollen on one
side; skin purple, with thick blue bloom; fiesh firm, green, sweet, with a
peculiar pleasant flavor; separates readily from the stone.’—John Rock.
Complaint is made in many localities of the tendency of the variety to drop
before ripening, almost the whole crop sometimes dropping.

Kelsey, Japan.—Trees brought from Japan by the late Mr. Hough, of
Vacaville, in 1870, and purchased by the late John Kelsey, of Berkeley, who
propagated and fruited them for several years. First wide distribution was
made by W. P. Hammon & Co., in 1874. who named the fruit after Mr. Kelsey.
Following is the description: “Tree willowy, leaves narrow, twigs brown-
ish gray. Fruit from one and a half to two and a half inches diameter,
heart-shaped, with a distinct suture on one side from stem to apex; stem
is short, and set in a depression at the larger end; colors mixed yellow
and purple, which vary in depth, but rarely make a brilliant appearance,
covered with bloom; flesh yellow, very firm, clings to pit which is small,
quality good. Being displaced by other Japanese varieties, but usually
sells well from region where it colors well; very firm and clings to the
stone which is rather small, and nearly always partly surrounded by a
cavity; when fully ripe the quality is very good.” In less favor than for-
merly in interior valleys where color is not well developed.

Hungarian Prune; English Pond’s Seedling; Gros Prune d’Agen (Eng-
lish).—This variety was brought to San Jose probably about 1856, and in
some unaccountable way was first contrasted with the French prune and
called the “great prune of Agen”; afterwards, also in a mysterious way, it
took the name of “Hungarian prune.” It is still marketed by these names
both here and at the Hast. The true name is English Pond’s Seedling.
Fruit very large, ovate, slightly tapering to stalk; skin thick, reddish violet,
with numerous brown dots, and covered with handsome bloom; rather
coarse, juicy, sweet; a very showy fruit; tree a strong grower and prolific
bearer; fruit has a tendency to double; sells well in local and distant
markets on its style and is largely grown.

Giant.—Burbank seedling; very large, dark crimson upon yellow ground;
flesh yellow, flavor good; freestone. A shipping plum, disappointing as a
drying plum.

Splendor.—Burbank seedling; medium size but larger than French prune;
clear red, drying dark, does not shake from the tree; earlier than French
prune.

Sugar.—Burbank seedling, introduced in 1898; large and sweet; sugar in
fresh fruit 23.92 per cent; not of highest quality as a cured prune but sells
well; also good for shipping; oval, slightly flattened; dark purple with
thick white bloom; freestone; early. Needs pruning and thinning to secure
size.

Standard.—Burbank cross of Sugar and Tragedy. Large, purple, blue
bloom; flesh fine grained, amber, juicy and sweet; freestone. Introduced
in 1914 and value not determined.

Imperial Epineuse; syn. Clairac Mammoth.—Introduced in 1884 by Felix
Gillet and in 1886 by John Rock. Described by Mr. Rock as follows: “Uni-
formly large size, reddish or light purple, thin skin, sweet and high flavor.”
Described by Mr. Gillet: “Uniformly large, more oval than the French
prune; nearly of the same color but somewhat lighter or reddish purple;
earlier than the French and with thinner skin.” Fruit grown by Mr. Rock
analyzed at the State University in 1898, showed 20.4 per cent of sugar
against 18.53 per cent average of three analyses of French prune. Blooms
about ten days earlier and ripens about three weeks earlier than the French
prune.

There has been quite widely planted another prune called Imperial, which
is very inferior in sugar content and likely to prove much less satisfactory.

Prune d’Agens; syn. Petite Prune d’Agen; French Prune, etc.—This is
the drying prune at present most widely grown in this State. It is described
by John Rock as follows: “Medium-sized, egg-shaped, violet purple, very

VARIETIES OF PLUMS 287

sweet, rich, and sugary; very prolific bearer.” - The leading drying-prune
of California, commonly called “California French prune.” Its standing is
sketched in detail on a preceding page.

Robe de Sergeant.—Though this term is given in Downing as a synonym
of prune d’Agen, and seems to be in French a synonym for the d’Ente
prunes; another prune grown in this State from an importation by John
Rock, is quite distinct from the foregoing. Mr. Rock describes the variety
as follows: ‘Fruit medium size, oval; skin deep purple, approaching black,
and covered with a thick blue bloom; flesh greenish yellow, sweet, and
well-flavored, sugary, rich and dslicious, slightly adhering to the stone.”
This variety makes a larger, darker-colored prune than the prune d’Agen,
and has sold in some cases at a higher price. It has recently been in dis-
favor in coast valleys for defective bearing, but is more satisfactory at some
interior points.

Coe’s Golden Drop (English).—Very large, oval, suture distinct, one side
more enlarged, necked; light yellow, often dotted red to the sun; stalk
three-fourths inch, rather stiff; flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, and rich, closely
adhering to the pointed stone; shoots smooth, rather glossy. A standard
late variety for canning.

Silver Prune (Oregon).—Originated with W. H. Prettyman, who says:
“Tt is a seedling from Coe’s Golden Drop, which it much resembles, but it is
much more productive.” Profitable as a bleached prune, but defective in
bearing in some California districts. A red variety by bud variation is
reported by Mr. J. G. Grundel of Alma.

Golden Prune.—Originated from the seed of Italian prune by Seth Lewel-
ling, of Milwaukee, Oregon, and described by him as larger than Italian;
light golden color; exquisite flavor; dries beautifully. Chiefly grown in
Contra Costa county. Good for drying and canning. Requires short
pruning.

Santa Rosa (Burbank).—Large, conical, deep purpled crimson, pale yel-
low bloom; flesh pale yellow, rosy near skin, rich, juicy, delicious.

Formosa, (Burbank).—Fruit is of uniform size, yellow with a pale bloom
until nearly ripe, turning to a clear rich red. Flesh pale yellow, unusually
firm, sweet, rich, delicious, with a delightful apricot flavor, nearly freestone.

Gaviota.—Burbank cross of Japanese and native American; very large,
deep red; flesh yellow, firm and sweet; pit small; rather late bloomer.
Favored in the Vacaville district for shipping.

Bavay’s Green Gage; syn. Reine Claude de Bavay (French).—Large,
round oval, greenish yellow, spotted with red, with small violet-colored
longitudinal veins; flesh rather firm, juicy, sugary, rich, of fine quality, ad-
hering slightly to the stone; shoots smooth, leaves roundish, shining; a free
grower and very productive.

Fellenberg; syns. Large German Prune, Swiss Prune, Italian Prune.
Medium size, oval, pointed and tapering at both ends; suture small, distinct;
dark purple, with dark blue bloom; stalk one inch, scarcely sunk; flesh
greenish yellow, juicy, sweet, delicious, parts from the stone; tree a free
grower and very productive; late, excellent for drying. But little grown
in California, but largely in Oregon.

Coe’s Late Red; syn. Red St. Martin.—Size medium, roundish, suture
distinct on one side; skin light purplish red, or dark red; bloom thin, blue;

stalk three-fourths inch, scarcely sunk; flesh rather firm, crisp, rich, vinous;
very late, shoots downy.

CHAPTER XXIV

THE QUINCE

The quince enjoys California conditions to the utmost, and re-
wards the grower with large crops of very large and beautiful fruit.
A quince weighing a pound is no curiosity, and it is unlikely that
any city of the world can show such fine quinces at such low prices
as San Francisco. The lesson from this fact is that the fineness of
the fruit, and the evident adaptation of the State to its growth,
should not alone be considered by the planter. The local consump-
tion of quinees is naturally small, and it is chiefly for home preserv-
ing jelly making. The commercial jelly makers use apple juice as
the basis of nearly all their jellies, only using a little quince for
flavoring, and some housewives follow the same course. The hope
for profitable sale of the fruit in large quantities must therefore
rest on distant markets, but experience of shippers thus far have
not warranted extension of quince production.

But though the quince in California has at present narrow com-
mercial limitations, a few trees should find a place in every orchard,
for family use or local sale.

CULTURE OF THE QUINCE

The quince is readily grown from cuttings. Take good-sized
shoots of well-matured wood of the current year’s growth, after the
leaves drop in the fall, and set out at once in nursery row in moist
alluvial soil, or in any loose soil which is well drained and can be
kept moist enough by cultivation or irrigation.

Quinces are planted at all distances apart, and are grown either
as bushes or trees. Undoubtedly the best way is to plant about
fourteen or sixteen feet apart, and prune into low standard tree
form. This can be done much as already advised for other fruit
trees. An annual cutting back of-about half of the new growth,
while forming the tree, will strengthen the trunk and limbs and
prevent the running out of long leaders, which droop to the ground
on all sides when laden with fruit, and are often broken by the
weight and the wind. Owing to the disposition of the quince to
throw out several small shoots at a single point, it is advisable, when
forming the tree, to remove all buds but one, just as the growth is
starting. This will give one good, strong branch where it may be
needed, instead of several weak ones. Pinching off shoots which
start out too vigorously or at undesirable points is, of course,
advisable.

Fruiting of the quince can be promoted by summer pruning—
thinning out or reducing the number of shoots and stopping the
extension of those which you retain by pinching the tips and causing
them to send out laterals. This should be done in June, when the
new growth has run out a foot or two. When the foliage is reduced

THE QUINCE IN CALIFORNIA 289

by opening the center, removing a great many shoots entirely and
shortening the others, the overgrowth of wood is discouraged and
the remaining force of the plant is exerted upon strengthening the
fewer shoots which remain to be acted upon. Of course winter
pruning will not do this, for its effect is to cause more and not less
wood growth.

Soils for the Quince.—As the quince grows naturally in moist,
though not wet lands, many persons think it always does best in
springy ground or along the banks of rivulets; but though moist
soils are preferable to dry, such positions are not essential to ob-
taining large crops of fine fruit. In fact, the quince, like most fruit
trees, prefers a well-drained location, and does best on a soil which
ean be freely worked. It thrives when fanned by the ocean breeze
and does fairly well in the interior, providing it has moisture in the
soil, and in some situations will doubtless require summer irrigation.

VARIETIES OF THE QUINCE

_ Though notably all varieties of the quince are introduced by our
nurserymen and earried by them in small stock, most plantations
are of the ‘‘apple’’ or ‘‘orange’’ variety. The following may be
enumerated, however, as growing in this State:

Apple or Orange.—Large; bright yellow; the best. August and Sep-
tember.

Rea’s Mammoth.—A very large and fine variety of the orange quince;
a strong grower and very productive.

Smyrna.—Introduced from Smyrna in 1897 by George C. Roeding of
Fresno; large, lemon yellow, handsome, tender and delicious after cooking;
keeps well; tree a strong grower, with heavy foliage.

Pineapple.—Originated by Luther Burbank and distributed by him in
1899; the result of a long effort to secure a quince which would cook tender
like an apple. The name comes from its flavor, which is suggestive of the
pineapple. Resembles Orange quince, but is smoother and more globular.

Portugal.—Very large, and fine flavor, turns a fine purple or deep crimson
when cooked.

The Chinese Quince.—A most extraordinary fruit, oblong, of immense
Size, often weighing from two to two and one-half pounds; growth rapid
and distinct.

West’s Mammoth.—Originated by W- B. West, of Stockton, from seed
received from Boston in 1853; of the Orange quince family; round, clear
yellow; very large; fine flavor and for the class a very good keeper.

Champion.—Fruit very large, fair and handsome; tree very productive,
surpassing any other variety in this respect; bears abundantly when young;
flesh cooks as tender as an apple, and without hard spots or cores; flavor
delicate, imparting an exquisite quince taste and odor to any fruit with
which it is cooked.

PART FOUR: THE GRAPE

CHAPTER XXV

THE GRAPE INDUSTRY OF CALIFORNIA*

The grape grows in all parts of California below sea level in
irrigated interior valleys and from near sea level on the coast to an
elevation of 5000 feet or more on the mountains. It is contented,
too, with nearly all fertile soils, from the deep valley loams, where
the great fat, firm-fleshed grapes are grown for raisin and table
grape shipments, to the shallow soils of the high foothills and moun-
tain slopes, where the grapes are less in quantity, but of superior
aromatic qualities. This wide adaptation gives an immense area
suited for grape culture, but the chief reason for the achievement
and the promise of the grape in California is in the fact that the
European species, Vitis vinifera, thrives, and thus the California
grower has command of all that Europeans have accomplished in
centuries by developing special varieties of the species for special
purposes. The grapes of the States east of the Rocky Mountains
are only grown in California in a small way because the European
varieties are the only ones from which raisins can be made; they
also furnish the world’s wine and brandy, and they give size, beauty,
and shipping quality beyond all comparison with American varieties.
Wherever wealthy Eastern connoisseurs choose grapes for their
glass houses, they select European varieties; the Californian grows
his ‘‘hot-house grapes’’ in the open air. He also grows most of
them without the cost of trellising, because the European varieties
generally will bear well in short-pruned, bush form. California has
a large acreage of grape vines, and planting has been very active
during the last few years, because good prices have prevailed,
especially through the increased opportunity for fresh grape ship-
ments. At the same time, new economic and commercial problems
are continually arising, and as the industry has to readjust itself to
new conditions, discussion of such problems does not come within
the scope of a cultural treatise like this. It is the duty of the
grower to keep himself up to date on such subjects by faithful read-
ing of California periodicals and by participation in public assem-
blies in the grape interest. Concerning cultural difficulties, the
protection of the vine from its enemies and other problems, special
researches are constantly pursued by the University Experiment
Station at Berkeley and publications are furnished on application.

The culture of the grape is one of the great branches of Cali-
fornia horticulture. Its three chief divisions are: Grapes for the

*As this edition is being prepared in August, 1919, ‘‘war-time prohibition” is in force

and “national prohibition’ in 1920 is impending. Reference herein to wine and brandy
phases of the industry must be considered historical and not prophetic.

GRAPE AREA OF CALIFORNIA 291

table, grapes for wine, and grapes for raisins. In all these branches
the product has far exceeded local requirements and has become
an important item in the export trade of the State. The attain-
ments of the industry can be roughly measured by the statistics of
the shipments of grapes, raisins, wine and brandy, which are given
in Chapter VI. The California Board of Viticultural Commissioners
reports the values of California grape products to growers in 1918
as follows:

[RL DUISTITD VSS, 2 eas RE A Pepe ae ag echt Oa ie ee cae eee $19,743,750
LEE] UID ESPEN a SRS AINE eS A A ATE a lr fe A ee OI 16,487,250
VATE AR OG ertk ive ate ct Ta even Meee Meredetaiaus sie b prod ods hic aae eet wea Soe oe 10,039,250

PARR Tet lewrepense er er merce dies oer op oialiete ieiicte pvaligrsletey tea aberecedenc ts ie Be alle aianin pla var eeak aoe $46,270,250

This does not include added values by transportation, manufac-
turing and commercial handling, as does the estimate in Chapter
‘VI—except that in the case of raisins the valuation covers the
growers’ cost of curing.

THE GRAPE AREA OF CALIFORNIA

The grape has a very wide range in California. If the im-
mediate seacoast and the higher altitudes on the mountains be
excepted, the grape may be planted with a good chance of success
anywhere if soil and local topography be suitable. As has been
shown in Chapter I, the vine can approach quite close to the ocean
if some shelter from prevailing cool winds be afforded, and quite
high on the mountains if one keeps out of depressions where late
frosts are frequent. In planting the grape in doubtful situations
much depends upon choice of proper varieties. For example, in
the cool air of the coast region and the short summer of the higher
_altitudes, early maturing varieties must be the main reliance, for
late sorts will not receive heat enough to bring them to full
maturity.

Away from immediate coast influences, and up to perhaps three
thousand feet or more on the sides of the Sierra, the grape is suc-
cessfully grown both upon the floors of the valleys and upon the
hillsides. But there is still need of choice both of special locations
and of varieties according to the purposes which the grower has in
view. The coast valleys of the upper part of the State produce good
table grapes, but they are unfavorable for the raisin industry be-
cause of the deficient sunshine and excessive atmospheric humidity
of the autumn months. The best raisins are made in the dry, heated
valleys of the interior, and the conditions which there develop the
fullest quality of the raisin grape also develop the sugar in some

_kinds of wine grapes beyond a desirable percentage. Here again
the choice of suitable varieties intrudes itself, for the varieties which
yield light table wines in the coast valleys may yield heavy ‘‘heady’’
wines in the interior. Valleys, too, as a rule, although they yield
larger crops of grapes and greater measure of wine than similar
area on the hillsides, must yield the palm for quality to the warm

292 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM >

soils of the slopes. And here enters the business proposition whether
large amount and less quality is better than less amount and higher
quality. To this there can be no general answer. It depends upon
He SR ae which is to be made of the crop, and the demand
or it.

The coloring of certain varieties is a matter underlying their
profitable production for fresh shipments and this is determined by
local conditions concerning which the best information is actual
observation of their effects. These few facts out of many which
could be stated will serve to enforce the fact that wide as is the
range of the grape, both localities and varieties for certain purposes
must be intelligently chosen. Much has been learned during the
last few years, but it will require the experience of another genera-
tion, perhaps, to make the matter clear.

Soils for the Grape.—The grape will thrive on a great variety
of soils, in fact, on any of those enumerated as fruit soils in Chapter
III. There are thrifty vineyards on the light, deep valley loams,
on the heavy clayey loams, on adobe, and on the red soils of the
foothills. Even on shallow soils the grape will do well if given
sufficient moisture, and on rocky subsoils it thrives if there be
erevices for the roots to penetrate, or if the rock be shattered to
admit the roots to permeable substrata. Standing water during the
active period of the vine is, however, unfavorable to growth, and
alkali is adverse to satisfactory results in wine making. Almost
any soil which does not hold excess of water or is not tainted with
alkali will do for the vine, although the plant appreciates good,
deep soil, and will grow and bear fruit in proportion to its supply
of it. Of course the economic question of ease of cultivation enters
into the choice of soil for the grape, as for other fruits, but its claims
are obvious and need not be enlarged upon.

Length of Grape Season.—By choice of early and late varieties
the grape season extends over half a year in California, without
recourse to artificial means of preservation. Where the fall rains
are not very protracted, the late varieties sometimes remain in good
condition on the vines until the winter pruning. Good grapes have
been picked from the vines as late as the middle of January. In
the Lodi district of the San Joaquin Valley, a great center of the
grape shipping industry, overland shipping begins about August
10, with Black Prince. Tokays from light soil soon follow, then
from the heavy soil, and in about two weeks everything is going
at full blast, keeping up strongly for nearly two months. Then it
decreases greatly and continues into November with the later
varieties, like Cornichon, Emperor and Ferrara. There are also
a number of other shipping varieties grown than those named, but
Tokays far outnumber all the rest put together. There is much
latitude in grape gathering, for grapes can stay on the vine for
some time without deterioration; besides there is the ‘‘second crop”’
from later blooming which is of advantage in shipping, but objec-
tionable in handling for raisins, bringing less price for wine making.

SHIPPING GRAPES IN SAWDUST 293

Tokays may be picked during a period of two months in the same
vicinity because of the ‘‘second crop’’ and because the ripening
comes earlier or later according to soil, as noted above. Even the
intrusion of a light fall rain, such as they have in the interior, may
help size and color, but a heavy rain is destructive and constitutes
a constant menace in the late ripening districts near the coast, while
occasionally injurious to the interior also.

Shipping Grapes in Sawdust.—The table grape industry of Cali-
fornia seems to be entering upon a notable extension of its market-
ing season and area through the demonstration by the United States
Bureau of Plant Industry, that California grapes can be profitably
packed in drums, holding about 35 lbs. of grapes, packed in red-
wood sawdust, properly prepared and held safely in cold storage
for winter sale in the EHast—as Spanish grapes in cork dust are
handled. Better results are attained with sawdust than with cork
dust. Full details are given in Bulletin 35, U. 8S. Dept. Agr., Decem-
ber 31, 1913, which the interested reader should secure. From
shipments of 1912 of about thirty carloads, the movement in 1917
reached nearly 500 carloads. The grapes thus handled were chiefly
Emperors, Cornichons and others. Thus far it seems to be demon-
strated that Musecats can be sold this way until November 15th,
Malagas until December 15th, Emperors until about January. It
is expected that if the Ohanez or Almeria grape is grown, the
grape used in Spanish shipping, it can be safely held in storage
until April 1.

CHAPTER XXVI

PROPAGATING AND PLANTING VINES

The grape is propagated from seed or by layers, or by cuttings
of various lengths. Growing from seed was somewhat resorted to
in California to get stocks for resisting the phylloxera, but such
wide variation in resistance occurred in seedlings that propagation
by cuttings, of varieties demonstrated to be best in this regard, has
become universal. There is at present little disposition to grow
grape seedlings in the hope of securing better and hardier varieties,
as is so largely done in other parts of the country. The vast num-
bers of varieties of the European species, vinifera, which we have
drawn from, makes the effort for new seedlings of little object.

Growing Vines from Seed.—Seed is easily removed from the
grapes by crushing the berries and stirring the pulp rapidly in
water. From one pound of good, fresh seed one might get from
two to three thousand seedlings. Some advocate sowing grape seed
‘in the fall, just as it is taken from the fruit, but best results are
usually obtained by spring sowing, after danger from frost is over.
It is advisable to keep grape seed moist for some time before sow-
ing. Seed soaked one week in water and afterward allowed to lie
in a heap for three weeks germinates quickly, starting in ten days
or two weeks after being put in the ground. Professor Husmann
advised pouring hot water on the seed and allowing it to cool, the
seed remaining in the water for twelve hours, and after that it is
kept for a week in a sack, exposed to the sun, and covered at night,
the sack being moistened from time to time.

The seed should be sown in the open ground, the soil having
been worked deeply and finely, as for a garden. Sow the seed about
an inch apart, in drills far enough from each other to admit the
use of the cultivator in the summer; cover not to exceed an inch
in depth, and after moderate pressing of the ground, cover the
whole bed with rotten straw, which should be gradually removed
as the sprouts appear above the ground. This mulch will not only
retain moisture, but will prevent the surface from being crusted
by heavy showers. Summer cultivation with cultivator and hoe
should be given.

Growing Vines by Layering.—This is another method of multi-
plying vines which is but little employed in California, because it is
so much easier to secure plants by cuttings, as the vinifera species
roots so readily. Layering consists in bending down and burying
one of the lower canes so as to facilitate top and root growth from
each of the buds. To hold the cane in place, stakes are used, the
trench being left open until the shoots grow out and then by cover-
ing the roots are developed. The cane must rest in moist earth,
and usually has to be watered artificially, as well as treated to

LONG AND SHORT VINE CUTTINGS 295

prevent evaporation. The following winter the cane is raised and
a plant made at each node.

Another use for layering is to fill a vacancy in the row, a cane
being taken from the nearest living vine. In this case the layer
must be set in a deep trench so as not to be torn out by the plow,
and the layered cane is at once covered in with earth, all but one or
two buds at the extremity, where the new vine is desired. Such a
layer usually bears the second year and is then detached from the
parent vine.

Both the layers described are laid down early in the spring,
before growth starts in the vine. Summer layers of the current
season’s growth are sometimes made, but are not usually satis-
factory.

Growing Vines from Cuttings.—This is the prevailing method
in this State both to secure grafting stocks and to grow vines on
their own roots. In growing from cuttings, different policies are
adopted, i. e., placing the cuttings in permanent place in the vine-
yard, or rooting them in nursery to be afterward transferred to the
vineyard as ‘‘rooted vines.’’ First, the various kinds of cuttings
will be considered, and their placing mentioned later.

Growth from Single Eyes.—The use of single eyes or single buds,
the shortest possible form of cutting, is not large in California, but
some growers have reported good results. The method is to pre-
pare the cuttings with a half-inch or so of the cane on each side of
the bud and plant them carefully, with the bud upwards, in well-
prepared soil, covering the cutting completely, but very little under
the surface. Success depends upon retention of moisture in the
surface soil to induce rooting, and mulching is advisable. The
method of propagation, too, seems. best adapted to the moister parts
of the State, whence, in fact, most success with it has been reported.
Besides economy of wood in getting a plant from each bud of the
cane, which is sometimes an object, growing from single eyes is
advocated because of the satisfactory root system secured, which
much resembles that of a seedling. The use of single eyes is obvi-
ously better adapted to nursery than to field growth.

The Use of Longer Cuttings.*—It was formerly considered good
practice to leave a piece of old wood attached to the base of the
cutting, on the ground that such cuttings always grew. This prac-
tice is now very, generally abandoned, as it often gives rise to weak
and diseased vines. The piece of old wood always decays finally,
and the decay may spread into the trunk and roots of the vine. A
good cutting should consist exclusively of one-year-old wood; that
is, the wood which has grown during the previous season.

The form and length of the cuttings will depend on the use that

*Much of the following description of handling cuttings is taken bodily from the
excellent University publications by Mr. F. T. Bioletti, viz.: Circular 26, ‘‘Selection and
Preparation of Vine Cuttings.’’ Bulletin 180, ‘Resistant Vineyards—grafting, planting,

cultivation.”’ Bulletin 193, “‘The Best Wine Grapes for California,’’ ete. All these contain
discussions of propagation methods.

296 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

is to be made of them. If they are to be used as scions for grafting
they may be cut up in any way and of any length that is found
convenient for handling and keeping them in good condition. If
they are to be used for rooting either in the nursery or the vine-
yard it is most convenient to cut them up into the exact lengths
which they are to be planted.

Properly made cuttings.

The length will depend altogether on the soil and climate where
they are to be planted. They should be of such a length that when
planted the base of the cutting will be at the level where the con-
ditions are most favorable to root. formation. If the base is too
deep, it will be too wet and too cold to develop roots. Roots will

HOW TO START CUTTINGS 297

start higher up and the bottom part will be wasted, or worse still,
may decay and injure the vine. If the base is too near the surface
the whole cutting may dry out and die before its'roots have devel-
oped sufficiently to supply it with water.

In the moister soils of the cooler districts a cutting 10 inches
long is sufficient for direct planting in the vineyard. In the drier
and warmer interior a 14-inch to 16-inch cutting is better, while in
the driest soils of the warmest districts it is often necessary to have
a cutting 18 to 20 inches long. For planting in the nursery a 12 or
14-inch cutting is about the most convenient. If the soil of the
nursery is wet and cold more of the cutting should be left above
ground; if, on the contrary, the soil tends to be hot and dry the
cutting must be planted deeper and even covered up completely.

It is not necessary, or possible, to make all cuttings of exactly
the same length, because they should all terminate at each end at a
node. A vine cane consists of nodes where the buds are and inter-
nodes between them. The pith is interrupted at each node by a
woody partition (called the ‘‘diaphragm’’) which extends through
the cane at each bud. In making a cutting, therefore, we should
eut exactly through a bud both at the top and at the bottom. This
will leave the woody partitions, which will prevent. decay at the
bottom and drying out at the top. If removed, the pits in the upper
internode will be exposed to alternate wetting and drying, and may
decay, thus weakening or killing the bud below.

In planting, the cutting should be placed with just one bud above
the surface of the ground, as indicated by the dotted line in the
accompanying engraving. It is a great mistake to leave more than
one bud out of the ground, as this increases the danger of drying
out.

Making and Caring for Cuttings.—Cuttings can be taken from
the vines at any time after the fall of the leaf and before the spring
flow of sap begins. The earlier cuttings—those taken before Jan-
uary—are more likely to make a successful start and after-growth
than those cut later in the season.

It is common, however, to defer preparation of cuttings till the
pruning is done, be it early or late, and this will generally answer
the purpose, if care be taken to secure the cuttings immediately at
the pruning; but if the branches be allowed to lie upon the ground
for days, exposed to sun, wind, or frost, before the cuttings are
secured, their chances of growth are seriously lessened, and a good
part of the failures in planting are due to such cuttings.

Cuttings should be taken from the short-jointed, well-ripened
wood of the previous year’s growth, cut squarely and smoothly as
already described. Cuttings from the outer ends of long canes are
not so likely to root, nor to grow so vigorously, as those from
stronger wood, from three-eighths to five-eighths of an inch in
diameter generally.

Keep them dormant until the time comes to set them in the vine-
yard, else the tender shoots may get broken. To*‘keep them back.

298 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

place them, at the pruning in trenches, about as deep as the length
of the cuttings, on the north side of a close board fence or building,
cover with loose earth, and over that throw some straw and boards.
Take care that the trenches are in moist but not wet ground, as too
much moisture rots the cuttings. If the ground has not been moist
enough, and the cuttings seem dry or withered, plunge them in
water to within three or four inches of their top, for a few days
before setting, and do not let them dry again before planting.

Rooting Cuttings in Nursery.—What has been written is in
reference to cuttings designed for placing in permanent position in
the vineyards, but, for the most part, applies as well to the prepara-
tion of cuttings for the nursery. For nursery treatment, however,
shorter cuttings can be used than for field planting, because of the
better cultivation and more generous moisture conditions which are
usually provided.

In preparation of ground for the rooting of vines and the plant-
ing of cuttings therein, the suggestions in Chapter VIII are directly
applicable, as, to secure rooting of the cuttings, there is just as
ereat need for deep and fine working of the soil, pressing of it
around the cutting, and for careful culture during the growing
season, as there is for such treatment of fruit-tree seedling or root
eraft. It is just as necessary, too, that the rooted cuttings should
be carefully lifted and guarded from drying out while on the way
from the nursery to permanent place. The reader is, therefore, re-
ferred to Chapter VIII for suggestions on preparation, laying out,
and care of nursery ground intended for the rooting of grape
cuttings.

To secure vines upon resistant roots recourse has recently been
made by some growers to the cutting-graft which will be mentioned
presently.

BUDDING AND GRAFTING THE GRAPE VINE

Working over the grape vine is largely practiced in this State
and is easily accomplished. The occasion is twofold: Replacing un-
desirable varieties with those of better quality, or in better market
demand, and in bringing the vinifera varieties upon roots which
resist the attacks of the phylloxera. The employment of resistant
stocks has proved eminently satisfactory in this State, the resistant
stock having been successfully installed even in the hole from
which the dead vinifera root had been taken. For this reason
resistant roots are largely relied upon in the planting of new vine-
yards in infested districts, and also used to some extent in regions
where the insect is not now found, by those who fear and desire to
provide against its coming. And yet in the large planting of vine-
yard in the interior valley which has recently been undertaken, very
little attention has been paid to resistant roots. It is so cheap to pro-
ceed with simple cuttings of the variety desired, and the vine comes
into bearing so soon, that most planters are willing to take the risk
of infection with phylloxera, for it may be long delayed and several

BUDDING THE GRAPE VINE 299

profitable crops may be realized before its arrival. This is a ques-
tion which each planter must answer for himself.

Budding the Grape.—Buds can be readily made to grow in grape
eanes, though budding is not largely used. Success can be had with
the same method of budding that is common with fruit trees as
described in Chapter IX. Insert the bud (which is taken from a
eane of the previous season’s growth) in the spring as soon as the
bark will slip well on the stock, and before the run of the sap is too
strong. Keep the cuttings in a cool place so their growth will be
retarded, and then seize upon just the right condition of the stock,
insert the bud under the bark of a cane of last season’s growth,
tie it around with a string, and the bud starts readily without
further treatment; when its growth shows its ability to take the
sap, the top of the stock is removed.

Budding from previous season’s growth.

Herbaceous budding is also practicable. It consists of taking
buds from the current season’s growth and working them upon
eanes also of current growth by the usual shield budding process.
Mr. Thomas Casalegna of San Martin succeeds well with this under
these conditions: All buds put in from July 15 to August 15 start
the same year, but may be injured by fall frosts. Those put in
from August 15 to September 15 remain dormant until the following
year, unless the stock is exceptionally vigorous. Budding is most
successful in the month of August. The buds should be taken from
canes which have reached the stage of maturity indicated by the
pith turning white and just before the bark turns yellow.

Grafting the Vine.—Grafting in old vine roots is a simple opera-
tion, and is performed in various ways. The principles involved in

300 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

vine grafting are similar to those affecting tree grafting, as de-
scribed in Chapter [X. The processes employed are also similar,
but the graft requires less binding and waxing is dispensed with,
because the graft is made beneath the surface of the ground, and
is, therefore, less subject to accident, exposure, and drying out.

Grafting in the Old Stump.—This is resorted to when the char-
acter of the vineyard is to be changed. Out of the many ways for
working into old stumps, one introduces the scion by a side cut into
the stock without splitting across. The earth is removed from the
old vine down to its first lateral roots, and the top is sawed off
cleanly a few inches above the first laterals. A cut is then made
into the side of the stump with a knife and mallet. The scion is
then cut long enough so that one bud will remain above ground
when the surface is leveled again, the bottom of the scion being
given an oblique wedge-shape, so as to fit the crevice in the stock.
Some care is needed in shaping the wedge of the scion, so that
the surfaces in contact will give good results. If the stock is
well made and the end of the scion so adjusted that the stock will
pinch it when it is pushed into place, nothing more will be needed
except to smear over the cut surface of the stump and the joint of
the scion and stock with clay or with a mixture of two parts clay
and one part fresh cow manure. If the scion is held firmly and
sealed in with this mixture, it usually needs no tying, and the hole
ean be carefully filled with loose earth, with a strong stake to mark
the place of the graft, and to which the new growth can be securely
tied afterwards.

Another common method of grafting beneath the ground is to
split the stump across its center, as is done in top-grafting fruit
trees as shown in Chapter IX, and one or two scions inserted. If
two are used and both grow, the weaker one is afterward suppressed.
In this cross cleft graft some grafters rely upon the stock to hold
the scion without tying, and daub it over with the clay mixture,
eare being taken to fill and cover the split in the stock to exclude
water. Others put a ligature around the split stump. Strips of
eotton cloth answer well for this purpose. Tying offers better
security from knocking out the graft with the cultivator.

In grafting into very tough old stumps, some growers place a
slim wedge of wood in the cleft with the scion to prevent the stock
from closing too forcibly upon the scion.

Side Grafting.—Side grafting the vine is commended by some
growers. It consists in inserting a graft by a cut into the side of
the stock, the method being essentially the same as that employed
with fruit trees, as described in Chapter IX, excepting that in side
erafting the vine, the top is not amputated, but is allowed to bear
its erop and is then removed the following winter. The next
summer the scion will bear a crop, and the vine is worked over
without cessation in its bearing. .

Herbaceous Grafting.—This term is applied to a graft in which
the scion of the current season’s growth is set by a cleft graft into

GRAFTING THE GRAPE VINE 301

canes also of the current season’s growth, while both scion and
- cane are elastic, but not too soft. The method has not been usually
successful in this State, apparently because of the dryness of the
summer air. Still some satisfactory results are reported. Mr.
Casalegna of Santa Clara county, whose success with herbaceous

BS ol

Methods of field grafting grape vines.

A. Whip graft for stocks 1-2 to 2-3 of an inch in diameter.
B, BB. Whip graft for stocks 2-3 to 3-4 of an inch in diameter.
C, CC. Cleft graft for stocks 3-4 of an inch in diameter and for old
stumps.

302 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

buds has been noted, does well also with soft-wood grafting by the
whip-graft method. He says it is most successful in June, provided
the scions are hard enough. The pith must be white. In a strong-
growing vineyard grafting may be done in July. The leaves are
taken of the scions when they are cut. If they are to be used im-
mediately they are placed in water; if to be carried some distance
they are placed in a wet sack. Tie the grafts with knitting yarn,
not with raffia. The season for herbaceous grafting will, of course,
vary according to the locality. Hot weather immediately following
the work is fatal to most of the grafts. If two or three cool days
follow the insertion of the scions he obtains an almost perfect stand.

Care of Scions.—Scions should be kept cool and moist enough
to prevent drying but not wet enough to cause decay, as has already
been described in the keeping of cuttings.

Time of Grafting —Grafting into old vine stumps is done in
February, March and April in different parts of the State, March
being the month usually chosen for the work. If a spring graft
fails, the stump may be regrafted in August or in the following
spring. In regrafting, the stump is cut off again below the previous
cleft. The time for the work is when the sap has ceased flowing,
usually from the first to the tenth of August.

Resistance to Phylloxera.—The recourse to resistant roots to
escape the phylloxera has been attended with some disappointment
because the wild roots at first widely used proved only partially
resistant. Recently, in the main through the employment of French
selected varieties of the American wild species, stocks with satis-
factory resistance, larger growth and vigor and adaptation to differ-
ent California soils have been secured. Notable success has been
attained in the habilitation of vineyards on the basis of resistant
roots. As this undertaking involves considerable outlay and as
success depends taking advantage of the latest demonstrations of
the affinities of varieties, the adaptations of roots to soils and the
suitability of varieties for special purposes and the best method of
grafting on resistants and the rooting of grafted cuttings, the latest
information should be had from the University Experiment Station
at Berkeley, before making investments.

LAYING OUT THE VINEYARD.

Vines are planted in rectangles, generally in squares, but some-
times at a less distance in the rows than the rows are from each
other. The stakes which are to represent the future vines are in
either case placed by the same methods of measuring or marking
off. All the methods described for clearing and preparing lands, in
Chapter VII, and for laying off ground in squares, described in
Chapter X, are applicable to vineyard ground. The measuring »
wire therein described is the means usually employed for laying
off. A special contrivance which has been used to some extent on
level ground is thus described:

PLANTING OUT GRAPE VINES 303

The marker most in use is made in the form of a sled, sixteen, fourteen,
or twelve feet long, with three runners so placed as to mark rows eight,
seven, or six feet wide. These runners should be made about three feet
long, of some hard wood (Oregon-pine will do), two inches thick and firmly
nailed to two planks placed upon them of the lengths first above named.
Upon these should be bolted two strong pieces of joist in the form of wagon
hounds projecting in front far enough to receive a stout pole like a wagon
tongue, well braced and fastened with an iron rod. Care must be taken
that the motion of the machine is steady and true in all its parts. With a
‘io me marker, a gentle team, and a careful driver, excellent work may

e done.

Distance of Planting.—There is as much difference of opinion
and practice in fixing the distance between vines as between orchard
trees, but usually more room is given than formerly. Planted in
squares, the distance varies from seven to ten feet, with eight feet
as most prevalent, taking the State as a whole. Planting in rows
is also adopted to some extent. Such plantations are made with
the vines seven by ten or eight by ten feet, four and one-half by
eleven feet, etc. There is a great variation in the distances. Some
advantages of the row system are as follows: Greater space to
spread trays for raisin curing; plowing can be done with double
team and larger plows; the brush can be gathered and burned be-
tween the rows instead of carrying it to the avenues; sulphur and
materials for spraying can be brought in by team to any part of
the vineyard; empty boxes can be distributed and filled ones gath-
ered up without carrying, ete. Planting in rows recommends itself
not only for planting new vineyards, but also for changing old
vineyards from seven by seven feet to three and one-half by four-
teen. feet, or from eight to eight feet to four by sixteen feet, giving
opportunity to change from a vinifera-root vineyard to a resistant-
root vineyard. This can be accomplished by planting resistant
roots in the alternate rows to be preserved, right between the two
old vines. |

Number of Vines to the Acre.—However the vines be set, it is
very easy to calculate the number of vines which an acre will
accommodate. Multiply the distance in feet between the rows by
the distance the plants are apart in the rows, and the product will
be the number of square feet for each plant, which, divided into
the number of feet in an acre (forty-three thousand five hundred
and sixty), will give the number of plants to the acre.

Avenues in the Vineyard.—F or convenience of access with team
_ and wagon there should always be avenues through the vineyard.
They are usually arranged so as to cut up the vineyard into blocks
about twice as long as broad, if the vineyard be on the level land.
Of course, on hilly lands the avenues should be located for ease of
hauling. The avenue is made by leaving out a row of vines, and,
therefore, the exact size of the block will depend upon the distance
between the rows. Some advise having not more than forty vines
between the avenues. Planting in rows, with wide spaces between
the rows, renders few avenues necessary.

304 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

PLANTING CUTTINGS AND ROOTED VINES.

Various means are used for planting cuttings. An essential con-
dition to successful growth is to have the lower part of the cutting
well embedded in the soil, as it will not root unless in close contact
with the earth. To lack of care in this regard most failures are
due, and for lack of surety that such contact is made the various
contrivances for speedy planting, such as the planting bar, are

Dibbles for planting vine cuttings.

widely condemned; an excavation of the hole and refilling with
fine surface earth, just as advised in Chapter XI, for planting
orchard trees, is commended as the safest practice. Much, how-
ever, depends upon the soil. In loose, free soil such a use of a bar
or ‘‘sheep’s-foot’’ as will be presently described may be satisfac-
tory, while it would be impracticable on firmer soils, both because
of the difficulty of insertion and because the packed condition

PLANTING VINE CUTTINGS 305

eaused by the forcing in would not favor root extension, and not
desirable on shallow soils because the contact of the better surface
soil with the bottom of the cutting will stimulate the growth of the
cutting, and is, therefore, very desirable.

The post- hole auger and a device for taking out soil as a ‘‘trier’’
takes out a sample of cheese or butter, have also been used to some
extent, but not widely, in making holes for cuttings.

Other forms of dibbles for planting vine cuttings relate particu-
larly to the setting of cutting-grafts in a light deeply-worked
nursery-soil, but may be also used to advantage in placing cuttings
in the vineyard if the soil favors such a method. They are de-
scribed by Mr. Bioletti as follows:

Two of the best forms of nursery dibbles are shown in the en-
graving. The first, ‘‘a,’’ consists of a piece of round one-half-inch
iron; 18 inches long, furnished with a wooden handle at one end and
a curved double point with a V-shaped cleft in the other. The
bottom node of the stock is caught in the cleft and the graft forcea
down to the desired depth. Unless the ground is very light the
other dibble, “‘b,’’ is preferable. It consists of a sword-shaped piece
of iron 18 to 20 inches long and 2 inches wide, furnished also with
a handle. The usual way of using it is to press it into the ground
to the desired depth, open the hole a little with a lateral thrust,
withdraw it and insert the graft. The dibble is then pushed into
the ground again at about an inch to one side of the graft and by
another lateral thrust the earth is pressed tightly around the graft.
This takes more time than is necessary with the other form of
dibble, and usually done carefully there is danger of failing to
make the soil close around the base of the stock, which is thus left
surrounded by an air space. Grafts left in this way are apt to
become moldy and fail to make good roots. The figure ‘‘e’’ is a
planting dibble to be used with hand and foot like a spade. All
such contrivances are only suited to light soils which crumble and
settle easily. On heavier soils, digging holes and placing the soil
around the roots or the base of the cutting by hand is indispensable.

Planting Bar and Sheep’s-foot.—The following methods, de-
scribed by Dr. Gustav Eisen as prevailing in the raisin districts of
the San Joaquin Valley, on sandy, loamy soils, will well illustrate
similar methods wherever followed:

The planting bar consists of a bar of hard iron, sharpened at the lower
end and furnished with a cross handle at the other. The length of the bar
is about three and a half feet, width about two and a half inches, and thick-
ness a third to half an inch. If less than this the bar will bend. The
planting is done by pushing the bar perpendicularly in the ground. After
withdrawing it, insert the cutting and push it down to the bottom. Fill up
the hole by again inserting the bar in the ground close by and pressing the
flat side against the hole.

The sheep’s-foot consists of a round rod with cross-handle at the upper
end. The lower end of the rod is slightly flattened, bent and forked. The
planting is done by fitting the forked end over the butt-end of the cutting,
and immediately pushing cutting and rod together to the desired depth in
the soil. A slight twist is now given to the sheep’s-foot. This loosens it

306 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

from the cutting and allows it to be withdrawn. A tramp with the foot fills
the hole. Great care must be taken in withdrawing the sheep’s-foot, lest in
doing so the cutting should be lifted also, and this will leave a fatal air
chamber at the lower end. The slight twist given the rod before with-
drawing loosens it and leaves the cutting undisturbed.

. For planting in dry situations some careful planters run water
and fine earth into the hole made by the bar after inserting the
cutting; others run in fine sand dry and then pour on water. In
using water in this way one must take care that he uses sand or
sandy earth, and not clay, for a succeeding dry spell may bake it,
and the cutting will be worse off than if not puddled.

Planting Rooted Vines.—Planting rooted vines is governed by
the same rules commended for planting trees in Chapter XI, so far
as preparation of holes, care in placing and firming the soil around
the roots, etc., is concerned. In handling rooted vines there must
be greater care in packing and transportation to prevent the roots
from drying, and in carrying to the field it is generally advised that
the plants be kept in a pail or other receptacle with water. The
vine roots are very small and tender, and success will largely de-
pend upon good eare of them. At planting all dead or injured
roots should be trimmed away, healthy roots shortened so that
they can be placed well in the hole, and the top reduced to a single
cane cut back to two eyes.

When to Plant.—The exact time to plant can not be stated, for
the condition of the soil and the local season-points are the best
guides. Planting can be done much later as a rule in the coast
regions than in the interior, because the soil is usually later in get-
ting into good condition of mellowness and warmth, and the late
rains are usually heavier. It is certainly not advisable to place
cuttings in cold, wet soil, and dry soil will quickly destroy their
vitality. The suggestions given in Chapter XI should be carefully
considered. The planter must use good judgment in choosing his
time for planting, aided in forming it by the best local experience

he can get.

Cultivation of Vineyard.—General suggestions concerning the
cultivation of the vineyard have already been given in Chapter
XIII, in which methods employed in California, and which are
practically the same for all fruits, are described.

CHAPTER XXVII

PRUNING AND CARING OF THE VINE.*

Most of the varieties of vinifera grown in California at present
thrive under the short pruning system. There are exceptions, how-
ever, which will be noted later. The prevalence of the short prun-
ing system frees our growers from the expense and inconvenience
of trellises. Though in the early years of the vine stakes are used,
our older vines stand by themselves and are as independent of
support as our fruit trees. The vines are, in fact, shaped upon
something like the same model as our fruit trees, the so-called ‘‘gob-
let form’’ of the French being our prototype.

THE FIRST YEAR

During the summer of the year the vines are planted, no pruning
or training of any kind is needed in most cases. For this reason it is
nearly always unnecessary to stake the vines when they are planted.
The only exception to this is when strong-rooted vines are planted
in a rich, moist soil in which they will make a very large growth
the first year. In this case it may be desirable to stake the vines
immediately after planting and to adopt the method of summer
“reatment usually employed for the second year.

In most cases, however, it is best to allow all shoots to grow at
will to insure a good root growth the first year.

Staking.—In the autumn or winter following planting, the vines
should be staked, either before or after pruning, but in any case
some time before the buds start in the spring.

The kind of stake used will depend on the variety of vine and
on the method of pruning to be ultimately adopted. For ordinary
short-pruning, the stake should be of such length that, after being
driven into the ground, sufficient will be below the surface to keep
it firm and prevent its being loosened by the force of the wind
acting on the vine which is tied to it, and sufficient above the
surface to extend one or two inches above the height at which it is
intended to head the vines. It should be from one and one-quarter
to one and one-half inches square, according to length.

In firm ground, for small-growing vines, a stake 1144 by 1%4
inches and 27 inches long will be sufficient. This will allow 15
inches to be driven into the ground and leave 12 inches above, which
is enough for vines to be headed at 10 inches. If the ground is
loose or sandy a 30-inch stake driven 18 inches into the ground will
be needed. For strong-growing varieties, such as Tokay, especially
when planted in rich soil, a stake 1144 by 114 inches and 36 inches
long will be necessary, and 15 or 18 inches of this should be left

*The detailed instructions and accompanying illustrations in this chapter are taken
from the excellent writings of Mr. F. T. Bioletti for the California Experiment Station.
Other details may be had in Bulletins 241, 246 and 296 and Circular 191 of that institution.

308 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

above the ground. This will permit the heading of the vines at 15
inches.

If the vines are to be trellised with one wire, a 36-inch stake
driven 18 inches into the ground is the proper length. If two wires
are to be used, a 48-inch stake will be needed, leaving 30 inches
above the surface.

If the vines are to be pruned long and the canes tied to the
stake, a 5-foot stake will usually be needed, and this must be
stronger, 2 by 2 inches square. This stake should be driven 2 feet
into the ground.

These dimensions are all smaller than are usual in California,
but are quite sufficient for all practical purposes. The stake should
be placed 1 or 2 inches from the vine on the side opposite to the

Fig. 1. Treatment of an average vine during second season.
a. Winter pruning.
b. Spring pruning—removal of suckers (S) and thinning of shoots (W).
e. Summer treatment—tying to stake and topping.

prevailing heavy winds. The force of the wind will thus keep the
vine pressed against the stake and the tying material is less liable
to break.

First Winter Pruning.—In California, the young vines may be
pruned at any time after the leaves have fallen, except in sections
very subject to spring frosts, where it is sometimes advisable to
defer the pruning until after the top buds of the canes start.

The way the vines are to be pruned will depend altogether on
the growth they have made. If the growth has been small the tops
are pruned exactly like rooted vines before planting. All the canes
are removed entirely, except the strongest, and this is cut back to
two buds (see Fig. 1, a). ;

GROWING THE VINE TRUNK 309

Any vines which have made a strong growth and possess at least
one cane of which sufficient length is well ripened may be pruned
for tying up. All the canes are removed entirely, except the strong-
est, and this is cut back to 10, 15, or 18 inches, according to the
height at which it is intended to head the vine (see Fig. 2, a). The
top cut is made through a bud, just as in making cuttings. This
will facilitate tying up and insure the healthy growth of the top bud.

Sometimes, even when the vine has made sufficient growth, the
canes are prostrate or crooked and none can be tied up straight to
the stake. In this case the vine must be pruned like a weak vine—
that is, thinned to one cane and this cane cut back to two buds.

In no ease should two canes of any length be left, and in all cases
where it is impossible to obtain the full length of well-ripened wood

HIN

Be J
OMB Ny }

toe

=
Vi

Wf iss
ff —<——

Fig. 2. Treatment of an average vine during the third season or

of a vigorous vine during the second.
a. Vine pruned to one cane and tied to stake.

b. Removal of sucker (S) and lower shoots (W) in spring.

ce. Vine in summer at time of pinching.
for tying up, the cane should be cut back to two buds. It is very
bad practice to leave some of the canes of intermediate length, as
this causes the vines to head out at various lengths and produces
an irregularity of shape which can never be remedied and which
interferes with regular pruning, cultivation and other vineyard
work.

The idea to be kept in mind is to cut back each winter nearly to
the ground—that is, to two buds—until a cane is produced with a
length of well-ripened wood and good buds equal to the height at
which the vine is to be headed. It is very important that this cane

310 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

should be straight, healthy and well-ripened, as it is from it that the
trunks of the mature vine develops. All the vines on which a cane
has been left should be carefully tied up. Two ties will be needed
in most cases. A half hitch should be made around the cane below
the swelling left by the bud which has been removed, and the cane
tied firmly to the top of the stake. Another tie is made half-way
down the stake. The lower tie need not be very tight, and in any
case the tying material should not be passed completely around the
cane, except above the top bud, or the vine will be strangled when
it commences to grow (see Fig. 2a). Any kind of string or twine,
sufficiently strong to withstand the pressure of the growing vine in
a heavy wind, may be used. Binding twine, or a single strand of
good baling rope, is suitable. No. 16 or 17 galvanized wire is pre-
ferred by some and is better than string, if care is taken to remove
the bottom ties the following year before they strangle the vine.
Wire is a little more expensive and takes a little longer to put on
than string, but holds the vines better and can be used for several
years.

SECOND YEAR

Summer Pruning.—The treatment during the second and third
spring and summer is of great importance to the future welfare ot
the vine. A little judicious care at this period will avert many
troubles in later years. It will be necessary to go over the vine-
yard four or five times to do the suckering, topping, and tying which
are necessary.

The shoots starting from the vines which have been cut back to
two buds should be thinned to a single one. This thinning should
be done as soon as possible in such a way that it is never necessary
to remove a shoot more than 8 or 4 inches long (see Fig. 1, b). If
the thinning is deferred until the shoots are a foot or more long the
vine will be weakened by the removal of so much foliage. If the
thinning can not be done early, it is better not to do it at all. The
object of this thinning is to throw all the force and growth of the
vine into the cane which is to form finally the trunk of the vine.
If it is done too late not only does the growth not go into this cane,
but the vine is weakened so much that this cane does not grow so
well as it would have done without thinning.

The first thinning can be done with the first hoeing, and the
second with the suckering. The suckering consists of the removal
of all shoots which come from below the ground. These also should
be removed as early as practicable, both to avoid weakening the
vine by the removal of mature leaves and also because a young
sucker is much more easily separated from the vine at this time.
Every sucker must be cut or broken off at the point where it origi-
nates. If a little piece of the sucker be left, several new suckers
will start at the same place. The more completely the suckering is
done during the first two years, the less trouble in this respect there
will be in later years. This is particularly true of grafted vines.

A few weeks after the first thinning, the single shoot which has

TOPPING GRAPE VINES Ly

been left will have grown 10 or 15 inches. At this length it should
be tied up to the stake (see Fig. 1c). If this tying is neglected or
deferred too long, a heavy wind is very liable to break off the whole
shoot. A piece of string tied rather loosely about the middle of the
shoot is all that is needed. If the vines are to be headed high (18
inches) another tie near the top of the stake may be necessary.

For vines which are making only moderate growth this is all the
treatment needed during the summer. Strong-growing vines in rich
soil, however, should be topped.

Topping.—The object of this is to force the shoot to send out
laterals at the right height above the surface of the soil, to be used
as spurs during the following year. This topping is an operation
which requires a good deal of judgment. If the topping is done too
soon, laterals will not start, but a new terminal shoot will be formed.
This is not a serious defect, however, but simply necessitates a
second topping two or three weeks later. Neither will the laterals
start if the topping is done too late, or if they start they will not
mature, and the vine is weakened by the removal of foliage without
any compensating advantage.

Until experience has shown the proper time for the variety and
locality, it is best to top when the shoot has grown to from 8 to 12
inches above the top of the stake, and if necessary top again later.

The shoot should be topped within 1 or 2 inches of the top of the
stake, if the stakes have been chosen and driven as advised above
(see Fig. 1, c). This will insure the growth of laterals just where
they are needed for the next winter pruning.

The vines on which a cane has been left and tied up during the
preceding winter must be treated a little differently. The removal
of underground shoots or suckers is the same. Instead of thinning
out the shoots to a single one, as for the vines just described, all the
shoots should be left to grow, except those too near the ground (see
Fig. 2, b).

As a rule, all shoots between the ground and the middle of the
stakes should be taken off. It is even more important that this
should be done early than in the case described above. ,If the lower
shoots are allowed to become large and then removed, not only is the
vine weakened by the removal of the mature leaves, but the stem of
the vine is suddenly exposed to the direct rays of the hot sun and
is very liable to injury. This injury does not show by the peeling
off of the bark as with fruit trees, but by a general weakening and
dwarfing of the vine.

The shoots coming from the upper half of the cane are to form
the spurs for the following winter pruning, and can often be left to
grow without further treatment.

If the growth is very rapid and succulent, however, it is neces-
sary to pinch them, or the first heavy wind may break them off (see
(Fig? 2; €).. §

Pinching consists in the removal of 1 or 2 inches of growth at
the extreme tip of the shoot. This delays the growth in length
temporarily and gives the shoot time to strengthen its tissues before

312 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

its length gives too much leverage to the wind. This pinching
usually has to be repeated at least once.

Pinching may be replaced by topping a few weeks later, but the
latter is somewhat weakening to the vine.

In all summer pruning—that is, the removal of green shoots and
leaves—of young vines, two things should be kept in mind: First
that all summer pruning is weakening; second that the object of
summer pruning of young vines is to direct the growth as much as
possible into those parts which are to become permanent portions of
the mature vine. The weakening effect is neglible if the shoots or
tips are removed when they are very small, but may be very serious
if large shoots are removed or heavily topped. When a large shoot
covered with leaves is removed it is a total loss to the vine. When
a small shoot is removed the food materials which would have gone
into that shoot are diverted to the shoots that remain, and the vigor
and size of the latter are increased.

THIRD YEAR

Winter Pruning.—After the leaves have fallen at the end of the
third summer every vine should have a well-formed, straight stem
with two, three, or more canes growing from the upper part, and
the formation of the ‘‘head’’ or crown should commence. Any
vines which have not been brought to this condition must be pruned
like two or one-year-old vines, as the case may be.

If the work up to this point has been well done, the formation of
the head is a simple matter. It consists in leaving two, three, or
four spurs, arranged as symmetrically as possible near the top of
the vine. The stronger the vine, as evidenced by the number, length,
and thickness of the canes, the larger the number of spurs and buds
that should be left.

A spur consists of the basal portion of a cane, and normally of
two full internodes. This leaves two buds besides the base bud.
The number of buds to leave on a spur depends on the strength or
thickness of the cane from which the spur is made. A thin, or weak,
cane should be cut back to one bud or even to the base bud. A
strong cane, on the other hand, should be left with three buds besides
the base bud.

The pruning of each vine requires judgment, and it is impossible
to give an inflexible rule to follow. The ideal of a perfect vine
should be kept in mind and each vine pruned as nearly in accord-
ance with this ideal as circumstances permit. Fig. 3 represents
nearly perfect three-year-old vines consisting of two or three sym-
metrically placed spurs of two buds each near the top of the stem.

Sometimes it is necessary to leave a spur lower down (see Fig. 3,
b). This spur will be removed the following year after it has pro-
duced two or three bunches of grapes. Sometimes a vine may be
very vigorous but have only two canes properly placed.for making
spurs. In this case the spurs should be left longer—three buds and
even in extreme cases four buds long.

THREE-YEAR FORM OF VINES 313

In stump pruning there is a difference of practice as to low head-
ing according to locality. In the interior regions the vine is now
headed almost at the surface of the ground; in the coast regions
there is usually a stump of one or two feet or more. As with trees
so with vines, the practice is to prune to make lower heads than
during the early years of California fruit growing.

Long Pruning.—Some varieties grown for market and for raisin
making do not thrive if pruned by the short-spur system. Notable
among these are the Sultana, Sultanina, (Thompson’s Seedless), Hm-
peror and Sabalskanski. Whatever the variety of vine and what-
ever the system of pruning to be ultimately adopted, the treatment

Fig. 3.. Three-year-old vines after pruning.

a. Average vine with two spurs.

b. Vigorous vines with three spurs, the lowest of which is to be removed the fol-
lowing year.

e. Vigorous vine with three spurs.

for the first two and even three years is practically identical and is
that which has already been described in detail.

Long pruning admits of degrees, but it usually signifies using a
five or six instead of a four-foot stake and leaving the selected canes
from eighteen inches to three feet longer instead of cutting back
to two or three buds, as in short pruning. These long canes are
securely tied to the long stakes.

With varieties needing long pruning the first two or three buds
next the old wood do not bear fruit, hence the need of leaving buds
farther removed from the old wood to secure it. This habit of the
vine invites the practice of growing a long cane for fruit and at the

314 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

same time providing for wood growth for the following year’s
fruiting by cutting another cane from the same spur down to two
or three buds. By this practice the wood which has borne the fruit
is cut back to a bud each winter and the cane which has grown only
wood is pruned long for the fruit of the following summer. A
modification of the practice is to prune the canes from some of the
spurs long, and from other spurs short, thus making the spurs
alternate from wood bearing to fruit bearing from year to year.
Unless some method is adopted to promote the growth of strong
canes from near the head of the vine, long pruning becomes un-
satisfactory. According to the common way with those vines which
are known to require longer canes for satisfactory bearing, such
canes are selected when the vine is well established and two, three,
four, or more canes four or five feet long are tied up vertically to
a high stake. This process is repeated the next year and the next,
and the result is, with the Sultanina at least, that after the second
or third year all the bearing wood is at the top of the stake, and
the vine must be pruned short again or suckers and watersprouts
left as long canes. Neither way is satisfactory.

Two methods have been successfully used to insure the growth
of new fruit wood every year in a position where it can be utilized.
The first consists in bending the fruit canes into a cirele. This
diminishes the tendency of the sap of the vine to go to the end of
the fruit canes. The consequence is that more shoots start in the
lower parts of the fruit canes. All the shoots on these canes are
made weaker and more fruitful by the bending, and at the same
time the sap pressure is increased and causes strong shoots to start
from the wood-spurs left near the bases of the fruit canes. These
shoots are used for fruit canes at the following winter pruning, and
new wood spurs are then left for the next year.

The tying and bending of the fruit canes require great care, and
repeated suckering and removal of watersprouts are necessary to
insure a strong growth of replacing canes on the wood spurs. This
method can be used successfully only by skillful hands.

The other method requires some form of trellis. The most prac-
ticable trellis is a wire stretched along the rows about 11% or 2 feet
above the surface of the soil. For very vigorous vines in rich soil a
second wire 12 inches above the first is advisable.

The pruning is the same as for the method just described. The
fruit canes, however, instead of being bent in a circle and tied to
the stake, are placed in a horizontal position and tied to the wire.
The horizontal position has the same effect as curving in promoting
the starting of more shoots on the fruit canes and the consequent
production of more bunches of grapes. At the same time the buds
on the wood spurs are forced to start, and not being shaded they
tend to grow vigorously. It is best to tie the shoots from the wood
spurs in a vertical position to the stake, and they should not be
topped. This system of pruning is not only theoretically correct,
but is easy to explain to pruners, and can be carried out much more
perfectly than the first method with ordinary labor.

SUCKERING GRAPE VINES 315

Whatever system of winter pruning is adopted with Sultanina,
careful summer pruning, suckering, sprouting, and topping are
necessary for the best results. This variety has a tendency to send
out large numbers of suckers from below ground and watersprouts
from the old wood. These shoots are usually sterile, grow vigor-
ously, and unless removed in time divert the energies of the vine
from the fruit and fruit shoots. Two or three times during the
spring the vineyard should be gone over carefully and all sterile
shoots which are not needed to balance the vine or to replace weak
or missing arms should be removed. This removal of shoots should
be done in such a way that no shoot longer than 12 inches is ever
removed. If the watersprouts are allowed to grow large their re-
moval weakens the vine. The shoots which are to give fruit canes
for the following year should not be topped. The shoots from the
horizontal fruit canes on the trellises, however, will set their fruit
- better and are less likely to be broken by the wind if they are
pinched or topped early.

SUMMER PRUNING AND SUCKERING

Summer pruning or topping of bearing vines is usually prac-
ticed. Some follow the pinching process, by which the terminal of
the growing cane is nipped off with the thumb and finger when it
has grown out about two feet. Others wait longer and then slash
off the ends of the canes with a sickle. The tendency is to leave
summer pruning until too late and to slash off wood indiscrimi-
nately, to the injury of the vine. Summer pruning, if done early
enough, and this would be while the growth is still soft at the point
of removal, will induce the growth of laterals and will shade and
improve the fruit, and at the same time thicken the growth of the
main cane and strengthen its connection with the spur. Slashing
of canes too late in the season deprives the fruit of the service of
enough leaf surface for the elaboration of the sap, often seriously
checks the growth of the vine, and in hot regions, induces sunburn.
The first summer pruning should be done soon after the bloom, but
not during blooming. The second could take place whenever the
canes or laterals extend beyond the length necessary to shade the
orapes.

Suckering is an important process and usually has to be attended
to at least twice in the season. It consists in removing all shoots
from old wood which are not provided for at the previous winter
pruning. The growth of these suckers takes sap which should go
to the other canes. All such shoots should be rubbed or pulled off
while they are still soft; if a sucker puts out at a point where it
would be desirable to have a spur to balance the head of the vine,
it should of course be allowed to grow, to be cut back to two buds
the following winter. By such selection of suckers new spurs are
secured to replace old and failing ones.

316 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

GENERAL NOTES ON PRUNING

Longer or shorter pruning produces effects not only upon the
amount of early ripening of the fruit of certain varieties, but upon
quality, as shown in the wines. Such effects have to be discerned
by local observation.

It is a very difficult matter to lay down any rule for pruning a
vineyard, so much depends on the age of the vines, the different
varieties, and the quality of the soil. A basis on which to build a
theory on the subject might be found in and through an under-
standing of the quantity of grapes that may be expected from a
vine, as the secret of pruning is to keep a just medium between the
production of grapes to the injury of the vine and its wood and an
overproduction of wood to the detriment of the crop. In older
vines a proportion should be maintained between the vigor of the
vines and the crop desired; each bud may be considered good for
two bunches of grapes the ordinary size, and upon this estimate
may be obtained. It must be borne in mind that the result of over-
loading the vine is detrimental to its vigor and health, while the
reverse will not injure it, but will lessen the profits for that season,
often giving greatly increased returns in after years.

Close attention should be given to the growth of the wood and
fruit of the preceding year. If the canes are very large and the
bunches of grapes poor and there are many suckers, it indicates
that more eyes are necessary. On the contrary, if the canes are
small, and the bunches of grapes numerous and straggling, and the
ripening not even, it indicates that the number of eyes left should
be less.

Pruning may be regulated to produce a good second crop of
grapes or to prevent the formation of a second crop. The second
crop is sometimes profitable in raisin and table varieties, but is as
a rule undesirable.

Attention should be paid to the tools used in pruning. Let the
blades be kept sharp and thin; large shears are very apt to bruise
the wood. more than small ones.

Pruning is done after the fall of the leaves and before the swell-
ing of the buds, usually in January and February. Early pruning
has a tendency to make the vines start growth early, consequently
in frosty situations pruning is often deferred till late in the winter—
as late as the middle of March in some eases. But it is inconvenient
to do a large amount of pruning so late. At any time in the winter
the canes can be cut back to 15 or 18 inches and the vineyard
cleaned up. When the outer buds on these long spurs start, cut
back to the two buds next the old wood and they will start 15 or
20 days later than if the vines had been pruned short earlier in the
season. This practice has been followed with marked advantage in
some regions liable to late spring frosts. The bleeding which follows
late pruning is no loss to the vine, according to observation of late-
pruned vines.

The proper treatment of vines injured by spring frosts is clearly

TROUBLES OF GRAPE VINES 317

the immediate removal, by a sharp downward jerk, of the frosted
shoots. Careful experiment has proved that the vines that were
not stripped did not do as well as the others, as the dormant buds
in many cases did not come out, and those that came out were not
healthy and strong, and hardly had any grapes. The damaged
shoots that were not removed died gradually, and at the junction
with the cane new shoots came out without any grapes at all, while
two-thirds of a crop came on the frost-bitten vines, which were
stripped of the damaged canes; hardly any first crop and only a
second crop on the vines which were not attended to.

DISEASES OF THE VINE

One of the most prevalent diseases of the vine in California is
caused by a fungus which affects leaves, canes, and berries, and is
locally known as ‘‘mildew.’’ This disease is recognized by grayish
white coloring of the affected leaves, which, as the disease pro-
eresses, shrivel and dry up; the young cane also blackens and dries,
and the berries show whitish patches, which become darker colored
and the berries crack open. The usual remedy for the trouble is
finely-ground or sublimed sulphur applied several times during the
season. Definite reference may be found in the chapter on diseases
of trees and vines.

The Bordeaux Mixture and other copper preparations are some-
times useful upon grape-vines, as will be cited in the chapter on
plant diseases.

Coulure—A frequent misfortune of the vine, and for which no
remedy is yet known, is coulure, a term signifying the failure of
the fruit to set or to remain on the cluster. This occurs in varying
degrees from the loss of a few berries to the almost complete clear-
ing of fruit from the stem. It is worse with some varieties than
others and in some localities than others. The trouble is believed
to arise from various causes.

There is, also, occurring with more or less frequency, a redden-
ing and death of the vine leaves, supposed to be identical with the
trouble known to the French as ‘‘rougeole.’’ The leaves show
light-colored spots at first, which afterward turn red and finally
involve the whole leaf or cane, and sometimes the whole vine. It
usually occurs in mid-summer, and is not necessarily fatal in its |
effects.

Root Knot.—An evil occurring on the main stem of the vine,
generally near the surface of the ground, is an exerescence of woody
character commonly called ‘‘black knot.’’ There has been much
discussion as to the cause of this abnormal growth, without full
agreement among observers. Some attribute the knots to injuries
to the stump in cultivation, others to outbursts of sap which the
short pruning system does not give top growth enough to dispose
of, and to various. other causes, but the agency is now definitely
known to be invasion by bacteria. This is analogous to the ‘‘crown

318 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

knot’’ of fruit trees which will be mentioned in the chapter on
plant diseases.

Anaheim Disease——There has prevailed for several years in
California a mysterious disease of the vine known as the ‘‘ Anaheim
disease,’’ because its evil work first appeared in that vicinity. It
destroyed many thousand acres of vines and led to the abandon-
ment of grape growing in some regions in Southern California for
many years. The fullest statements concerning its performance
ean be found in Bulletin No. 2, U. 8. Department of Agriculture,
Division of Vegetable Pathology, by Newton B. Pierce, 1892, ana
Farmers’ Bulletin No. 30, 1895. Fortunately during recent years
the trouble has been less aggressive, but neither its nature nor satis-
factory treatment has been fully demonstrated.

The latest available information concerning insect injury and
other troubles of the vine can be had by application to the Uni-
versity Experiment Station at Berkeley.

CHAPTER XXVIII

GRAPE VARIETIES IN CALIFORNIA

Large collections of grape varieties have been brought into Cali-
fornia during the last sixty-five years. They were sought in all
grape countries, and from such wide experimental planting a few
have survived in popular esteem and are now chiefly grown. Being
derived from different countries, they came bearing many names.
Some of these have been preserved, some wholly lost, and replaced
with local appellations. The result is that our grape nomenclature
is full of confusion. Some varieties have been identified by the
means of the standard French grape literature; others are ap-
parently unknown to the compilers of that literature. It is, there-
fore, impossible to-day to determine the original names and sources
of a number of our most popular grapes.

‘In Chapter XVI the varieties most largely planted for com-
mercial purposes are enumerated. Choice of varieties for planting
is largely determined by the ripening season of the variety and the
commercial opportunity which the particular region affords—there-
fore one should direct investments largely on the basis of local
inquiries and observations. Although there are really very few
varieties which are commercially important, there are many to be
found in the different parts of the State and the following descrip-
tions will help the reader to recognize a number of these.

Early Black July; syn. Madeleine, Madeleine Noir, etc.—‘“Leaves rather
small, light green above and beneath; bunches small and compact; berries
small, quite round; skin thick, black, covered with a blue bloom; flavor
moderately sweet, but not rich nor perfumed. The earliest grape, and
chiefly valued for dessert on that account.’—Hyatt.

White July; syn. Luglienga.—‘‘Vine strong-growing and sensitive to frost;

leaves of medium size, deeply five-lobed, dark green, glabrous on both sides,
' sharply toothed, the terminal tooth of each lobe very long and acuminate;
bunches of medium size, well filled; berries of medium size, oval, at first
green, becoming yellow with overripeness, with thin skin, crisp, firm flesh,
and agreeable flavor.’—Bioletti. The Luglienga, which means July grape,
is one of the earliest grapes known.

Early Madeleine; syn. Madeleine Angevine.—‘“Moderate grower, with
long-jointed, brown wood; leaf medium, deeply lobed, dark green above,
tomentose below; young points reddish, woolly, slender; bunch medium,
compact, shouldered; berry medium, oblong, yellowish green, transparent,
rather thick skin, sweet and juicy. Vine a shy bearer when frost is preva-
alent.”—Husmann.

Chasselas Dore; syn. Fontainebleau, Sweetwater—‘“A rather vigorous
grower, with medium or somewhat slender canes of a reddish-brown color;
young shoots of garnet color; leaves rather below average size; bunches of
medium or over-medium size, conico-cylindrical shouldered, more or less
compact; berries medium to large, with firm but tender skin, small seeds;
of delicate flavor and texture, at first crisp but becoming soft with full
maturity. The grapes are of a clear green color, tinged with a beautiful
golden bronze where exposed to the sun.’”—Bioletti.

320 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Chasselas Rose.—Fruit resembling foregoing, except that both bunch
and berries are usually smaller, and flavor is more pronounced.

Palomino; syn. Golden Chasselas.—“The vine quite largely grown as
‘Golden Chasselas’ is undoubtedly identical with the Listan, or Palomino.”—
Hilgard. “Vine a fair grower; wood close-jointed; leaf medium, oblong,
deeply lobed, bright green above, grayish grain and tomentose below, stem
short, young points with reddish tint and woolly; bunch large, conical, rather
loose and shouldered; berry round, full medium, sometimes flat, pale green
with yellowish tinge; thin skin, juicy and sweet, resembling Chasselas.”—
Husmann.

Black Malvoise.—‘“‘Vine a strong grower; wood long-jointed, rather slen-
der, light brown; leaf medium size, oval, rather evenly and deeply five-
lobed; basal sinus moderately open, with parallel sides, upper surface
smooth, almost glabrous, lower surface lightly tomentose on the veins and
veinlets, bunches large, rather loose, branching; berries large, oblong, red-
dish black with faint bloom; flesh juicy, flavor neutral.”—Hilgard. Widely
grown as an early table grape.

Mission.—“This variety, grown at the old missions, has never been
determined, nor its exact source ascertained. It is regarded by some as a
most delicious table grape. It can be found in small areas in every county
of the State adapted to the grape. Vine a strong grower; wood short-
jointed, dull dark to brown to grayish; leaf above medium size, slightly
oblong, with large, deeply-cut, compound teeth basal, sinus widely opened,
primary sinuses, shallow and narrow, secondary sinuses ill-defined, smooth
on both sides, light green below with light, scattered tomentum.’—Hilgard.
“Bunches slightly shouldered, loose, divided into many small, distinct lateral
clusters; berries medium size, round, purple black, heavy bloom; exceed-
ingly sweet, juicy and delicious; seeds rather large; skin thin.”—Hyaitt.

Muscatel; syn. White Frontignan.—“Vine of medium size, with strong,
spreading canes; canes reddish-brown, with short internodes; leaves of
medium size, thin, five-lobed; glabrous except for a few hairs on the lower
side of the well-marked ribs; bunches long, cylindrical, regular, compact;
berries round, golden-yellow, becoming amber-colored, very sweet and of
marked aroma. Ripens a little later than the Chasselas.’’—Bioletti.

Dattier de Beyrouth (Rosaki).—Introduced from Europe. Bunches large,
only slightly shouldered; berries loose, never compact. Berries very large;
quite oval in form, of a beautiful golden amber and covered with a whitish
bloom; very fleshy; juicy and sweet, with little or no acidity. Its keeping
qualities are unsurpassed. Makes a very fine raisin.—Roeding.

White Muscat of Alexandria.—‘Vine a short, rather straggling and bushy
grower, well adapted to short stool pruning, as it forms rather a bush than
a vine; wood gray, with dark spots, short-jointed; leaf round, five-lobed,
bright green above, lighter green below; young shoots a bright green. The
laterals produce a second and even a third crop; bunch long and loose,
shouldered; berry oblong, a light yellow when fully matured, transparent,
covered with white bloom, fleshy, with thick skin, very sweet and decidedly
musky.”—Husmann. The leading raisin grape of California. Rejected for
irregular bearing on some mesa lands in Southern California.

Museatel Gordo Blaneco.—‘“Muscatel Gordo Blanco has a closer bunch
and rounder berry than the Muscat. The skin is softer and the pulp is not
quite so hard. The berry inclines to be a little darker in color and not
nearly so green when it is ripe, and I think not quite as long as the Muscat
of Alexandria. If the Muscat would set as well as the Muscatel, the difficulty
would be obviated. One very important difference is that when you come
to dry them, the Muscat of Alexandria loses the bloom very rapidly. The
bloom comes off when you come to dry and pack them. But the Muscatel
does not lose its bloom. The Muscat of Alexandria has to be dried a little
more than the Muscatel to bring it into a keeping condition under the same
condition of ripeness.’”—R. B. Blowers.

“The growth of the Muscatel or Gordo Blanco vine is low and spreading,
with no upright branches in the center; clusters heavy, and, when perfect,

A

Plate XI.—The Sevillano olive as grown in Tehama County.— (See page 355.)

Plate X.—Bearing of the young date palm in California.
(See page 328.)

RAISIN AND TABLE GRAPES 321

close and shouldered; berries round and large (the greatest circumference
being at the center), a crease often being found at the apex of the berry;
color green, or, when fully ripe, amber green or yellow. Distinguished
from Muscat of Alexandria by low depressed growth of vine, closer cluster,
rounder berries, and by thicker and finer bloom. The Muscatel is the choice
raisin grape for the San Joaquin Valley, and for the interior generally.”—
Dr. Hisen.

Huasco Muscat.—A variety brought from Chile, but after wide trial in
California, seems not superior to the other White Muscat varieties previ-
ously mentioned. Its dense cluster is not well adapted to raising making.
It is said, however, to be less subject to coulure.

Feher Szagos.—“Vine a strong grower and heavy bearer; branches erect
but slender; leaves glossy, entire; bunches medium to small, pointed, and
solid; berries greenish amber, medium oval, pointed, with thin skin and
few small seeds; flesh not firm, but dries well and makes a good raisin.”—
Dr. Hisen.

Larga Bloom; syn. Uva Larga.—A variety of Muscat said to be named
because of the length of its berries, but held by some growers to be indis-
tinguishable from Muscatel Gordo Blanco. An excellent raisin grape, but
now chiefly grown as a table fruit in the Santa Cruz Mountains.

White Malaga.—“Vine a strong grower; wood reddish brown, short-
jointed; leaf medium, leathery smooth, deeply lobed, light shining green
above; bunch very large, loose shouldered, long; stem long and flexible;
berry very large, oval, yellowish green, covered with white bloom; thick
skin, fleshy.”,—-Husmann. Grown in Southern California in situations where
the Muscat does not do well; also elSewhere as a table grape, and to some
extent in San Joaquin Valley for raisins.

Sultana; syn. Seedless Sultana.—“Vine vigorous, upright; leaves large,
five-lobed, with rather large sinuses, light colored, and coarsely toothed;
bunches large, long-cylindrical, with heavy shoulders or wings, well filled
when not cultured, but not compacted; berries small, round, firm and crisp,
golden yellow, and without seeds.”—Bioletti. In California the variety is
apt to have some seeds. It has more acid, and therefore greater piquancy
of flavor, than Thompson’s Seedless, but the latter has recently far out-
stripped it in popularity among growers.

Thompson’s Seedless; syn. Sultaninaw—Named by Sutter County Horti-
cultural Society, after W. Thompson, Sr., of Yuba City, who procured the
cutting in 1878, from Ellwanger & Barry, of Rochester, New York. It was
by them described as “a grape from Constantinople, named Lady Decover-
ly.” When it fruited in Sutter county, it was seen to be superior to the
Sultana, and has been propagated largely. It was first widely distributed
by J. P. Onstott, of Yuba City, and others, and is now to be found in all
parts of the State. The variety is described by Dr. Hisen as follows: ‘Oval;
greenish-yellow; as large as a Sultana; seedless, with a thin skin; good,
but not strong flavor, and without that acid which characterizes the Sul-
tana grape and raisins; bunches large or very large; vine an enormous
bearer.” Mr. Bioletti considers the variety identical with the Sultanina of
Asia Minor, and gives this description: “Vine very vigorous and with large
trunk and very long canes; leaves glabrous on both sides, dark yellow-green
above and light below, generally three-lobed, with shallow sinuses, teeth
short and obtuse, bunch large conico-cylindrical, well filled, on herbaceous
peduncles; berries under medium; ellipsoidal, crisp, of neutral flavor, with
moderately thick skin of a fine golden-yellow color.”

Black Corinth; syn. Zante Currant.—Vine of great vigor; the grape
from which Zante or Greek currants are made; bunches medium size, com-
pact, and cylindrical, with well marked shoulders, and sometimes winged.
The berries are very small, reddish black, round and seedless. Occasionally
a berry containing seeds is found.—Bioletti.

White Corinth.Vine nearly as vigorous as the Black Corinth, the leaves
are a little lighter in color, and the fruit is white; bunches medium or a

322 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

little larger than those of the black and more conical in shape; berries a
little larger, intermediate in size betwen the Black Corinth and the Sultana;
lack flavor and acidity of the black; must be marketed as a second-grade
currant or Sultana.—Bioletti.

Flame Tokay; syn. Flame-colored Tokay, Flaming Tokay.—‘“Vine a
strong grower, large in all its proportions, wood, joints, leaves; wood dark
brown, straight with long joints; leaves dark green, with brownish tinge;
lightly lobed; bunch very large, sometimes weighing eight to nine pounds,
moderately compact, shouldered; berry very large, oblong, red, covered
with fine lilac bloom; fleshy and crackling, firm; ripens late.’”—Husmann.
The leading shipping grape of the State, quality low. Defective in color in
some localities.

Black Hamburg.—“Bunches very large, from six to ten inches in length,
very broad at the shoulders, tapering to a point gradually; berries very
large, round, slightly inclined to oval; skin rather thick, deep purple, very
black at maturity; very sugary, juicy and rich.’”—Hyatt. A very popular
market grape.

Rose of Peru; syn. Black Prince (?).—“Vine a strong grower, with dark
brown, short-jointed wood; leaf deep green above, lighter green and tomen-
tose below; bunch very large, shouldered, rather loose; berry round, large,
black, with firm and crackling flesh; ripens rather late; a very handsome
and productive variety, of good quality, but not adapted for long ship-
ment.”—Husmann.

Moscatello Fino; syn. Moscatello Nero, Black Muscat.—‘Leaves of me-
dium size, with deep upper and shallow lower sinuses, glabrous above,
slightly downy below, and very hairy on the veins, teeth long and sharp;
bunches large to very large, long, loose, conico-cylindrical, and winged;
berries very large, on long, thin pedicels; skin well colored, thin but
tough, flesh soft and juicy with delicate muscat aroma. An excellent table
grape. It is a heavy bearer, and produces very fine-looking bunches of dark
colored grapes. Rather late.’—Bioletti.

Purple Damascus; syn. Black Damascus.—“Vine a medium grower; wood
light brown stripe with darker brown, short-pointed; leaf round, five-lobed,
smooth, light green above, tomentose beneath; stem reddish, large, long and
woody; bunch large, loose, shouldered; berry very large, oblong, dark blue,
covered with lighter bloom, meaty, skin thick, ripens late.”—Husmann.

Purple Cornichon; syn. Black Cornichon.—‘“Vine a heavy grower, with
thick, light brown, short-jointed wood; leaves large, longer than wide,
deeply five-lobed, dark green above, and lighter and very hairy below,
coarsely toothed, and with short, thick petiole; bunches very large, loose,
on long peduncles; berries large, long, more or less curved, darkly col-
ored and spotted, thick-skinned, and on long pedicles. Desiyable on ac-
count of its attractive appearance, curious shape, excellent shipping qual-
ities, and late ripening.’’—Bioletti.

White Cornichon.—Resembles Purple Cornichon in shape and flavor, but
has very thin and tender skin, which makes it better for the table, but
poorer for shipping. Leaves not deeply cut; smooth on both sides.

Emperor.—‘*Vine a strong, vigorous grower; leaves very large with
five shallow lobes, short, obtuse teeth glabrous above, woolly beneath, light
green in color; bunches very large, long conical, loose with large, dull
purple, oval, firm berries.”—Bioletti. An excellent shipping grape, largely
grown by R. B. Blowers of Woodland, Yolo county, by whom its merits
were first announced. Pronounced unsatisfactory because of irregular set-
ting and non-ripening in localities near the coast in Northern California,
and generally condemned in Southern California. Seems best adapted to
interior situations and is chiefly grown for shipping in the San Joaquin
Valley.

Black Ferrara.—A large black grape; large bunches; berres cling well
to the stem, thick-skinned, flavor superior. An excellent local market va-
riety and long-distance shipper. y

TABLE GRAPE VARIETIES gaa

Lady Finger (Pizutella di Roma).—“Bunches are usually large and long;
berries are long, white and thin-skinned. Flesh tender, crisp and sweet.
Vine a rapid and strong grower, bearing very large foliage.”—Roeding.

Gros Colman; syn. Dodrelabi.— Vine strong-growing, with dark brown-
ish wood; leaves very large, round, thick, very slightly lobed, shortly and
bluntly toothed, glabrous above, close-woolly below; bunches large, short,
well filled, but not compact; berries very large, round dark blue, with
thick but tender skin. Remarkable as having the largest berries of any
round berry variety known, and is probably the handsomest black table
grape grown. The grapes have good keeping qualities, except that they are
liable to crack.”—Bioletti.

Black Morocco.—“Vine a strong grower, with thin, spreading canes,
leaves under medium size, very deeply five-lobed, even when very young,
the younger leaves truncate at base, giving them a semi-circular outline,
with long, sharp teeth alternating with very small ones, glabrous on both
sides, bunches very large, short, shouldered, and compact; berries very
large, round, often angular from compression, fleshy, of neutral flavor, dull
purple color or colorless in the center of the bunch. Remarkable for the
number of second crop bunches which it produces on the laterals. Late in
ripening and of very fine appearance; a fairly good shipping grape, but
difficult to pack on account of the size and rigidity of the bunches. The
grapes are of an agreeable crispness, but lacking in flavor.”—Bioletti. Vine
quite subject to root knot.

_Verdal; Aspiran Blane.—“Vine of medium vigor and rather hardy; canes
somewhat slender and half erect; leaves of average size, glabrous on both
surfaces, except below near the axis of the main nerves, sinuses well
marked and generally closed, giving the leaf the appearance of having five
holes; teeth long, unequal, and somewhat acuminate; bunches large to very
large, irregular long-conical, without any or with small shoulders, well- -
filled to compact; berries yellowish green, large to very large, crisp, with
thick but tender skin, agreeable, but without marked flavor.”—Bioletti.
Grown as a late table grape; in good condition in some regions as late as
November.

Almeria; syn. Ohanez.—“Vine vigorous; leaves of medium size, round
and slightly or not at all lobed, quite glabrous on both sides, teeth obtuse
and alternately large and small; bunches large, loose or compact, irregular
conical; berries from small to large, sylindrical, flattened on the ends, very
hard and tasteless.’”—Bioletti. The grape cultivated at the University Ex-
periment Stations under this name is one of the several varieties which are
shipped in such large quantities from Malaga and Almeria packed in cork
dust. The grapes ripen late and attain about 20 per cent sugar. They have
remarkable keeping qualities. Vine needs long pruning, and is only adapted
to hot, interior situations.

There are many other vinifera varieties which are grown to a
limited extent either for raisins or for table use. Among these are
the Canon Hall Muscat, the White Tokay, White Champion, Cin-
saut, Zabalskanski, ete.

EASTERN GRAPES

Though many of the improved varieties of the grape species indi-
genous east of the Rocky Mountains, and of the hybrids between
these species and the vinifera, have been introduced in California,
their growth for table fruit is almost of insignificant proportions,
and does not constitute even a respectable fraction of one per cent
of our grape area. The popular taste decidedly prefers the vinifera
varieties. There is, however, a variety believed to be of local origin,
which is worthy of mention as follows:

324 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Isabella Regia.—“A remarkable, giant-leaved, and very prolific sport of
the Isabella, originated by bud variation with Mr. J. P. Pierce, of Santa
Clara. The berries, like the leaves, are of extraordinary size, and when
ripe the fruit is exceedingly sweet and strongly aromatic. It is, therefore,
acceptable as a showy, perfumed table grape, much liked by some, but
readily surfeiting those who are accustomed to the vinifera grapes. The
berries are too soft for shipment to any distance, but all things considered,
keep fairly.”—Hilgard. Grown as the “California Concord’ in the Los
Angeles region.

This variety leads its class in this State. Other varieties of
Eastern grapes most popular in California, with the few who grow
them, are as follows: Catawba, Concord, Moore’s Early, Campbell’s
Early, Delaware, Niagara, Worden, Diamond, Isabella.

PART FIVE: SEMI-TROPICAL FRUITS

CHAPTER XXIX

DATE CULTURE IN OUR DESERT AREAS*

Ever since the arid, semi-tropical regions of the United States
became known through the narratives of explorers, the date palm
(Phoenix dactylifera) has been projected as a plant likely to demon-
strate commercial value in America like that which it has held for
centuries in the arid regions of Asia and Africa. This idea was
also cherished even at an earlier date by the Spanish missionaries
who brought the palm to California, as will be described presently.
During the last decade the problem of introducing and establishing
a date-growing industry has been taken up more seriously and
systematically than ever before and has attained success.

The date palm was brought to California by the padres, and the
oldest date trees in the State are the survivors of their early plant-
ings. Such trees are found at the San Diego Mission. They are
conjectured to be more than a century old, and they have survived
drought and neglect. They made no record of fruit-bearing. There
were also unfruitful date palms at other missions.

The ill success of these old trees in fruit bearing long prevented
attention to the date as a profitable growth. Still there were date
palms grown from seed of the commercial date planted here and
there for ornament or out of curiosity, and in due course of time
the fruit appeared. The first public exhibition of California dates
known to the writer was made at the Mechanic’s Institute Fair, in
San Francisco, in September, 1877. The fruit was grown on the
south bank of Putah Creek, the northern boundary of Solano
County, the situation being slightly above the level of the plain of
the Sacramento Valley, which lies east of it. The plants were
grown by the late J. R. Wolfskill, from seed of commercial dates
purchased in San Francisco, and planted in 1858 or 1859. The seed
germinated readily, and the young plants were set out in a row
about one hundred feet south of Putah Creek, on a rich, fine, sandy
loam lying about twenty-five feet above the bed of the creek. The
plants received good cultivation but no irrigation.

Another bearing date palm stands about a mile eastward of the
situation just described, near the residence of the late J. R. Wolf-

*The Date Palm and its Utilization in the Southwestern States, by Walter T. Swingle,
Bulletin 53, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Washington, 1904.

Date Varieties and Date Culture in Tunis, by T. H. Kearney, Bulletin 92, Ibid, 1906

Date growing in Southern California, by S. C. Masin. Report of Riverside Fruit Grow-
ers’ Convention, State Horticultural Commissioner, Sacramento, 1908.

Date Growing in the Old and New Worlds, by Paul B. Popenoe, Altadena, California,
1913. A fine, illustrated treatise.

Propagation and Culture of the Date Palm, by Bruce Drummond, Coachella, California;
Farmers’ Bulletin No. 1016, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Washington, D. C., January, 1919.

326 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

skill. It was grown from seed of the date of commerce, which was
planted in 1863, and the tree bore its first fruit in 1880. Near it
stands a taller date palm, which bears staminate bloom. This latter
tree was originally one of the row previously described, and was
successfully moved to its present situation after attaining consider-
able size.

The fruit of the two bearing palms differs notably in appear-
ance. That of the first mentioned tree is of bright yellow color
and angular outline; that of the second tree is wine red, with smooth
surface.

During recent years the date has fruited at many places in Cali-
fornia and Arizona and commercial quantities of fruit have been
profitably produced. There is little doubt that it will succeed in
any of the interior regions which have a sufficiently high summer
‘temperature.

Soils and Waters for the Date—Until recently the date palm
has only been planted on good orchard land, but, according to ex-
perience in date-growing countries, the tree does not require rich
soil, but on the contrary will thrive in soil which is not acceptable
to other fruit trees and will produce fine fruit when irrigated with
water too alkaline for man or beast to drink.

PROPAGATION OF THE DATE

The date palm grows readily from the seeds of the dried date
of commerce, and, as has been intimated, most of the trees now
fruiting in this State having been obtained in this way. By the use
of seed one gets, however, only seedlings, and the chance of thus
securing a really fine variety is probably not greater than with
other fruit tree seedlings. In date-growing countries the best
varieties are propagated by rooting the off-sets, sprouts or suckers
which appear at the base of the older palms—near the base at first
and later higher up on the trunks. To secure the best foreign
varieties such plants must be imported. The first such effort was
made in the summer of 1890 by the United States Department of
Agriculture. The plants were divided between New Mexico,
Arizona and California. The plants for California were sent to the
University of California, and were planted at the experiment
stations at Tulare and Pomona, some of them being subsequently
transplanted to the United States Date Garden at Mecca in the
Colorado desert region. Upon fruiting a number of these plants,
they seemed to be only seedlings and not the best foreign varieties,
as represented.*

The United States Department of Agriculture undertook
arrangements in 1899 for new importations, which were success-
fully made. Of the foreign varieties thus introduced the following
have been produced in commercial quantities: Rhars, Tedalla,
Birket el Haggi and Deglet Noor—the last named leading largely.

*A full account of this effort and its outcome is given in Bulletin 29, of the Arizona
Experiment Station at Tucson.

GROWING DATE PALMS 327

During recent years large importations for commercial planting
in Southeastern California have been made by Mr. Popenoe, after
searching foreign investigations.

Growing Palms from Seed.—Seeds taken from the dried dates
of commerce germinate readily ; in fact, seedlings frequently appear
in the gutters of unpaved streets where the seeds have been thrown
during the rainy season. Director Forbes, of the Arizona Station,
says that seeds will come up more promptly if first stratified. This
may be done by taking a gasoline can or deep box and placing
three inches of sand in the bottom after making a number of holes
in it for drainage. The seeds are placed upon this layer and the
ean or box filled with sand, the whole then being put in a sheltered
place and kept moist from three to six weeks, when the seeds will
be soft and ready for prompt growth when planted. The seedlings
may be started in nursery rows for transplanting after one to three
years, or if frequent irrigations may be relied on, in the fields where
the trees are to remain.

Dr. W. T. Swingle, whose work on date growing has already
been cited, gives the following suggestions on the growing of seed-
lings and their subsequent handling to determine sex and to select
bearing palms of desirable type:

The seed should be planted rather thickly in well-drained beds of fer-
tile soil, free from alkali. These beds should be watered frequently, as the
young date seedlings need an abundance of moisture. If properly cared
for the seedlings will reach a height of from 12 to 18 inches the first year
and can be transplanted into the permanent orchard the second year.

These seedlings should be set out in rows about 30 feet apart and placed
5 or 6 feet apart in the row. Ordinarily field crops can be grown between
the rows until long after the palms come into bearing. After three or four
yeais, when the young palms begin to flower, the surplus male trees can be
dug up and destroyed, thus thinning about half of the trees. Then when
the female trees come into fruit, those which yield decidedly inferior fruit
can also be removed, so that finally about one-fourth of the original number
of seedlings will be left standing. The spaces between the seedlings will
be irregular and offshoots can be taken from the best sorts and planted
where the largest gaps occur. By preventing offshoots from growing on
the poorer sorts they will yield more fruit and finally can be destroyed
and replaced by offshoots from some of the better sorts. In this way, by
degrees, the orchard can be improved without expense for offshoots aside
from the labor of planting them.

Rooting Suckers.—Suckers taken off in warm weather and
watered freely usually take root readily. In the Coachella Valley
they are usually cut in March but can be handled successfully all
the year except December and January. In cooler valleys the
season would probably run from April to August, as they do not
root readily during nor approaching cool weather. Care should be
taken not to let the plants dry. Director Forbes gives these points:
Suckers should not be taken from the parent tree until they have
attained a diameter of 5 to 6 inches and a weight of 15 to 20 pounds.
Suckers should be removed by cutting in and down along the line
of cleavage between them and the main trunk, with a strong chisel
or a flat-pointed bar. If possible the cut should be carried down

328 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

so as to bring away at least one or two sound roots. The leaves
should be closely pruned and for shipment the cut bases had better
be protected against drying out by layer of wet moss or similar
material. In planting, the sucker should be set in previously irri-
gated and well settled soil to the depth of its greatest diameter,
taking care that the center of the palm is not below the irrigating
water level.

For convenience in irrigating, a shallow basin of earth should be
made about the sucker, in which, to lessen evaporation and the rise
of alkali, a mulch of fine barnyard litter three or four inches deep
should be spread. The soil about the newly transplanted suckers
should be kept constantly wet by frequent irrigations.

Rooting offsets in a hot bed is commended by Mr. Bruce Drum-
mond. He plunges them in a forcing bed made of one and a half
feet depth of manure, covered with one foot of earth. The forcing
house is of canvas and the heat thus increased by the covering
induces such a rapid and vigorous growth that offshoots cut from
the parent tree in the spring are ready to plant out in the grove in
the fall and will begin bearing dates four years thereafter. Mr.
Drummond says that offsets about 5 inches in diameter weigh ten
to twelve pounds and root more easily than larger ones. He cuts
away about one-half of each of the leaves of the offset rather than
prune them all away.

Bearing Age of the Date.—There is much difference in the ages
at which seedlings have come in fruit in the hands of different
growers. Fruit has been reported on seedlings six years old and
even on plants four years from the seed. Such early maturity must
not, however, be generally expected.

Blooming of’ the Date—The date palm is dioecious, and, its
staminate (male) and pistillate (female) blooms appearing on
different trees, it requires the association of the two for perfect
fruiting. Growing plants from seed, as already stated, leaves the
grower in doubt as to the sex of his plants until they bloom.
Usually one obtains a large preponderance of male plants. In
propagating from suckers the new tree is of the same sex as the
parent. It is advised to have about one male to twenty female trees.
The pollen can be transported long distances and maintains its
vitality for a long time.

Artificial fertilization of the bloom of the bearing palm has been
found of advantage in this State and was probably first practiced
by J. R. Wolfskill. Though the staminate tree was but a few feet
away from the pistillate, the male bloom was broken in pieces and
hung to the leaves of the female tree near to the pistillate flowers.
It was found that the parts of the date cluster which are nearest to
the suspended male blooms have more perfect fruit than the more
distant parts. Other California date growers have had similar
experience.

Date palms bloom from March to May, and the fruit ripens from
August to November.

HANDLING DATE FRUIT 329

Ripening the Date—Dr. A. E. Vinson reports that the Arizona
Experiment Station has demonstrated that by pasteurization or in-
cubation of the ripe fruit, it is freed of the obnoxious insects that
naturally infest the date. The heat drives the small beetles from
their shelter beneath the skins and they drop to the bottom of the
heater, where they die. In pasteurizing, the temperature is raised
sufficiently to destroy all insect eggs and at the same time to im-
prove the keeping quality of the fresh fruit by checking fermenta-
tion. The date, heated after it has been ripened at natural
temperatures, becomes more palatable than the raw material and
does not cloy the appetite so quickly. These improvements alone
have greatly extended the possibilities of marketing the fresh fruit
and of its becoming a staple among the people of this country. It
is anticipated by some growers that seedling varieties can be de-
veloped which will not require artificial ripening.

Pruning.—The pruning of bearing palms should consist merely
in the removal of old leaves, up to the fruit stem of the former
erop. Young palms should not be allowed to produce heavy crops
of fruit, as this would be done at the expense of offshoot growth—
if that is a consideration.

Beauty of the Date Palm.—The date palm in fruit is a beautiful
sight. The glauceous green pinnate leaves arch outward. Between
two of these emerge the bright orange-yellow polished fruit stalks,
which divide into a spray of slender bright yellow stems a foot or
so in length; and thickly set upon these in clusters are the various
eolored fruits covered with a rich bloom. It is a sight not easily
forgotten by a lover of nature, and especially by one reared in a
northern zone, the characteristic vegetation of which is so different.

CHAPTER XXX

THE FIG

The fig is, perhaps, the grandest fruit tree of California. Its
majestic size and its symmetry make it a crowning feature of the
landscape, and its dense foliage renders the wide space embowered
by it a harbor of refuge from mid-summer heat. Measurements
of large trees are abundant, for old trees are numerous in the in-
terior of the State, both in the valley and on the slopes of the Sierra
foothills. At Knight’s Ferry, in Stanislaus County, on the place
of Mr. T. Roebuck, there is a fig tree sixty feet in height, with
branches of such length as to shade a circle seventy-seven feet in
diameter. The trunk is twelve feet two inches around. A little
higher the trunk divides into seven or eight large branches, each
of which is nearly five feet in circumference. At thirty feet from
the ground the limbs are seven and eight inches through. Perhaps
the largest girth of a fig tree is that of a tree sixty-eight years old
on the Charles O’Neil place near Oroville which is eighteen feet
around the trunk, while the oldest tree is probably the one on the
Curtner place near Warm Springs in southern Alameda County
which is reported to be 125 years old, with a trunk girth of seven-
teen feet—a survivor of mission planting.

Groves of massive black fig trees, which, though set sixty feet
apart, mingle their branches overhead and form a network through
which, in the summer, hardly a beam of light can pass, are fre-
quently seen in the older settled parts of the State. Perhaps the
most interesting single fig tree is that on Rancho Chico, quite near
the residence of General Bidwell. It was planted in 1856. One
foot above the ground the trunk measures eleven feet in circum-
ference; the wide-spreading branches have been trained toward the
eround and, taking root there, banyan-like, they form a wonderful
enclosure over one hundred and fifty feet in diameter.

The crop on these large trees is proportionate to their size and,
entering their area in the morning during the ripening season, one
ean scarcely step without crushing figs, though the fruit may be
gathered up each day and placed in the sun for drying. All these
famous old trees are of the black, Mission variety. One such tree
owned by John Wolfson of Merced is reported to have produced
‘Cone thousand pounds of dried figs’’ in 1918. This tree is eleven
feet around four feet above the ground, with a spread of sixty feet.

Realization of a Fig Industry.—Although there was the demon-
stration of California’s adaptation to fig growing always before
them in these grand old trees and although the subject was con-
tinually under investigation and effort for half a century, the real
push for a great fig industry was not made until the war excluded
the Smyrna figs and the California product advanced to high prices.
The year 1919 is notable horticulturally for fig planting and de-
velopment based upon fig production for the world’s markets.

REQUIREMENTS OF THE FIG 331

REGIONS SUITED FOR THE FIG

Though there are still many fine points to be determined as to
what situations and conditions favor the production of the very
finest figs, and there are indications that there is possibly much
difference, it may be truly said that a very small part of the State
is really unsuited to its growth. If one shuns the immediate coast
of the upper part of the State, where the summer temperature is
too low for successful ripening, and keeps below the altitude of the
mountains where winter killing of the tree is possible, he can grow
figs almost anywhere.

Selection of varieties adapted to particular situations has much
to do with the success of the fig, as with other fruits, and, therefore,
a broad statement of adaptability must be received with such an
understanding. The intrusion of the coast influences borne east-
ward by the winds of summer, as described in Chapter IJ, gives a
night temperature too low for ripening of some varieties, which
turn sour upon the trees. Present indications are that the finest
dried figs, having the thinnest skin and the nearest approach gener-
ally to the fig of Smyrna, the commercial standard for dried figs,
will be produced in the drier portions of the interior valleys and
foothills. Even in Southern California fig-souring is quite preva-
lent, and selection of locations must be circumspectly made.

SOILS FOR THE FIG

The fig will thrive in any soil that one would think of selecting
for any of our common orchard fruit trees, and, in fact, the fig
sueceeds on a wider range of soils than any one of them. This
applies merely to the successful growth of the fig; to secure ripen-
ing at a time when the fruit can be profitably sold for table use, is
another question.

The selection of soils especially suitable to the production of the
best figs for drying involves more considerations than rule in the
growth of table fruit. For drying, the fig should attain a good
size, but should not contain excess of moisture. In some parts of
the State the first crop of figs in the season has been found unfit
for drying. The second, and, in some localities, the third crop,
appearing later in the season, when the moisture supply of the soil
is reduced, dry well. This condition of the first crop is, however,
affected by local conditions, for there are places in the Sierra foot-
hills where the soil moisture has to be replenished early in the
season by irrigation to prevent even the first crop from falling
prematurely, and subsequent irrigation brings to perfection the
second and third crops. The fig tree needs plenty of moisture in
the soil, but not too much. As with other fruits, if the soil does not
retain the needed amount naturally, it must be supplied by irriga-
tion wisely administered.

332 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

PROPAGATION OF THE FIG

The fig grows very rapidly from cuttings, and this is the chief
method of propagation. Cuttings should be made while the tree is
fully dormant, in the winter, of well-matured wood of the previous
season’s growth, giving preference to the stocky, short-jointed
shoots. Tip cuttings can be made from the ends of long shoots if
the wood is well matured, round and smooth, not angular and
wrinkled. Short lateral shoots ending in a tip-bud are preferable
and they are usually made ten or twelve inches in length and
planted with only one bud above ground. If enough tip cuttings
are hard to get, lower cuts can be used—carefully sealing the tops
with asphaltum grafting wax. In cuttings of figs always cut
through the joint where the wood is hardest. Particular attention
must be given to prevent fig cuttings from drying out. The life
goes out of them very easily.

The planting and care of the cutting is essentially the same as
of vine cuttings, already described. If well made and cared for, a
very satisfactory growth is made the first season, and the trees are
ready for planting out in permanent place the following season.

Single Bud Cuttings.—If one desires to multiply a new variety
very rapidly single eye cuttings will make plants. This is, also,
analogous to single-eye grape cuttings, as already described.

Budding the Fig.—The foregoing means enable one to propagate
a fig so rapidly that recourse is not had to budding, as in propagat-
ing other trees; still, budding is feasible, either on small plants or
on young shoots of old trees which it is desired to bud over.

The fig may be budded by the common shield method, as used
for ordinary fruit trees, as described in Chapter IX, but owing to
the tendency of the fig bark to shrink in drying, the bud should be
closely bound in with a narrow waxed band, to exclude the air.
As the bark is thick, it is often desirable to cut out a little of the
edges closest to the bud when in place.

Another method of budding the fig is by annular or ‘‘ring bud-
ding,’’ a method also relied upon with the walnut and chestnut.
Annular budding is done in the fall. A cireular ring of bark is
taken off from the stock by the aid of a budding knife, by running
two circular cuts around the stock, and a longitudinal one between
the two circular cuts; the ring of bark taken off must be at least
one inch wide, and from that up to two inches. A like ring of bark
is taken off in the same manner from the scion of the variety to
be budded in, and from a branch of the year, or preceding one, well
in sap, and having about the same diameter as the stock. The ring
should have on it one or two buds. It must fit exactly the space
prepared on the stock, and more particularly at the lower circular
eut, so that both barks will exactly unite at that point. One must
be very careful while drawing the knife around the stock not to go
too deep into the wood to injure the cambium layer, or to weaken
the stock. Tie a bandage firmly over the whole. After two or

BUDDING AND GRAFTING FIGS 333

three weeks the bandage has to be taken off, and, in the ensuing
spring, the top of the stock or limb is eut down three inches above
the budding.

Another way of working such trees is by ‘‘whistle budding,’’
which is done in the spring, when the sap is well up. The stock
and the scion must be both of the same size and well in sap. The
top of the stock is cut down to several inches from the ground; a
circular ring of bark is then taken off, and a corresponding ring
from the scion, but without a longitudinal cut, is put in its place.
In inserting it care should be taken that the top of the stock, which
is to receive the ring from the scion, be very smooth, and the latter
is then easily pushed down around it and bandaged. In the case
of the fig, it is especially desirable to use the latter method when
the sap is up, because if the top of the stock is not removed, the
exudation from above sours around the bud and prevents the union
of stock and bud.

To prepare an old tree for budding over, the limbs may be cut
back in February to within two to six feet of the trunk, covering
the ends with paint or grafting wax. Allow two shoots to start
near the end of each of these amputated limbs, and rub off all other
shoots. Bud the shoots when they attain the thickness of one’s
finger, taking green buds from the growth it is desired to introduce,
or let them grow and bud in the fall, whichever is most convenient;
or bud in the growing shoot, and rebud in the fall where buds have
failed.

Budding in Old Bark.—Budding with a large shield into old
bark is also successful. Judge Rhodes of San Jose describes his
method, both with the olive and the fig, in this way:

Cut shield from a limb of about % inch in diameter, length of shield
about 1% inches, its thickness from % to %, inch, and its bud near the
middle of the shield. Do not remove the wood from behind the bud. Make
a cut in the stock, through the bark and into the wood, its length and width
a little greater than those of the shield. Insert the shield into the cut, so
that the inner bark of the top of the shield and cut will coincide, so that
one side of the shield and cut—and both sides, if practicable—will coin-
cide. Place the top of the cut over the shield (removing a part of the flap
so the bud will not be covered), and fasten flap, shield and stock together
very firmly with twine, and protect them with paper tied around them.
They may be grafted in that mode, whenever dormant buds are found, for
the shields. Twenty-four shields were inserted at several times during one
spring, and there was only one failure.

Grafting the Fig.—The fig can be grafted by the cleft-graft
method, as described in Chapter IX, but the cleft should be made
to one side and not through the central pith. Especial care must
be taken in excluding the air. Fill the cleft between the scions with
warm wax, which will run in and fill the cavity. Then bind the
stock with wax bands, taking the greatest care to cover the exposed
wood surface, the cut end of the bark (which in the fig is very
prone to shrink and draw back), and as far down the stock as the
bark has been split.

Another method is to eut a notch into the stub with a sharp

334 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

knife, so as not to cause a split, but rather deep, clean cuts, into
which the wedge-shaped scions are firmly pushed and a cord wound
around the stub to hold all strongly in place before waxing
thoroughly.

The form of side-graft with a saw cut as described in the chapter
on the peach is also available.

In grafting the fig by various methods it is essential to have well
matured wood for scions—two-year-old wood is usually best; short
shoots or spurs well hardened are desirable.

Grafting in the Bark.—A method of bark grafting applied to
the fig by George C. Roeding of Fresno and approved by him after
several years of successful experience, affords an excellent way of
grafting over large trees. It does away with splitting the stock
and therefore hastens the barking-over of an amputation. The
branches to be grafted are cut off within 18 to 24 inches from the
point of divergence from the main body of the tree, allowing at
least two branches to remain, one of which should be on the south-
west, if possible, so that the grafts will be protected from the after-
noon sun.

After having sawed off the branches, the stumps neatly smoothed
over with a sharp knife, so as to leave a clean, smooth surface,
particularly along the edge, two, four or six scions should be placed
on each stock, the number, of course, being regulated by the size of
the stump. Cut out a V-shaped piece of bark. The distance from
the top of the stock to the point of the V should be about 114 inches.
Then proceed as follows:

Select a scion of the proper size, never be smaller than an ordinary
lead pencil. As a rule scions from two-year-old wood, with very little
pith and with a diameter of about % inch, will give the best results. The
scions should have a sloping cut at the lower end, with the bevel all on
one side and not like a wedge. The bevel should be a little longer than the
V-shaped opening in the stock and should fit snugly into this opening, so
that the bark on both edges of the scion touches the bark of the stock.
After the scions are placed, wrap tightly with five or six-ply cotton twine,
and cover the wounds as well as the stub with liquid grafting wax. Wax
the top of the scion to prevent drying out. If waxed cloth is used it must
be removed before the warm weather sets in or the bark will be smothered
and will dies. After the scions have become well united, which takes from
two to three months, the strings should be cut. This method of grafting
can not be made successful until the sap begins to flow, say from the latter
part of February to the first of April. The scions should never be more
than four inches long. }

Seedling Figs.—Figs are readily grown from the imported fig
of commerce. Dr. Gustav Hisen of San Francisco, our leading
writer on the fig, gives the following explicit directions for growing
the fig from seed:

Cut open imported Smyrna figs; wash out the seeds in warm water,
those that float are empty and worthless; those that sink are generally fer-
tile. Sow these in shallow boxes of sand and loam mixed, and place in a
frame under glass. In three weeks they will be up and must be very spar-
ingly watered. Set out next season in nursery row. In three years from
the seed such plants will be found to bear.

CARE OF FIG TREES 335

The tendency of the plants grown from Smyrna figs is to revert

to the wild type, and there is a small chance of securing good
varieties.

PLANTING AND PRUNING THE FIG

The chief point to observe in planting the fig trees is to get them
far enough apart, because of the great spread of branches which
they attain. Of course they may be planted twenty feet apart if
the owner intends to remove alternate rows, but to plant at forty
feet, or even farther apart, with other fruit trees or vines between,
on the plan of alternate or double squares, described in Chapter X,
would be the best way to lay out a fig orchard—the intermediate
growths to be removed as the figs require more room.

Very handsome effects are produced by planting the figs along
avenues to inclose orchards of other fruits. Fig trees are grand
for shade around buildings, and wild or Capri figs are desirable to
plant in this way for a purpose which will be mentioned later.

In transplanting fig trees extra care must be taken to keep the
roots from drying. After planting, the stem must be diligently
guarded from sunburn, to which it is hable in the warmer parts
of the State.

Pruning the Fig.—The fig requires very little pruning after its
shape is outlined. There is difference of opinion and practice as
to the height at which the head should be formed; some head nearly
as low as already advised for common orchard trees; others, having
in mind the immense thickness attained by the limbs, and their dis-
position to droop, head as high as four to six feet, which is the better
’ way to proceed when the trees are wide-spaced and expected to
attain large size. This height system is particularly desirable with
the Mission fig. In planting varieties less disposed to great size it
is usual to retain four branches above twenty inches of clear trunk,
but some prefer to start with five branches above thirty inches of
trunk.

In shaping the tree, branches should be brought out at a dis-
tance apart on the stem, so that there may be room for their ex-
pansion without crowding each other, and care should be taken not
to leave too many main limbs. The branches putting out on the
under side of these limbs should be suppressed, and those growing
upright, or obliquely upright, retained. As the fig has pithy shoots
it is very desirable to cover all cuts with paint or wax. After
getting the general shape of the tree fixed, there is little need of
pruning except to remove defective branches or those which cross
and interfere with each other and to prevent the interior of the
tree from becoming too dense. It is better to remove branches
entirely than to shorten them; or, in shortening, always cut to a
strong lateral. Stubs left at pruning are very undesirable in the
fig. This refers particularly to trees given much distance and
allowed free -growth.

In handling fig orchards of the Smyrna and other smaller grow-

336 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

ers, more systematic pruning is followed. The following is the
practice in the Markarian orchard at Fresno:

If trees are allowed to grow more than two feet of trunk they are liable
to become bent and to be sunburned for lack of shade. Trees having the
best shaded trunks are the most vigorous and frost resisting. Trees that
are once sunburned are practically ruined; but few recover. Stunted trees
are very hard to develop into good trees.

When the trees come into maturity, after the fifth or sixth year, they
must be pruned back by cutting the top branches off from about ten to
fourteen inches, so that the tree will throw out more lateral branches, with
a larger proportion of new lateral fruit wood.

Ordinarily if this method of pruning fig trees to a bush form is used
it will only be necessary to prune once every two years. The season to
prune fig trees depends upon the age of the trees. Young trees should not
be pruned before the month of March as they are very susceptible to frosts.
Larger trees can be pruned as early as January 15 and not later than
March 15.

Unlike other trees, the bearing fig trees need little pruning. They
should be topped about every two years. Go over the upper quarter of
them and cut back the terminal branches, in no case more than twenty
inches. With most branches a few inches is enough. The shaping of the
trees enters into the pruning. The terminals cut back will send out several
lateral branches of new fruit wood. By keeping up this system of pruning
larger fruit and larger yields are obtained.

Cultivation.—Young fig orchards are cultivated as are other
fruit areas. Irrigation is governed by local conditions, as already
stated. In starting the orchard it is exceedingly important that
the young trees should not be allowed to suffer from drying out of
the soil.

Bearing Age of the Fig.—The fig often, and, perhaps, usually,
begins its bearing very early, in the most favorable situations in —
this State. Some fruit is often had the second year, and a crop
worth handling the third year. Still, it is wiser not to calculate
definitely upon such returns, for four or five years sometimes pass
without a satisfactory crop.

CAPRIFICATION.*

Caprification consists in suspending the fruit of the wild or Capri
fig in the branches of the tree of improved variety, that the pollen
may be carried by an insect from the former to the latter. The old
Mission fig and the more recently introduced White Adriatic and
many other varieties matured fruit regularly and freely, but until
1900 California was never able to produce dried figs like the fig
of commerce or the Smyrna fig. This was, at first, thought to be
due to lack of the Smyrna variety. After painstaking effort this
variety was introduced. Trees grew readily from the cuttings;

*In a general treatise like this only a passing reference can be made of this subject,
which is perhaps the most interesting in the whole realm of science as applied to fruit
growing. The literature of the subject is very large and cannot be even indicated in this
connection. The materials and methods of caprification are also numerous. The latest
available exposition of the whole subject, its literature, science and practice is given in
“Smyrna Fig Culture,’ by G. P. Rixford of San Francisco, which is Bulletin 732 of the

U. S. Department of Agriculture and can be had by sending 10 cents to the Superintendent
of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.

CAPRIFICATION OF THE FIG 337

fruit appeared upon them and dropped before maturity. Doubt
then arose as to whether importers had not been deceived, and other
efforts were made, resulting in other importations. These also cast
to the ground immature figs. Discussion turned then upon the fact
of caprification—the necessity of having the fruit of the Capri or
wild fig adjacent to the fruit of the Smyrna fig so that insects from
the Capri might visit the fruit of the improved variety and pollinate
its inclosed flowers, which, appearing upon the inner wall of an
almost closed cavity, could not be reached by ordinary visiting
insects. The wild trees had already been introduced and were
freely growing near the others, but this fact availed nothing—the
figs fell just the same from the Smyrna trees. In 1890 Mr. George
C. Roeding, of Fresno, essayed to demonstrate the fact that the lack
of pollination was the secret of failure, and he succeeded in intro-
ducing the Capri pollen into the eye of the Smyrna fig, and secured
thereby the retention of such pollinated figs upon the trees, and
when ripened and dried these had the Smyrna character. The
demonstration was complete that California could not grow Smyrna
figs without the pollinating agency found to be essential to success
in Smyrna. This agent is a minute wasp called the blastophaga—an
insect so minute that it can make its way through the mesh of ordi-
nary cheese-cloth and can enter the almost closed eye of the young
fig—so minute that a magnifying glass is necessary to give one any
clear idea of its outline. For years constant effort was made by
various parties to secure the introduction of this insect. Urgent
appeals were made to the United States Department of Agriculture,
after private undertakings failed, to secure the insect alive or other-
wise in form for permanent residence. In April, 1899, the feat was
accomplished, the blastophagas being received from Algiers as col-
lected and forwarded by W. T. Swingle to Mr. Roeding. Their
offspring appeared in large numbers during the summer and fall of
the same year. On the basis of this achievement the commercial
production of a true Smyrna fig in California began and has rapidly
developed. Mr. Roeding gave his product the musical patronymic
‘*Calimyrna,’’ which now adheres also to the variety from which it
is produced.

It is an interesting fact that after this strenuous work was
successfully accomplished it was ascertained that the fig wasp had
really reached California without assistance before 1880 and has
been established in San Joaquin county since that remote date.

To avail himself of the benefits of caprification, every grower
of varieties which require it must also grow suitable Capri fig trees
and establish the insect in them. California nurserymen supply
these and the insects also when the trees are of suitable age to
receive them.

FOES OF THE FIG

The fig is freer from insect pests than any other fruit trees, and
yet it is a mistake to consider it wholly free—still, practically, the
fig tree in California has not yet suffered from insects.

338 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

The gophers have a pronounced appetite for fig roots, and their
presence should be carefully watched for. Swine have a liking for
fig bark. The trees of the grand grove at Hock Farm, on the
Feather River, by’ General Sutter, were completely girdled from
the ground as high as a pig could reach by standing on its hind
legs. Figs make good food for hogs, and plantations have been
made with this in view, but if the hogs are to be the harvesters, it
will be well to protect the stems of the trees from them.

VARIETIES OF THE FIG

Except in small production of fresh figs for local sale California
fig planting in 1919 proceeds almost exclusively upon the White
Adriatic, Calimyrna and Black Mission, and there is no agreement
among planters as to which will prove most permanently profit-
able—considering cost of production of each. It is hardly likely
that the present phase of popularity of varieties will be enduring.
It seems reasonable to believe that to command world trade, Cali-
fornia must grow the type of cured fig which the world is accus-
tomed to as the fig of commerce, which Smyrna production estab-
lished in world esteem.

The fig presents what may be termed an aggravated example of
the confused nomenclature which pervades California fruits. Dr.
Eisen has made a commendable effort to bring order out of chaos
by a study of foreign records and locally-grown fruit, and has
published a catalogue of varieties introduced into California, with
descriptions of each in Bulletin 9 of the Division of Pomology of
the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The following enumeration
is largely restricted to varieties which have been commercially
propagated:

White Adriatic.—Size, medium, roundish; neck medium; stalk short;
ribs obscure; eye open, with red iris; skin very thin, greenish in the shade,
yellowish in the sun; pulp bright strawberry red or white, with violet
streaks in the meat; varies in quality according to location. Very produc-
tive and often very profitable as a dried product. Apt to sour if weather is
dark or showery during ripening. This variety is in 1919 the most widely

planted and source of the largest part of the cured figs produced in Cali-
fornia.

Agen.—Medium size, roundish; skin bright green, cracking longitudinally
when ripe, showing white bands; flesh deep red, very rich; a good bearer,
but very late, requiring a long hot season.

Bardajic.—‘Very large, obovate, pyriform, long neck and stalk, skin very
thin, grayish green; pulp rich crimson, fine table. fig and largest of Smyrna
class.”—Roeding.

Black Bulletin Smyrna.—Large, obtuse, pyriform, short neck, long stalk,
light purple, flesh pink, luscious.

Bourjassotte, White; syn. Barnissotte, White—Medium, round and some-
what flattened, eye large, sunk; skin waxy, green; pulp bright red. A very
fine fig. Tree very large.

Brown Turkey.—Large, turbinate, pyriform, with hardly distinct neck;
stalk short; apex flattened; ribs few; slightly elevated; eye medium,
slightly open, scales large; skin smooth, greenish to violet-brown in sun,
with darker ribs; pulp dark rosy red, quality good, and tree a good bearer.
Brunswick is frequently confounded with this fig. A distinct variety is

VARIETIES OF THE FIG 339

grown in Vacaville as Brown Turkey, which is named by Dr. Hisen “War-
ren.”

Brunswick.—Very large, pyriform, with swollen cheeks, one of which is
larger than the other; apex very obtuse; neck and stalk very short; ribs
distinct; but not much elevated; eye medium, open; skin pale amber, with
violet tint; pulp amber. An early, large fig, but lacking flavor. Very com-
mon; requires rich, moist soil.

Celeste, White—Very small, amber; suitable for preserves.

Celeste, Blue; syn. Violette.—Small, oviate, turbinate; ribs few, but dis-
tinet, especially near apex; eye raised, rough; color dark violet amber,
without reddish blush; bloom confined to the neck; skin thin; pulp deep
rose; meat amber, sweet, but lacking in flavor.

Col. de Signora Bianco.—Medium sized, pyriform; long ribbed neck;
skin green, changing to yellow; flesh deep red, very rich and luscious,-a
strong grower; late, suited for a warm region.

Dauphine.—Large, round turbinate, purple with blue bloom; flesh amber.
Doree.—Medium, oblong, brigh yellow, flesh rose-color.

Drap @Or.—Large, pyriform, with very low neck and stalk; ribs ele-
vated; apex obtuse and concave; color light violet-reddish amber, not
dark; pulp rosy red. A fig of very fine quality; especially useful for con-
fections and crystallizing; not identical with Brunswick.

. Genoa, White.—Above medium, pyriform; neck small; stalk short, ribs
indistinct; skin downy; eye very small; skin pale olive-green; pulp pale
rose. One of the better figs, quite distinct from Marseillaise.

Ischia, Black.—Small; neck short; stalk medium; skin smooth; color
dark violet black, greenish around the apex; neck dark; eye medium, open;
bloom thin, dark blue; pulp red. Of fair quality but small size.

Ischia, White.—Size below medium, round, with small neck; stalk very
short; eye open; skin smooth, bluish green, with brown flush, pulp rosy
red. Common in California.

Kassaba.—‘Medium to large, globular, flattened, short neck and stalk,
pale green, pulp reddish, very sweet, dries well. Tree handsomest of
Smyrna varieties.’”—Roeding.

Ladaro.—Very large, oblong, pale yellow, brown cheek, flesh deep red,
rich and sugary. }

Marseillaise, White.——Medium ovate, pyriform; neck short; stalk me-
dium; ribs numerous and distinct; apex flattened; eye large, open; skin
downy, pale yellowish green, mottled with white; pulp amber, with a few
large seeds. One of the best figs for drying. Requires sandy, rich soil.

Mission, Black.—Medium to large, turbinate; neck-long; stalk short;
ribs distinct; eye prominent, open; skin rough, deep mahogany violet, with
red flush; pulp not fine, red but not bright or brownish amber; sweet,
but not high flavored; common in the Southern States, California and Mex-
ico. The oldest fig in this country. Very regular and prolific in bearing,
and free from souring while sun drying.

Pacific White.—An unknown variety found growing on a farm in Placer
county. Medium size, fine grained, very sweet, dries well, but the skin is
thicker and more tough than the imported fig. That and its small size are

the only objections to it. It is quite widely distributed in Southern Cali-
fornia.

Pastiliere.—Large, 3 inches by 1144; elongated, pyriform, with long neck;
stalk.short; eye closed, surrounded by an elevated iris; skin rough, hairy,
with blue bloom; pulp red. Fine for preserves.

Ronde Noire.—Large, round, but irregular; neck distinct, short; eye
small; skin smooth, waxy, dark violet brown; pulp amber. Greatly to be

recommended as a table fig. It is not related to Black Ischia or Osborn
Prolific.

340 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

San Pedro, White; syn. Brebas.—Very large, round, flattened on apex;
stalk and neck short; eye open; skin thick, tender, of a bright yellow color
or greenish in the shade, without bloom; pulp amber. A remarkable and
handsome fig. Only the first crop matures without caprification. Suited
only for table use. Requires moist, rich soil.

San Pedro, Black.—Very large, elongated ovate, with no stalk, but with
well-set neck; skin smooth, violet black with green neck, pulp red, coppery,
tinted violet. For table use. The largest fig known.

Smyrna (Fig of Commerce, Drying Fig of Smyrna, Calimyrna).—Of sey-
eral attempt to secure the true Smyrna fig, or the variety which produces
the well-known Smyrna fig of commerce, that made by the San Francisco
Bulletin, and managed by G. P. Rixford, has achieved most prominence, and
is now generally conceded to have proved successful. Fourteen thousand
cuttings were obtained through United States Consul E. J. Smithers, in
1882, and a large part of these were distributed throughout the State. A
later direct importation of fig cuttings from Smyrna was made by the Fan-
cher Creek Nursery, of Fresno. These trees have already borne fruit, as
has been described in a preceding paragraph on caprification. In the sum-
mer of 1890 cuttings imported from Smyrna by the United States Depart-
cent of Agriculture were sent to several parties in this State. As the fig
insect has fully established itself, as described on a previous page, this
variety will establish itself as the leading drying fig, here as in Smyrna,
and a very important industry will be established upon it. Other figs pre-
viously called Smyrna in this State are misnamed.

Several varieties of the Smyrna type have been selected from seedlings
grown from seed taken from imported Smyrna figs, and some of them may
figure in future production. They are “Rixford,” “Roeding,” “Stanford,” ete.

Verdal, Round.—Below medium, round pyriform without stalk or neck;
skin smooth, waxy, bluish green; eye closed; pulp dark, blood red. A small
fig, but valuable for canning and preserves; better than the Ischias or
Celeste. It does well in the Santa Clara Valley, but is inferior in the in-
terior of the State. .

Kadota; syn. White Endich.—A re-named variety. Medium, golden yel-
low, pulp white, tinged with pink; tree prolific and long ripening season.
Esteemed for shipping, also for preserving and drying.

Verdal Longue; syn. Sultana.—Medium, oblong, turbinate; stalk and
neck short; eye closed; yellow, ribs brownish; flesh red; sweet aromatic.

There are many undetermined varieties of the fig grown here
and there in the State. Some may be finally identified, others may
be new. Some of them yield an excellent dried or preserved fruit
and should be more carefully experimented with.

CHAPTER XXXI

THE OLIVE AND ITS GROWTH IN CALIFORNIA

The olive is another of the old mission fruits, and though the tree
and its products have been constantly under discussion since the
American occupation, and though experimentation has been con-
stant, it was not until 1885 that the tide of popular favor turned
strongly toward the olive. For twelve years thereafter planting
proceeded with enthusiasm amounting almost to infatuation, until
the acreage in olives ten years ago reached such a figure that even
the most enthusiastic ceased from further planting, because the
future of the products of the olive was by no means clear. The
competition of olive oil with cheaper salad oils worked greatly to
the disadvantage of the higher-priced article, but as deception is
now ruled out by recent pure-food legislation, cheaper oils can nu
longer be sold under the name of the olive, and legitimate pro-
ducers will henceforth be protected.

The difficulty of producing pickled ripe olives with good keep-
ing qualities was proven to be vastly greater than anticipated, and
canning was finally successfully resorted to. In addition to these
troubles the sterility of the trees in some situations, through frost
or other agencies, discouraged many growers. It is probable that
during the first decade of this century the uprooting of trees far
exceeded the planting and the olive acreage decreased consider-
ably. At the same time there was much progress attained in the
building and equipment of oil mills and pickling establishments,
and in mastery of processes which yield acceptable products—all of
which have favorably influenced the demand and price of the fresh
fruit. The fact is, the olive was boomed in California along spec-
tacular and speculative lines, and the industry had to outlive the
mistakes which were made. California will produce profitably,
gzood olives and olive products in suitable places and through the
efforts of masterful men and women who ean rise to the require-
ments of production. This view is justified by the experience of
the last few years. During the war the price for good pickling
olives ranged from $140 to $160 per ton, while fancy fruit reached
$200 and upwards. Such prices were never previously attained
and it is believed that even one-half of these values would be profit-
able, if labor were reasonably available and the trees were fairly
productive. These are the ruling factors in the business. The wise
course seems to be to enlarge profitable areas by planting under
conditions demonstrated to be favorable, and the acreage and
product are now (1919) rapidly increasing.

The olive tree has survived a temperature of 14 degrees Fahren-
heit in California, but the fruit is injured by a slight fall below the
freezing point. This may render unprofitable the late varieties
which carry their fruit-ripening into the winter months.

342 . CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

The olive tree will thrive throughout the larger part of Cali-
fornia, and it has been shown that it will grow in a soil too dry
even for the grape-vine, and too rocky for any other fruit tree, but
the growth of the tree and the bearing of fruit will be proportional
to the amounts of plant food and moisture, and it is idle to expect
fruit without irrigation if the soil can not hold water enough for
the tree. There must be moisture enough in the soil to hold the
fruit plump and smooth. Olives shriveled by drouth will usually
become smooth again after fall rains, but shriveling, either by
drouth or frost, leaves the fruit not in the best condition for pick- |
line.

The irrigation of the olive depends upon the conditions which
determine the desirability of other fruits, as discussed in Chapter
XV. If the rainfall is secant usually, or occasionally by the failure
of spring rains, a good irrigation is desirable in April, and usually
another in midsummer. Most essential however is a good irrigation
in September in the interior where the fruit ripens early and is
likely to be small and inferior unless the tree is well supplied with
moisture in the fall. Near the coast where the rainfall is heavier,
more regular, apt to be earlier in the autumn and where the fruit
ripens later, irrigation may not be required.

On foothill slopes the trees bear fruit earlier than in the rich
valleys, although in the latter the trees attain larger growth. Trees
in the interior bear sooner than on the coast, and ripen their fruit
earlier in the season.

The olive tree is now thriving in California in a great variety of
soils. It is productive, if frosts are not too severe on moist valley
lands, while on hillsides, even where excavations had to be made
between boulders, or into disintegrating rock, the tree has exhibited
thrift and content with the situation. But the conclusion should
not be drawn that the olive relishes poor soil. It may thrive with
loose rocks or boulders, but it finds among them the elements it
needs including an adequate supply of moisture. It is not to be
inferred that the olive will succeed on sterile soil.

The olive is chiefly grown with clean summer cultivation. Grow-
ing the tree in irrigated alfalfa, as discussed in Chapter XIV, is
objectionable because of the danger of delaying the ripening of the
fruit and bringing it farther into the rainy season, which is a very
great disadvantage.

Although the relations of soils to the qualities of oil have been
investigated by the University of California Experiment Station
and some interesting results published, we have not had experience
enough in this State to demonstrate the influence of soils on the
quality of the oil, but trade results have shown that good oil has
been made from fruit grown on some of our best valley fruit soils,
deep and naturally well drained, as well as from fruit grown upon
drier uplands, and the production on deeper, richer lands is much
larger.

OLIVES FROM SEED AND CUTTINGS 343

PROPAGATION OF THE OLIVE

Olives are propagated from seed, and from cuttings of various
kinds and sizes. The growth from seed is seldom practised in this
State, because growth from cuttings is easy, and furnishes the
variety desired without grafting.

Growing Olives from Seed.—The olives should not be planted
with the pulp, but cleaned of this either by letting them rot in a pile
or by putting them into an alkaline solution to cut the oil. A simple
way to hasten- germination is to break the pits, taking care not tv
hurt the germ. An instrument similar to the nut-cracker has been
invented in France which is said to work well. When the kernels
are deprived of their shell, they may be kept moist in a compost, or
mixture of cow-dung and sandy soil, and sow thickly in the month
of April. If it is thought to be too much work to take the kernels
out of the pits, they must be soaked for twenty-four hours in a
solution of one-half pound of concentrated lye to the gallon of
water. Most of the seeds sprout the first year. Planting the naked
kernels gives the quickest result. Without using this artificial
means some of the seeds may remain dormant at least for two years.
Clipping the tip of the shell, so as to open a small aperture so that
moisture can enter readily, will often cause nine-tenths of the seed
to grow within three months.

G. P. Hall, of San Diego, gives the following hints for those who
desire to experiment with seedling olives:

After the pulp has all been taken off with lye water (in order to remove
all the oil and to roughen the shell), the seed is washed in clean water and
then kept in moist sand till planting time, which is in February and March.
They will not all germinate the first year, so it is best to preserve the seed-
bed. Some assist the germination by cracking the pits in an iron vise; one
turn of the screw generally splits the shell. Leave the pit in the cracked
shell when you plant in the prepared seed-bed. Some use boxes perforated
to insure drainage; the boxes are filled up to within three inches of the
top with good sandy loam, then the kernels, cracked or otherwise, are
spread over the top and an inch or more of sand covers the whole, which
must be kept constantly moist. The cracking of the kernels greatly ac-
celerates the germination, and a person can prepare 600 or more seed in
a day. Take seed from best trees and avoid dwarfs of any kind. Use any
good kinds of either pickling or oil olives as you may desire.

Large Cuttings.—There are two chief methods of propagating
the olive from cuttings now practised in California. One uses well-
matured wood, and the other young wood which has just passed out
of the herbaceous state. Practice with hard wood proceeds by
taking cuttings of sound wood about a foot long and one-half to
one inch in diameter, and rooting them as already described for
vine cuttings, in Chapter XXVI. A fresh cut should be made at
the bottom of the cutting and if the bark has shriveled at all the
euttings should be put in water for a time before planting. These
large cuttings sometimes remain dormant for a year or more, and
recent propagation has been largely by the small-cutting method.

344 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Small Cuttings—Propagating by small cuttings serves an ex-
cellent purpose in rapid multiplication of varieties; it enables the
grower to handle a large number of plants in a small space, and
the plants from small cuttings have a symmetrical root system quite
resembling that from a seed. These cuttings are made from very
small shoots and both the tips and the lower cuts are used. In the
engraving the figure on the left is a tip cutting; the next, a cutting
lower down the shoot. These figures are about natural size, and
show clearly how the cuttings are made. They are placed closely
in boxes of sand about four inches deep, rooted under glass or in a
lath house, and after a few months are potted in small pots, or may
be reset farther apart in boxes of soil or in the open ground. In
January or February, the wood seems to be in the best condition
in Berkeley, but such condition may come at other times in other

Propagating the Olive by small cuttings.

parts of the State. From such cuttings the trees will be of good
size for planting in permanent place the next year. It is very
important to take the small cuttings just when the wood is in the
right condition, not too soft nor too hard. How to determine this
point can not be described; it must be learned by experience.

Growing Trees from Truncheons.—New varieties secured from
the south of Europe generally come in the shape of truncheons,
which are long sticks of hard wood. They may be planted entire,
or be sawn and split into large cuttings (for olive cuttings, even in
firewood shape, will grow if properly treated), though better trees
come from small cuttings. If the truncheons are bedded a few

WAYS TO BUD OLIVES 345

inches below the surface in moist, warm soil, shoots will appear
which can be worked up into small cuttings when they reach the
proper condition.

BUDDING THE OLIVE

Since the planting of a large area of Redding Picholines and the
fruit found to be that of a wild or poor seedling olive and not a
superior named variety, there has been a demand for working ovir
the trees into better varieties. Besides, many of the imported
varieties have proved disappointing and a change to a variety
profitable in the region is imperative. The method of budding
commonly employed with fruit trees does not usually yield a high
percentage of success with the olive, but shield-budding in the old
bark, as described in Chapter XXX, gives good results.

Budding may be performed at any time of the year when the
sap flows freely. If done late in the summer, the buds lie dormant
through the winter. Best results are obtained when the buds are
inserted early in the spring, as the operation can be performed
to a much better advantage, and the buds will grow to some height
before winter. When inserted in limbs of large trees, the shoots
from the inserted buds are allowed to grow until they have attained
such a size as will justify in the removal of the entire top.

Twig Budding.—Twig budding is very successful. The bud is
cut deep into the wood, in order to give the bud as much bark as

Olive: Twig-Bud as cut Olive: Twig-Bud Inserted.

possible. The leaves are partly cut off; then, with a sharp point
of the budding knife, the greater part of the wood inside of the bud
is removed, as shown in the picture. If part of the wood is not
removed, then the bud can not take, as the wood in it prevents the
- two barks (the inner bark of the bud and the inner bark of the
stock) from uniting. When the wood has been partly removed from
the bud, the bud is inserted into the stock, as budding is done in

346 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

the regular, ordinary way, and tied tight. A small tip-twig may be
used or a longer twig, cut back to the lowest bud and part of the
foliage cut away, as shown in the engraving. At the end of three
or four weeks the string is removed, and part of the top of the stock
is cut back to force the bud to start. As the bud grows, the foliage
of the stock is gradually removed, until the bud is able to take up
the entire flow of sap; it is then left to grow, and it may be pro-
tected by tying to a long stub of the branch which may be left for
that purpose above the point of insertion. When the bud has grown
out strongly, what remains of the stock above the bud is cut smooth,
close to the bud, to allow it to heal over.

Flap-Budding the Olive——Although the use of a twig with a
pushing bud is to be commended strongly a dormant bud can be
forced into activity quite successfully. Mr. C. A. Wetmore describes
this method:

Late in the spring, when advancing warmth has set the sap to moving
freely, observe a tree of the kind you desire to propagate. Notice parts of
limbs with vigorous growth and clean bark free from lateral twigs. Where
a leaf adheres to such limbs or where one has been and fallen off, there
is a small bud or eye. Such dormant buds or eyes are lifted from the
wood together with a small piece of the bark about one-third or half an
inch square. On the properly selected limbs of the trees you wish to bud
into, make three cuts with a knife so as to include a space a little longer
than the piece of bark to be inserted. Two parallel cuts are in line with
the limb; one is across the top. Lifting the flap of bark thus made care-
fully with dull side of a blade, the cambium layer of the wood will be ex-
posed. Slip in the piece of bark with the dormant bud and press it close
with the flap made on the limb. Tie the flap firmly to cover the whole piece
inserted with raffia or strips of cloth or soft twine. At the end of one
week cut the ligatures and suffer the flap to curl up and dry. If the inser-
tion has united to the wood, it will remain green and fresh-looking about
the dormant eye. If this freshness continues after exposure, the bud has
taken. Then cut with a knife or saw into the limb above the bud to induce
the sap to force the growth. If any one fails, the limb need not be cut into,
but may be budded in another place. The following winter, cut off the
limb above the bud if it has sprouted well, and, as sufficient new wood is
made, the old branches of the tree may be cut away.

GRAFTING THE OLIVE

Grafting is also used in working over both large and small olive
trees. Good success can sometimes be had with the ordinary method
of top grafting, as described in Chapter IX, using scions not larger
than a lead pencil, and inserting them in April. The olive can also
be successfully grafted in the bark according to the method shown
in Chapter IX. This graft is used for working in the top of the
tree, but it may also be used at the surface of the ground, covering
the cut surfaces with earth when the scions are in place. Judge
A. L. Rhodes, of San Jose, gives the following explicit account of
his success with a bark graft, as follows:

The stock, where cut off, may be from half to two and one-half inches
in diameter; the scion about one-quarter inch in diameter, the lower end
to be formed by an oblique cut of about one and one-half inches. Split the

PLANTING OLIVE TREES 347

bark of the top of the stock about one inch, raise the bark at the sides
of the split slightly, insert the point of the scion between the bark and
wood of the stock, at the split, and press it down the length of its oblique
cut. Fasten it by binding twine around both stock and scion, about ten
times, very firmly. Apply grafting wax to top of stock and scion.

If the bark of the stock be three or more years old, make two slits in it,
about one and one-half inches in length, the width between them equaling
the width of the oblique cut of the scion, raise the bark between the slits,
cut off about half of it, by a sloping cut, then insert the scion and press it
down, and bind with twine and apply grafting wax, as above directed.
Cotton wrapping twine is of sufficient strength.

Stocks the diameter of one inch or more should receive two or more
scions. Scions gathered a short time before their insertion are the most
successful. The twine around the stock and scion should not be loosened
until it indents the bark of the stock. Protect the graft from sun and wind.
Wrap paper around the stock and scion, the paper to extend a few inches
above the scion—or- place the paper, in the form of a bag, over scion and
stock—and secure the paper with twine, tied around the stock in a slip-
knot.

Bark grafting may be performed at any time when the bark of the stock
can be readily raised—whenever the bark will “slip.” I grafted in that
mode in each week of April and May and the first of June, and in Septem-
ber. Failures not 5 per cent. Twelve scions inserted about the last of
September are all growing. Shield budding is the most successful in the
spring. I prefer the bark grafting, as the shield buds may not start for
months, or even for a year.

Side Graft on Small Wood.—A satisfactory graft can be made
with an oblique cut, as shown in Chapter [X, which is superior to a
split of the stock, because on a small stock the split is apt to con-
tinue farther than desirable when the scion is pushed in. With the
slanting cut in the stock the scion can be firmly pushed into place
without splitting. The union of inner barks of scion and stock must
be made on one side when the stock is larger than the scion. This
eraft is tied in and waxed, or a waxed band may be used. In work-
ing small wood at the ground surface, the earth should be drawn
up around the graft.

Grafting on Rooted Cuttings.—Good trees are made by grafting
in the nursery on rooted Picholine cuttings. Such cuttings are
made from wood, say, one-half inch in diameter, using a young scion
with a starting bud. Such a scion makes a saleable tree with one
year’s growth.

PLANTING THE OLIVE

All suggestions of care in laying off and planting in Chapters X
and XI should be considered in establishing olive orchards, and the
precautions against drying out during transportation and trans-
planting should be carefully heeded because the tree is an ever-
green and more quickly injured by exposure and evaporation. In
planting trees from the nursery it is desirable to remove all foliage,
whitewash against sunburn and save the strength of the stem for a
new start.

There is nothing gained by planting out the olive too early in
the spring. Both cuttings and rooted plants will do better if planted
after the soil becomes well warmed, and after the heavy rains of

348 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

the winter are well over. Of course the time when this condition
comes is different from year to year, and varies, also, according to
locality and situation. During the first summer the young plants
will need occasional watering in some situations; in others, merely
mulching, or keeping the surface finely stirred, will suffice.

Olive trees are planted at different distances, but the ruling in-
tervals are twenty to twenty-five feet. This will allow the trees to
bear a number of years before they crowd each other; and then
removing alternate trees gives ample distance for future growth.
Some planters hold, however, that original planting should be at
40-feet intervals. But it is clearly the part of wisdom to hold the
olive to a low growth in order that the fruit may be cheaply gath-
ered, and this may be done by the proper pruning.

Transplanting Old Olive Trees.—California experience shows
that an old olive tree can be successfully transplanted if both the
branches and roots are cut to short stubs and little more than the
trunk reset in moist, warm soil, but usually better results can be
had by a more careful effort. The method outlined below is ap-
plicable to olives and citrus fruits and, in a general way, to all ever-
green trees:

After the heavy rains are over and the ground is getting warm—
say in February—cut back not less than one-half of the top. Trench
all around the tree to a depth of two or three feet, according to the
size of the tree; the inside edge of the trench about two feet from
the trunk of the tree. At the same time remove top earth down to
the roots to reduce the weight. This trenching cuts off all side
roots and gives room to get in to handle the ball of earth, which
rope up with barley sacks under the ropes so as to hold the ball
from breaking. When this is done well, dig in and under the tree
from the bottom of the trench so as to cut off the bottom roots.
Carefully pull and pry the ball to see that it will wobble a little in
the hole to show that all the roots are cut. Then get ropes and
sacks under the ball, rig up a derrick and block and tackle and lift
the balled tree out of the hole, land it on a low truck and haul it to
a hole previously made ready, and lower it into place by the same
tackle which lifted it. Fill in with fine earth and water-settle it to
fill all cavities—covering with loose earth several inches to keep
from drying. Be sure the tree has plenty, but not too much, mois-
ture during its first summer in its new place.

Large deciduous trees can be removed when dormant with much
less labor, but it should be done in the fall—as soon as the soil is
deeply wet by rains. It should be understood, however, that mov-
ing large fruit trees, either evergreen or deciduous, is seldom com-
mercially desirable.

PRUNING THE OLIVE

Pruning policies as insisted upon in Chapter XII, have direct
bearing upon the commercial growth of the olive. The development
of the tree according to principles there laid down is practicable

- PRUNING OLIVE TREES 349

and desirable. After proper low form is secured, satisfactory bear-
ing will depend upon regular pruning to secure new bearing shoots
and thinning to prevent the tree from becoming too dense and
bushy and from running out of reach of a step-ladder, for both
these acts are essential to the growth of good bearing wood, low
down. At the same time it must be remembered that too severe cut-
ting back forces the growth of branches which form only wood
buds and fruiting is postponed.

Trees which have been allowed to form umbrella-like tops may
be brought down to business again by cutting back the.main limbs
and making selection from the many new shoots which appear, but
by proper, regular pruning a tree can be so trained that the removal
of large limbs is seldom necessary. The times to prune the olive
are just after the gathering of the fruit or just before new growth
starts in the spring.

Developing the Vase Form.—Explicit suggestions as to the de-
velopment of a low, vase-form tree may be helpful to inexperienced
growers. The following is from a foreign writer, whose illustra-
tions are presented herewith :

When the young tree has attained some height, it is the practice to cut
off the top, so that the main stem shall be about four and a half feet in
rich soil, or three feet in poor soil or in locations exposed to strong winds.
Six or eight branches are left to form the head. The process of shaping the
tree then proceeds, as shown in the engravings. Fig. 1 shows the young
tree to be cut at the point marked by the dotted line C. Six branches,
three on each side, are left, and the lower twigs shortened. Each of the
branches left develops, during the year, as the one shown in Fig. 2, which
is then cut at C again, and the shoots B and D are shortened. This process
starts out the upper shoot, and appears the following year as A in Fig. 3,
and it is again cut at C. This causes the two upper shoots to develop, and
at the end of the year they appear as shown at BB in Fig. 4. Thus they
stand at the fourth year’s pruning, and each of them is cut at C, and A is
shortened and D allowed to develop. By this time the tree has a spherical
or vase form, and exposes much surface to the sun, which is desirable.

The young branches that spring in the form of a cross on the more
vigorous branches, bear only wood buds; the others, which are weaker,
bear fruit buds on their whole length and burst into blossom at the spring
of the second year. The latter never blossom again in the same place, but
the shoot extends itself and forces two lateral ones. These new shoots
bear the following spring, and so on. It must therefore be borne in mind
that the olive bears only on the two-year-old wood. If the new shoots are
formed every year, the olive will bear annually; but in years of good crops,
the sap employed to nourish the fruit only produces a number of very di-
minutive shoots, and the next crop is a short one. The pruning ought to
favor the growth of young lateral shoots, either by shortening the terminal
ones, suppressing the ‘“gormand,” or fruitless shoots, or by reducing in a
certain proportion, each year, the fruit-bearing shoots, if we wish for a
crop every year. The shortening of a branch is made immediately above an
outside bud in an oblique direction, the interior one being surpressed. The
suckers at the root of the tree should be continually cut off.

Concerning the time for pruning, the best season is said to be when the
winter frosts are well over and just before the sap starts in the spring. By
early pruning the sap is made to act upon the buds unfavorably situated on
the tree, brings them out, and also develops latent buds on the old wood.
Thus one is enabled to prevent the tree from becoming covered with naked
limbs.

350 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

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MAKING OLIVE OIL 351

A suggestive outline of pruning policy by Prof. Bioletti, who
has given many years to handling of olive trees in California and to
observation of other operations, is as follows:

At the end of the first growing season, no pruning is necessary except
the removal of strong shoots on the lower half of the stem where main
branches are not desirable.

At the end of the second growing season, many trees will require no
pruning at all. Some, however, will have developed strong branches in
unsuitable places. These should be removed. Branches which cross from
one side to the other, branches which are too crowded, or which interfere
with the symmetry of the tree, or may interfere with cultivation, are mis-
placed. If there is a single strong central branch, this should be cut off
at its base to promote the desirable open vase form of the main scaffold
of the tree. ;

With Mission and other upright growing varieties, the problem is rela-
tively simple. With spreading varieties, like Manzanillo, it is difficult. In
this case the best method is probably to drive a strong stake near the
trunk, and by means of a rope tie up the spreading branches in the posi-
tion it is desired to have them in the mature tree.

This method should be continued until the trunk, main divisions and
branches are well established and the tree large enough to bear a good
crop without injury. This condition may arrive by the end of the third
growing season, or may be deferred to the fourth, fifth or later, according
to the variety, soil, water, climate and system of pruning. The formative
period is then practically over and pruning adapted to bearing trees should
be adopted. In a general way, the idea is to open up the tree and preserve
the vase form, so that the conditions for fruit production may be favorable
over as large an area of the tree as possible. To do this, it is necessary to
cut out branches and twigs wherever the tree appears too dense to allow
of free penetration of the sun rays. Each branch removed should be cut
off at its origin or at a point where a side branch occurs which it is desir-
able to leave. This applies also to small branches and twigs.

Cutting-back or shortening-in should be used with moderation. It has
a tendency to produce a dense center and the growth of vigorous upright
sterile shoots and gradually a high-headed tree. It should be used only
where necessary to stimulate growth of a weak tree by removing fruiting
wood or to prevent horizontal branches from becoming too low.

THE FRUIT AND ITS PRODUCTS

Olives should be picked carefully and at the right time. For
green pickles they should be picked very soon after they obtain
full size, but before they have begun to color or soften. For ripe
pickles and for oil-making the fruit should be gathered soon after
the olives are well colored, but before they have attained the deep
black which signifies overripeness. If the olives are gathered too
green the oil will be bitter; if too ripe, it will be rancid. When they
ean be easily shaken from the tree they are ripe enough. If they
commence to fall without vigorous shaking they are overripe. For
whatever purposes the olives are to be used they should be ecare-
fully gathered by hand, and imperfect, immature, or bruised fruit
rejected. Sound fruit is required for high-grade oil or for hand-
some pickles with good keeping quality.

The Manufacture of Olive Oil.—Olive oil is made in this State
with apparatus of both Californian and European design, and, as a
rule, there is made only one, and at most but two, pressings of the

352 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

pomace, which is then used for fattening swine. In the frequent
working over of the pomace, and the close extraction of the oil, as
practiced in Europe, we have done little as yet.

Olive oil is made on a small scale by a number of parties who
use home-made contrivances, or small, portable cider machinery for
the crushing and pressing. During the last few years quite a num-
ber of mills have been erected at several points in California and
they have made a market for olives produced by growers who do not
care to undertake manufacture. A detailed account of oil making,
including descriptions of buildings and machinery is beyond the
scope of a treatise on fruit growing. Information must be had by
visiting oil-making establishments and from the manufacturers of
the appliances used in them. For the use of the grower who desires
to make oil for home use, a few suggestions will be given.

Drying.— Extraction of oil from fresh olives gives the best oil
but it is somewhat troublesome, and it is customary to partially dry
them. This partial drying is also useful to keep, the fruit for some
time or for shipment before crushing. Place the olives in layers
not more than three inches deep, on trays that are stacked in a dry,
well-aired room, protected from the wind and the direct rays of
the sun. Turn daily until the fruit becomes well wrinkled. This
requires about eight or ten days, according to the degree of tem-
perature. To hasten the drying process, artificial driers, construct-
ed on the same principle as fruit driers, are sometimes used. The
olives are placed in a single layer upon trays, and the drier is kept
at a temperature of about one hundred and twenty degrees Fahren-
heit. The drying takes about forty-eight hours—more or less—ac-
cording to the nature of the fruit.

Crushing.—The olives are crushed in a way to break up the
flesh and pits very thoroughly.

Pressing.—When the crusher has reduced the olives to a mass,
a certain amount of the pulp is put in each of several coarse linen
cloths and when the cloth is folded back it makes a cheese about
three inches thick. Several of these cheeses are placed one above
the other, with slats between, in a screw or lever press and the pres-
sure applied gently at first. From the liquid which runs out first
is made the very finest oil, known as ‘‘virgin oil.’’ The pressure
is then increased: very gradually until the full power of the ma-
chine is reached.

Settling and Clarifying.—The liquid from the press is dark col-
ored, and it is conducted into a receptacle for settling. The first
settling is conveniently made by means of a funnel-shaped appa-
ratus, which by its conical shape facilitates the rapid deposition of
sediment. After standing for twenty- four hours in this apparatus
the major part of the sediment is deposited and can be drawn off
at the bottom. It is well before running the oil into the settling
tanks, to pass it through two or three inches of cotton wool. This
is accomplished by means of a funnel with a perforated, horizontal

nee *

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Lite

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(See page 357.)

Plate XII.—View in bearing orange orchard.

Plate XIII.—The Mammoth Blackberry.—(See page 408.)

PICKLING THE OLIVE 353

eross partition, upon which the cotton is placed. It takes, generally,
about one month for the oil to settle sufficiently in the first tank,
after which it should be drawn off carefully into the second, and so
on until it is sufficiently bright. Three rackings are usually suf-
ficient.

Olives are sometimes ground and pressed in portable cider mills
or ground in barley crushers for oil manufacture on a small scale.
As the above description shows, oil making is a simple process, and
may be carried on at home with rude devices. It is, however, a
process requiring care and cleanliness, and intelligent personal at-
tention.

Pickling the Olive.—Olives are pickled in a green state, as is
the case with imported olives; or in a ripe state, as largely under-
taken in California. No one had any conception at first of the dif-
-fieulties attending the production of pickled ripe olives which
would have the keeping quality demanded in an article of com-
merce. It is now clearly seen that treating olives to extract the
bitterness and to secure firmness, good flavor and keeping quality
is one of the most difficult propositions in our horticultural manu-
facturing, and we can but admire the wisdom of the Spaniard in
teaching Anglo-Saxons to enjoy green olives. To make the ripe
pickled olive durable it may be hermetically bottled or canned.

Lye Treatment of Ripe Olives.—The following is an outline of
the pickling of olives as drawn from the University publications
by Professor Bioletti:

1. Gather the fruit carefully by hand without bruising. It is best when
. cherry red or just turned black. When green, it lacks flavor and oil and
when over-ripe it is too soft and the skin is tough. Soft, shriveled, or
frost-bitten olives are unsuited for pickling.

2. Place the olives in an open vessel of glass or earthenware, or a
wooden bucket or barrel. Metal vessels should not be used. A wooden
cover to fit loosely inside the vessel on top of the olives will prevent the
spotting of olives which float.

3. Make a lye solution of three ounces (three tablespoonfuls) of soda
lye to a gallon of water or approximately one pound of lye to five gallons.

4, Cover the olives with this solution, keeping them submerged by
means of the wooden cover. Stir and examine the olives every hour. As
soon as the skin changes color, cut an olive occasionally to note by the dis-
coloration of the fiesh how far the lye has penetrated.

5. When the lye has gone through the skin but only a very short way
into the flesh, pour it off into another vessel. This will be in from three
to eight hours, according to the olives and the temperature.

6. Expose the olives to the air until the color is darkened and equal-
ized. They should be stirred frequently while exposed. To make them all
black requires from one to three days or more, but the flavor is better if
not exposed too long.

7. When the desired color is attained, replace the old lye by fresh lye
and leave with frequent stirring until it has penetrated to the pit. It must
reach the pit or the olives will be bitter, but if left long after reaching the
pit, the flesh will be softened and the color bleached.

8. Replace the lye with water, which should be changed twice daily,
until all taste of lye is removed—about five to seven days.

9. Then place for twenty-four hours in a brine of five ounces (five
tablespoons) of salt to a gallon of water.

354. CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

10. Then heat olives and brine to boiling and pour hot into scalded jars
or cans. Cover and seal and place in a pot or washboiler sterilizer and
heat for one hour. Before sterilizing the brine may be poured out of the
jars or cans, which are then sealed immediately, while still hot, and steril-
ized as above. They keep quite as well without the brine.

Pure-Water Process.—Pickled olives are made without the use
of lye, but this process is only practicable with olives whose bitter-
ness is easily extracted, and where the water is extremely pure and
plentiful, and even then it is very slow and tedious. It omits the
preliminary lye treatment. The olives are placed from the begin-
ning in pure water, which is changed twice a day until the bitter-
ness is sufficiently extracted. This requires from forty to sixty
days or more.

Green Pickles.—Green pickled olives are made by essentially
the same processes as are used for ripe olives. The extraction of
the bitterness requires the same care. The olives are pickled soon
after they have attained full size, and before they have shown any
signs of coloring or softening. They contain at this time compara-
tively little oil, and are in every way much inferior to the ripe
pickles in nutritive value. They are not a food but a relish. They
are rather more easily made than the ripe pickles, as there is less
danger of spoiling and they can be kept in casks as ordinary pickles
are.

Canning the Ripe Olive—Canned olives, put upon the market in
the same form as other canned fruit, have recently become popular.
There are special canneries for their preparation at several points
in the State and the general canneries are also handling olives in
considerable quantities. The process is in the main like that of
canning other fruits, but special points have to be learned through
experience, and an outfit suitable for large scale work is needed for
commercial production.

VARIETIES OF THE OLIVE GROWN IN CALIFORNIA

Many varieties of the olive were brought to California from
southern Europe previous to 1890. Fifty-seven varieties were anal-
yzed and elaborately reported upon by the University experts, and
of these about fifteen varieties at first promised to rise to commer-
cial account but many of them have been dropped. It is an inter-
esting fact, however, that in spite of the efforts put forth to secure
a better olive than the old Mission variety, this old sort still heads
the list.

The following are the varieties now being propagated in Cali-
fornia on a commercial scale, arranged approximately in the order
of their present popularity: Mission; Manzanillo; Sevillano; Asco-
lano.

Other varieties are sometimes used for pickling and oil, and are
retained in the list, largely for old acquaintance sake:

VARIETIES OF THE OLIVE - 355)

The Mission Olive.—By this name is signified the variety found growing
at the old missions in California. Samples of the fruit and leaves sent by
F. Pohndorff to Don Jose de Hidalgo Toblada, a noted Spanish authority on
the olive, led to the classing of our mission varieties with the Cornicabra-
Cornizuelo varieties of Spain, and its value was confirmed. It has long
been known that the so-called Mission olive embraced several varieties, or
sub-varieties at least.

Common or Broad-Leaved Mission Olive.—The variety of olive most gen-
erally known as the Mission; ovate, oblique—sometimes very much so—the
pit straight or slightly curved, fruit very variable in size, growing singly
or in clusters of two or three, or even five; time of ripening, late, in the
coast region sometimes not before February, but generally in December; in
interior localities in November; tree vigorous and a good bearer, preferred
by picklers.

Redding Picholine.—Imported by the late B. B. Redding, and supposed to
be a large pickling variety, but it proved to be a small seedling—a shoot
coming from the root below the graft, probably. It roots very readily from
cuttings and is used as a stock on which to graft improved varieties.

Oblonga.—Imported by John Rock from France. An olive of a peculiar,
club-like shape, being narrow at the stem end, broad at the point, rounded
and strongly oblique; generally pointed at both ends. The pulp loses its
bitterness comparatively quickly in pickling. This olive ripens early—at
least two or three weeks earlier than the Broad-leaved Mission; color, dark
purple.

Manzanilio.—Imported by F. Pohbndorff from Spain. As the name
(“small apple’) indicates, this variety is nearly round, with a pit of rounded
oval shape, rather squarely cut off at the base. This variety ripens early—
several weeks earlier than the Broad-leaved Mission olive; the fruit grows
generally singly on long stems; a trifle larger than Mission; quality of
pickles excellent; not a good bearer in all places and ripe fruit subject to
rot in hot regions.

Columbella.—Imported by John Rock from France. General form,
broadly oval; very even in size, remarkable for the peculiar pale yellow
eolor which all the fruit assumes before turning fully ripe and becoming
dark purple; pit small, straight and sharp pointed; the pulp contains little
bitterness; flavor very rich; ripens late, later than the Broad-leaved Mis-
sion. Tree hardy in dry places and a prolific bearer. Also called “Colum-
ella.”

Nevadillo Blaneo.—Imported by F. Pohndorff from Spain. Oval, slightly
oblique, pointed, resembling somewhat a Mission, but is generally more
elongated in proportion to its diameter than the latter; pit small, curved,
and generally pointed at both ends; the fruit is borne in clusters of three
to five; ripening not much earlier than the Mission; a fine oil olive, largely
planted, but disappointing in some regions as a shy bearer and subject to
frost injury.

Oblitza.—Imported by the late G. N. Milco from Dalmatia; resembles the
Pendoulier, and may be identical; fine in the San Joaquin Valley; very
large oval, but broad and rounded at both ends; grows in clusters; tree
a good grower, hardy and productive; fruit excellent for pickles; ripens in
November in the interior—about the same as the Mission.

Sevillano.—Recently largely planted as the variety exported from Spain
as the “Queen olive.” Very large; only useful in pickling; when ripe,
bluish black; clingstone. Tree a strong grower, leaves deep green, greenish
white underneath. Described by Mr. Roeding as a regular bearer, but re-
quires deep; rich, well-drained soil, and will not stand much cold. Sells at
high prices because of great size; ripens early. ;

Asecolano.—“White olive of Ascoli.” Very large, “large as a French
prune and much like one in shape” (Bioletti). Excellent for pickles, but
not desirable in color of either green or ripe pickles, and has to be care-
fully handled in pickling. Reported a good bearer and has recently been
quite largely planted.

CHAPTER XXXII
THE ORANGE

The orange leads all fruits of California. In Chapter VI will
be found the acreage of trees and value of product for 1918, and
the railway shipments beyond State lines for a term of years, upon
which the supremacy of the orange rests. In view of this leader-
ship it seems fitting to take a little wider range in the discussion
of the significance of the orange in the development of California
than has been indulged in the consideration of other fruits, and
this is justified by the fact that the orange is, in the public mind,
the chief exponent of the horticultural resources of the State and
its attributes in this direction are shared in varying degrees by the
other fruits. The greatness of orange growing in California be-
comes, then, in various ways the token of our advancement in one
of the highest of the agricultural arts, and in the mastery of long-
distance commercial distribution of fresh fruits. These achieve-
ments are also a demonstration of the quality of our agricultural
citizenship.*

Shipments of oranges and lemons for a series of years are given
on page 50. Shipments in 1919 were 35,778 carloads of oranges and
9,914 carloads of lemons.

THE ORANGE INDUSTRY OF THE WORLD

From the beginning the orange has reigned as king in the inter-
national fruit trade of the world. The grape has always been and
is still, greater in the value of its contribution to commerce and in
the distance it safely traverses, but the grape rules not as a fruit,
but through its manufactured products, while the orange carries
its natural beauty, fragrance and flavor unchanged around the
world. From the earliest times the orange has not only been
accepted in northern climes as a symbol of tropical and sub-tropical
salubrity and sumptuousness, but by its own distinctive character-
istics as a fruit it has won recognition as befitting the highest uses
of mankind. By its nature too the orange ministers to its own
commercial popularity. It endures long shipment; it ripens slowly
and through a season of several months which constitute the winter
in northern latitudes when local fruits are scant or absent and the
refreshment in the citric juices is most welcome. The production of
such a commercial commodity has from the earliest times consti-
tuted an important industry.

It is a significant fact that though the orange thrives in the
tropics it does not resent the slight touch of frost which character-
izes semi-tropical situations. It is also significant that the fruit

*The Orange Industry ‘Encyclopedia Americana,’’ Scientific American, New York, 1904,

“he Orange in Northern and Central California,’ California State Board of Trade, San
Francisco, 1903, ete., by the author.

WORLD ASPECTS OF THE ORANGE Ba)

erown in semi-tropical countries, especially those which have a
more or less distinctly marked two-season climate, differs in
character from the strictly tropical orange and is firmer, heavier,
more sprightly in flavor and with-much better keeping and carrying
qualities. The tropical orange has but small commercial impor-
tance; the semi-tropical orange rules in’ the markets of the world.
That the semi-tropical orange should have this distinctive character
is most fortunate, for it ministers directly to the will for industry
which is superior in semi-tropical countries. By the seven degrees
of frost which the orange tree will endure without injury, it has
gained the seventy degrees of north latitude through which its
fruit freely seeks a market. Because, though the tropical orange
would reach most distant markets in small quantities, it could never
attain the commercial supremacy which the fruit now enjoys.

The sweet orange is a native of eastern Asia and was carried
thence to India and to Asia Minor. It possibly reached Portugal
from India through the early Portuguese navigators. Thus the
distribution of the fruit was westward. The history of modern
commercial orange growing consists of a series of progressive move-
ments always trending westward and gaining in volume—the newer
centers of production outstripping the older and ultimately largely
displacing their product from the greatest markets of the upper
divisions of the temperate zone. When the Moors introduced, orange
growing into Algeria and Spain they displaced the traffic from
Asia Minor and gave the Mediterranean region for several hundred
years undisputed possession of the markets of the north of Europe
and possession also of the American demand when that arose.
When the Spaniards and Portuguese carried the orange to the West
Indies and to Florida they laid the foundation for an industry which
American enterprise developed in Florida until that district not
only contended with the Mediterranean region for American
markets, but was planning to invade northern Europe by direct
ship-loads when the demonstration came that the climate of north-
ern Florida and of the Gulf coast westward was too treacherous for
commercial ventures in orange growing—at least with the then
popular varieties and methods of propagation. But as the Florida
supply failed through the severe freezing of 1895, California came
forward and, though Florida has re-established her citrus industry,
California is now not only supplying the larger part of the oranges
consumed in the United States, but is selling the highest priced
oranges in the London market against a world of competitors.

In support of this contention let it be noted that the most im-
portant statistical statement of the world’s citrus fruits in the
English language was published April 15, 1914.* It shows that
the annual citrus fruit crop of the world is equal to from ninety
to one hundred million boxes of California size, which would fill
two hundred and thirty to two hundred and fifty thousand ear-
loads of California capacity. Of these the United States and Spain

*Bulletin 11, California Citrus Protective League, Los Angeles, ‘‘The World’s Pro-
duction and Commerce in Citrus Fruits and Their By-products,’ by F. O. Wallschlaeger,
Secretary.

358 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

produce thirty per cent each; Italy twenty-five per cent; Japan
and Palestine each less than five per cent; the balance, scattering.
The acreage both in California and Florida is increasing. The
normal product of the United States is approximately 78,000 car-
loads, and California, in view of recent plantings, 50,000 carloads.
All the countries thus mentioned as contributing to the world’s
commercial product are endowed with semi-tropical and not with
tropical climates.

RELATION OF CALIFORNIA TO THE WORLD’S
ORANGE PRODUCT

Competition with the product of California is working hardship
in the Mediterranean region because this region can more than
supply Europe, and needs American markets as an outlet. Italy
has exported six million dollars worth of oranges and lemons in a
year, but recently prices have declined and the interest is depressed.
Every effort is being made to secure relief from local taxation and
from duties imposed by north European countries. The Spanish
product of oranges and lemons, which ranks with that of the United
States, has to meet heavy tariffs in all countries except the United
Kingdom and the belief at Valencia is (U. S. Commercial Relations,
Vol. 2, 1902, page 686) that the limit of British consumption of
Valencia oranges at paying rates has been reached; in fact, the
British markets collapsed under the heavy shipments of 1901.
When it is stated that the value of oranges imported into the
United Kingdom in 1900 was $10,603,950, and such a free buyer
has more than enough, it can be realized how important it is to
the Mediterranean producers that the populous countries of central
Europe should hold less strictly to agrarian interests which aim to
hamper the entrance of food supplies even if they can not them-
selves produce them. Manifestly the American product can only
enter such markets with a faney product which will win an extra
price, except as a little difference in the ripening season may afford
an opportunity.

Because of the decreased import duties under the tariff of 1913
the commercial position of the orange in the United States was
such as to awaken apprehension, but the war brought full demand
and increased prices. In 1919 we are confronted by the need of a
tariff which will preserve the American citrus industry. The
product of the West Indies is a direct menace to the Florida prod-
uct, which meets it in point of market season, and the Mexican
product, which was, before the Mexcian revolution, undergoing
expansion at the hands of American capitalists, is constantly feared
by the California growers because the Mexican railway will give it
quick entrance to the great central states and constant advantage
in distribution to the East and the Northwest. The orange from
the West Indies and South Florida is different from the California
orange in main ripening season and in character of the fruit, but
the differences do not give full relief. With the late ripening

AMERICAN ORANGE PRODUCTION 359

varieties, the California grower extends his shipments into the
autumn and thus laps upon the early fruit from Florida and
Jamaica, while the parts of California which bring earliest maturity
to the fruit are shipping before the Southern fruit is cleared away.
In fact, California can keep the markets supplied with oranges
fresh from the trees and in prime condition the year round.

As to the difference in oranges grown under humid and arid
conditions, the moisture being supplied by rainfall in one case and
by irrigation in the other, there has been shown in the arid region
orange a superior density, thinness and texture of rind, higher
sugar and higher acid percentages and a more sprightly or vinous
flavor. The popular conception of the superior sweetness of the
orange grown in humid countries is due not to a greater amount
of sugar in the juice, but to less amount of acid. The following
are the determinations of sugar and acid of fully ripe Southern
California and Florida navel oranges:

Total sugar, Citric acid,

per cent. per cent.
CaORn a WINAVELD ieayiale tor ieleks patel Re oe 9.99 1.45
PLOT aa INA VIC hogs tans oes shohevaie lavatotiereea revencoets 7.46 0.95

Of course, the quality of an orange is largely inherent in the
variety, but all varieties are similarly changed by growth under
humid or arid conditions of climate and soil, and this modification
becomes a factor of much industrial importance. This fact is strik-
inely illustrated by the standing of the navel orange in California.
This variety has been grown for a century or more as the chief
orange in Bahia, Brazil, whence it was taken to California. In
Brazil it demonstrated no shipping qualities, and according to
Burke (U. S. Special Consular Reports, Vol. 1, page 411) would
need to be picked before maturity if to be shipped, while as grown
in California and Arizona it is picked at full maturity and is suc-
cessfully shipped all over the United States and to Europe. An
examination of the Bahia district in 1918, by A. D. Shamel and
associates, showed that the orange which is the foundation of the
export industry of California is, in its home, only an article of local
trade.

Orange growing in Florida is recovering from serious reverses.
The product of 1894 was about 4,000,000 boxes. Then came the
disastrous freezing in December of 1894 and February, 1895, with
a temperature of 14 degrees Fahrenheit at Jacksonville, and in the
latter year only 75,000 boxes were shipped. In 1918 the product
was about 9,000,000 boxes, produced in the central and southern
parts of the State. In Louisiana the freezing of 1895 nearly an-
nihilated the citrus fruit interest and only recently has there been
any disposition to resume production on a commercial seale. In
Texas there is an experimental orange industry on the basis of
hardy Japanese varieties, largely. Its future is a matter of con-
jecture. In the southwestern corner of Arizona there is a small
orange industry which is successfully shipping navel oranges to

360 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

distant markets. Conditions favor early ripening and an advan-
tage is secured by sale in advance of the main California product.
From California the shipments of oranges beyond State lines in
1917 were about 16,000,000 boxes. The orange industry of the
United States is now largely supplying the home demand for the
fruit. Imports of oranges reached their highest value in 1883 at
$3,010,662, and have since then declined. The value in 1913 was
$227,827.50—much less than one-tenth of the imports of thirty
years before. Since 1914 imports of oranges were interfered with
by the war. The value of imported oranges in 1917 was $160,710.

The orange industry of the United States is unique in the high
social and financial standing of those who have engaged in it, and
in the striking features of its development. Both in Florida and
in California large scale production was first undertaken by North-
ern men who had gained wealth and had lost health in the pursuit
of it. They brought capital and commercial ability to the ventures
which they exploited. The professional classes of the North also
participated largely in the work, bringing scholarship, insight and
experience in organization. There were a few also who possessed
horticultural experience, but the other classes largely predomi-
nated. The result has been the development of an industry charac-
teristically American in spirit and new in methods. It has borrowed
very little from the practices of old-world orange growers. Free
from tradition and prejudice it proceeded rapidly upon the results
of original investigation and experiment, establishing a system of
culture and of commercial handling of the product which are with-
out precedent in the older orange regions of the world.*

DISTRIBUTION OF CITRUS CONDITIONS IN
CALIFORNIA

Citrus culture conditions exist in suitable situations from Shasta
to San Diego county—an air-line distance of more than six hundred
miles. It is so surprising that practically the same climate should
be found through a distance of between seven and eight degrees of
latitude that many, even of those who have lived in California, do
not appreciate the fact, nor know the explanation of it. An effort
is made toward such explanation in Chapter I of this work. Even
at the risk of repetition the subject will be reviewed with special
reference to the occurrence of conditions affecting the growth of
citrus fruits.

First: California is not only blessed with benign ocean in-
fluences, but Northern California is additionally protected from
low winter temperatures by the mountain barrier of the Sierra

*The literature of citrus fruits in California is large. In addition to continuous ex-
position in local horticultural journals, there are frequent articles in the popular maga-
zines. The Bureau of Plant Industry of the U. S. Dept. of Agr., at Washington, has pub-
lished several important reports and bulletins; at, also has the California Experiment Sta-
tion—of which there is a branch at Riverside. The industry has also developed a special
treatise, entitled ‘“‘Citrus Fruits: an account of the Citrus Fruit Industry with special ref-
erence to California requirements and practices and similar conditions,’ by Dr. J. E. Coit,
of the University of California. It is a very satisfactory exposition of things the citrus
grower needs to know. Published by Macmillan Co., N. Y.; 522 pages; fully illustrated.

CITRUS CONDITIONS IN CALIFORNIA 361

Nevada, extending southward from the multiplied masses of pro-
tecting elevations in the Shasta region, while Southern California
enjoys the protection of the Sierra Madre and other uplifts on the
north and east of her citrus region. Northern blizzards are, there-
fore, held back from entrance to California and are forced to con-
fine themselves to southerly and easterly directions over the interior
parts of the Pacific slope, while the great blizzards of the North-
west traverse the Mississippi Valley and, if they have sufficient
impetus, extend to the Gulf and carry destruction to semi-tropical
growths even in Northern Florida. The ocean then bringing
warmth and the high mountains defending against cold, combine
their influences to give nearly the whole length of California semi-
tropical winter temperatures.

Second: Although this striking similarity does exist, in citrus
districts north and south, there is another even more startling
proposition involved and that is the influence exerted by the pres-
ence of the Coast Range as the western boundary of the great
interior valley of the State, and intervening between that great
valley and the ocean. The several ridges of the Coast Range with
their enclosed small valleys serve as a colossal wind-break against
northwest winds, which might otherwise, now and again, bring a
temperature too low for citrus fruits, where now they are safe
from injury. The chief effect of these mountains is to protect the
northern interior valleys and foothills from the raw winds of early
springtime, and to allow the sun as he crosses each day higher in
his course, to expend the increasing heat directly in promoting
vernal verdure. (The result is a protected interior region in Central
and Northern California, of quick growth in all lines—early pas-
turage, early grain harvest and early fruit ripening. The valleys
of Southern California, which have thus far been largely developed,
have no high range between them and the ocean. They are open
on the west because the Coast Range of mountains takes a sharp
turn eastward in the southern part of the State and afterward
curves southward, passing along the eastern side of the chief pro-
ductive region. The influence of this opening of the valleys of
Southern California is not so unfavorable as such opening would
be at the north, because ocean winds are gentler and warmer there,
and there is winter service rendered by this eastward trend of the
Southern California mountains, as has been said, but the fact re-
mains that the absence of high barriers against ocean influences
retards the springtime and causes a slow development of summer
conditions and late ripening of fruits, while the presence of high
barriers at the north so hastens springtime and summer heat, that
early summer fruits in California are shipped from the north to the
south—a thing which does not occur anywhere else in the northern
hemisphere. It is due to this same early start which the local topog- '
raphy gives to the orange, followed by the high summer heat which
is essential to the development of a good orange, that the orange
reaches an acceptable commercial condition at an earlier date in
suitable interior places at the north and is at present being almost

362 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

wholly shipped to eastern markets before free movement begins at
the south. This early marketing also relieves the growers of much
anxiety and costly frost fighting, because the fruit, which is always
more susceptible to injury than the tree, is out of the way before
the frost period, which usually begins about Christmas, is reached.

There is in Southern California, east of the mountains, a district
which has thus far been but scantily developed where protection
from ocean influences tends to early ripening of fruits. The same
is true of some parts of Arizona adjacent, and small quantities of
early fruits move westward and northward from that region. That
region is not in view in this discussion, for too little has been
accomplished in citrus lines to warrant conclusions which recent
planting in that part of the State may soon supply.

Third: Still another feature of local topography must be men-
tioned as influencing citrus conditions north and south and explain-
ing why winter temperature has fallen no lower at the north than
at the south. At the north the snow fields of the high mountains
are farther from the valleys and mesas, where citrus fruits are
erown, than they are at the south. The benches and low foothills
of the Sacramento Valley, for instance, are forty to fifty miles from
the high range to the east of them and there intervene countless
ridges of high foothills and small valleys, and before the citrus
plantations can be reached by the descending air currents they are
considerably warmed by rustling over so much land which has been
warmed by the ampler winter sunshine. From many of the south-
ern citrus regions one looks almost directly upward and outward
upon the grand snow-clad mountains, whose crests are but fifteen
to twenty-five miles away. It is a splendid scenic effect—ripening
oranges and dazzling snow fields in the same glance of the eye, but
it is sometimes not so grand as a pomological proposition.

Fourth: Another protective influence for citrus fruit trees
during the frosty period of December and January, is the low
canopy of land fog which covers the interior valley of Central and
Northern California much of the time at that season of the year
and checks the radiation of ground heat which is apt to take place
rapidly under a clear sky. Though the nights are thus often pro-
tected from the frosts, the day temperature is held low, which is also
of account, because the citrus trees are held dormant, which is de-
sirable, as there is no fruit to ripen. On the other hand, the higher
day temperature in Southern California is valuable in that district
because the later fruit is still maturing. The winter aspects of the
trees in Northern and Southern California are therefore quite differ-
ent; in the north, the dark green of dormancy; in the south, the
gvold of the fruit and the oft-protruding light green of the winter
wood growth. In both regions all growth conditions seem good;
each after its own kind, and the two, in a sense, complementary.

During the last few years there has been rapid extension of
orange planting, particularly in the suitable lands on the eastern
rim of the San Joaquin and on both sides of the Sacramento Valley.
The orange product of the northern district is normally about one-

CALIFORNIA’S FIELD IN ORANGE GROWING 363

eighth of the State product. Nearly five-sixths of all the trees
north of the Tehachapi mountains are in the citrus districts of
eastern Tulare County.

THE GENERAL OUTLOOK FOR THE ORANGE

At the present time orange growing has a very promising out-
look. The prospect for much larger consumption, at the East and
abroad, is very encouraging. The orange is passing from its old
status as a luxury to its proper recognition as a staple winter fruit
for dwellers‘in cold climates. For such use the agreeable acid and
sprightly flavor of the California fruit especially commend it.
The consumption of the fruit per capita, away from California, is
still small and will be greatly increased when people know better
its desirability and the reasonable prices at which it can be secured.
This wider distribution is to be confidently expected and the rapid
increase in population through the great West and North is each
year giving California growers nearer markets of growing con-
sumptive capacity. It will be of great advantage to the whole
country, as well as California, to have production steadily in-
creased.

Some considerations in this line are given to the closing pages
of Chapter VI. To fully appreciate the advantage of California in
supplying the whole northern half of the North American continent,
especially with early fruits and semi-tropical fruits, one should
ealeulate the exceedingly small area of suitable fruit land in Cali-
fornia as compared with the area of the half-continent indicated,
which is our logical consuming territory and in which development
and population are now increasing so rapidly. Take a map of the
continent, place your thumb over the area of California and gaze
at the uncovered area, north of the fortieth parallel, if you please,
and estimate the duty of California in coming decades. Millions
will multiply on the continent, but the safe area for tender fruits
will never increase an acre. From this point of view, it really
seems impossible for California to create an over-supply of fruits
which are distinctively her province to grow. There are likely to
be temporary surpluses and problems in distribution, but a general
over-supply seems unreasonable.

The development of the orange industry in California to utilize
the splendid natural adaptations which have been discussed, to
make good the large investments which have been made, and tv
afford a field for the profitable employment of the high quality of
American citizenship which has entered the list of producers, several
things are essential. First, the advancement of horticulture art
and science. Second, the maintenance for a time at least, of a
sufficient protective tariff, as has already been suggested. Third,
the extension of co-operative handling and distribution of the prod-
uct as now embodied in the successful operation of the California
Fruit Growers’ Exchange and its auxiliaries in all the producing
districts. Fourth, the application of the results of systematic and

364 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

intelligent inquiry and experiments into the durability of the fruit
in transit as affected by cultural and commercial practices, and the
effective advertisement of the desirability of oranges as food in
parts of the country which have largest consuming capacity.

SOILS AND SITUATIONS FOR THE ORANGE

While citrus conditions do exist through large areas of Cali-
fornia, there is still danger of loss and disappointment through
unwary individual investments and unwise locations of citrus colony
enterprises. The tracts of land for orange planting even in a favor-
able citrus climate are limited in area and every citrus climate has
numerous places where local meteorological conditions will prove
destructive to the profit of the enterprise, if not to the life of the
trees. The orange is a hardy tree, judged within its temperature
limits, but there is no money in a tree which is subjected to any
kind of hardship. For this reason the selection of a good depth
of strong, free loam should be made, for such is essential not only
to good growth of the young tree, but to its support through the
long productive life which the orange enjoys. Depth of good soil
is not only a storehouse of plant food, which will postpone the use
of purchased fertilizers, but it is a reservoir of water so that irriga-
tion can be applied in larger amounts at longer intervals. While
it is quite possible to grow an orange tree and to secure good fruit
on shallower soils, if conditions are kept just right by frequent
use of water and fertilizers in just the right amounts, such con-
ditions impose heavy burdens in their constant requirements of
extra care and expenditure, and these are handicaps of no small
economic importance. The tree can not live upon climate as a man
may, because a tree can not speculate; it must have a good founda-
tion in the earth as well as a good outlook in the sky.

Growing orange trees on defective soils has brought disappoint-
ment and loss in all parts of California. Ample supplies of irriga-
tion water available have encouraged over-irrigation where trees
have been planted above hardpan and drainage is absent. Dying-
back and yellow leaf have appeared in some groves and have been
accounted for by digging to find the roots bedded in mud and
slush. All plantings over clay sub-soils should be guarded against
this danger. Digging deep holes and filling them with good soil
is setting a trap for the future failure of the tree unless the deep
hole is properly drained by the nature of the sub-soil or by artificial
provision. On the other hand, planting over a gravelly sub-soil
is often disappointing, because the water passes through the sub-
soil as through a sieve and the tree shows distress although generous
amounts are applied to the surface. Wide observation through the
State teaches that such warnings are needed by the unwary. There
has also been injury to the tree from planting over sub-soils carry-
ing excess of lime.

Local temperature conditions even in sections generally suited
to orange culture should be carefully ascertained. Frosty places

GROWING ORANGE TREES 365

must be avoided. A few feet difference in elevation may change
profit to loss, but one must not therefore draw the hasty conclusion
that all small elevations are favorable. The experience of the last
few years shows that nothing is, on the whole, more dangerous than
the warm bottom land in a small elevated valley which seems
naturally protected on all sides. There are many such places which
are far more treacherous than the uplands of the broad valleys,
which may be considerably lower. The benches around the sides
of the small valley may be safe and the bottom of the same valley
dangerous because there is no adequate outflow for cold air to the
large valley below. Look out for small valleys which have divides
of crumpled hills where they debouch into the main valley. Cold
air can be dammed and held back; consequently the low land of a
small valley may be worse than lower land in the main valley,
because in the latter there are air currents which prevent accumula-
tion of cold air in particular places. These air movements make
some plantings on the upper plains of the main valley safe, though
the whole region may seem to the eye rather flat and low, but, of
course, broad sinks of the main valley may also be dangerous. Too
ereat elevations are to be guarded against. Where one approaches
the reach-down of mountain temperatures and loses the warming
influences of the valley mesas, the danger line is at hand.

An ample water supply is essential. Small waterings which may
bring satisfactory growth to a young tree are no measure of the
needs of a bearing tree. The orange is using water all the year,
as discussed in Chapter XV. Its crop requires nearly a year to
reach maturity. Both in leaf growth and fruit growth it nearly
doubles the activity of the deciduous tree and all the time it is
pumping water with its roots and pouring forth water into the air
through its exposed surfaces. No investment in orange planting
ean be profitable without assurance of adequate water supply.

PROPAGATION OF THE ORANGE

The orange is grown from cuttings, layers and seeds. Growth
from the seeds is the method almost exclusively followed, and by
far the best, but the others will be mentioned briefly.

Growth from Cuttings.—The method of propagation is described
in Chapter VIII.

Growth from Layers.—The orange roots readily by layering, the
drooping branches being partly cut through, buried in the soil with
the terminal shoots above the ground. Layers must be kept moist.
Layering may be employed to obtain a few plants easily, but, other-
wise, it cuts no figure in propagation. Layers and cuttings, of
course, reproduce the original variety without recourse to budding.

Growth from Seed.—The orange is grown upon seedlings of the
bitter orange or orange of Seville, generally called ‘‘Florida sour
stock’’; of the common or sweet orange and of the pomelo or Grape
Fruit. Good plump seed should be selected in growing orange

-~

366 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

seedlings either for their own fruitage or to use as stocks for bud-
ding.

When seedlings for fruiting are grown, select seed from a choice
variety in a situation where other citrus species are not grown; but
the orange can not be trusted to come true from seed, and, more
than this, the seedling class for fruiting purposes has been practi-
cally abandoned as unprofitable to plant, though fruit from old
seedling trees is occasionally sold at a profit.

In securing seed the fruit is allowed to rot and when thoroughly
decayed, it is pulped by mashing in a barrel, and the mass is
washed, a little at a time, on a coarse sieve, the pulp passing
through, and the seed being caught on the wires, and pieces of
skin thrown out. The plump seed will sink if thrown into water,
and the imperfect can be skimmed from the top. The seed should
never be allowed to dry, and unless it is to. be sown at once, should
be stored by mixing with moist sand, from which it can be after-
wards removed by sifting; or it can be kept for a time in water,
changing the water from time to time to prevent souring. The
best time for sowing orange seed is after the ground has become
warm in the spring.

Orange seedlings are grown either in boxes or in the open
ground. In either case a rich sandy loam which will not bake
should be secured or artificially made by mixing sand with rich
garden loam. Boxes of about two square feet area and six inches
deep are convenient to handle. The bottom should have holes, or
sufficient crevices for good drainage. Fill the boxes about four
inches with the prepared soil, place the seeds about an inch and a
half apart each way, sift over them about an inch of the soil, or a
little less of the soil, and a layer of clean sand if it is at hand. It
is essential that the soil should be kept moist, and light sprinkling
daily, or every other day, with water that has been warmed by
standing in the sun, is desirable. Seed can be sown in boxes in the
house at any time if plenty of light and heat are given. If the
boxes are to be out-of-doors, it is best to sow in the spring, and to
rig up a cover of cheap cotton cloth, suspended about a foot above
the surface, to prevent effect of frost at night, and of burning by
sun heat by day. The seedlings usually appear in about six weeks,
and with good care in weeding and keeping sufficiently, but not
excessively, moist, they will make a growth of about a foot the
first season. Some growers collect the boxes in a sheltered place,
and build over them a lath house, tacking on old sacks or other
cloth, to shield them from the sun and frost. The lath house keeps
animals from running over the boxes, ete.

Growing seedlings in an open bed involves about the same oper-
ations. To guard against intrusion, it is advisable to make board
sides to the bed about a foot high, and to make lath frames which
will reach across, resting on the edge boards. A cloth sun-and-frost
shade is also desirable, to be laid over the lath frames when it
seems needed. Beds should be made narrow enough so that one can
easily reach half way across from each of the long sides for weed-

THE ORANGE TREE NURSERY 367

ing, ete. In open seed beds it is usual to broadeast the seed evenly,
using about one gallon to 200 square feet, which should give about
5000 seedlings.

The Orange Nursery.—Planting out in nursery is usually done
after the ground is thoroughly warmed in the spring, and the seed-
lings are then about a year old. The preparation of nursery ground
and the planting out of the seedlings can be done as described in
Chapter VIII. Orange seedlings should, however, be given greater
distance apart than is usual for deciduous trees, because the orange
remains longer in the nursery, and because it is often desirable,
when taking up, to sack the ball of earth embracing the roots. If
the roots are not to be sacked, about nine inches will do between
the plants; if to be sacked, the distance should be twelve or fifteen
inches. The rows should not be too close in the orange nursery. If
horse cultivation is to be used, at least four feet between the rows
should be allowed, and even greater distance is desirable. In tak-
ing the seedlings from the seed beds, a few should be lifted at a
time, and their roots kept shaded and moist until the ground closes
on them in the nursery row. To get an even stand in the nursery,
small and weak plants should be placed by themselves, or set in
boxes to take another year before going into nursery.

- Young trees in nursery are very liable to frost injury, and it is
wise to protect them by some sort of a cover during the winter. A
framework covered with cypress brush is often used, the whole be-
ing cleared away in the spring to allow of summer cultivation.
Cultivation of trees in nursery is about the same as with deciduous
fruit trees. The horse should be used, and the surface kept per-
feetly pulverized. The cultivator should follow irrigation as soon
as the soil will admit of it. Frequency of irrigation of nursery de-
pends, of course, upon local conditions. Some give two or three
irrigations, by running the water in a little trench alongside the
rows, at intervals of two weeks, for a time after planting, and then
irrigate once a month during the summer. It is important that irri-
gation should not be continued too late into the fall, because the
young tree should harden its wood before cold weather. Nor is it
desirable that the growth be too rapid. A good growth of sound
wood is better than extra size.

Length of Time in Nursery.—Seedlings are usually budded after
being out one or two years in the nursery, or at two or three years
from the planting of the seed. At a convenient time in the winter
the lower shoots and thorns are removed from the seedlings, so as to
leave a clean stem of about six inches for the convenience of the
budder.

Intensive Work in the Citrus Nursery.—In addition to the fore-
going general reflections the reader may be interested in a specific
sketch of pushing a citrus nursery as described by Mr. R. E.
Hodges:

Mr. Allen Dodson, of Los Angeles County, put 17 hay-rack loads of the
rottenest manure he could find on a sandy space 290x60 feet. This had to

368 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

be worked and reworked to leave no lumps of manure. The sand is neces-
sary to prevent baking. Then he planted 81% bushels of seed, watered
carefully about every other day and kept the weeds down for six weeks
before they came up. They grew about a foot before cold weather came.
Around the seedling bed were set upright 2x4s twenty feet apart and 6 feet
out of the ground for head-room. From post to post were 1x3 boards on
which laths were nailed upright about 114 inches apart. Above these laths
is a two-foot open space and then a roof similar to the sides but made in
20-foot squares so it may be easily removed. This open space (to get head-
room) should also be lathed, on the south and west at least, because the
low winter sun shines directly onto the seedlings and may turn them yellow.
The shadows under the lath are perpetually moving with the sun so that
direct light never stays long at a time on a given tree. The movable roof
makes it easy to set up the outfit on new ground. One year Mr. Dodson
sold 185,000 seedlings from a certain plat and tried it again the next year
on the same place, getting only 4,000 salable ones. He had used only a
third as much manure the second year, thinking to have some advantage
from that applied before.

BUDDING THE ORANGE

The orange root is the best foundation for an orange tree, and
the seedling sweet orange has been the main reliance. The seedling
of the Florida sour orange is now being used almost to the exclu-
sion of other stock, for its great hardiness and thrift and to escape
gum disease. It has not been entirely free, though conceded to be
less subject to the trouble. Oranges have also been worked upon
pomelo seedlings, which force a strong growth, root deeply and are
satisfactory. Of course, many lemon and recently many pomelo
trees have been worked over the orange, but in these cases the
orange root was below the other wood. All lemon roots are not
suitable for the orange. The Japanese practice of dwarfing with
the citrus trifoliata has never prevailed in this State. Recently the
trifoliata stock has been used to some extent to secure earlier ripen-
ing of fruit, and it is claimed that the tree is sufficiently free grow-
ing, also that the effect of free-growing top increases the develop-
ment of the root, but experience favors the other roots for standard
trees.

Budding is almost exclusively adopted for working in desirable
varieties. The best time to bud is about the time the new growth
starts on the seedling in the spring, though some practice budding
in midsummer and fall. Good, well-matured buds only should be
used; those from both base and tip of the roots are frequently de-
fective. Buds should be taken only from fruiting branches; not
from sterile sucker growth, and from trees which are known to
bear abundantly a good type of fruit. For spring budding, buds
ean be taken from fruiting trees and kept dormant in moist sand
in a cool place until the seedlings show a sap-flow suitable for
budding.

*The importance of selecting buds from prolific trees of the best types and of taking
buds from fruiting wood has been fully demonstrated by A. D. Shamel. Details of his
work are published by the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Washington, D.

C., in a series of publications of which definite citation of latest results can be had by
application to the Bureau.

~~

BUDDING THE NURSERY 369

The method of budding described in Chapter IX is that usually
employed in budding citrus trees, and the rules for loosening the
ligature, etc., are similar. Midsummer buds are apt to have soft
growth at the coming of cold weather; fall buds remain dormant
until spring; spring buds start to grow almost immediately, and |
have the benefit of the whole summer season for growth and matur-
ing of wood.

Budding Nursery Seedlings.—A detailed description of the way
budding of nursery seedlings is rapidly done by Mr. H. A. Randall
of Whittier, who has budded 1600 seedlings in a 9-hour day, is
graphically given by Mr. R. E. Hodges, as follows:

When the bark slips nicely on the stocks, and when the weather is likely
to be clear and warm, is the time to bud citrus seedlings. The buds “take’’
finely when sap is flowing vigorously on warm days in February and March.

Fat buds,on plump sticks are selected. Long narrow buds make it hard
to close the bark evenly over them, as is very necessary. Leaf stems are
left 4% inch long when cutting bud sticks, for convenience in handling the
buds.

The transverse cut on the young stock is made with the edge of the
blade sloping upward, and the vertical cut made upward from that, so there
would be every chance to shed rain. Buds are inserted six to eight inches
above ground to help avoid gum disease, especially with lemons, for the
stocks are resistant.

Having cut the bud and inserted it immediately, the knife point is stuck
crosswise into the bark below the bud so it can be quickly shoved upward
to place.

A strip of waxed cloth a foot long and three-eighths inch wide is
wrapped around each bud, covering it, unless it is so prominent that the
cloth might injure it. The covering prevents undesired shoots before the
union is firmly made. Two turns of the cloth are made below the bud,
letting the end of the strip project between the two. The third turn is
made above or over the bud, and after another turn or two, the job is fin-
ished by twisting the ends together. Thus the cloth also sheds water from
the bud.

After the bud has started out well the cloth wrap is removed and
the top of the stock eut off at a short distance above the bud.
Suckers on the old stock should be continually looked for and re-
moved. The tender shoot of the bud may be protected by tying
to the stub, and when the growth of the bud has become strong
enough to support itself, the old stock is smoothly sawn away above
the bud and the wound covered with liquid grafting wax or paint.

The care of budded trees in nursery is similar to that of the seed-
lings of the previous year. If too great a tendency to branch low
down is observed, the tips of the lower shoots should be pinched,
but it is not desirable to under-prune much; the retention of the
lower branches thickens the stem. Sometimes a very rank growth
on the bud will need a stake to strengthen it or to protect it from
blowing out. The intrusion of gophers and other vermin should
be resolutely and persistently guarded against.

Working Over Old Trees.—Old orange trees can be transformed
into improved varieties either by budding or grafting, as described
at the close of Chapter IX, though re-working by grafting has been

370 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

almost entirely superseded by budding. The common way to bud
over an old tree is to cut back part of the branches and force out
new shoots, the best of which are selected for budding and the
others removed. Sometimes only a part of the tree is removed at
first, and when the new buds have grown out on that, the other
part is similarly treated. Others remove the whole top except a
single low branch to maintain sap circulation until after the new
buds start.

Recently the practice of budding into old bark has been widely
adopted as the quickest way to secure a new tree. As with working
into old bark in other trees, it is necessary to take an older bud and
a larger, thicker shield of bark behind it, than when budding into
younger stock. Some remove the wood from the back of the shield,
but generally it is not done. The following is an outline of practice
approved by the Redlands Horticultural Club:

Keep the buds carefully in a damp cloth. Slide the bud upward, above
the cross section. Bind around the bark, steering clear of the bud proper,
a wrapping of waxed cloth, already prepared, three-fourths of an inch wide.
When enough of this has been wrapped about the tree trunk or branch to
keep the bark and bud in place, rub the end of the muslin strip with the
handle of the budding knife, down upon the muslin already wound about
the bark. This will hold the waxed wrapping firmly in place. From ten
days to two weeks after the buds have been inserted, cut off the entire top
of the tree, above the buds, and cover the stump of trunk or large branch
with grafting wax—applied hot—with a brush.

As soon as the wax is put on—and it must be put on as soon as the top
is sawed off—whitewash the tree, over the waxed cloth, also over the bud,
over every part of the tree that is left, except the stump ends, to which the
hot wax has been applied. Immediately the buds will begin to grow.
From ten days to two weeks after whitewashing take off the muslin-wrap,
and, if the work has been done carefully in accordance with the above di-
rections, 90 per cent of the buds will develop—perhaps more. A prime ne-
cessity for this work is a razor-sharp budding knife.

There is a variation in practice in cutting back the stock above
the bud. Instead of cutting back at once, heroically, as just de-
seribed, some girdle the branch or cut back part of the top at a
distance above the bud, cutting down to the bud after it shows
good strong growth, tying the young growth to the stub at first to
protect it. Others insert the bud in the fall, cutting back to start
the bud after the fruit on the old top is gathered. It is very im-
portant to watch for suckers below the bud and remove, to pinch
them back, to make a bunch of leaves. The growth from the bud
itself often needs pinching to induce low branching. Twig-budding

can also be used on the orange by the method already described for
the olive.

Budding in old trees is best done in the spring, when the sap
flow is strong, but, as stated, can be done in the fall and the bud
allowed to le dormant until spring.

PLANTING ORANGES IN ORCHARD

As already stated, orange trees are planted out at a greater age

TRANSPLANTING ORANGE TREES 371

than deciduous fruit trees. Budded trees are given one or two
years’ growth in nursery and one or two years’ growth on the bud,
which, added to the year in seed bed, makes them three to four
years of age from the sowing of the seed. Seedlings, to be planted
out as such, are allowed two years’ growth in the nursery, which
makes them three years old from the seed. For this length of time
and the unusual care involved in their growth, taking up from
nursery and the preparation for carriage, orange trees of planting
age are of much greater cost than deciduous fruit trees.

Since the growing of seedlings for their fruit has practically
ceased, the distance between the trees in orchard planting has
ranged from twenty to twenty-four feet. All the varieties now
propagated are quick to bear fruit, and if properly shaped will find
ample space in these distances—the greater distance on the richer
soil as a rule.

Preparation of land for orange planting by deep and thorough
cultivation and laying off to secure straight rows by the square,
quineunx, and hexagonal methods have been quite fully discussed
in Chapter X, and Chapter XI has suggestions for planting, many
of which are applicable to the setting of orange trees. There are,
however, special methods employed in lifting the orange trees from
nursery rows and in placing them in permanent position, which will
be outlined.

The orange, in common with other evergreen trees, is exceed-
ingly sensitive to exposure of its roots, and for this reason the hand-
ling of the young trees is very different from that of ordinary
orchard trees. Three ways are employed for securing this constant
moisture of the roots, as follows:

Packing in Wet Straw.—As fast as the trees are lifted from the
nursery ground by digging carefully so as to loosen and secure all
the roots possible, they are packed in damp and partially rotten
straw, proper receptacles being at hand so that the roots are not
exposed by carrying them any distance. In taking up, all roots
bruised by the spade are cleanly cut with a sharp knife. The tap-
root is cut away at a depth of a foot or so from the surface. This
use of wet straw, if faithfully carried out, will answer well in taking
trees short distances for planting, but the use of a puddle on the
roots before packing in damp straw gives additional assurance of
success. Large shipments of trees have been made by packing roots
in damp moss in specially made chests holding 100 to 125 trees.
These chests have top and one side on hinges so that the roots can
be thoroughly bedded in the moss as filling proceeds. The hinged
side and top are then brought together and closed with hasp and
staple.

Puddling the Roots.—This method is also used for deciduous
fruit trees, as mentioned in Chapter XI. It consists in having a thin
puddling of loamy soil with preponderance of sand rather than of
clay, into which the roots are dipped as soon as the tree is lifted
from the nursery. This mixture, which should be about as thick as

372 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

cream, may be made in a hole in the ground, or, better still, in a
box or cask large enough to allow complete plunging of the roots.
As soon as dipped, and with all the mud which will adhere, the
roots are packed in wet straw. If the trees are to remain thus
packed for any length of time the greatest care must be observed
to keep the straw damp, and water must be applied gently to avoid
washing the puddle from the roots.

Sacking the Roots with a Ball of Earth—This is a very satis-
factory way to move orange trees, and if it is well done, the tree
does not wilt, and may be moved long distances and handled more
freely than the puddled roots. To ball and sack trees, dig a trench
along one side of the row about six inches away from the tree, and
about a foot and a half deep. By careful digging under each tree
from this trench the tap-root is reached, and severed by a cut with
a sharp spade. The side roots are also cut by thrusting the spade
down on the three sides not opened by the trench. The top earth
is carefully removed nearly down to the highest lateral roots, and
after being sure that the roots are severed all around, the tree is
lifted out with the ball of earth which encloses the remaining roots.
This ball is rounded off carefully and then placed on a half of a
grain sack or other piece of burlap, the corners of which are drawn
up and tied around the stem of the tree with baling rope. It is also
an additional surety of safety to allow the baling rope to run under
and around the ball to aid in holding it together. The balled trees
must be carefully handled so as not to break the ball, which would
result in tearing to pieces, as well as exposing, the roots.

The manner of handling the trees depends somewhat upon the
character of the nursery soil. Successful balling of course requires
a certain amount of adhesiveness in the soil.

One can not be too careful in the handling of orange trees.
Though they will stand harsh treatment when in permanent place,
they must be most carefully transplanted. Lifting from the
nursery when the soil is too dry, exposure of the roots, or careless
planting, will consign the tree to a slow, sickly growth, and often
kill it outright.

Cutting Back at Transplanting.—The rule of reducing the top
to compensate for the loss of roots, is vital in moving orange trees,
but sometimes cutting back is carried too far and subsequent growth
is checked rather than promoted. Some growers cut back the young
trees a little while before lifting them from the nursery. Some take
off all leaves after planting out, and claim that growth starts sooner
and more strongly, but it is doubtful whether defoliation is advis-
able, except in case of wilting, when it is necessary.

Digging Holes and Setting Trees——The same considerations
which require extra care in lifting trees for nursery, rule in putting
them in permanent place. All authorities on the subject specify
exceptional care in preparing the tree holes as a profitable invest-
ment on the part of the planter. Large and deep holes are com-

PLANTING ORANGE ORCHARDS kes

mended, provided the planting is done in a deep, free soil. Deep
holes would be more injurious than beneficial in a tight sub-soil,
unless drainage were furnished, but there are good orange trees
now bearing in such places—good enough at least to be an ornament
and acceptable fruit producers for family use.

On large-scale planting in deeply prepared soils, holes large

enough to allow good spreading of the roots are sufficient. Hand-
ling the soil at planting has been fully described in Chapter XI,
and the importance of bringing the soil into firm contact with the
roots has been urged. The use of water in planting citrus fruit
trees is especially desirable. Transplanting should be done just as
the growth is starting in the late spring or early summer, and this
is the opening of the dry season and rains can not be expected.
Therefore, when the roots are arranged and the top soil lehtly
trampled around them, water is run in the hole and the earth com-
pacted around the roots by water settling. After the water has
settled away, the hole is filled and the surface left loose to prevent
evaporation.
_ These instructions apply to the planting out of trees which are
taken up with long roots and puddled. In planting out balled trees,
the sack is not removed, but after the tree is embedded in the earth,
the tying rope is cut. The sack soon decays in the soil.

Orange trees can be successfully transplanted at different times
of the year, but the best time, as just stated, is after the ground gets
well warmed by the spring sunshine. The date at which this con-
dition arrives depends upon locality. Experience seems to indicate
that the young orange tree is in best condition to transplant just as
the new growth is starting out, and preferably when it has not
grown out more than two inches. In setting the tree, it should
stand not lower than in the nursery. Root injury is sometimes due
to deep planting.

Forcing the growth of trees with fertilizers should not be neces-
sary in good soil but it has been done successfully. In planting the
Arlington Heights orchards at Riverside, this method was followed:

About a pound of dried blood was mixed with the earth when the tree
was placed and the hole filled; then a deep furrow was plowed each side
the row and at right angles to the direction in which the water would flow.
For a short space near each tree these furrows were filled with manure
and two pounds more of blood, then the furrow was back plowed to cover
the manure. Thus for two years the young trees had food ready for the
roots to lay hold on, and they made a record of bearing an average of
three boxes of lemons per tree at three years from planting.

Great care must be taken that transplanted orange trees do not
become dry after planting. The methods of irrigation are described
in Chapter XV. Good cultivation should also attend the orange
from its first planting onward. This subject is fully discussed in
Chapter XIII.

PRUNING THE ORANGE

All the considerations urged in Chapter XII in favor of low-
headed and strongly branched trees apply to the orange, though

O74 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

the habit of the tree in growth and bearing requires different prun-
ing policies. The orange tree is more disposed naturally to assume
a good form than most other trees, and for this reason most ex-
perienced growers declare their belief in pruning as little as possible.
This is unquestionably good policy providing attention enough is
given to securing a shapely and convenient tree, and to overcome
the tendency in the young tree to run out very long shoots which
result in unsymmetrical shoulders with hollows beneath them and
obviate a weeping habit, which interferes with irrigation and pre-
vents the development of good bearing space above. It is so easy
to bring the orange tree into good form by a little hard thinking
about what shape is desirable and a little timely cutting and pinch-
ing to secure it.

It has long been held that the orange tree should assume a com-
pact wall of foliage, the interior of the tree being considered
merely the framework to support this and pump sap into it. Re-
cently the importance of removing dead wood from the center of
the tree is being urged, even though the cost is considerable, and
a rational thinning of branches to admit light and aid in sufficient
amount to secure good fruit near the center of the tree is also being
advocated and practiced to some extent. All these progressive
tendencies carry the orange nearer to the application of the prin-
ciples of pruning which are discussed in detail in Chapter XII,
including the rational recourse to more severe pruning or cutting
back to induce a growth of new and stronger wood for subsequent
bearing. In other cases cutting back of varieties inclined to make
a rank wood growth, like the Valencia Late to encourage a better
supply of fruiting wood, is being advocated. It seems clear that
there are important ends to be gained by more pruning of the
orange tree, and by earnest thinking and close observation along
this line.

It has been held that it was necessary to prune the young tree
to quite a high head at first to allow for the natural droop of the
branches and the result is seen in many young trees with slim stems
and umbrella-like tops. It is better to develop a stout stem by
allowing for a time a low growth upon it and then raise it later by
removal of the lower growth which has done good service and out-
lived its usefulness. By wise under-pruning it is possible not only
to secure a shapely and convenient tree but also to train the lower
growth that it shall present good, low bearing wood without grovel-
ing in the dust.

Unquestionably the drooping habit of budded orange trees is
largely due to their treatment. A grower who does not believe in
pruning allows the branches to extend too far horizontally, and the
weight of the foliage and the early fruiting bring the branches to
the ground. To relieve the lower branches of the young tree of a
part of this weight will enable them to assume a better direction,
and this slight relief at first will prevent much branch-sawing in
later years. The young tree as it comes from the nursery usually
starts upon an upright course. If stopped at about three feet it

PRUNING YOUNG ORANGE TREES oe

Fig. 1. Orange tree at planting Fig. 2. Branch form of orange before
in orchard. Three feet high. removing lower branches.

can be brought along to develop strong and well-arranged branches,
much as has been described for deciduous fruit trees in Chapter
XII. The adjacent engraving, Fig. 1, shows a young tree in plant-

Fig. 3. Good form of five-year-old Good form secured by training.
orange tree.

376 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

ing condition, stopped at three feet and needing only a slight cutting
back of the laterals to be ready to begin its orchard life. If young
trees are transplanted short distances and at the right time they
do not need so much cutting back as is commonly given them.
If allowed to grow from the start shown in Fig. 1, pruning only to
prevent long branches from running out at random, and removing
branches which may start strongly from near the base, the tree will
assume the branch-form shown in Fig. 2 and at from two to three
years after planting in the orchard. At about this age the removal
of lower branches begins, as they have served their purpose in
shading the trunk and bearing the first fruit. These branches are
removed one by one until, when the tree is five years in the orchard,
it has lost all branches below the two-foot line. The higher branches
assume the more horizontal habit, too great out-shooting is re-
pressed, and at about five years orchard-age the tree attains a height
of about twelve feet and is of the general form shown in Fig. 3.
The next few months will bring its foliage to the ground to remain
there or to be under-trimmed, as the notion of the grower may be.

BUILDING DOWN AND NOT SAGGING DOWN

It is perfectly feasible and rational to secure a good form of low
tree without removal of large branches and without relying upon
the sag of the branches from a high head. It requires rather more
watchfulness and attention and study of the subject than some
growers desire to give, but the results when attained are very satis-
factory. The method is that of J. H. Reed, of Riverside, and has
been followed by him for a number of years with his own orchard
and others of which he has had charge. It will be found readily
intelligible with the help of the sketches. Mr. Reed would begin
with a young nursery tree like that already shown in Fig. 1.. He
does not believe in much cutting back before planting providing a
fair amount of roots are left in the ball at transplanting. If the
tree has been properly planted and cared for, it will soon begin to
put out new growth, usually first along the stem, the strongest
growth being lowest down. As many of these young branches
along the stem as are not desired for permanent branches, are rubbed
off, the earler the better, at least before woody fiber is deposited
in them. Mr. Reed rubs off promptly all below a point about two
feet from the ground, if there is a prospect of getting sufficient
good branches above that point. If not he saves them down to
eight or even twelve inches lower if need be.

Mr. Reed’s idea is to build the head along a considerable length
of the trunk and not have the branches bunched at the top, and this
is the same idea that is urged in the development of the trunk of
the deciduous fruit tree in Chapter XII. He finds it impossible to
do this in the nursery because if it is attempted to form a head 18
or 24 inches along the upper portion of the stem instead of one

bunched near the top of it, the lower branches will appropriate —

most of the sap and the upper portion will not be well developed;

DEVELOPING FORM IN ORANGE TREES 377

while if this upper story is well established in the nursery the lower
portion can be built on without detriment to the upper, if nutriment
sufficient for both is furnished. Fig. 4 will show approximately
the branch-form of the young tree at about six months from plant-
ing and the shoots with which the building-down is begun. The
first step is to check the drooping habit. Upon this point Mr. Reed’
Says:

The common notion that the branch of the Navel orange naturally tends
down is a mistake which grows out of the fact that in its rapid growth the
new part of the stems and large leaves are so loaded with sap that they
pull the stems from their natural upright position, and, unless relieved,

hold them there till the deposit of woody fiber fixes the branches in the
drooping or unnatural position. If the tips of these rapidly growing

Fig. 4. Branch form of orange six months
after planting.

branches, with their heavy leaves, be clipped at the right time, the branches
will spring back to the erect position, where they will remain to send out
new branches. It is wonderful how the orange tree can be molded like a
thing of wax by pinching and clipping here and there, if done at the right
time.

Fig. 5 shows the result of this clipping of heavy shoots to allow
them to assume a more upright growth and the encouragement of
new shoots below the two-foot mark. Fig. 6 gives the branch form
of a five-year-old tree, with its lower story of bearing wood well
developed, and Fig. 7 is the foliage-form of the same tree, about
fifteen feet high, with its leaves and fruit reaching to the ground.
As to how low the branches should be allowed, Mr. Reed says that
until recently he has thought it best to keep the lower branches

378 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Fig. 5. Tendeney of clipped branches to rise.

clipped back so that the fruit would not touch the ground, but he
is persuaded that it is better to let them come to the ground even
if considerable fruit rests on it. He finds that many of the best
orchardists do this, and claim that there are really less culls among
the fruit on the ground than on the less-protected branches above.

Fig. 6. Branch form of five-year-old Fig. 7. Foliage form of five-year-old
tree built down. tree.

PRUNING FOR CONTINUOUS BEARING 379

Later Pruning of the Orange.—After the form of the orange is
well established the aim should be to preserve a compact, sym-
metrical and convenient form. It is desirable that weak wood
should be removed; dead interior branches, which have given up
_the struggle for the light, should also be removed. It is an ap-
palling undertaking to get into the inside of an old orange tree and
saw off and drag out the dead wood, but, as already stated, the
conviction is growing that this should be done. Of the growing
shoots there is a reasonable amount of thinning to be done. The
clipping back ofambitious shoots multiplies laterals. There should
be a good cover of leaves, but the crowding of leaves on leaves
excludes light and air and weakens the tree by lessening the vigor
of leaf action. Dead twigs which appear among good bearing shoots
should always be removed.

The gourmand shoots or suckers should be repressed, unless, by
clipping, one can be turned into a branch where a branch is needed.
The importance of resolutely removing sucker growths even from
trees in which the wood may have become hardened is being recog-
nized as a fixed policy in pruning. Good trees have been diverted
from bearing fruit of good type to that which is in all respects
inferior, by allowing supremacy to sucker-growths. Growth of
new fruit wood from old is desirable, but suckers from stem or
main branches, showing the marks of wild growth should be ex-
tirpated.

PRUNING FOR CONTINUOUS RENEWAL.

As to the pruning of bearing orange trees there are among
California growers irreconcilable views and conflicting practices
which defy reduction to suggestions of universal application. It
seems as clearly impossible to prescribe rules for pruning the orange
as for other fruit trees. Evidently the grower must observe closely
and think hard about what he sees. A very rational outline of the
subject was recently prepared by Mr. J. B. Neff of Anaheim as
follows:

Pruning is as necessary to success in growing oranges as with other
fruits, and if altogether neglected the crop will be disappointing though
other care has been given. Oranges which bring the highest prices do not
grow on trees which have small leaves and slended twigs, neither do young
and abnormally vigorous trees have smooth fruit, hence we must have the
medium, and this can be brought about by judicious pruning. If we take
a tree having small leaves and small twigs we find it will bloom profusely
but that too many of the blossoms will fall and that the remaining small
fruits will drop badly until but a light crop is left and these are of small
sizes. By pruning out sufficient of the old growth the new wood will be
larger and the leaves will grow larger, which in turn will produce larger
and better fruit. Small leaves and fine fruit are not found on the same
branch.

It is difficult to give detailed instructions as to the amount taken out as
each tree requires treatment in some manner different from its neighbor,
but observation of the trees in the orchard will soon teach the grower to
take out the proper amount to produce the desired sizes.

The pruning of Valencia orange trees is often neglected because there

380 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

are always oranges on the trees and the grower dislikes to take any off
without selling them, so the pruning is limited to the dead branches while
the pruning should be such as to keep the branches from dying. Pruning
of Navel orange trees should be done as soon as the fruit is gathered, while
Valencia orange trees should be pruned in May or early in June when the
fruit which is cut off in pruning can be sold.

The openings made by pruning should not be so large that sucker
growth will form in such spaces. This growth will need much watching
and pinching of tips to prevent unduly long branches which do not pro-
duce fruit. If large branches must come out use a sharp fine-toothed saw.
Cut close to the body or main branch so the wound will heal quickly, and
cover with mineral paint.

The most profitable form of an orange tree is that of a deeply corru-
gated column, though not always attainable. This allows light to reach the
interior of the tree and furnishes the largest possible fruiting surface on
the outer part of the tree. When the corrugated form can not be produced
to the full height of the tree, smaller openings can be made by cutting out
branches which start two or three feet back from the outside of the tree.

Mr. Neff’s plan of maintaining vigor in bearing trees by
systematic pruning thus consists in treatment of the exterior of
the tree so that it shall not show a smooth wall of foliage but corru-
gations more or less vertical—these upright valleys or cuts illumi-
nating their own sides and carrying light toward the center of the
tree also. Thus one can get a much greater surface of adequately
lighted bearing wood. Prof. C. 8S. Paine of Redlands aims to secure
the same result by operating upon the interior of the tree in this
way:

By cutting out from the top of the tree several larger branches at their
junction with the trunk or other branches, there is left an open space in
the tree top which may be likened to an inverted cone or a deep basin. In
old trees the topmost limbs lose vital force sooner than limbs issuing
nearer the ground; thus, the loss to the tree of such limbs is of less mo-
ment than elsewhere. After opening the top growth renewal took place
on the exposed parts of the trunks and limbs around the basin and new
growth issues not alone from the new bark, but also from the under sides
of the twigs and branches of the limbs below, which become fruit bearers.

Both these methods of opening from the sides and from the top
are more rational and less heroic than cutting back the tree to
stubs and renewing the whole top. In fact it is believed that such
loss can be avoided by systematic pruning which will induce the
tree to keep continually renewing itself while fruit-bearing.

PRUNING FROZEN TREES

The widespread freezing of citrus trees which occurred in Jan-
uary, 1913, demonstrated that the orange tree is hardier against a
drop of the mercury to 12 or 15 degrees Fahr. than any Californian
supposed. Very few trees were seriously frozen, though very many
lost good fruiting wood, even with the temperature lower than has
been experienced for sixty years, and the crop being gathered in
1914 demonstrates the quick recovery of the trees. Policies in the

ful

VARIETIES OF THE ORANGE 381

pruning of frozen trees and in treatment of rare injuries like bark-
splitting, were carefully studied through field studies and actual
tests, by the citrus experts of the California Experiment Station,
and it was shown that pruning should not be undertaken for several
months or until the tree demonstrated useless parts to be removed.

DISEASES OF THE ORANGE

Citrus fruit trees are subject to many insect pests and diseases,
and though we may not have the worst the world knows we have
enough to keep many experts continually busy investigating and
prescribing for them. The California Experiment Station at
Berkeley has made many publications on these subjects and is
always ready to identify suspected specimens and to give detailed
information. The subject is too wide and varied to be discussed
in this connection.

VARIETIES OF THE ORANGE

- Though many varieties of the orange have been introduced in
- California, but few are largely grown. During the last twenty
years there has been a pervading disposition to concentrate upon
the Washington Navel, and, except to get other varieties either
earlier or later to extend the season, there seems little reason to go
beyond the Navel for commercial purposes. The Valencia, which
stands next to the Navel but afar below it, is grown because its
late ripening makes it profitable after the Navel crop is marketed.
Not only have recent plantings been predominantly of this variety,
but old trees of other kinds have been very largely budded over to
it, and this work is still going on.

As already claimed in the opening pages of this chapter, the
Washington Navel is the greatest commercial orange in the world.
As it goes from California into the world’s commerce it is a com-
bined product of grower’s skill and climatic conditions operating
upon its own natural qualities and characters. Neither of these
factors alone could achieve its present position. The navel mark
is neither peculiar to it nor determinative of it, for there are other
navels which are inferior here and our navel is inferior elsewhere ;
and even in Bahia, whence it came, it has no such quality and
standing, because in coming to California it passed from humid,
tropical to arid, semi-tropical environment. As already suggested,
the tropical orange is not in the same class with the semi-tropical
from the point of view of commerce. Trade in tropical oranges is
local or limited; trade in semi-tropical oranges is world-reaching.
The orange produced in an arid, semi-tropical climate is dense and
compact, firm and better in keeping and earrying characters. It
is also of more sprightly flavor and richer composition, as shown
earlier in this chapter. Such an orange, enclosed in a thin skin of
silky texture and beautiful finish, comes very close to an ideal upon
which to found an industry.

382 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Although California has apparently no need for changes of type
in oranges and has worked diligently and long for the attainment
of the types which are at present supreme in her industry, there is
still opportunity for improvement within the types. Such improve-
ment is probably to be attained not by hybridizing, but by selection.
The Washington Navel, like other members of the citrus family, is
keenly disposed to variation, and some of its variations have been
named and propagated as the lists below will show, but variations
appear as degradations as well as improvements. The pursuit of
such and other improvements, and their opposites also, is now being
systematically taken up at the Citrus Experiment Station at River-
side, which is a branch of the University of California Experiment
Station at Berkeley, and by the Bureau of Plant Industry of the
United States Department of Agriculture, by Mr. A. D. Shamel, as
already indicated in connection with the discussion of budding the
orange.

The shipping season of each of the orange varieties grown in
California is as follows: Washington Navels, in November and
December from Northern and Central California and from Decem-
ber to June in Southern California; Valencias, from June to October
inclusive ; Seedlings, from March to July inclusive; Mediterranean
Sweets, from March to July inclusive.

DESCRIPTIONS OF VARIETIES

Washingion Navel (Bahia, Riverside Navel).—Fruit large, solid, and
heavy; skin smooth and of a very fine texture; very juicy; highly flavored,
with melting pulp; is practically seedless, only in exceptional cases are seed
found; tree is a good and prolific bearer, medium thorny, a rapid grower,
although it does not attain a very large size; bears when very young, com-
mencing to bear as early as one year old from the bud; ripens early. This
variety was imported from Bahia, Brazil, in 1870, by Mr. W. Sanders, of the
Department of Agriculture at Washington, and in 1874 two trees were re-
ceived from Washington by Mrs. Tibbetts, of Riverside, Cal. Trees were
also received about the same time by Alexander Craw, but the Riverside
trees were first in fruit, and the excellence of the variety being at once
recognized, it was propagated rapidly and took the name Riverside Navel
from the place where its characteristics were first made known. As it came
to be largely grown in other districts as well, a broader name, Washington
Navel, recognizing its receipt from the national capital, was adopted.

There is much tendency to variation in the Washington Navel, and sub-
varieties are to be found involving departures in the direction of thinness
and silkiness of rind, etc., as well as interior characters. The first to be-
come prominent of these is Thomson’s Improved Navel, which A. C. Thomson,
of Duarte, Los Angeles County, claimed to have produced by a process of
propagation, but which is believed to be a natural variation. It is a very
refined fruit; generally held to be too fine for ordinary handling, and not
otherwise superior to the Washington Navel.

Golden Buckeye Navel.—Introduced by Mr. R. M. Teague, San Dimas.
Young wood, slender but strong; tree of striking appearance; fruit marked
with bands of deeper color, skin very smooth; pulp aromatic with sugges-
tion of pineapple flavor.

Golden Nugget Navel.—Also by R. M. Teague. Young wood willowy and
slender, tree umbrageous; fruit smooth, solid, thin-skinned, rather oblong
and good size, rich golden color; pulp free from rag, and delicious; said to
average larger than common Washington and to be very promising.

VARIETIES OF THE ORANGE 383

Navelencia.—Another navel variation held to be a cross with Valencia
by Thomson. Resembling Navel but more drawn out at the stem end.
Large, handsome and later than Navel. Growing in favor.

Australian Navel.—A coarser type of the Navel introduced from Aus-
tralia in 1874 by Lewis Wolfskill, of Los Angeles, and largely propagated
formerly. It has now been practically abandoned for the Washington Navel.
It seems to be of more account at some points in the San Joaquin Valley
than elsewhere. Recently held to be undistinguishable from inferior types
produced by sucker growths on Washington Navel trees.

Jafia.—A variety introduced in early years but largely discarded. It has
recently been propagated in the San Joaquin district, where it has shown
desirable characteristics. Resembles Valencia. Late but is earlier in
ripening—following the Navel.

Valencia Late (Hart’s Tardiff)—Medium size, oblong, pale yellow; flesh
rich, deep yellow, sprightly and crisp; tree a strong grower, slightly thorny.
Ripens late, and valuable for late shipping.

Malta Blood.—Fruit small to medium, oval; flesh fine texture and flavor,
streaked and mottled with red; few seeds. The tree is thornless and regu-
lar and heavy bearer.

Ruby.—Medium size, roundish; when ripe often reddened by deep red
pulp within; juicy and sprightly, often rather acid; tree vigorous, thornless
and a good bearer.

_ Mediterranean Sweet.—Fruit medium to large, pulp and skin of fine tex-
ture, very solid and few seeds; ripens late, often not until May or June.
The tree is thornless and of dwarf habit of growth, and is inclined to over-
bear. It was at one time the most widely-distributed variety in the State,
next to the Washington Navel, but has recently been largely budded over.
It was introduced and named by T. A. Garey, of Los Angeles.

Paper Rind St. Michael.—Fruit small, round, very firm and very juicy;
pale, thin skin; very elegant in appearance. It ripens late and keeps well
on the trees as late as August; tree is of dwarf habit, medium thorny, a
good bearer, and very desirable.

Kumquat (Citrus Japonica).—Fruit very small, oblong or olive shaped,
rind thick, yellow, smooth; sweet-scented; very little pulp; containing many
seeds; tree dwarf (a bush), a prolific bearer. Chiefly used for conserves.

Daney’s Tangerine, or Kid Glove.—Leaves broad, fruit flat, small to me-
dium, reddish; skin separating readily from the pulp; flesh juicy and aro-
matic.

Satsuma (Unshiu Oonshiu).—A considerable acreage of this variety,
planted ten years ago on dwarfing stock, has availed very little commer-
cially. At present there is disposition to grow the variety on sweet orange
stock because of its earliness, but this practice has been recently con-
demned by Florida experience, where it is held it must be grown on the tri-
folicata root. Tree quite hardy, fruit irregular in size, but usually medium
size, flattened; rind easily detached; fine texture, sweet and nearly seedless.

Mandarin, Willow-Leaved.—Medium sized, flattened, deep yellow; flesh
dark orange, skin loose; tree compact, ornamental.

King.—Of the Mandarin class; large, rough-skinned, skin and segments
loose, pulp high flavored, sweet, aromatic.

CHAPTER XXXII
THE GRAPE FRUIT OR POMELO IN CALIFORNIA

This citrus fruit achieved a very sudden interest in California
because of the prices commanded by Florida pomeloes about twenty-
five years ago. When this supply of Eastern cities was cut off by
the serious frost injuries in Florida in 1895 there arose a passion
for planting the trees in California, and a considerable acreage was
planted, and as the tree is a very rapid grower and precocious in
fruit-bearing, large shipments were made in 1898, but the results
were not satisfactory, and since that time, although pomeloes some-
times sell to good advantage, the demand is on the whole light and
irregular. The local consumption of pomeloes in California is in-
creasing but does not warrant much acreage. For these reasons
early plantings were largely grafted over to the orange.

Within the last decade Florida regained her grape-fruit leader-
ship and has produced such quantities that recourse to juice-making
seems necessary to realize profit on the surplus—even though the
type of grape fruit produced in Florida gives her the preference
in the fresh fruit markets of the country during its season. Cali-
fornia has however recently demonstrated a possibility of selling
to advantage before and after the Florida season and this has re-
awakened local interest in production. The California State Board
of Equalization reports 108,896 grape fruit trees in bearing in the
spring of 1918 and 138,592 trees below bearing age—more than one-
third of the latter being located in Imperial County, where the fruit
matures very early and fruit is sweeter than is commonly found,
the bitter less pronounced, the rag tender, and altogether as desir-
able to eat without sugar as the average orange. Confidence that
such fruit ripening very early may steal a march on the Florida
product is the secret of the large planting which has been indicated.
On the other hand it has been demonstrated that holding the fruit
on the trees in the later citrus districts not only improves its quality
but brings it on sale after the Florida crop is disposed of and gives
the grower an advantage similar to that realized by growers of the
Valencia orange, who get high prices after the Navels are out of
the way.

Justification of the renewed interest in the grape fruit is also
found in the fact that fruit of much finer points than the common
California product can be had by selection of better varieties which
are to be found in California orchards and propagating exclusively
such selections. Mr. A. D. Shamel, whose work with the orange
has been cited in the-preceding chapter, believes that he has found
a strain of Marsh’s Seedless which is of dependable superiority,
and is now being largely propagated. It thus appears that though
the grape fruit has been of such little importance that it has been
considered almost neglible, it has problems the solution of which
may make it great.

WHY CALL IT GRAPE FRUIT? 385

SHALL IT BE “GRAPE FRUIT’ OR ‘‘POMELO’’?

Grapefruit is the accepted American commercial name for the
fruit and an accepted commercial name is too valuable to disre-
gard. The last report of the manager of the California Fruit
Growers’ Exchange, our great citrus marketing organization,
makes several references to grapefruit and does not use the name
pomelo at all. Dr. W. T. Swingle points out in the Standard
Encyclopedia of Horticulture that ‘‘pomela’’ and ‘‘pummelo’’ are
contractions of the Dutch ‘‘pompelmoes’’ and cover nearly all
fruits of citrus grandis, and he advises that we use it in this generic
sense and apply it to all the species of the genus except the grape-
fruit group, which he holds to be distinct enough from the others
to merit a separate name. It is therefore likely that we shall
henceforth use the term grapefruit in California because pomelo
means too much in a botanical sense and too little in a commercial
way. j

CULTURE AND PRUNING OF THE GRAPEFRUIT

The grapefruit is so like the orange that its propagation, plant-
ing, shaping the trees, and general culture thereof are almost iden-
tical with the same acts for the orange, as detailed in the preceding
chapter. The treatment of bearing trees to insure continuous
thrift and the restoration of them after neglect and over-bearing
are practically the same. The following specific suggestions for
pruning the mature grapefruit tree, which are drawn from the
practice of Mr. Herman Brussow of Whittier, as applied to grape-
fruit trees of Mr. Louis Farnsworth in the Imperial Valley, are also
pertinent to the treatment of the old orange tree:

Grapefruit trees like Valencia oranges tend to bear heavily in alternate
years. Prune while the trees are dormant in the winter before an off year.
Go over a tree systematically three times. Where limbs are low, creep
under on your knees, and saw out enough to give the remainder good
clearance from the ground, and take out everything low in the crotches.
Inside fruit wood to be left above will hang down in this space later. It
is necessary to leave enough clearance for circulation of air under the
tree and to cultivate closely so the ground will not sour.

The second time over the tree is pruned with long-handled clippers,
also inside, and clearing out the low brush so you can stand up. Don’t
take out limbs that would leave holes in the side of the tree. Where it is
a question which of two crowding limbs comes out, take the lower. Prune
out all dead and crossing wood. Do not leave any twigs which would hang
on the ground with fruit on. lLeafless twigs of fruit wood will have
leaves and flowers shortly after irrigation, within a month, along in Feb-
ruary here in Imperial. Don’t cut them out, thinking they are dead.

Standing up for the last of the second inside pruning, you can locate
the limbs that should still be cut much better than from the outside,
though the third time over the tree will be from the outside.

Where much is being taken from the tree anyhow, leave all possible,
to be pruned two years hence, to avoid too much shock by removal of
leaves. Where it is a question whether to leave twigs under or on top of
a limb, leave those on top, to grow upward so they may replace the end
brush of that limb when it shall be taken off in the future.

386 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

It is better to cut two branches of a limb off in two different cuts than
in one, because quite often in making the first cut the “picture develops”
and shows the remaining branch to be needed on the tree.

Suckers should never be sawed or clipped out when they are soft
enough to be pulled out. Neither should they be pulled out by pulling in
one direction, because that makes an ugly break in the bark. While pull-
ing gently the sucker should be worked back and forth so as to crack the
bark all around and then pulled off. If a sucker is cut off it is likely that
four times as many suckers will start.

Varieties—The following comprise about the only varieties
grown in this, State:

Standard Marsh Seedless.—The trees produce large and regular crops.
The fruits have a slightly flattened shape. Ripe fruits very smooth, satin-
like, ivory white color, thin rind, from nine to ten seeds each, being com-
mercially seedless. The rag is tender, having a slightly bitter taste,
which is pleasant and agreeable. The fruits have an abundance of juice
that spurts from the fruits when they are cut. The juice possesses the de-
sired and typical grapefruit quality, a highly developed pleasing flavor
that is only equaled amongst California citrus fruits, in the opinion of the
writer, by the fine flavor of the Washington Navel orange. This type is
worthy of a separate varietal name in that it has been successfully isolated
in California by bud selection and is being extensively propagated by Cali-
fornia citrus growers.—A. D. Shamel.

This type is commended for exclusive propagation by the Grape Fruit
Club of California. Selections of Marsh Seedless are also being made by
leading propagators, some preferring lemon yellow as a skin color.

Nectar.—A Florida seedling, grown at Duarte; flat-round, heavy; peel
smooth and bright, pale-lemon color; oil cells small and numerous; flesh
dense, firm texture, abundant juice, vinous, excellent, bitter-sweet element
distinct; few seeds and little rag; sizes from 42 to 80 to the box. Grown
by A. P. Griffith of Azusa.

Imperial.—_Medium to large, peel very smooth, medium thin and of fine
texture; little rag, juice abundant, fine aromatic flavor, good keeper and
shipper. Tree upright and heavy bearer.

Triumph.—Medium size, peel smooth, clear, thin and fine grained; very
juicy, heavy and good flavored; juice free from bitterness; very little rag;
an early and prolific bearer.

CHAPTER XXXIV

THE LEMON, LIME AND CITRON

Lemon growing is a very unique and distinctive branch of Cali-
fornia horticulture, which in the present advancement of culture
and preparation for the market well illustrates the originality and
invention which the California fruit grower has displayed in his
undertakings. Lemon growing in California is old because it rose
at the old missions in the second century back of us, but successful
lemon growing as a great industry is new and constantly assuming
new phases. For the old seedling lemons were bad, and though
enterprising growers soon learned that fact and set about getting
better ones, it took years to secure them and to learn how to grow
and handle them so that the Californian, could compete with the
Sicilian fruit in the markets of the United States. Nor was time
the only thing sacrificed—hundreds of thousands of dollars were
lost before the California grower could put upon the market a
good lemon, fit to stay good for a sufficient length of time. Un-
profitable plantings; expensive curing houses, which did not cure
well; countless experiments which yielded only loss and disappoint-
ment—all these are wrecks upon the rock of American lemon,
erowing. And that is equivalent to saying California lemon grow-
ing, for there are no lemons commercially produced elsewhere in
this country.

Naturally Californians sought first to know how lemons were
grown and handled abroad. At cost of great effort and outlay they
learned practically nothing that they could do and a great deal
that it was not necessary to do. Then they assumed a more rational
mood—a disposition to discern what principles are involved in
the problem, and to apply them in their own way according to con-
ditions locally prevailing. Along this line grand success has been
attained by a few masterful men conducting large lemon enter-
prises or smaller undertakings of their own, while the mass of
lemon planters, for one reason or another, have never reaped the
reward they expected. On the whole, it may be said that lemon
erowing is a much harder and more exacting enterprise than orange
growing, and for this reason many have new-topped their trees to
oranges and thus escaped difficulties which they could not over-
come.

With the aid of the protective tariff the most resolute and
capable have attained success, and the California lemon became
known and highly esteemed upon its merits everywhere. The tariff
has somewhat offset cheap labor in Italy and cheap water transpor-
tation from the Mediterranean region, and our lemons could some-
times compete with the foreign product not only in the West but
even in the cities of the Atlantic seaboard. All this has been ac-
complished within two decades and it is a notable result. One

388 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

measure of this fact may be found in the production of 3,667,000
boxes, worth $9,167,000, during the year 1918. The California
lemon has, however, not yet attained such mastery of American
markets as the orange has, for there was a value of $2,179,211 in im-
ported lemons, while imported oranges in 1918 were only worth
half as much. But that relatively low value of imported lemons
was due to the scarcity of ships to bring them. In 1913 the value
of imported lemons was $5,981,635 and the Italian producers are
watching their chance to return to their old importations. The
California contention that the lemon should be encouraged with
increased protection to enable producers to push the issue of an
American lemon for Americans to a successful termination, was re-
jected by the tariff of 1918. This danger to American production
was temporarily averted by the war, but must now be guarded
against anew. Whether the lemon can weather the storms of all
‘kinds which buffet it remains to be demonstrated.

The best pack of California lemons has a uniformity of size, a
finish of skin, a juiciness and keen acidity which are unrivaled in the
world. Numerous careful tests have been made of the California
lemon in Atlantic cities in comparison with the best south Euro-
pean product, and the superiority of the American fruit has thus
been demonstrated.

SITUATIONS AND SOILS FOR THE LEMON

The lemon does best in a practically frostless situation. Such
places are found in largest area in the southern half of the coast
regions of California, but also exist at favoring elevations in the
interior. The moderating influence of proximity to salt water,
and the effect of local topography and environment, which give
frost-free nooks or belts, are elements favoring the lemon grower.
In such situations the lemon blooms and fruits continuously
throughout the year.

While the lemon requires a less extreme of low temperature
than the orange, it also thrives with a less extreme of high tempera-
ture and less duration of it. It apparently does require as much
heat to develop acid, which is the charm of the lemon, as it does
sugar, which is essential to an acceptable orange; therefore a coast
situation which may not yield a sweet orange may produce a good
lemon, although it is a fact that in the southern coast region,
where the largest commercial production of lemons is now achieved,
the orange also does well. Another advantage of the lower summer
temperature is that the continuous ripening is not interfered with,
as it is by high summer heat, which hastens maturity and brings
the mass of the fruit to marketable condition in the winter— a sea-
son when the demand for the lemon is very small. This objection
is, however, being measurably overcome by the proper storage and
treatment of the fruit for sale, at a considerable interval after
picking, as will be mentioned presently. But both the curing and
storage of lemons are more easily secured in the more equable
temperature and moister air of the coast region.

PLANTING LEMON TREES 389

The lemon delights in a sandy loam, and probably our best or-
chards are on such soil, but the trees thrive in other soils. There is
a difference of opinion among growers as to what soil is to be
especially sought for. There are profitable lemon orchards in
Southern California located upon deep clay loams, and even upon
strong red clay soils. As with some other fruits, the choice of soil
is, to a certain extent, governed by the stock on which the lemon
is worked, for it is no longer grown upon a lemon root as it was
in early days in California.

PROPAGATING AND PLANTING

The prevailing stock for the lemon is the orange seedling, either
the sweet or sour stock, under the same conditions that each is pre-
ferred for the orange, the sour stock resisting measurably the effects
of ill-drainage of heavy land or flat, low places. The orange root
thrives on a greater variety of soils than the lemon, and produces
a healthy lemon tree where the lemon on its own root would fail.
The growth of orange seedlings for budding has been described in
Chapter XXXII. If lemon seedlings should be desired they may
be grown in the same way. Plants either for permanent growth
or for stocks for budding can be grown from cuttings, as explained
in Chapter VIII. The budding of the lemon is practically the same
as of the orange, which has been described. An old tree can be
changed from one variety to another by the methods described for
the orange, and oranges can be worked into old lemon trees and
eood fruit secured if the lemon itself be growing upon an orange
root, which is likely to be the case with trees planted during the
last two decades.

Planting of the lemon is the same as that of the orange. The
distance in planting varies from twenty to twenty-five feet. Irriga-
tion of lemon and orange trees is also similar.

PRUNING THE LEMON

The pruning of the lemon is essentially different from that of
the orange, because the habit of the tree is different. The lemon
requires constant attention to bring it into good bearing form and
keep it there; the orange, after it is well shaped, simply needs
attention to encourage it to retain the bearing form to which it
seems naturally disposed. The orange largely provides itself with
satisfactory bearing wood; the lemon devotes itself, even when it
is old enough to know better, to a rangy rambling wood growth
with bearing wood upon the ends of willowy rods where it is swept
about in the wind and burned in the sun, instead of nestling it
neatly among the leaves as the orange does.

The rational proceeding with the lemon is, then, to develop it
at first into a low, stocky and strong form, such as is described in
Chapter XII for deciduous tree. This may be secured by pinching
so as not to allow running out of long branches at first, or it may

390 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

be secured by severe cutting back of the long growths of the young
~ tree. In either case low branches will be secured. Make good
selections from these branches to form a symmetrical tree and cut
back the growth which comes upon them to cause it to branch in
its turn. In this way plenty of good, strong wood is secured low
down, and with short distances between the laterals. Strong, up-
right shoots (usually called ‘‘suckers’’) which break out at points
where branches are not desired, should be rubbed off or cleanly
cut away. Having secured about the right branching in about the
right places no strong sprouts should be allowed, and the tree should
be encouraged to make smaller laterals, which will be the bearing
wood. It must be admitted, however, that this rational plan of
restricting wood growth and directing the energies of the tree to
fruit has in some cases been pursued too far and the tree has re-
sented repression by diminished thrift. The pruner must allow
freer growth of shoot to secure better foliage. The pruning of the
lemon as of other trees must always be pursued with judgment
rather than by recipe.

When the adequate growth of bearing wood within reach is
borne in mind it appears that the pruning of the lemon involves
many of the considerations urged in Chapter XII for deciduous
fruits; the method of making a strong, short trunk, the arrange-
ment of branches, the prevention of long growths, the encourage-
ment of low, bearing twigs, the thinning of twigs to prevent the
tree from becoming too dense, the points to be observed in cutting
back, not by shearing but by treating each branch according to
its position and vigor—all these must be borne in mind by the lemon
pruner. It must also be remembered that the work must be reso-
lutely continued and the tree always prevented from wild growth
and kept down to bearing on the smaller twigs, which are promoted
and retained for that purpose. The building-down process described
for the young orange is easily applicable to the lemon.

Old lemon trees which have been allowed to grow away into a
long, rangy form and to bear fruit too high for profit, can be
brought down to good form by severe cutting back and after-
treatment of the new shoots, keeping the smaller horizontal growths
and cutting out cleanly the strong upright shoots, or cutting them
back if more branches are needed. The time for pruning the lemon
depends upon the end in view; if a young tree, to promote wood
erowth, prune at the opening of the growing season in the spring;
in older trees, to repress growth and advance fruiting, prune in
midsummer.

A very suggestive description, of the actual operation, for all
those who have lemon trees too high for economical picking and
needing renewal of thrift for abundant bearing, is the following:

While the fruit is off is the very best time for renewal of old lemon
trees by heavy pruning of their tops, according to Mr. C. C. Teague, mana-
ager of the Limoneira orchards in Ventura County. Heavy top cuts made
between May 1 and August 15 have been found to induce a vigorous
growth of new wood, which will set a fine crop of lemons the following

PRUNING BEARING LEMONS 391

spring. Heavy pruning after August 15 or September 1 makes the new
growth come so late in the season that it is short and stubby and does not
make enough fruit. Lower wood of good foliage and color, which is left,
will bloom in the fall for the crop to be picked the following spring.

The heavily pruned trees lose about one-fourth of their height and over
nalf of their brush. Cuts are made as low as necessary in the tops to get
rid of most of the big brush on each main limb. Always a horizontally
growing branch is left just below the cut. Few main limbs are taken out at
the head of the tree on account of danger of starting decay in the trunks.
All considerable wounds are covered with a mixture of asphaltum and creo-
sote. This is applied with a brush fixed at an angle on the end of a long
stick; for many of the cuts are 10 to 12 feet up. The tops are heavily
thinned out, but inside and low-growing fruit brush is partly cut back
and left to the fullest extent possible. It has been found that after the
heavy topping even the leafless, seemingly dead, twigs in the skirts of the
tree will put out leaves and fruit when light is let in through the opened
centers. Not even the dead twigs in the skirts are taken out, because un-
observant pruners would take much live wood with it.

Too much of the skirt growth was cut from the first trees heavily
pruned, and long growth was left on the corners of the top. Both of these
practices were seen to be serious faults. The upper corners whipped in
in the wind, bore terminal fruit, and by the extra leverage and exposure
split off more limbs.

On trees so pruned three weeks previously an abundant shooting of new
growth was already seen all along the main limbs, even down to the head
of the tree, the more horizontal limbs having the most numerous shoots.
These will bear fruit abundantly close to the strong framework of the
tree for years to come, if kept properly thinned out. Many of them will
set fruit next spring. Meanwhile the old growth left in the skirts will set
fruit more abundantly this fall to mature next spring.

As there is some fruit on the brush cut out, pickers follow the pruners
and save the fruit. Following closely after the pruners is a spray rig
applying whitewash to all the main limbs to prevent sunburn.

When it is remembered that harvesting lemons is a continuous
operation as will be stated presently, keeping the bearing’ wood of
the tree within easy reach is more imperative from an economic
point of view than with trees from which fewer pickings gather the
crop.

Pruning is also related to preventing infection of the fruit with
lemon rot fungus spores from the ground. Fruits which touch the
ground or upon which dirt is splashed by rains is first infected.
This question of infection is discussed in Bulletin 190 of the Cali-
fornia Experiment Station.

PREPARATION OF LEMONS FOR MARKETING

The lemon as taken from the tree is not in condition for market-
ing except to packers who wish to undertake the curing. To secure
best results in quality and in keeping properties, the lemon should
be carefully cut from the tree as soon as proper size is reached,
To allow the fruit to hang upon the tree until lemon color is as-
sumed, gives a lemon which is deficient in juice, oversized, apt to
develop bitterness, and prone to decay. Two and five-sixteenths
rings are used for winter pickings and 214 for spring and summer,
never more than six weeks being allowed to elapse between pick-
ings, and the fruit is usually picked once a month. By careful

392 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

attention to this, desirable sizes and good-keeping stock are ob-
tained. Neglect of this is the weak point of many of the lemon
growers of California. Good results can not be obtained, even by
the best methods of keeping lemons, unless the fruit is picked at
the proper time and properly handled.

If gathered before the color begins to turn properly cured
lemons may be kept for months, and they will improve in market
qualities, by a thinning and toughening of the skin, and by increase
of juice contents. This curing of the fruit, as it is called, is accom-
plished in many simple ways. If the fruit is gathered and placed
in piles under the trees, where, with low-headed trees, it is com-
pletely shaded by the foliage, it processes well and comes out
beautiful in color and excellent in quality, providing it is a good
variety. Some have trusted wholly to this open-air curing under
the trees, merely protecting the fruit by a thin covering of straw,
or other light, dry materials. Others let the fruit lie a few days
under the trees, carefully shaded from the sun, and place it in boxes
or upon trays, and keep it months in a darkened fruit-house, pro-
viding ventilation but guarding the fruit against draughts of air.
Gathering the fruit while still green and packing with alternate
layers of dry sand, has given excellent marketable fruit, but of
course the handling of so much sand is too expensive nor is it at
all necessary.

Much attention has been given to lemon storage in Southern
California, and many curing and storage houses have been con-
structed. Naturally there is great variation in design and method
of operation. The essential conditions to be secured are exclusion
of light; regulation of temperature; ample ventilation, under con-
trol, however, so as to prevent entrance of air which is too dry or
too hot; convenience and cheapness of handling, for the lemon is
expensive in handling at best during the months of storage which
is often desirable. Some of these conditions are relatively of much
more importance in the interior than in the coast region, because
heat and dry air reach occasionally extremes which are not ex-
perienced near the ocean, which is a great regulator of temperature
and atmospheric moisture. For these reasons a much simpler
system of storage is now in large use in the coast district, while in
the interior suitable special buildings or basements are apparently
necessary. Anyone entering upon lemon handling should certainly
visit establishments now in satisfactory use and learn by careful
observation of their suitability to his purposes.

Near the coast, and so far toward the interior as ocean influences
extend in adequate degree, the building of special curing houses
has been abandoned and some quite expensive structures have been
turned to other uses. An objection to house-storage lies in the fact
that the fruit is apt to be massed in the house and that which: is
just picked given the same ventilation as that which has been in
the house several months, when, as a matter of fact, lemons in
different stages of curing require radically different treatment as
regards ventilation. As a result of this treatment some of the fruit

CURING OF LEMONS 393

is usually wilted from receiving too much air, while the greater
portion of it is badly decayed from receiving too little.

Proper ventilation is the keynote of success in keeping lemons,
and after extensive and expensive experience along the old lines,
Mr. Teague of the Limoneira Company, already cited, concluded
that lemon handlers had been on the wrong track in believing a
low temperature first in importance. If the ventilation is right
the temperature will take care of itself. Mr. Teague decided that
proper conditions for keeping lemons lie just between the points
where they wilt and where they sweat, inducing neither if possible,
for too much moisture induces decay and too little causes shrivel-
ing. The fragment of the stem left on the fruit by the cutter may
be used as a test; if it adheres, the conditions are right for slow
curing; if it detaches easily, the best keeping quality is not being
secured.

The Limoneira Company was first to equip a house on the open-
air plan. The house is 300x100 feet. The flooring is 2-inch planking
and the roof covered with gravel-paper roofing. The building has
no sides whatever, allowing free circulation of air. The fruit for
storage is put into regular shipping boxes, piled in blocks of 560
boxes. There is a double row of these blocks on either side of a
20-foot space which extends to the entire length of the building,
and which answers the double purpose of a work room and an air
space. The boxes are so piled as to permit of the circulation of air
around each box. Each block of fruit is covered by a canvas 10x
10x20, made box shape by a canvas cover and four canvas curtains
on rollers, the openings at the corners being closed by lacings as
desirable. The ventilation is controlled by raising or lowering the
canvas, and each block of fruit can be given exactly the ventilation
that it requires, irrespective of the other fruit in the house. By
this method 50 or 100 ears of fruit can be handled and kept in as
good condition as if there was only one. Each block being num-
bered, a complete record of the lemons from each of the six sections
of the ranch is kept from the time it is picked until the fruit is
shipped. The fruit is all washed in a lemon-washing machine, and
is piled up in the house wet, just as it comes from the machine.
The canvas covers are not dropped over it, however, until it is
thoroughly dry.

With proper curing facilities lemons picked in November and
December may be kept until the following July. Later pickings
may not keep so well and may be marketed first. Of the finer points
in lemon handling, however, there is much which must be learned
by experience. «

Forced curing of lemons, by which green fruit may be colored
in about two weeks, is done by burning oil stoves in a closed room.
The change ‘is effected by the products of combustion and not by
the heat alone. The process is described in detail in Bulletin No.
232 of the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, February 13, 1912.

394 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

VARIETIES OF LEMONS FOR CALIFORNIA

During the earlier years of California lemon growing’ there were
continuous efforts put forth to secure better lemon varieties.
During the last decade three varieties have been accepted as satis-
factory and nearly all others have been dropped. The three are
Eureka, Lisbon, and Villa Franca, arranged according to present
degree of popularity in Southern California, where nearly the
whole commercial product is now made, although some plantings
have been undertaken farther north, chiefly in the citrus belt on
the east side of the San Joaquin Valley. .

Eureka.—A native of California, originated by C. R. Workman, at Los
Angeles, from seed imported from Hamburg in 1872, only one seed grow-
ing, from which buds were put by him on orange stock. Distributed by T.
A. Garey, of Los Angeles. Tree very free from thorns. Fruit medium size,

sweet rind, a good keeper, few seeds; very popular, especially in coast
regions. Less popular in the interior because of scant foliage.

Lisbon.—Imported from Portugal; first grown by D. M. Burnham, of
Riverside. Fruit uniformly medium size, rather oblong, fine grain, thin
sweet rind, strong acid; few seeds; a good keeper; tree is a strong grow-
er, with compact foliage, prolific bearer, but starts bearing late; quite
thorny, but thorns decrease in size as the tree grows older; popular at in-
terior points especially, and Eureka trees in the Tulare region are being
grafted over to Lisbon.

Villa Franea.—Imported from Europe. Medium size, oblong, slightly
pointed at the blossom end, rind thin, without bitterness, acid strong,
juicy, nearly seedless. Tree thornless, branches spreading and somewhat
drooping, foliage abundant; withstands lower temperature than other im-
ported varieties.

THE LIME

The lime (Citrus medica acida) has proved much less hardy than
the lemon. It has been killed in situations where the orange and
lemon have not been injured. Unless adequate protection is thought
worth the effort, there is little use in planting the lime, except in a
frostless situation. Such localities are found near the ocean in
Southern California, and here and there at proper elevation around
the Bay of San Francisco and in the interior both north and south;
still the growth of the lime must be counted very hazardous.
There is less inducement to experiment with the fruit from the fact
that the Pacific Coast markets are well supplied with Mexican limes,
usually at prices which leave no opportunity for competitors.

Limes are grown from seed, the variety usually coming true
from seed. The trees are small and are frequently grown in hedge
form. The common variety is the Mexican. The Imperial, a large,
rather hardy variety, is favorably reported by several growers.
Bearss Seedless has been successfully and profitably grown by Mr.
R. Gallegos at the Mission San Jose in Alameda County.

THE CITRON

This fruit (Citrus medica cedra) is little grown in California,
although it is quite hardy and could be produced over a large area.

MAKING CANDIED CITRON 395

The only use for the fruit, which resembles a monstrous lemon, is
in its candied rind, and no one has deemed it worth while to push
competition with the imported candied citron, though very fine ex-
perimental lots have been produced, and the interests of the fruit-
preserving establishments in the product recurs periodically. There
have been collections of citron trees imported from the Mediterra-
nean region by the United States Department of Agriculture plant-
ed at several points in Southern California. As yet no considerable
product has been reached. There is, however, continued interest,
and experimental planting continues, with a prospect of satisfac-
‘tory attainment ere long. Samples of the candied article have been
approved by experts as very satisfactory.

An outline for the preparation of candied citron is as follows:
The fruit, before assuming a yellow color, and also when bright
yellow, is picked and placed in barrels filled with brine, and left
for at least a month. The brine is renewed several times, and the
fruit allowed to remain in it until required for use, often for a
period of four or five months. When the citrons are to be candied
they are taken from the barrels and boiled in fresh water to soften
them. They are then cut into halves, the seed and pulp are removed,
and the fruit is again immersed in cold water, soon becoming of a
greenish color. After this it is placed in large earthen jars, covered
with hot syrup, and allowed to stand about three weeks. During
this time the strength of the syrup is gradually increased. The fruit
is then put into boilers with crystallized sugar dissolved in a small
quantity of water, and cooked; then allowed to cool, and boiled
again until it will take up no more sugar. It is then dried and
packed in wooden boxes.

ORNAMENTAL CITRUS SPECIES

There are grown in this State for curiosity or ornament various
minor citrus species, including the Bergamot and the dwarf orna-
mental sorts from Asia. There are, of course, the ornamental
species grown by florists for their fragrant bloom.

CHAPTER XXXV
MINOR SEMI-TROPICAL FRUITS IN CALIFORNIA

A number of interesting fruits are now grown in this State
which, for one reason or another, have not yet attained any great
commercial importance, although some of them are rapidly ad-
vancing in popular esteem and likely to gain much higher place
in the markets. Others will probably never be grown except for
home use and garden ornament.

THE BANANA

The banana has been a favorite plant for experimental culture
for many years, and though good fruit has been grown at various
points in the State, the culture is too hazardous to warrant large
investment, and if this danger was not present, the abundant sup-
plies available from the islands of the Pacific would probably reduce
the profits to a narrow margin. The banana can be trusted only
in protected situations and in small numbers which can be given
special attention. With these conditions the banana may yield very
acceptable fruit for home use and be an ornament to the garden.
Its beauty is, however, seriously impaired by winds, which whip
its tender leaves into shreds and give the plant an unkempt appear-
ance.

The largest number of bananas are seen in Los Angeles and
Santa Barbara, and one grower at an elevation near the latter place
reports his table supplied daily throughout the year with the fruit
of the Cavendish species, which is the most commonly grown sort.
The Yellow Martinique or Yellow Costa Rica, the Orinoco, the
Hawaiian Lele, Hart’s Choice, and a large-fruited variety known
in Los Angeles County as the Baldwin, are also approved by
growers.

THE CHERIMOYER OR PERUVIAN CUSTARD APPLE

The oldest cherimoyer (Anona cherimolia) is growing in Santa
Barbara. The fruit was introduced about fifty years ago, and the
parent tree has for many years produced abundant fruit in such
perfection that the seeds have readily germinated, and the trees
thus propagated have been in successful bearing in several Santa
Barbara gardens. The leaves are oval and pointed at both ends;
flowers solitary, very fragrant, and having a greenish color. Good
specimens of the fruit are three or four inches in diameter, often
heart-shaped, grayish brown or nearly black when fully ripe. The
flesh, in which thirty or forty brown seeds are found, is soft, sweet,
and pleasant to the taste, being most palatable when near decay.
Mr. I. H. Cammack, of Whittier, describes the pulp as of the con-

-

THE GUAVA IN CALIFORNIA 397

sistency of ice cream or a custard flavored with a blending of pine-
apples and bananas. If it has a fault it is too rich. Apparently it
has no particular season for ripening, yet the best specimens seem
to be found in Santa Barbara in April and May. The cherimoyer
is also found in gardens in San Diego and Los Angeles counties.
It needs a well-protected situation. The fruit has been marketed
on a limited scale in Los Angeles, and larger plantations have been
made especially in the Cahuenga Valley, near Los Angeles. The
plant comes true from seed, and the tree bears in its fourth year,
and should have as much room as an orange tree. Mr. C. P. Taft,
of Orange, points out the fact that much can be gained by selec-
tion and propagation from the most satisfactory trees, as follows:

Cherimoyers found in the gardens of Southern California are almost
always seedlings, and generally shy bearers. There is but one named
variety, so far as I am aware, the Golden Russet. This is very prolific and
frequently attains large size. Specimens above one pound in weight are
not uncommon. The quality is as good as any, but is variable owing to the
season and time of ripening, much cold having a marked deteriorating
effect. The normal shape is like that of the strawberry, and the variations
from the normal are equally abundant; in fact, in this respect the cheri-
molia is quite extraordinary, as the same tree will have on it fully matured
fruit from less than an inch in diameter up to six or eight inches. In size
the tree averages about the same as the peach. The market is a good one,
large fruit commanding $3 per dozen or more, while the smaller ones sell
by the pound at a relatively lower price.

THE CHOCHO OR CHAYOTA*

The chocho plant (Sechium edule) is perhaps better known as
‘‘choeo,’’ ‘‘chocho,’’ ‘‘chayota,’’ and ‘‘Portuguese squash.’’ It
belongs to the order cucurbitacae, and is a vine, with perennial
root, resembling in growth and fruit our summer squash or vege-
table marrow. It is a very prolific bearer. Both the fruit and the
ereat yam-like tuber are used as food by man and beast in the
West Indies, where it is considered a wholesome article of diet. The
roots often weigh as much as twenty pounds. They have a flavor
smilar to the yam, and are considered a greater delicacy than the
fruit, which in a raw state resembles the chestnut in flavor, and
under favorable conditions weighs over three pounds. The proper
way to grow them is to plant the whole fruit, as they have but
one seed, and they produce fruit in three months, under favorable
conditions. The vine is exceedingly rapid in growth, and may
cover a thousand square feet in one summer, and yield shade until
frost kills the top growth.

THE GUAVA

Two species of guava have been quite widely tried in this
state—the strawberry guava (Psidium cattleyanum) and the lemon
guava (Psidium guayava). The former is the hardier, and, in fact,

*An interesting illustrated account of this plant by K. A. Ryerson may be found in
the University of California Journal of Agriculture, April, 1914.

398 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

seems to be about as hardy as the orange, and it has fruited in
widely separated parts of the State; the latter is quite tender, and
is at present only grown in favorable places along our southern
coast, and even there it is found inferior in quality and usefulness
to the strawberry guava.

Mr. C. P. Taft, of Orange, has confidence in the lemon guava
through the selection of better varieties. It is far larger than the
strawberry, and of quite attractive appearance. Sometimes the
color is almost white, sometimes quite green, and frequently of a
bright yellow, often with a red cheek. These variations are only
what is naturally to be expected from seedlings, and almost no
others have yet been planted. Mr. Taft has fruited quite a number,
perhaps a hundred, and finds it to possess qualities which if prop-
erly selected and developed will cause it to equal the strawberry
guava in hardiness and flavor and early ripening.

Mr. D. W. Coolidge, of Pasadena, gives his judgment of the
standing of the guava in California as follows:

The guava is a plant of great value as an ornamental. Its glossy green
foliage is scarcely less attractive than its large snowy white, jasmine-
scented flowers. While many varieties of the guava are found growing in
our section, few of them to my mind have any real value. The strawberry
guava type is the hardiest and best, and Guava lucidum is the best of the
type. This is a yellow strawberry guava of a distinctive flavor, and were
it not for the large seeds possessed by all guavas would be considered an
ideal dessert fruit. This particular variety, too, is most prodigious in its
bearing qualities. I have known a plant three years from seed to produce
more than a quart of fruit, and we have had in our nursery plants eighteen
months from the time the seed was placed in the ground with a number of
fruits on them. ‘The fruits will average an inch or more in diameter,
always round, and are of a bright lemon color. The ordinary strawberry
er red guava is worth while growing for jellies. Another desirable straw-
berry guava is the Guava araca. This in appearance is similar to lucidum,
but is much later. While lucidum ripens from September to November, I
have never known araca to ripen before the middle or last of December.
This one is the more susceptible to frost.

The guava grows quite readily from the seed, and grows from
cuttings under glass. In regions of generous rainfall and on reter-
tive soil it does not require irrigation, but it must have sufficient
moisture at command. A light loam seems best adapted to ‘the
shrub.

THE FEIJOA

Along with the guava should be mentioned the Feijoa Sellow-
ilana, a member also of the myrtle family, and sometimes called
‘‘Paraguay guava.’’ In habits of growth it is much the same as
the guava, and while the foliage is not so handsome, being of a
generally silver gray effect, the flower is very showy. In May it
sends forth a great profusion of blossoms, which may be called
red, white and blue, unless one desires to be perfectly accurate, in
which case the blue would have to be changed to purple. The
petals are unusually thick and fleshy and are very sweet to the
taste. The highly perfumed fruit, about one and one-half to two

GROWING THE FEIJOA 399

inches or more in length, comes in November. The flavor is de-
licious, like the strawberry, but lacking the acid. The seeds are
very small, almost unnoticeable; quite a contrast in this respect to
the guava. F. W. Popenoe, Altadena, Los Angeles County, has
published an excellent monograph on this fruit.

Mr. Coolidge gives this appreciative sketch of the plant and
fruit :

Feijoa, coming from Uruguay and Southern Brazil, is a fruit of extreme
hardiness,.and has stood a temperature of four degree above zero without
injury. I know of plants growing on the desert that have endured a week’s
temperature of 115 degrees without any injury, so we can safely class it as
a hardy fruit. So far nothing but seedlings have been grown, and these
vary greatly as to bearing qualities and size of fruits, but there are individ-
ual plants growing in our section that fruit regularly and produce fruits
of a good size. Within a few years we will have plants of the feijoa pro-
ducing fruits on the average as large as an ordinary hen’s egg. The fruit
ripening in December gives it a status that no other fruit of its character
has. I have kept the fruits in good condition for four weeks after picking.
It is one of our finest ornaments with its grayish green persistent foliage
and charming white and red flowers.

Feijoa plants are grown from the seeds; also by layers in this
way: Bend the lower limbs down and fasten them into scooped-
out places in the ground, using a forked stick with one end longer
than the other, driven into the ground to hold the branch down:
firmly. Cover with three or four inches of earth. The best time
for this work is in the fall, but it can be successfully done at almost
any time of the year. Two or three months will be required for the
layered branch to start out the new root growth, and during this
time the ground must not be allowed to dry out, and should at all
times be moist, but not too wet.

Feijoa only needs pruning enough to form a well-shaped bush.
It takes most readily to a roundish form and should be checked
from too much rambling—though, as the fruit comes on the new
wood, enough of the newer growth must be carefully provided for.
In a garden the plant can be trained to a fence, trellis, ete., but
usually shapes itself pretty well with the slight assistance indi-
cated.

THE GRANADILLA

The granadilla is the term applied to the edible fruit of a spe-
cies of passion vine (Passiflora edulis), which is quite hardy, and
is growing in different parts of the State. The fruit is about the
size of a small hen’s egg, purple exterior when ripe, the thin brittle
shell inclosing a mass of small seeds covered with a brilliant yel-
low pulp, mildly acid and of very agreeable flavor. Very good
jelly has been made of the fruit. Another passion vine with
large pink flowers is very widely distributed in California, and
bears a large, yellowish-brown fruit with edible pulp.

400 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

THE JUJUBE

The jujube (Zyziphus jujube), from the fruit of which the deli-

cate paste of the confectioner is, or should be, made, was intro-
duced by Mr. G. P. Rixford in 1876, and is fruiting regularly
and freely in several parts of the State. The plant is easily grown
from seed or cuttings. The orange-red berries are produced three
years from planting, and ripen in November and December. They
are edible, fresh or dried. As yet the fruit has not been turned
to commercial account.

A large-fruited Chinese species was introduced more recently,
and has fruited freely at several points in California interior val-
leys. It can be grown readily from seeds or cuttings, and the fruit
may be dried like a date, which it somewhat resembles in flavor.

THE LOQUAT

The loquat (Hriobotrya Japonica) is widely grown in California
as an ornamental plant, and a small amount of fruit is profitably
marketed each year. During the last twenty-five years a very
marked improvement in loquats has been achieved by painstaking
effort by Mr. C. P. Taft, of Orange, who began growing loquats in
1891. Mr. Taft’s work has demonstrated that this fruit is suscep-
tible of improvement in size, flavor, appearance, in bearing habit
of the tree, and in direction of early and late varieties; and in all
these directions not only in the line of better fruit, but fruit which
commands in the market several times the value of the common
types. Upon the basis of the new varieties the season for the loquat
is from February to June, the bulk of the crop coming in April and
the first half of May. The Advance Loquat was the first of the new
varieties to attract attention. Mr. Taft has named the following
varieties :

Advanee._Yellow, pear-shaped, from two to three inches in length,
clusters very large, very sweet when fully ripe in May.

Premier.—Salmon-colored, oval, large, but not as large as the Advance,
sweet, but peculiar flavor, ripens earlier than Advance.

Victor.—Largest, color pink to red, probably the best for canning.
Champagne.—Very large and fine, clusters loose; ripens with Advance.
Early Red.—The earliest loquat, ripens in February and March.

Other varieties have also originated in California. A full ac-
count of varieties and of the culture and commercial standing of
loquats is now available.*

THE PERSIMMON

The Persimmon of the Southern States (Diospyros Virginiana)
was introduced into California in early days, as there are trees
thirty to forty feet high growing in Rancho Chico. The widely

*“The Loquat,’’ by Ira J. Condit: University of California Experiment Station Bulle-
tin No. 250: to be had from the station at Berkeley.

GROWING PERSIMMONS 401

distributed species, however, is the Japanese (Diospyros Kaki), of
which many varieties are now fruiting in different parts of the
State. The tree is quite hardy, and fruits freely both along the
coast region and in the interior. It easly. takes the form of a low
standard, and with its large, glossy leaves during the summer, and
its immense, high-colored fruit clinging to the twigs after the
leaves have fallen, it is a striking object in the orchard or in the
house garden.

Persimmons grow readily from seed, but in most cases the im-
proved varieties must be reproduced by grafting on seedlings of
either the Japanese or American species. The tree seems to thrive
in any fair fruit soil, taking very kindly to close soils if well eul-
tivated. The amounts of fruit now reaching our market are in-
creasing, and a demand is found for certain amounts at fair prices;
but there is no object now apparent for large increase in produc-
tion. This fruit, so highly esteemed in the Orient, and so highly
praised by travelers, has not become as popular as expected on this
coast, nor have the great markets of the East required more than
a carload or two a year so far. Such limited shipments have, how-
ever, sold well in the large Atlantic coast cities, where a consid-
erable number of Orientals have congregated. Americans who
wish persimmons at all seem to prefer the smaller but more piquant
Virginia species.

Recently, however, the local demand has increased because of
the large numbers of Japanese who are now upon the Pacific coast,
and a shipping demand for the fruit from Seattle to the Hawaiian
Islands and other Pacific ports has arisen. Local sale in San Fran-
cisco and Los Angeles is profitable in a small way. The removai of
astringency while the fruit remains firm has been successfully ac-
complished by Mr. George C. Roeding, of Fresno, following a Jap-
anese method. It is simply to place the fruit in tubs, from which
saki, or Japanese ‘‘rice beer,’’ has been lately removed. The tubs
are hermetically sealed, and the fruit left in them from eight to ten
days. When it is then removed, it is found to have altogether lost
the puckering power. Mr. Roeding says that he used eight large
saki tubs, each of which would hold twenty-five gallons, and in
those treated one thousand pounds of persimmons.

Perhaps the largest single persimmon-producing proposition in
California is that of Ira Avery, in Placer County, which is thus
described by Mr. R. E. Hodges:

A mile down grade into the American River canyon, protected on all
sides by magnificent hills, Ira Avery’s father-in-law planted Jananese per-
simmon trees in 1876, and three of them are still thrifty and bearing. It
was in 1887 that Mr. Avery bought the ranch and planted 50 more. In the
years since then, many persimmons have been planted in whatever nooks
of the ranch were available until now he has 1500 trees ranging from one
to 38 years old. Four hundred were planted last spring, and one of these
bore fruit the same season. The first four or five years, however, all fruit
should be picked off. It is during this time, too, that all the pruning is
done, just to shape the tree. Picking begins the middle of September and
lasts till December. The fruit is then unripe, hard as a green tomato,
colored, but not the same as they become later. They are wrapped in

*

402 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

papers like peaches, and packed in peach boxes, holding about 30 lbs.; the
largest size being highest priced. The Tane Nashi variety pays best on
account of its size and earliness. Seven main varieties are grown and
shipped, as follows: Tane Nashi, Hachiyu, Hyakume (the most important),

Maru Kaki, Mikado, and Edoishi.
Some trees yield over 30 boxes, many are not yet in bearing; the crop in
1912 was 2200 boxes, in 1913 1500, because the trees bear lighter in alter-

nate years.

New York is the best market, Pittsburg, Philadelphia and Boston being
good, while the demand is light in the Middle West. Many are sold in San
Francisco, where the average net in 1913 was $1.0814 per box, while the
net on eastern shipments was $1.35. The fruit is too hard to eat even after
shipment to New York, where it must be stored some time until well
ripened.

More recently the persimmon has commanded higher prices, and
the fruit shipped in December 1918 from the J. B. Hamaker ranch
in Placer County brought $5.25 a box packed in an ordinary peach
container, with some forty to forty-five fruits to a box. Still the
persimmon should be regarded conservatively. It does not yet ap-
pear that Americans care much for it.

THE PINEAPPLE

Casual experiments with the pineapple in the open air in this
State have been made for a number of years, the fruit being occa-
sionally produced. Most was accomplished by Mr. J. B. Rapp, of
Hollywood, Los Angeles County, in the Cahuenga Valley, and in
that part of the valley which is famed as frostless, where even beans
and tomatoes survive winter temperatures. Mr. Rapp succeeded
in getting fruits which weighed from two to four pounds each. If
the strongest offsets or suckers are planted they bear inside of a
year, and if the fruit sets from May to November it gets good size,
but setting at other times in the year is usually undersized on ac-
count of the slow growth during the winter and early spring. It
seems probable that the pineapple resents the dry air of our sum-
mer, as well as the lack of winter heat, and a lath covering and a
summer spraying may be desirable. It is very doubtful whether
the fruit can be profitably grown in this State on a commercial
seale.

The pineapple thrives best on a fine sandy loam, but will grow
well on many soils if well drained and cultivated. The plants can
be set three by three or four by five feet, so as to allow cultivation,
both ways while the plants are young. Plants are secured from
‘‘suckers,’’ which come from the root, from ‘‘slips,’’ which grow
on the stem just below the ‘‘apple,’’ and from ‘‘crowns,’’ or the
tufts of leaves at the top of the fruit. Suckers are said to bear in
one year, and slips and crowns in two years. Strong suckere are
best for planting, and they should be set out early in the spring,
as soon as the danger of cold weather is over.

THE POMEGRANATE

This fruit (Punica granatum), famed in literature and art, is
grown in various parts of the State, and certain amounts are prof-

CALIFORNIA POMEGRANATES 403

itably sold. The shrub or low tree, in good soil, will reach the
height of twenty feet. It is a hardy plant, easy of propagation
from seed or cutting. The beauty of the tree, not taking the fruit
into account, has caused it to be planted in many gardens. Exposed
to the raw sea winds, it does not bloom well nor set with fruit,
and is best adapted to the warmer regions of the interior, where it
is an early and abundant bearer. The variety chiefly cultivated is
a bright orange color, but there is found a large variety of them,
varying from almost pure white with a faint blush, to dark red.
The fruit ripens in the warmer parts of the State, north and south,
in October.

Pomegranates for eastern shipment are proving profitable in
the Porterville district, whence nine carloads were shipped in 1913,
and the packers reported the supply scant of the demand. In that
year the greater part of the fruit shipped netted about $2 for
four-basket boxes, or at the rate approximately of $75 per ton
net to the growers. An especial feature was made of fancy pack-
ages, which proved acceptable to the trade.

More recently plantings have increased, but in no large area
realized, for it is estimated that there are not over one hundred
and fifty acres in the State. Two of the larger plantings are
these : .

The Merriman ranch in the citrus district of Tulare County has five
acres of Ruby pomegranate trees, about thirteen years old in 1919. The
trees are planted 22 feet apart. The fruits are packed in half orange
boxes—each box holding about 36 fruits. At first they were marketed by
putting a few boxes of fruit in each car of oranges. In 1915 they sent one
car to the Chicago and one to the New York auction. The Ruby is the best
variety for the market because of its rich red color. The Mission variety
is the best to eat, but is not marketable because of its poor appearance.

In 1918 Harry Hooper in Sutter County had 26 acres of pomegranates
(interplanted with olives), four and five years old, and shipped 700 boxes
from the young plantation. They are of the “Wonderful” variety and are
shipped in four grades, the-largest of nearly 4-inch caliper and of gorgeous
coloring, and the New York market absorbs the fruit readily at remunera-
tive prices.

A careful study of the pomegranate in California has recently
been made, and a very satisfactory special publication is now avail-
able.*

THE STRAWBERRY TREE

The Spanish madrono (Arbutus unedo) is now quite widely
grown, chiefly as an ornamental shrub or tree. The growth is ex-
ceedingly beautiful if kept free from scale insects, the fruit rang-
ing as it ripens through shades of yellow, orange, and deep red,
and contrasting beautifully with the glossy evergreen foliage. The
fruit is of pleasant flavor.

*“The Pomegranate,’’ by R. W. Hodgson: Bulletin 276, University of California Ex-
periment Station, Berkeley: to be had free on application.

404 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

MELON SHRUB

This plant (Solanum Guatemalense) is a small, half-herbaceous
shrub from the table-land of Guatemala. The fruit is yellow,
splashed with violet, somewhat of the shape of the eggplant, but
is usually seedless, and is readily propagated from cuttings. There
are thriving plants in many protected places in the State, and some
fruit reaches the market, but few seem to like the flavor, which is
something like a tomato and melon mixed. Its greatest use will
probably be for salads.

THE MELON TREE

The melon pawpaw (Carica papaya) has been widely intro-
duced experimentally in this State, and many situations are found
unfitted for its growth, but satisfactory fruiting has been secured
at several places in Southern California; especially if protected the
first year it will stand light frosts afterwards. With Mr. Cammack,
at Whittier, Los Angeles County, it ripens fruit the third year from
the seed—the fruit being pleasant to eat as one would a muskmelon.
The large fig-like leaves and the peculiar markings of the trunk
make the tree a very striking object.

THE PRICKLY PEAR

The tuna, or fruit of the cactus (Opuntia vulgaris), is produced
in nearly all parts of the State except on the mountains. It was
one of the old mission fruits, and was enjoyed by the early mining
population until better fruits were available. It is about as large
as a medium-sized pear, and has a pleasant acid flavor if one suc-
ceeds in escaping the prickles in getting at the interior of the fruit.
The tuna is still a commercial article in a small way.* Plants are
crown readily from cuttings of the fleshy leaves.

Quite a distinction must now be made between the foregoing
and the smooth or spineless fruits, which are superior in quality as
well as unarmed with prickles, and therefore readily handled and
eaten. Varieties more or less innocent in this respect were intro-
duced from the Mediterranean region many years ago, and propa-
gated to a limited extent. Recently Mr. Luther Burbank of Santa
Rosa has undertaken special work with the cactus, both for fruit-
age and forage purposes, and has attained remarkable results which
are attracting wide attention, and upon which producing enter-
prises are being undertaken.

THE AVOCADO

The avocado, or aguacate of the Mexicans (Persea gratissima),
unwisely called ‘‘alligator pear’’ (for the fruit is neither one nor

*The tuna as food for man, by David Griffiths, Bulletin 116, Bureau of Plant In-
dustry.

THE AVOCADO 405

the other), has been during the last few years almost a ‘‘sensation’’
in California fruit planting. Its deliciousness as a salad material
and the prices which have been paid for the Florida and the im-
ported fruit, have joined to inspire great expectations for a pos-
sible California product. The extent of the American demand, the
phases of competition with the fruit from elsewhere, and the pomo-
logical characters of varieties to meet California conditions are all,
however, still largely to be determined and they make the problem
of investment in avocado growing very interesting. The abundant ~
confidence which is now being manifested promises to soon make
the situation clear. The enthusiasts who are in 1919 leading in the
planting are in this way undertaking a public service. They have
organized the ‘‘California Avocado Association,’’ and are publish-
ing reports of their proceedings from their headquarters in Los
Angeles.

The literature of the avocado is increasing and should be con-
sulted.*

In a few years fruit planters generally will be able to discern
whether they should restrict investment in the avocado to supplies
for home use and local sale or whether its production should be
pushed toward great commercial objectives such as California has
attained with other fruits of a semi-tropical character.

As there is an uncommonly great variation in the time of bloom-
ing and also in the period required for the fruit of different types
of trees to come to maturity, an orchard may be obtained by selec-
tion which will bear continuously. This is of course very desirable
to the consumer and important to the market grower, as there is
plenty of demand at all times, so far as can now be discerned.

THE WHITE SAPOTA

There are two old trees in Santa Barbara, one believed to have
survived from the mission planting in the early part of the last
century, the other half as old, of the white sapota (Casimiroa
edulis). Dr. Franceschi commends the tree for every garden in
which only light frosts are to be expected. Mr. Taft reports the
sapota as bearing well with him in Orange County. The tree is
an exceedingly rapid grower, much after the habit of the walnut,
but evergreen. In August and September the peach-like fruit,
greenish yellow, with large seeds shaped like those of an orange,
matures well and is excellent, this being the normal season for
ripening. At other times fruit is often found, but is apt to be
worthless and even dangerous. As it will not ripen well off the
trees and must be quite soft when eaten, it will never be of much
market value.

*The Avocado, by G. N. Collins. Bulletin 77, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept.
. of Agr., 1907. Consult also Yearbooks of the U. S. Dept. of Agr. for 1905 and 1906. The
Avocado in Southern California and the Development of the Avocado Industry by F. W.
Popenoe, Altadena, Los Angeles County. New varieties of the Avocado for California, by
K. A. Ryerson, University of California Journal of Agriculture, November, 1913 ‘‘The
Avocado in California,’ by I. J. Condit, Bulletin 254, California Experiment Station, Ber-

keley, May, 1915. ‘‘History of the Avocado and its Varieties in California,’”’ by I. J. Con-
dit, Monthly Bulletin of State Commission of Horticulture, January, 1917.

406 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

THE TREE TOMATO

This plant (Cyphomandra betacea) is a native of Central Amer-
ica and is of shrubbery habit, growing five or six feet high, with
large, shining leaves, often a foot long. The flowers are fragrant,
of a pale, flesh color, with yellow stamens, and are followed by
fruit the shape and size of a duck’s egg, at first of a purple tint,
but gradually assuming a warm, reddish color as it ripens. When
ripe the fruit may be used raw as a tomato is. If the skin is removed
and the fruit stewed with sugar, it has a slight sub-acid flavor
which is very refreshing. It makes a fine jelly. The plants bear
the second year from the seed and the fruit ripens continuously
for several months. The seeds should be started just as are those
of the common tomato, and the plants set out eight or ten feet
apart.

THE KAI APPLE

This name is applied to the fruit of Aberia Caffra, a native of
Natal and Kaffaria, a tall shrub, yielding an edible fruit of a
golden yellow color, about an inch in diameter. It is commended
as a hedge plant, as it is densely clothed with strong dry spines.
The leaves are small and of a rich green hue. The fruit, which is
produced freely in the warmer parts of the State, is chiefly used
for making preserves.

OTHER FRUITS

The foregoing enumeration does not include all the exotic fruits
which have found a place in California soil. There are many more,
some of which are demonstrating their fitness to add to the graces
or the gains of our horticultural life. The caricas, carissas, eugenias,
hovenia, ete., are all gaining places in California gardens. Even
the more strictly tropical mango, the monstera, sapodilla and the
like are claiming the attention of amateurs. Of the mango in
Southern California the best account is by F. W. Popenoe, Altadena.

PART SIX: SMALL FRUITS

CHAPTER XXXVI
BERRIES AND CURRANTS IN CALIFORNIA

In suitable soils and situations, and with proper care and culti-
vation, the small fruits sustain the general reputation of California
by the size and quality of the product, and by the long-continued
and abundant fruiting of the plants. Probably nowhere else in
the world do small fruits better repay generous treatment than in
this State, and probably nowhere do they suffer more from neglect.
There are parts of the State, of course, where some small fruits,
left to their own resources, thrive and bear abundantly, but, speak-
mg of the State as a whole, the price of success is intelligent devo-
tion on the part of the grower.

There are localities in California which favor almost continuous
erowth and fruiting of some of the small fruits, and it is no fiction
to say that in such a place one may have raspberries and straw-
berries upon his table every month of the year. Such situations
are the thermal belts, which are practically frostless, and, by secur-
ing favoring moisture conditions in the soil and proper varieties of
the fruits, the existing temperature conditions will produce the
results indicated. Though this be the case, the profitable growth
of small fruits is not, of course, restricted to such situations, but
the largest commercial enterprises are carried on in places where
the summer-crop rule prevails, but the bearing season is much
larger than in the eastern States.

Estimates of the acreage and product-value of berries and cur-
rants in California are of very doubtful accuracy. It will require
a farm-to-farm enumeration, such as the U. S. Census will make
during 1920, to secure trustworthy data. Such an inquiry gave the
State in 1910 an acreage of 9,687 acres and a value of the product
to the grower of $1,789,214. Since that time, however, plantations
have multiplied, production for shipment to other States and for
canning has been developed in new districts and growers have or-
ganized protective, co-operative associations, which have been very
successful in promoting production profitably. The value of the
product in 1918 is estimated at $6,847,500, of which strawberries
comprise more than one-half and blackberries, loganberries and
raspberries largely constituting the remainder, as currants and
gooseberries are least of all in commercial attainment.

Small fruits for family use may be grown on all fertile soils,
and therefore they should be produced on every farm. Growing
for market on a large scale involves considerations of suitability

408 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

of soil and climate, ease of cultivation, water supply and facilities
for transportation, and local organizations for marketing, all of
which should be determined by personal observation of existing
small fruit farms before an important commercial venture is en-
tered upon.*

It is often claimed that soil for small fruits should be deep and
rich, of the types generally called garden soils. There is an ad-
vantage in this because of amount of plant food and retention of
moisture when well cultivated, but at the same time shallow soils
even when overlying hardpan, which may not suit deep rooting
trees or garden roots, can be profitably used for small fruits if
water and fertilizers are intelligently used. This will be stated
more fully in the discussion of the strawberry, but the general
fact is pertinent to the growth of other small fruits also.

Preparation of soil for small fruits should be most thorough and
careful. Even more generous work than that commanded in Chap-
ter X for trees and vines should be done. It is the more necessary
to work deeply for planting because subsequent culture of small
fruits must be shallow.

THE BLACKBERRY

The blackberry is a great favorite in California markets. It
thrives in all parts of the State, and the plant is best suited of all
small fruits to yield generously without irrigation, though it relishes
sufficient moisture and repays it with fruit. There is a great differ-
ence in practice as to supplying water artificially. The growth of
eane, and the size and appearance of the fruit, will show the ob-
serving grower what should be the practice in his situation, and
the general suggestions as to irrigation in Chapter XV are applica-
ble. There are regions in which blackberries are irrigated weekly
throughout the summer, and others in which the berries are gath-
ered from June to November without irrigation. Of course, with
such wide local variations there can be no general rule for practice.
Let the grower simply bear in mind that if he does not get good,
plump, and glistening fruit and good strong growth of new canes
at the same time, he should give irrigation. The requirements of
the plant during the fruiting season are great, and they must be
met. Many failures are due to lack of irrigation when needed.

Propagation.—Blackberry plants of upright varieties are secured
by digging up the shoots which come late in the summer from old
stools; securing therewith a bunch of fibrous roots with a portion
of the main root three or four inches long. To propagate on a large
seale dig up the roots entirely, and, cutting them up with pruning
shears into pieces about two inches long, plant them in a well-
prepared bed in the garden or nursery. Place the root cuttings
about two inches apart and cover about three inches deep with
well-pulverized soil, the depth being regulated, of course, according

*“Small Fruit Culture in California,’ and ‘Irrigation Practice in Growing Small
Fruits in California’’—circulars 154 and 164, California Experiment Station, Berkeley.

GROWING BLACKBERRIES 409

to the nature of the soil, deeper in light than heavy soils. A light
mulch will assist in retaining moisture. The time for this work is
at the dormant period of the plant. One summer’s growth gives
good plants for setting out.

The Mammoth and Crandall are propagated by rooting tips of
canes.

Planting Out Blackberries——Blackberries should be planted in
rows far enough apart to admit of the use of the horse and culti-
vator. As the constant tendency of the plant is to extend itself
in the growth of new canes, the rows should not be less than six
to eight feet apart, and the plants about three feet apart in the
row. The plants soon occupy the full space in the row, and cultiva-
tion is only possible between the rows. Some growers plant black-
berries as they do grapevines, seven or eight feet apart both ways,
and then cultivate with the horse both ways. Planting in rows is
usually thought better. The number of plants to fill an acre at
different distances can be calculated as described in Chapter XXVI
for grapevines.

- D. Edson Smith, of Orange County, who had much experience
with small fruits, described his method of laying out and planting
on a large scale, with a view to irrigation, as follows:

Plow deeply and harrow thoroughly several times before setting out.
Lastly, open a trench with your plow where the row is to be, twenty inches
deep; go along with a basket of plants, a four-foot lath and a shovel, and
set a plant in this trench every four feet and fill the dirt around it with the
shovel. If this trench is too deep in places for the length of the plant root,
fill in with a little dirt; if not quite deep enough in places, scoop out a shov-
elful. Aim, in preparing the ground with plow and smoother, to leave it
dishing each way toward the row of young plants, so that irrigating water
turned in at the upper end will run along the row of plants as in a trough.
Aim to have the ground around the set plants a few inches below the gen-
eral level of the land. After the plants are all set in a row, go along with a
rake if there are but a few plants, or with a horse-hoe if there are many,
and fill in the trench between the plants. It is a pleasure to set out plants
in this way, and such deep, rich, well-stirred soil delights the plant roots,
so that they grow rapidly in every direction, and the plants throw up their
heads in a manner entirely satisfactory to all concerned. If the ground
is dry, or there is no rain soon after setting out the plants, irrigating water
should be turned down the row or at least a quart or two of water poured
around each plant; then before the soil hardens, stir it well with cultivator
and hoe. All future care resolves itself into frequent waterings and fre-
quent stirrings of the soil. Allow no weeds to appear, and keep three
inches of surface soil well loosened with the horse and hoes. These small
fruits require frequent waterings, especially when forming fruit and during
the fruiting season.

Cultivation. Thorough cultivation of the surface soil is essen-
tial for retention of moisture. After the plants attain size, cultiva-
tion should be secured with as shallow-cutting tools as possible so
as to prevent injury to the roots, which not only weakens the plant,
but increases the growth of suckers between the rows. A _ horse-
hoe with a long knife running horizontally, or with duck-foot teeth,
well sharpened, answers well in keeping the ground clear of weeds
and suckers, and the surface loose. Due regard must, however, be

410 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

paid to securing sufficient depth in this surface layer to prevent
the soil beneath baking hard and drying out, as discussed in the
chapter on Cultivation.

Frequency of cultivation depends upon irrigation, for the culti-
vator must always follow the application of water. The spaces in
the row which can not be reached with the cultivator must be kept
clean from weeds, and free from baking, by the use of the hoe. It
is advisable that the cultivation be the cleanest possible, for moisture
exhaustion by weeds ean not be afforded.

Pruning and Training.—There is a little difference in the ways
of training blackberries practiced in this State. Of course this does
not include the ‘‘let alone’’ system, which is not followed by any
good grower. The difference lies mainly in the use or disuse of
artificial supports for the canes. In either case the pruning of the
canes is similar in kind but different in degree, for if no seit by
are used, the canes are headed lower.

At planting out, cut back the cane to near the surface of the
ground and mark the plant with a small stake. At first the top
growth should not be checked, but when new canes grow out
strongly they should be pinched at the tip to force out lateral
branches for fruiting the next year. Those who intend to tie canes
to a stake or trellis let them attain a height of five or six feet before
pinching off the terminal bud; those who intend to teach the cane
to stand alone pinch when it is about four feet high. All agree to
pinch off the ends of the lateral branches at about eight to twelve
inches from the main stem. This pinching of blackberry canes may
be done by the watchful grower of a few plants, with the thumb
and finger, but thrifty blackberry plants are such rapid cane grow-
ers that in large plantations cutting back is often done with a sickle
or corn hook or sharp butcher-knife, several times in the course of
the summer. It is also advisable to thin out the suckers with the
hoe while cutting out weeds, leaving only about as many as it is
desired to have for fruit the next season. This method gives stout
canes, with plenty of short side branches, well supplied with buds,
which will send out fruiting shoots the following spring. If sup-
ports are used, the four to six canes which are left to each stool
are gathered within a loosely-drawn bale rope and tied to the stake;
or if a trellis is used, the branches are brought up to the wire or
slat so that the distance is about evenly divided between the shoots.

Mr. Claud D. Tribble of Elk Grove gives the following advice
for handling the Lawton, which is the chief upright variety grown
in California:

Give the plants some support the first season by a stake, and the second
season the permanent stakes are put in, one on each side of the plant. In
driving them, allow the tops to be wider than the bottom so the berries can
be picked easily. Large wires or wooden cleats are used to support the
vines or canes. The posts are about six feet long and driven in the ground
until solid, making the top about five feet high. During the first season’s
growth there is very little pruning except thinning to the desired number

of canes. The second year the canes are allowed to grow above the stakes
and then tipped to cause laterals to form, which are cut back to less than

METHODS WITH BLACKBERRIES 411

12 inches to produce berries the following season. The old wood is cut out
each season and the new shoots trained as before. If the old canes are
cut out as soon as the crop is gathered, it is done more economically and the
young plants grow better.

Though these systematic methods of summer pruning are prac-
ticed and advocated by the most careful growers, it should be stated
that there are large plantations which are conducted upon a more
simple system. The pruning consists in cutting out old canes in the
winter, and the only summer pruning is slashing off these canes
which interfere with cultivation. The canes are sometimes held
up by tying bunches of them together with ropes. Of course this
system costs less than the more careful one ‘which has been de-
seribed, and yields profit enough to induce adherence to it. No
doubt quite as great weight of berries could be had from: a smaller
area by a better system of growing.

After the leaves fall, the canes which have borne fruit during
the summer are all cut off even with the surface of the ‘ground
with long-handled pruning shears or with a short hooked knife with
a long handle, and all debris removed from the rows.

Application of Manure.—The blackberry loves very rich ground,
and plenty of well-rotted stable manure or compost should be ap-
plied. It is a good plan to apply in a thick covering all over the
ground and between the canes as soon as the patch is cleaned up
in the fall. The early rains carry down the soluble parts of the
manure, and later in the season the whole is plowed in between the
rows, leaving a foot or more next the plants to be carefully forked
in, as the digging fork does not cut the roots like the spade.

-Mulching.—The mulch, to keep the ground moist and to obviate
summer cultivation, is very satisfactory where it is thoroughly done.
Apply coarse manure or partially-rotted straw and the like, after
the last spring cultivation, and use the hoe to keep down weeds and
suckers which come up between the rows. Some growers use mulch
close to the canes, cultivating the remainder of the ground between
the rows.

Bearing Age and Longevity—If blackberry plants are well
treated the first year after planting out, there will be considerable
fruit the following summer. How long the plants will bear satis-
factorily depends, also, on situation and treatment. Sometimes the
plants fail early; even with good, generous treatment in good soil,
_ the old stool becomes weak, the shoots are thin, and the fruit small.
Some count about eight years as the profitable age of the plant, and
then cut out plants and give the land a change. Of course berry
growers prepare for this by frequently making new plantations.

Irrigating Blackberries.—Though a good part of the blackberry
crop is grown in regions of heavy rainfall without irrigation, the
use of water is sometimes very profitable. Mr. T. B. Cannon, near
Los Angeles, works in this way:

Mr. Cannon aims to get Crandall blackberries from June 15 to November,
which is possible by his system of irrigation and pruning. So the water is ap-

412 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

plied in winter and about every ten days until the berries are as big as peas,
cultivating between times. The rows are eight feet apart and the plants four,
so that one-horse cultivation is possible until the fruit gets so heavy as to
bend over into the open space. When ripening time begins in June, a ditch
is dug close to the vines on each side of the row, for irrigation. This gets
water pretty well where it is needed, the ditches are out of the way of the
cultivator after the first crop is off, and they are shaded so as to avoid
evaporation in the hot summer. Water is applied every four or five days
during the heavy picking, then every ten days till the main summer crop
comes on, when it is applied twice as often again. Irrigation when the ber-
ries are turning black makes them larger and of better color. While the
juice might thus be considered diluted, this is the sort of berry people buy,
and the proportion of juice to seeds is what makes a desirable market
berry, when markets are near by. Such practice might make undesirable
fruit for canning or shipping.

Varieties of the Blackberry.——Comparatively few kinds are
largely grown. The Wilson Junior, Lawton, and Kittatinny were
formerly the prevailing kinds, ripening in the order named. The
Erie is favored by some as a middle-season variety. The Early
Harvest has been favorably reported by a number of growers. Of
these the Lawton survives as the leading and standard variety; the
others have been largely superseded by a renamed variety, Cran-
dall’s Early, which is the earliest of the improved varieties, and
has a very long fruiting season. The fruit was named after Dr. J. R.
Crandall, of Auburn, who first fruited the variety from plants given
him by a stranger hailing from Texas, and the proper name of the
variety is probably Texas Early. It is a strong, vigorous, hardy
plant, very productive, of firm, handsome berries; resembles Lawton
in canes, leaves, and flavor of fruit; not given to sprouting from
running roots.

Another variety which has advanced in favor is the Oregon
Kvergreen, introduced from Oregon but not native nor originated
in that State. The late John Rock described it as follows: ‘‘ Origin
unknown; beautiful; cut-leaved foliage, which it retains during the
winter ; berries large, black, sweet, rich, and delicious. It continues
to ripen from July to November, which makes it one of the best
berries for family use.’’ It loses size and quality notably oni scant
moisture.

Some effort has been made to secure improved varieties of our
native blackberry, and a most striking result has been secured by
Judge J. H. Logan, of Santa Cruz, by crossing the wild berry with
Crandall’s Early, producing a fruit so large that it has been named
‘‘Mammoth’’ by its originator. The canes of the Mammoth are very
peculiar, being very large and thickly covered with small, short
spines. The canes start early in March, grow thick and stout until
about five feet high. They then take on a running habit and grow
from twenty-five to thirty feet in a season. Late in the fall the tips
or stolons seek the ground and take root. The Mammoth is not an
evergreen like its Texas parent, although it does not entirely lose its
leaves in winter. It begins to grow and flower very early in spring
and ripens its fruit the last of May, some weeks earlier than the
Lawton. The fruit is more acid than the Lawton, but, when per-
fectly ripe, is sweet and of superior flavor. When cooked or canned

TRAILING BLACKBERRIES 413

the flavor is identical with the wild berry of California. This variety
is often wrongly called ‘‘Black Loganberry.”’

The Himalaya is a blackberry of wonderful growth and prolific-
ness, highly praised by amateurs, but not yet important from a
commercial point of view. It is magnificent on a garden fence or
trellis.

The Dewberry.—The improved varieties of the dewberry, or
trailing blackberry, are now quite widely known and highly praised,
but are chiefly grown for home use. Some growers use trellises;
others train the vines along rows on the ground surface. The fol-
lowing is the method of Mr. A. M. Munger, of Fresno, and includes
irrigation arrangements:

For planting the Lucretia dewberry, prepare the ground by plowing deep
and cultivating until the dirt is thoroughly pulverized. Set the plants
about three inches deep and four feet apart, in rows, leaving a space of six
feet between the rows. Plant between February 15th and March 15th. Ir-
rigate as often as once a month, always thoroughly cultivating after each
irrigation. By so doing a sufficient growth is secured to produce a good
crop the second year. Immediately after the first rainfall, generally in Oc-
tober, the vines should be pruned by cutting back within about sixteen
inches of the base of the vine.

In February of the second year, plow between the rows with a small
one-horse plow, turning the furrows toward the vines, but using a shield
so as not to cover them. Follow immediately with a hoe, drawing the dirt
up under the vines and forming a ridge. This ridge should be high enough
to keep the vines up out of the water when irrigating. After this ridge is
formed, water should be run quite often, as the dewberry requires a great
deal of water to mature properly. The vines should be irrigated as often
as three times at least during the spring. The fruit begins to ripen in
Fresno about May 25th, and continues about one month. The dewberry
roots readily from the tips without covering if the soil is loose and moist.
If many plants are desired it is advisable to cover slightly, and the tips
will root as soon as the soil is moistened by the fall rains.

A trellising method for dewberries consists in driving posts to
stand about three feet high, for the dewberry can not be trained
up as high as other berries. Make a half hoop of coarse wire ex-
tending from the root of the plant over the arms at top of the post
and training the plants on this. The rows are usually six feet apart
and the plants six feet apart in the rows. The vines should be well
thinned to produce large berries. —

The dewberry which has recently been most largely planted in
Central and Southern California is known as the Gardena because
of the prolificness and profitability of a patch grown by W. M.
Gray, of Gardena, Los Angeles County. Its qualities are vigorous
gsrowth, hardiness, regular and profuse yield of large, early berries.

Pruning and Training Trailing Berries—With reference to the
handling of trailing blackberries and the blackberry-raspberry
hybrids which are continually becoming more popular, it may be
said that there is no one best way. There are several good ways,
according to the desires and convenience of the growers, and this
is the reason why there is an apparent conflict in which all con-
testants may be right, each from his own point of view. The

-

414 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

varieties are sufficiently alike to be discussed together. What seem
to us the essentials in pruning them are these:

First, they all (except the Himalaya, as will be noted later)
bear on canes which grow the previous year, and the fruit comes
on laterals which break from them. In this mild climate there is
continuous break of laterals which may cover quite a long period
and the same wood may seem to be bearing twice. This second
bearing is of so little account that the general rule to remove old
wood after its main fruiting is a good one.

Second, the wood which grows this year will therefore bear next
year, and will send out bearing laterals sufficiently with a number
of treatments. The new cane may be pinched at any time during
growth and it will then send wood laterals (not fruit laterals) at
once and each of these laterals will have the same character that
the main shoot would have had if it had not been pinched; that is,
it will send out fruiting laterals at the same date the following
season.

Third, it does not matter whether you make the new growth
bunchy by laterals following pinching or whether you let it run out
and, cut off part of it at the end of the growing season or whether
you shorten it in and at the same time cut away closely all the
laterals which it may have made on its own account when it was
running out. In all cases there will be dormant buds enough to
give fruiting shoots on whatever part of the cane you reserve.

Fourth, the way you prune, then, depends upon serving your
own convenience in the training of\ these shoots up to a post, along
on a wire or along on a ridge on the ground—whatever suits you
best to keep the fruit out of the dirt, and to promote such cultiva-
tion as is desirable, ete., will be accepted by the plant as not inter-
fering with its starting fruiting shoots from whatever dormant buds
you have allowed it to retain on the wood which it matured the
previous season.

Fifth, there is in addition the application of the principle that
good large fruit is the product of a plant which is not carrying too
much bearing wood; that is, is not endeavoring to perfect too much
fruit at the same time. For this reason, as well as for convenience,
it is desirable not to allow a plant to retain all the cane it grows,
but to shorten it or to remove the laterals or part of them or to
shorten the laterals or in any other way to require the plant to
direct its energy to the better development of fewer fruits.

Sixth, growers are, of course, influenced by different considera-
tions. Amateur growers delighting in running vines on fences or
trellises would not prune as would a commercial grower, who can
not have canes running all over his fields. The amateur can pinch
a main shoot and send the laterals up the arms of a fan-shaped
trellis if he likes and make an object of rare garden beauty, and
he can reduce the excess of bearing wood by cutting away the parts
of the laterals which run beyond his arms or extra ones beyond
those he can carry on his trellis. From the point of view of the
plant, he does the same thing’ that the commercial grower does when
he comes along with his scythe or sickle and cuts away indiscrimi-

7

TRAINING BLACKBERRIES 415

nately all the growth which goes beyond the space where it is con-
venient for him to have the fruit.

Seventh, do not be too particular about exact methods to imitate ;
try rather to discern principles which may be served by many differ-
ent methods.

Six Months Fruiting of Crandalls——One way in which the prin-
ciples just outlined may be applied to Crandall’s Early, which is our
leading blackberry, considering the State as a whole, is described by
Mr. R. E. Hodges as the practice of Mr. T. B. Cannon, of Los
Angeles:

Briars eighteen to twenty-four inches tall, having good root systems, are
set with a spade in finely pulverized soil as soon after they are dug as pos-
sible to avoid wilting, to the same depth as they were before, four feet

- apart in rows eight feet apart. The first year they require no pruning.

The space between rows is occupied by cabbage, beans, corn, potatoes, etc.

In the second year three or four new canes come up. When these are
four feet high, cut off six inches, and laterals start from the leaf axis.
When these are thirty inches long their end buds are cut off and they send
out blossoms which bear fruit that fall. These same laterals bear the main
crop in their second year, besides sending out new laterals near the base
of the old ones about the time the berries are well set. The new laterals
bear the second crop, which comes on about the time the first crop is gone.
The third crop, borne on the new canes, which have been cut back mean-
while to three and one-half feet, blossom from August till freezing, and the
berries ripen from September on.

Mr. Cannon has followed this plan with satisfaction on two or three
patches, the largest of which is a half-acre set seven years ago in the young
family orchard. The first crop from this half-acre in 1913 was 180 crates.
The second and third crops usually together equal two-fifths of the first.
The second is about half of the third. Two years ago the third alone almost
equaled the first. And the berries sometimes sell at $2.80 per crate after
October.

Growing Crandalls in Hedge Rows.—A method which aims at
economy in getting a main crop, without providing for succession,
is that of Mr. J. B. Wagner, of Pasadena. He uses no trellises, but
leaves the old canes in the hedge-row to support the new growth,
in this way:

On the day before berry-picking, all protruding new growth is cut back
as close as possible to the blanket of bearing canes which covers the mat
of dead ones. This removes all hindrance to picking. Do not leave stubs of
new wood above the bearing vines, because it raises the general level of
bearing wood in a year or two, so high that the pickers can scarcely reach
over and up to the center of the row. When picking is over, both sides of
the hedge-row are trimmed off clean till it is left only two feet wide. New
growth soon leans out over this and covers it, ready for a crop next year
with the berries well outside and handy for the pickers. Every six years
he trims the whole hedge back to a height of two feet and clears out all the
cane over a year old, and this renews the plantation.

Training the Mammoth.—A good way with the Mammoth, grown
in a commercial way, is described by Mr. Tribble as follows:

The Mammoth is one of the earliest of blackberries, very productive and
is one of the most delicious. The plants are propagated from rooted tips
which appear on the ends of the vines during the winter months. Mam-
moths are usually trained on a wire trellis made by driving posts at each

416 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

hill and nailing on cross-arms to support the wire, which is stapled to each
end of the cross-arms. The laterals are trained along the wire about half
way between the hills, and then cut off to cause them to throw out fruit
spurs. As soon as the crop is taken from the old canes they should be
taken out and the new canes trained on the trellis as before.

Training the Himalaya.—Success with the Himalaya blackberry
is wholly dependent upon proper pruning, and whether it be grown
upon an arbor or a fence or upon a low trellis, the same principles
must be applied. This variety bears on the same laterals year after
year. It is late to ripen, coming after the Mammoths are all gone.

The main purposes in training Himalayas are to keep the canes
free from intertwining and the fruit accessible for picking. The
following is a good way to attain both these ends:

Use two horizontal wires about two and four feet above the ground,
fastened securely to plenty of stakes, for the load will be heavy. During
the winter hang the vines to the wires by means of short pieces of wire,
which will last three or four years, after which they may be cut with pliers
and the old vines taken out. Hang them instead of twisting around the
wire, for they are vicious vines to handle, and a mess of twisted vines har-
bors insects and disease and rotting cane growth. The past season’s new
canes, thus hung up, will continue to grow in length until you pinch off
the tips. The roots should not be closer than 12 to 16 feet apart each way,
and not over half a dozen canes should be left on each.

The following summer these canes will throw out fruit spurs which will
bear 30 to 75 berries each, the tip berries ripening first along in July.
These spurs will be less than a foot apart and project outward from the
trellis so that picking is easy. But the vines will also throw out laterals
among the fruit spurs, and these laterals will grow several feet in the sea-
son. Those nearest the base will be longest, but all would be serious hin-
drances for pickers; so just before the first picking, cut off all the laterals
close to the main vines. This will not interfere with fruiting next sea-
son, and it will leave the berries where the pickers need scarcely touch a
vine. If the laterals were fastened to the wires or wound around them,
they would take strength needed by the ripening berries and choke off the
fruit spurs, besides being in the way.

In the summer there will be new runners frou the roots, and two of
these should be saved and directed one each way along the ground under
the wires by means of little stakes, for the first season. Keep the rest cut
off at the root. Repeating this year after year will renew the wood con-
tinuously as it gets too old to bear well, which is after the fourth or fifth
year.

The roots will send up new plants between the rows and these will be
good for transplanting. Whether used or not, they should be rigidly
srubbed out every winter.

THE CRANBERRY

Though attention has been given to experiments with the growth
of the cranberry in California for many years, it has not been
demonstrated that the culture is successful or profitable. Cran-
berries have been produced, and the fruit shown at fairs, but beyond
this nothing has been accomplished. It would seem to be a fair
conclusion that even in the most moist regions our summer air is
too dry to suit the plant. There seems, however, no incentive to
grow cranberries in California. The Oregon product from a few
plantations near the mouth of the Columbia river seems to be all

GROWING CURRENTS 417

that we need to put up a fight with the fruit from Wisconsin and
Cape Cod.

THE CURRANT

The currant reaches perfection in size and quality in parts of
California adapted to its growth, but its area is comparatively small.
The plant does not thrive in the dry, heated air of the interior either
at the north or south. It does well near the coast, especially in the
upper half of the State, and is grown for market chiefly, on lands
adjacent to the Bay of San Francisco. The comparatively cool and
moist air of the ocean favors it, but even here the sunburn, which
is the bane of its existence in the interior valleys, occasionally’ in-
jures the fruit. Away from the coast, currants are grown to a
limited extent along the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, near
their confluence, but not in the hot valleys whence they flow. On
the foothills, too, where the plant has a northerly slope, or other
cooling influence, and sufficiently moist soil, it will do moderately
well. At elevations in Southern California, where the late apple
reaches good quality, currants are also grown to some extent. It
is quite possible that the currant may be satisfactorily grown for
home use, or for local market in parts of the State where at present
one does not find it, providing the moderating effect of elevation
and northerly exposure, coupled with the shade of trees, be secured,
but even then the hot north wind of the early summer may often
injure the fruit. So far as the metropolitan market is concerned,
it does not matter that the currant area is limited, for existing
plantations produce all, and sometimes more, than can be profitably
disposed of at present. It is possible, however, that the future may
show a larger demand, for the pure food laws prevent the further
selling of apple jelly with a currant color and flavor under the name
of currant jelly.

Propagation The currant is readily grown from cuttings. As
soon as the bush drops its leaves, and the ground is in condition as
to moisture, secure the cuttings about a foot in length from straight
wood of the last growth, and place them in nursery or in permanent
place, in good sandy or garden loam, deeply spaded and well broken
up. Set the cutting firmly in the earth, six or seven inches deep.
If they are to be trained as small trees, every bud below where the
lowest limb is to start should be cut out—even to the end of the
cutting underground—otherwise they will be continually throwing
up suckers. If they are to grow as bushes, the natural and more
productive form of the currant, set them as they are taken from
the parent bush.

Pruning —If the currant is to be grown in tree form, the
four to six feet apart, the plants standing two and a half or three
feet apart in the rows. Most of the currant plantations are between
orchard rows, the partial shade of the trees being considered desir-
able. It is claimed that currants do best when interplanted with
cherry, apricot, apple, and pear, not so well when associated with

418 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

plum and peach, and the almond is least desirable—possibly because
the almond is often given less cultivation than the pulpy fruit or is
grown on lighter, drier soils. The cultivation is such as is usually
given to the orchard, except that in heavy soil the plow is not
allowed to come near the cuttings the first season for fear of tearing
them from their rooting. After the first year the plow is used in
the winter and the cultivator in summer.

Currants will repay generous applications of well-rotted manure,
and relish sufficient moisture in the soil. Where this can not be had
from rainfall, and retained by cultivation and mulching, irrigation
must be resorted to.

Pruning.—If the currant is to be grown in tree form, the
branches from the upper buds of the cutting should be shortened
~ in at the end of the first summer, and branches growing horizontally
should be removed. The weaker shoots in the head are thinned
out, but not so much as to leave the top too open. If the plant is
to grow as a bush, the only winter pruning will consist in removing
dead wood, or wood attacked by borers, and thinning the new shoots
as may seem desirable, and cutting back half or more of the new
growth. Summer pinching of the new growth is desirable, as it
causes the fruit to set closely and tends to a thick growth of foliage
also, and this is necessary, for the bark is liable to sunburn, and
the best fruit is that which is well sheltered by the leaves. Another
advantage of the bush form is the less likelihood of killing by borers,
which is imminent when the growth depends upon a single stem.
Well cared for bushes will bear profitably until about ten years
old. Replanting should be made on new ground.

Bearing.—The currant bears a quantity of excellent fruit the
second year from the cutting, and reaches its fullest product about
the fifth to the eighth year, when the yield in the Hayward region
is said to range from one and a half to three tons to the acre.

Varieties —The Cherry currant is the prevailing variety, and
Fay’s Prolific stands next, although the old sorts, the Red and
White Dutch, the Red and White Grape, ete., are grown in some
localities. Pomona is one of the best of the newer red varieties
and the old Fertile de Palluau is reported as doing better than
others in hot, interior situations. Black currants are but little
srown, the market demand for them being very light. Black
Naples is best of its kind in California.

THE GOOSEBERRY

The gooseberry is another fruit with very circumscribed area in
this State. In localities which favor it, the fruit is often found very
profitable, but the demand does not warrant any great increase of
product. Though the gooseberry thrives in some situations which
do not suit the currant, they may both be described as averse to the
hot and dry parts of the State. Still, for home use or local sale one
can grow certain varieties of gooseberries successfully, by protect-

GOOSEBERRY GROWING 419

ing them from too great exposure to the sun, and by keeping the
soil sufficiently rich and moist. The choice of varieties is of the
greatest importance, as will be mentioned presently. At present
the chief supplies of the gooseberry, as of the currant, are produced
in the country adjacent to San Francisco Bay, though thriving and
profitable plantations are found elsewhere near the coast, as at
Greenfield, Monterey County; here and there in the interior, and at
considerable elevations on the slope of the Sierra Nevada.

Propagation, Pruning, etc.—The gooseberry is grown from cut-
tings, very much as already described for the currant. The common
and the best method is to start the cuttings early in the winter,
though some have succeeded with cuttings taken in the spring just
as the new growth is starting out. Disbudding the lower part ot
the cutting if it is desired to train in tree form is also practiced
with the gooseberry, but a smaller percentage of cuttings is found
to grow after disbudding.

Gooseberries are planted out and cultivated as already described
for currants, and the requirements of the plant in soil, moisture, and
manuring, are much the same.

If the gooseberry is to be grown in tree form, constant attention
to removal of suckers is necessary; if in bush form, it will only be
necessary to remove too old wood and thin out the new shoots.
Suckers should be removed clean from the stem, so as to eradicate
the latent buds, and pulling off with a gloved hand, when the suckers
become woody enough to withstand breaking, is advised. As with
the currant, the borer is a constant menace to the life of a goose-
berry plant confined to a single stem.

Diseases and Pests.—The gooseberry is subject to insect depre-
dation both in wood and fruit and leaf. The prevailing trouble,
however, and that which causes the failure of so many foreign
kinds, is the mildew. To escape this nothing is usually done except
to select varieties not subject to the disease, but susceptible varieties
can be protected by sulphuring at first appearance of the trouble
or by spraying just as the leaves are opening and once a month
afterwards with ammonium sulphide half an ounce to the gallon
of water. This does not stain nor poison the fruit.

There is great difference in the occurrence of mildew in different
localities. Great danger seems to inhere in the association of heat
and moisture in the air—neither heat nor moisture being favorable
to it separately. Mr. E. C. Hall of Greenfield in the Salinas Valley,
Monterey County, gives this as the result of his observation:

Better than a mildew resistant gooseberry bush in a way is a mildew
resistant locality and climate as well. In some places, gooseberries mil-
dew; other places they do not. There is one condition of climate very es-
sential to success commercially, and that is a cool, dry atmosphere through
the growing season. If you have it hot through the day with foggy, wet
mornings, success is doubtful. I have tested out some twelve or fifteen
kinds, both American and English, and I have yet to find one kind subject
to mildew.

420 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Still to the general planter resistance to mildew is very im-
portant.

Varieties of the Gooseberry.—The American varieties, Downing
and Houghton’s Seedling, chiefly the latter, constitute the main
varieties marketed in San Francisco. Early experiments with col-
lections of English varieties showed that most of them failed because
of mildew; still a few of the green and white sorts, notably the
Whitesmith, have succeeded. The proportion of large berries now
being marketed is much greater than formerly, and the superior
price warrants especial effort to produce them.

A large English variety, which was brought to California many
years ago, is a widely distributed large kind for which the name
Berkeley now prevails. It is large and handsome, very prolific,
ripens early, and is usually free from mildew.

The Champion, an Oregon seedling grown by Seth Lewelling, is
medium sized, very smooth, and thick fleshed, the seeds being few
and small. They are free from mildew, and are clean, bright and
beautiful. The Columbus, another large variety, is of good quality
and resists mildew well.

THE MULBERRY

Nearly all varieties of the mulberry have been introduced in
California and grown rapidly and thriftily. Most attention has
been paid to those varieties most suitable for feeding silkworms,
but the fruiting varieties are also grown here, though the fruit has
assumed no commercial importance. The mulberry is grown readily
from cuttings. The fruiting varieties thus far chiefly distributed
are Lick’s American, Chinese, the Persian, the New American, the
Russian, and the Black Mulberry of Spain. All these bear large
and desirable fruit. The mulberry has a long season; the Persian
ripening from the last of May and continuously thereafter until
October.

THE RASPBERRY

The raspberry is another of the great small fruits of California.
It thrives over a great area of the State; in fact, there are few
situations in which it can not be grown with at least a measure of
success if proper attention is given to retention of moisture in the
surface soil, and to giving the plants partial shade in the heated
valleys, and choosing the cooler exposures 1n the foothills. The
raspberry, skillfully pruned and generously fed and eared for, is
almost a constant bearer, as has already been intimated. It is a
continual delight in the home garden, and always brings a high
average rate in local and metropolitan markets. But it must be
* remembered that the raspberry is insistent upon adequate moisture
in the soil and requires good cultivation and irrigation—even i
localities where the rainfall is considerable and the soil retentive.
Neglected raspberry plants are likely to die outright in summer or
early autumn even where blackberries may pull through.

PRUNING RASPBERRIES 421

The culture of the raspberry is in the main like that of the black-
berry, as already described. The red varieties, which are the kinds
almost exclusively grown in this State, are propagated by suckers
and root cuttings like the blackberry, but the ‘‘black caps’’ are
propagated by layering the cane tips during the growing season,
and this method is also necessary in the Loganberry and other
blackberry-raspberry hybrids. Bending down a cane with its
branches and covering lightly with soil and with a light mulch to
retain moisture, will result in free rooting of the buried parts, and
one can sometimes secure a dozen plants by the layering of a single
cane with its laterals. If this is done early in the fall rootings for
winter planting can be had.

The pruning of the raspberry is also by the renewal system, as
advised for the blackberry. The topping off of new canes, when
they reach about three feet in height, the subsequent pinching of
the laterals which are thus forced out, the resolute thinning out of
sprouts so that but three or four strong canes are allowed from one
root, the faithful repression of all weeds, the maintenance of a loose
surface layer of the soil by very shallow cultivation, the free
application of manure and of water unless a continually moist con-
dition near the surface can be secured by cultivation and mulching—
all these are among the essentials of cultivation which will secure
abundant fruit and a long bearing season. However, as has already
been stated with regard to blackberries, there are large plantations
which pursue a less careful system of cultivation, especially in the
moderate heat and drouth of the coast district.

Continuous bearing of the raspberry may be secured in those
varieties which endure the treatment, by cutting out a cane as soon
as its fruit is gathered, the force of the plant being then devoted
to the fruiting of a second cane, which has previously been pinched,
and a third shoot is pinched and allowed to mature its wood to
carry over and bear the first crop of the following year. A suc-
cession of sprouts is gained by pinching off the tips of some as soon
as they have grown up a few inches, which results in the growth of
later shoots lower on the stems. In this way a succession of fruit
is obtained.

The Cuthbert and other strong-growing varieties, after the
pinching at about three feet from the ground, will send out laterals
which will bear late in the fall, and the same cane will bear a crop
early in the following spring, when its career is ended and it should
be removed.

Raspberries are planted about three feet apart in rows, and the
rows about six feet apart. They can be well grown nearer together
than is required for blackberries.

Growth in Matted Rows.—Many raspberries are grown in matted
rows 2 to 4 feet wide and 5 to 7 feet between the rows. The greater
distance is preferred because it cheapens the picking and admits
more light. The new growth sometimes runs up eight or ten feet, but
in December all canes are cut back about two feet above ground.
Then all those that have borne fruit are cut off at the ground with

422 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

a hooked knife on the end of a round handle a foot long. All ex-
cept five or six of the strongest canes per running foot are also
eut off entirely. If any are to be planted elsewhere or sold for
plants, their roots are loosened with a spade; the canes of the past
season’s growth are pulled out and cut back about a foot for this
purpose. The vigorous canes that remain for the next crop send
out three to five vigorous laterals in the spring, About the time
these are nearly shoulder-high to a short man the freest growing
ones are pinched back to force the growth into fruit spurs which
develop from the leaf axils on as many as a dozen of these laterals
per cane.

A Raspberry Trellis—Mr. Louis F. Scribner, a well-known
berry grower of Pasadena, commends a double-wire trellis made in
this way:

At each end of a row a post should be deeply set and firmly anchored
by brace or anchor wire, and a 2x3 redwood or cedar post should be set
about every 20 feet in the row and a wire stretched on each side about three
feet from the ground. These wires when stretched will be the width of
the post in distance apart, and serve to keep the canes erect and in the
row where they belong, so that cultivation and picking will not destroy the
tender growth. The field should be gone over at intervals and canes drawn
up between the wires when long encugh.

Behavior of varieties under pruning varies greatly. Surprise can be
pruned to advantage when dormant, but if cut back when sap is flowing and
weather is hot they often die. This variety will bear two crops if handled
right and none at all if abused. A variety like the Idaho needs very little
if any cutting back, and the Superlative likes to swing gracefully over the
trellis. The good old Cuthbert should be cut back with care, leaving as
much cane as can be supported by the wires. The Red Antwerp is much
like the Cuthbert. The Ruby, Miller, London, Herbert and St. Regis are
all good varieties and require about the same care. The latter variety gives
out an abundant sucker growth, which is not desirable when not confined.

Varieties of the Raspberry.—The Cuthbert, the universally
popular and most largely planted sort, is a profuse grower,
with healthy and rich foliage, which protects fruit from sunburn;
an excellent bearer, with the fruit well distributed through the
bush; the fruit comes off easily, and does not crumble, is of fine
flavor, and ships well. The Hansel and Red Antwerp and sey-
eral newer varieties mentioned above by Mr. Scribner are grown
to a limited extent.

The Black Cap varieties thrive fairly in most parts of the
State, but only limited quantities sell well in the markets. The
golden or yellow raspberries are also out of favor, because they
are shy bearers and cut no figure in the California product, but
are esteemed by amateurs.

LOGANBERRY AND PHENOMENAL

These two trailing berries, which originated in California, have
been for many years held to be products of hybridization, as will
be stated below.* Recently they have been pronounced not hy-

*“The Logan Blackberry and Related Varieties,’ by George M. Darrow. Farmers’
Bulletin No. 998, U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1918.

LOGAN AND PHENOMENAL BERRIES 423

brids, but variants of the native trailing blackberry of this State.
In this connection the question is unimportant and may be deposit-
ed with the botanists who have raised it.

The Loganberry was originated by Judge J. H. Logan of Santa
Cruz, and is a cross between the California wild blackberry and a

red raspberry, thought to be the Red Antwerp. It was a chance
hybrid developed by growing plants from the seed of the wild
blackberry in 1881. The plant was multiplied by its originator and
fruited for more than ten years, plants being meantime given to Mr.
James Waters, of Watsonville, who grew it on a commercial scale
and was gratified at the results of his marketing of the fruit. The
variety was first given to the public through the University of
California in 1893 and has proved a most valuable fruit in all parts
of California not only as fresh fruit but as a source of juice and
jam products which have unique characters. The Loganberry is
an exceedingly robust grower, and has unique foliage and cane
growth as well as fruit. The fruit is strikingly large and hand-
some; sometimes an inch and a quarter long, with the shape of a
blackberry, and sometimes the hue of a dark red raspberry. The
flavor is unique and peculiar, and gives to many tastes suggestions
of the combination of blackberry and raspberry flavors. The cul-
ture of the Loganberry is like that of the dewberry—both in
growth and propagation, rooting readily from cane tips without
covering, unless many plants are desired, and then a covered cane
will root at each joint.

The Phenomenal is a hybrid which is grown for a trade which
prefers a less sharp acid than that of the Loganberry. It originat-
ed with Mr. Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa, and is a cross be-
tween the California dewberry and a red raspberry. It is ex-
ceedingely large, bright crimson, very productive and of delicious
flavor. The fruit comes in large clusters and single berries have
weighed four to the ounce. In shipping it holds shape and color
well. The Phenomenal is counted about one week later than the
Loganberry. ;

Trellising for Hybrid Berries.—The discussion and methods for
training the trailing blackberries, already given at much length in
this chapter, apply also to the Loganberry and Phenomenal. A
special arrangement commended for the Loganberry is the fol-
lowing :

Plant the rows eight feet apart and vines four feet apart in the row.
Use common fence posts for trellising, setting them sixteen or twenty feet
apart, four feet high after they are set; then measure from top of post
one foot down and nail a two-foot crosspiece; use three wires, stapling
one to the top of the posts and one on each side to the enc! of the
erosspieces. This gives a nice oval surface with three times the room
as having the wires one above the other on the post. The new growth is
allowed to run on the ground all summer while last year’s wood on
the trellis is bearing a crop. The new growth is not much in the way,
for its laterals do not develop till picking is over. Immediately after
this or any time up to the next spring, the canes which bore this year
are cut en masse from their low trellis and the new growth is lifted
from the ground, spread on the trellis and tied securely to the wires.

494 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

THE STRAWBERRY

‘Strawberries all the year round’’ is the trite expression by
which the charms of the California climate are characterized. It
is no fiction, for in the wonderfully even climate of the regions
adjacent to the coast and in thermal belts in the interior, the
strawberry plant blooms and bears almost continuously, providing
proper moisture conditions are maintained in the soil. There are,
however, two or three more or less well-defined crops. The oc-
currence of these crops during the season and the relation of irri-
gation to them in the Sebastopol distirict of Sonoma county is
thus described:

We commence cultivating as soon as the ground can possibly be
worked in the spring and continue with a very thorough cultivation
until the first crop nearly reaches maturity. From this time until the
first crop is nearly over, the weeds are pulled by hand, being careful
not to disturb the surface of the ground too much close to the plants.

As soon as the first crop is about gone, the first irrigation is given.
This is continued until the second crop is well on its way, at the same
time cultivating thoroughly, but not too deep or too close to the plant.

During the harvesting of the second crop in June and the first part
of July, the irrigating is lessened to quite an extent. As soon as the
second crop is off, the water is kept off entirely for about three weeks.

Irrigation is then commenced again and kept up continuously until
fall. In about three weeks after this fall irrigation is commenced, the
new leaves and buds commence to appear, and in a short time the
field looks as fresh and fine as it did in the spring. By October 1 the fall or
third crop is being harvested. The berries are of an exceedingly fine
flavor, color and size, and sell at fancy prices.

‘‘Strawberries all the year’’ does not mean a uniform supply;
nor does it mean that everywhere in California can one expect
such constant fruiting. In the very hot interior situations the
plant rebels against the atmospheric conditions of midsummer,
even though the ground be moist; and in frosty places the plants
become dormant during the wintry portion of the year. The con-
ditions of constant growth and bearing are moderation of tem-
perature and of atmospheric and soil moisture throughout the
year.

Situations and Soils for the Strawberry.—Bearing in mind the
conditions described, the strawberry can be grown anywhere in
California. The native species, as mentioned in Chapter V, flourish
from. the sand of the ocean beach to the rich valleys of the Sierra,
just below the line of perpetual snow, and the deduction is that
wherever fertile soil and sweet water can be brought together
in California, the strawberry will reward the grower.

Strawberries do well on a variety of soils, but as a rule a deep,
moist, loamy soil will yield best results. Boggy or swampy spots
should be avoided unless drainage is provided, and in this way
most excellent strawberry ground may sometimes be secured. Land
which will produce good potatoes or corn will generally yield good
results with strawberries, provided irrigation is furnished. In
many regions the plants will hardly survive the summer without

PLANTING STRAWBERRIES 425

irrigation and everywhere a succession of crops during the season
depends upon irrigation. It is the common experience that light,
warm soils yield the earliest and highest-flavored berries, and
heavy soils the later and larger ones; but the size of the berry de-
pends more upon the supply of available moisture, and immense
fruit can be produced on loose, open soils by free irrigation. And
yet the heavier soil, both because of its usually superior fertility
and retention of moisture, is preferred for the strawberry. The
largest producing regions for the San Francisco market in the
Santa Clara and Pajaro Valleys are comprised mainly of low-
lying, heavy valley soils naturally moist and rich, and furnished
with abundant water supply for irrigation. And yet in southern
California the chief market crops are produced upon light sandy
loams with water equal to the needs of the plants upon such a
footing. It must be remembered that the strawberry is a shal-
low-rooting plant and must have moisture retained near the sur-
face. Some loose soils, especially on uplands, are almost out of
the question for strawberry growing. They are so leachy that
they will not hold moisture near the surface though one should
stand with a hose and almost continually pour it on. The plants
would also dry up though the water were running near by in a
ditch. To grow strawberries it is often an advantage to have a
shallow loam over clay or hardpan, for then the tight layer below
will prevent the escape of the water below the reach of the roots.
If this can not be had, the best way to grow strawberries on leachy
soils for home use is to mulch and sprinkle.

Propagation of the Strawberry.—Seedlings undertaken in the
hope of originating valuable new varieties are easily grown by
tuking off the outside layer of the choicest kerries, which carries
with it the small, yellow seeds. Wash these from the skin and
cover them slightly in a sandy soil partially shaded and kept moist
by sprinkling, or a light mulch, and the plants are readily grown.
As with seedlings of other fruits, few if any, will be found su-
perior to the parent variety.

Plants for setting out are secured by tafling off the small
growths rooted from runners. The strongest plants are those near-
est to the parent plant. When these are allowed to root in small
pots plunged into the soil, they are called ‘‘pot-grown,’’ and are
superior for planting out, but they are not largely used in this
State. When plants of any variety are desired for new beds or
fields, a row or more are allowed to send out runners during the
summer, and these are fit for taking up and replanting the fol-
lowing winter or spring.

Laying Off Ground for Strawberries.—The essentials are deep
and thorough pulverization of the soil and grading of the surtace
so that water will flow slowly in the ditches. The inclination
which answers for water distribution may be very slight; about
two inches to the hundred feet answers on the level lands of the
Pajaro Valley, while in the foothills much greater fall is made

496 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

use of, and on hillsides, rows are located on contour lines and not
in straight lines. A grade of three and three-quarters inches to
the hundred feet is sometimes used. The triangle described in
Chapter XV can be used to fix the grades.

Of course, in grading the field it is often necessary to give ad-
jacent blocks opposite inclinations to provide for the return of
the water. On hillsides, where the water is carried down a ridge
to a flume, it is usual to keep the water always running away from
the flume, and only enough is taken out to reach the ends of the
small ditches. A grade of six inches to the rod is practicable for
hillside irrigation, but of course only a small flow of water is em-
ployed.

There are various ways of laying out strawberry beds and
plantations. Some give flat cultivation and lay out in single rows
two and a half to three and a half feet apart, and in some dis-
tricts flat culture is unquestionably the best. Others lay out in
double rows a foot and one-half to two feet apart, and between
each pair of rows the soil from the center is drawn up to each
side, making a low ridge or level a little higher than the surface on
which the plants are set. This level serves as a walk between
the beds and holds back the water upon the bed when irrigated
by flooding. Another, and generally adopted plan, is to have
the plants in double rows on a slight ridge, while between the beds
is a furrow which serves as a walk and for irrigation. This is
accomplished by throwing up the soil with the plow into ridges
about two feet wide, with a double furrow between. On the sides
of these ridges the plants are set, and often on the top of the ridge
between the rows of strawberries a single row of onions or lettuce,
or some other vegetable, is grown the first year. In irrigation
the water is drawn up from the trenches by the roots and by
capillary attraction, and the upper surface does not bake, as it
would by flooding if the soil be heavy. In hoeing out weeds and
in fruit gathering, the workman walks in the ditch and does not
pack the soil around the plant by tramping. This is the best
method for laying out for large plantations. The rows are a uni-
form distance apart across the field, whether the space between be
a ridge or a ditch. The method of making the beds a little lower
than the general surface of the ground answers best on free, open
soils with perfect drainage. Cultivation can be reduced by cover-
ing the depressed surface of the bed with mulch of fine, clean
litter, such as chaff, cut straw, ete. This retains moisture and
gives the berry a clean surface to rest on. Such a bed is an ex-
cellent arrangement for the home garden.

In all arrangements the plants are set at less distances in the
rows than the rows are from each other. Probably the prevail-
ing distance is one foot between the plants; the range is from
eight to eighteen inches in the practice of different growers, and
determined, of course, largely by the habit of the variety. A vine
with a spreading growth and long fruit stem needs, perhaps, six-
teen inches which some growers give it, while the smaller, more
compact growers may do well with half that distance.

CARE OF STRAWBERRIES 427

Planting Strawberries.—Strawberry plants are set out either in
spring or fall, or at any time in the winter when the ground is
warm or in good condition. Fall planting usually gives a fuller
spring crop, though planting as late as February has brought two
crops the following spring and summer, and planting in April
has secured fruit the same year, but it is better to prevent it and
induce more growth. Spring planting is in April and May. In
the drier parts of the State, early fall or winter planting is more
essential than elsewhere. If the ground is dry, water should al-
ways be used in planting. This may be given by thorough irri-
gation of the ground before planting, or a little water may be
used in setting each plant. At planting it is usually best to re-
move all leaves from the plant, shorten the roots to three inches
or less, and be sure the plants do not dry while planting progress-
es. As with handling rooted grapevines, it is advisable to carry
around the plants in a vessel which has water in it. If the plants
have been received by mail they are invigorated by soaking in
water a few hours before planting.

In setting the plants, scoop out a little excavation with the hand
or a trowel, spread the roots well, cover with a fine soil, being
sure that the crown of the plant shall not be below the surface
when the soil is leveled. Too many strawberry plants are buried,
not planted. Some plant very rapidly by using a dibble to make a
hole, into which the roots are dropped and soil pressed around
them by using the dibble alongside; others set the plants on the
side of the furrow, trusting to the next furrow to complete the
covering. Nearly all ways succeed if the plant is not set too deep-
ly and the ground is moist at planting and not allowed to dry
out afterwards—providing good, strong plants are used. In buying
plants it is often poor economy to buy the cheapest.

Staminate and Pistillate—In associating varieties be sure the
pistillate varieties are not set by themselves. Some sorts have
perfect flowers and are self-fertilizing; others have only the pis-
tillate element in the bloom and must have the staminate adja-
cent in another variety. Several varieties largely grown in Cali-
fornia have perfect flowers, though some pistillate sorts have been
locally approved. This matter should be looked into before plant-
ing a variety. Pistillate varieties should have staminate kinds
in every fourth row.

Care of the Strawberry Plantation.—Herein lies the secret of
success with the strawberry. Neglect has led to disappointment
and condemnation of the strawberry, where intelligent care would
have rendered it a constant delight. The cheap elements of proper
eare may be thus enumerated:

Retention of moisture very near the surface by careful, shallow
cultivation or by mulching, persistent destruction of weeds, and
compensation for summer evaporation by frequent irrigation. The
plants during the bearing season should never be allowed to show
any leaf-shriveling from drouth. Frequency of irrigation depends

428 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

upon local conditions. Irrigation at intervals of four to ten days,
according to the soil, are the outlines of prevailing practice.

Constantly remove runners from all plants except those it is
desired to multiply to furnish new plants or to fill the rows. Pinch-
ing of runners should always accompany picking or hoeing of
weeds, and on the garden bed there can be no excuse for neglect in
this respect. The young plants should be faithfully freed from
runners to strengthen them up for bearing.

Though, as already stated, strawberries may in some locations
be had all winter, it is better practice, as a general rule, to lay
the plants away for a rest. The market season in the regions sup-
plying the San Francisco market extends from April to December,
and fruit is continuously shipped during that period. At the ap-
proach of winter in the last-named month, it is usual to go over
the beds with a sickle, cutting off the old crops of leaves close to
the root crown, carefully cleaning up the plantation for the heavy
rains. In most cases it will be be a great advantage then to cover
over all with a light coat of good manure, which the winter rains
will leach down into the soils. The result of the fall clipping and
enriching will be an early and strong start of the plant in the
spring, and a most abundant fruitage.

Duration of the Plantation—Strawberry plants well cared for
and not visited by insect pests, have a long, productive, and prof-
itable life in California. Twelve-year-old plants are sometimes
reported at still producing abundantly. It is customary to count
from five to eight years as the profitable life of a plant, though
some growers replant after two or three bearing years. The ef-
fective duration depends directly upon preventing growth of plants
and too close matting of the rows.

Varieties of the Strawberry.—Though all new varieties are
tried by California growers, and quite a number may be consid-
ered successful either for market or for home use, only a very few
may be said to be widely grown. In the Watsonville district,
which largely supplies San Francisco, the Melinda, which some
growers hold to be indistinguishable from the Dollar, is chiefly
crown, with Brandywine as a distant second and Nick Ohmer and
Klondyke gaining ground. In the southern Alameda and Santa
Clara district the Banner is grown exclusively by some large grow-
ers. In the Florin district, near Sacramento, growing berries to
ship all through the northern States of the coast and eastward to
Colorado, the Dollar is grown almost exclusively, with a few Jes-
seys for extra early. Other varieties which do well in the interior
valley are: Longworth, Lady Thompson, and Tennessee Prolific.
In the Fresno district, Marshall and Jessie are chiefly grown.

In the districts near Los Angeles, the Brandywine prevails.
It is best for shipping and is held to be sweeter than at the east;
and next to it, in the commercial fields at the south, are Excelsior
and Klondyke. The Arizona Everbearing is declining in popularity,
although still favored by some growers in Southern California.

VARIETIES OF STRAWBERRIES 429

Three old kinds which still hold favor for home use and local
sale are the Longworth Prolific, the Sharpless, and the Monarch
of the West. The Sharpless is the most widely grown; the Mon-
arch shows better size and color in southern California and on the
Sierra foothills than in the regions adjacent to San Francisco,
although it is still grown therein to some extent. The Longworth
is an old favorite, early, productive and hardy, and its style has be-
come very popluar in the markets. Wilson’s Albany also holds
favor.

It has been demonstrated that varieties show marked difference
in behavior in different soils and situations. In planting for market
or home use the planter will be safer in making his largest plan-
tations of the varieties commended by leading growers and well
informed nurserymen, and at the same time he should put out
experimental plants of other varieties. Mr. H. A. Hyde of Wat-
sonville is getting some surprising: results by selecting distinctly
prolific strains of Nick Ohmer, Klondyke, Magoon and Melinda.

The most notable work for new varieties in California is being
pursued by Albert F. Etter, of Briceland, Humboldt County. He
is crossing cultivated varieties with local wild species and is thus
introducing factors not employed hitherto with results which are
notable in size, thrift and disease-resistance of the plants and in
prolific bearing of fruit of unique characters for long shipment
and for canning as well as for possession of the traditional de-
liciousness and desirability of the strawberry. Mr. Etter has de-
seribed his material, methods and results in detail in the Pacific
Rural Press of January 23, 1915; March 4, 1916; January 26, 1918,
and March 1, 1919. The relation of Mr. Etter’s work to the com-
mercial production of strawberries will be disclosed by the wide
trial now (1919) being made of his varieties.

PART SEVEN: NUTS

CHAPTER XXXVII
THE ALMOND

Two nuts have arisen to large commercial importance in Cali-
fornia: the English walnut and the almond. Other nuts than these,
except peanuts, have never attained great acreage, although sev-
eral have succeeded and promise to become popular.

The production of almonds during the current century has
been as follows, in tons of 2000 lbs.:

1 ES (| ub ree ROtaRne ene irate 2740 MAND cee, Sets Fede ie Se cae 3300
OE ei Rio SN eas 1560 OD coh ot er eg uae 1700
1S | Es ROO EASE cs nate a oe 3270 DOS eres ee ee 3000
MOOS een lee Geek 3200 DOE Sy Sarg tes ee 1000
WOE tah et eg 800 0 LSE: Siareeeateney Gn eget 2250
EL Re eee oop mee eae 2125 ch 1s Semmens spoe tae Sha” 3900
QO BS ek Sie Seta Nees 900 BORG il ee goals 3400
tie (Skepta See 750 UG WW Gen mneaeee en ecak ar th 4000
POM Bic ses Lier ose 2900 i Rg Be prem sein Sou aE 5168
DO Dig to acest Sle 2a 1500

Almonds are chiefly grown in a commercial way in the interior
valleys of central California, although there are extensions into
the more northerly counties of the Sacramento valley. On the
coast there is large acreage in the Paso Robles region of San
Luis Obispo County, and in southern California the largest pro-
duction is in the Banning district of Riverside County. The pro-
duction is now rapidly increasing because of successful marketing
through the California Almond Growers Exchange and because of a
better understanding of the natural conditions required for suc-
cessful operations with the almond tree.*

Vicissitudes of the Almond.—The almond has an interesting
history in California, but it can be outlined in a few sentences. The
importation of the best European varieties began very early, and
a number of them had been planted in 1853. They proved irregular
bearers, though the trees grew thriftily and in some cases showed
fruit very soon after planting. The barren almond trees were
largely grafted into prunes or made into firewood and the con-
clusion was reached that to secure regularity and abundance in
fruiting, locations for almond orchards must be sought with the
utmost care, and that the secret of success lay in the location. After
that local seedlings seemed to demonstrate their value in regular
crops, and in characteristics and qualities superior to foreign kinds.

*A very satisfactory publication, now available, is ‘‘The Almond in California,’’ by
R. H. Taylor: Bulletin 297 of the University Experiment Station at Berkeley.

WHERE TO PLANT ALMONDS 431

Large planting was then undertaken on the ground that the choice
of soil and situation, and the selection of trustworthy varieties, are
both factors of success, but that possibly more lay in the choice of
variety than of location. This belief led to the wide planting in
locations now seen to be unfitted by reason of frosts and losses
were again encountered. Now it seems to be fully demonstrated
that no matter what variety is planted locations for the almond
must be selected with great care. It has also been demonstrated
that association of varieties promotes pollination and satisfactory
bearing, as will be stated later.

Situations and Soils for the Almond.—Almonds are now doing
best on the higher lands in coast valleys, free from fogs and pro-
tected from direct winds, but subject to tempered breezes; also at
various points in the interior valleys and foothills. The general
proposition that low lands in small valleys should be avoided, and
bench or hillside situations preferred, seems to be a safe one. Lands
directly upon the coast have not proved satisfactory. In the large
interior valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, almonds are
successfully grown on flat valley lands but little lifted above sea
level and from such plains the chief product comes. Why almonds
are safer on the low lands of a great valley than of a small valley is
explained by the discussion in Chapter I.

The almond prefers a loose, light, warm soil, and heavy, poorly-
drained soils should be avoided. Though they need moisture enough
to make good, thrifty growth they will produce good crops on soils
that are too light or dry to grow satisfactory peaches, apricots,
nectarines, cherries, or similar pulpy fruits. The almond is, how-
ever, a very deep-rooting tree, and may succeed by reaching deeply
for moisture rather than by denying itself, as some think. The
tree certainly suffers and is barren from drouth in some cases, and
a certain amount of irrigation in midsummer is very desirable in
many places. Almonds are doing well in alfalfa with irriga-
tion—the alfalfa making a good growth and still leaving soil-
moisture enough to cause the nuts to open their hulls better than
on drier ground with clean cultivation.

Propagating, Planting, and Pruning.—The almond is propagated
from seedlings grown as described in Chapter VIII, and budded as
described in Chapter IX. The almond root is chiefly used, though
the peach answers well upon soils adapted to it. The apricot root
should be avoided, and plum roots have proved disappointing.

For planting out, trees in dormant bud are very successful if
given proper care. Yearling trees are, on the whole, best and
usually those which have made a moderate instead of a very large
erowth are to be preferred. The almond makes a comparatively
large tree and should have plenty of room—not less than twenty-
four feet apart (though some plantations are made at twenty feet),
and thirty feet is better.

Old almond trees are readily worked over to other varieties by
grafting and by budding into new shoots forced out by cutting off

432 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

large branches. Methods with the peach described in Chapter XX
are applicable to the almond.

The pruning of the almond is more important than formerly
thought. The tree should be headed low and pruned during the
first three years, as described in Chapter XII, to secure a shapely,
strong tree. After the third year little pruning was usually done
except to thin out objectionable branches. Suckers, or rank new
growth, in the center of the tree should be removed, unless more
branches are needed; such growth bears little and takes away
strength from bearing wood. There is danger of allowing the trees
to become too dense and to have too little new wood for fruit bear-
ing until the tree is cut back all around and a new top is secured
upon the old forkings of main branches. This has been successfully
done with many old orchards. A wide impression has recently
prevailed that the almond has been pruned too little and there
seems little doubt that pruning for continuous renewal of bearing
wood must be provided. There are widely variant views on the
extent to which the policy should be carried. Mr. Leonard Coates
of Morgan Hill has reached the conclusion that the almond should
be pruned like the peach—not only started like the peach, but
annually pruned after it comes into bearing for the production of
new wood, shortening the shoots of new wood and thinning out
excess of such shoots to prevent the tree from becoming too brushy.
When this is done, he has found for a number of years that trees
thus pruned bring regular and heavy crops, while adjacent un-
pruned trees have a scanty set of nuts.

More moderate but still continual pruning is practiced by Mr.
J. T. Caldwell of San Joaquin County, who states his method in
this way:

I do not like to wait several years and then butcher my trees. I prune
a little every year, watching all the time for limbs that are in the way or
getting too thick—taking them out entirely, whatever size they may be;
but there are seldom any big ones in the way, nor that have to be cut out
for any other reason. I figure just on thinning out the brush, taking out
the suckers, but never topping back, because that would induce a whippy
growth, from which the nuts would be knocked off in windy weather, and
the same is true if too many top branches are allowed close together, so
that the full force of the wind catches them.

The cultivation of the almond orchard is the same as commended
for other fruit trees, and as the trees are often planted in naturally
dry soils, the greater care in cultivation is needed to retain sufficient

moisture to give good size to the nuts. In certain locations, of -

course, irrigation will be necessary, but usually a light rainfall will
answer if good cultivation is given and the chief part of the crop
is grown without irrigation.

Sulphur fumes are applied until the nuts are of a light yellowish
color.

Harvesting Almonds.—There is some variation in the methods
of handling almonds, and much to be learned by visiting commercial
orchards at harvesting time, but the following explicit account of

HARVESTING ALMONDS 433

procedure by Mr. J. P. Dargitz conveys general outlines of methods
and materials:

‘*When the hulls on the nuts are loose from the shells, as will be
indicated by their bursting open, it is time to begin gathering if you
wish to hull them. If they get too dry you will have to wet them
before hulling or you will break the shells. If you wish to shell
them then, the drier they get the better. It will not pay to begin
until the nuts about the crotches of the trees are ready and they will
be the last to ripen. When they are all ready you can get all at one
gathering. Have some sheets made of heavy unbleached sheeting
or light duck or sail cloth. Mine for large trees are 15x30 feet,
handled by two men to a sheet and two sheets to a tree. Spread
the sheets under the tree, one on each side, lapping the edges where
they join. Then the men take soft wood or bamboo poles and by
jarring the limbs cause the nuts to fall on the sheets. Always strike
the limbs sideways, for if you strike a glancing blow down the limb,
you will reduce next year’s crop. The object is to get the nuts and
disturb the foliage as little as possible. When the nuts are all off
the tree, the men toss their poles to the next tree and then gather
up the sheets, one man at each end of each sheet and, lifting them,
carry them to the next tree, where the process is repeated. When
enough nuts are in the sheets to fill several lug boxes, the boxes are
placed on the ground side by side, and the sheets are emptied into
them. These boxes are then stacked up so as to be easily seen, and
the teamster hauls them to the sheds where machines for hulling
are located. In the very small orchards the hulling is usually done
by hand. For orchards slightly larger there are small hullers which
can be operated by hand or by a small gasoline engine or electric
motor. For larger orchards, machines which can hull up to two
or three tons per day are in the market.’’

After the hulling more or less hand sorting is required, as the
small machines do no sorting, while the larger machines do more
or less perfect sorting of the hulls from the nuts.

Bleaching.—After this hand sorting, the nuts are spread out in
the sun to be thoroughly cured before bleaching. After they are
cured so that the kernel will break without bending, they are ready
for bleaching. The bleaching requires the dampening of the shells.
This is accomplished by immersing quickly in water or by a fine
spray from a hose nozzle, or by putting on trays and running in the
sulphur house and then introducing low pressure steam—not more
than 30 pounds—into the sulphur house for 15 to 30 minutes. The
moisture from this low-pressure steam heats or dampens the outer
portion of the shell, and then while they are both hot and damp—
the steam being shut off—the sulphur fumes from burning sulphur
are introduced in the sulphur house for perhaps 15 to 30 minutes and
give the required brightening to the shell. If the almonds have
been immersed before bleaching it will be necessary after bleach-
ing to spread them out in the sun for several hours and stir them
occasionally to get rid of the excess moisture. If they have been
dampened by a fine spray hose they may or may not need this dry-

434 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

ing, but they must be perfectly dry before being sacked. How-
ever, if the steam process is used, the nuts can be taken immediately
from the sulphur house and sacked, and the heat that is in the
shell will evaporate the small amount of moisture in the process
of sacking.

The steam process costs only about one-half as much as the other
process of bleaching. If the shell is wet through, or if the kernels
are not well cured, or if the shells are open and the nuts immersed
and there is more or less water inside the shells, the sulphur will
materially injure the kernels and they will not keep ise but will
soon become rancid.

Almonds that are to be shelled for commercial purposes should
not be bleached under any circumstances, as the only object to be
accomplished in bleaching is the brightening of the shell, and for
shelling purposes the shells are not marketed.

Pollination of the Almond.—Careful studies* have shown that
arrangements for pollination are essential to the satisfactory bear-
ing of nearly all the varieties now being grown in California. The
following conclusions are most widely useful:

California may be pollinated by Nonpareil and Peerless.

Drake may be pollinated by California, Languedoc, Nonpareil and Texas;
however, Languedoc is a poor pollen producer.

Harriott may be pollinated by Ne Plus Ultra.

I. X. L. may be pollinated by Drake.

Ne Plus Ultra may be pollinated by California, I. X. L., Jordan and Non-
pareil.

Nonpareil may be pollinated by California, Drake, Jordan, Ne Plus Ultra,
Peerless, and Texas.

Texas may be pollinated by Drake and Nonpareil.

One colony of honey bees should be provided for each acre of orchard.

Varieties of the Almond.—Almonds should bear well every year,
hull easily, have clean, thin, soft shells, and a smooth, bright, and
plump kernel. Almonds with long, single kernels are preferred to
those which have double ones. These are the characters which
ruled in the selection of new varieties by the pioneer propagator
of new almonds, A. T. Hatch, of Suisun. In 1878 Mr. Hatch planted
out about two thousand five hundred seedling almond trees grown
from the bitter almond seed. He afterward budded all the seed-
lings but about three hundred which were left to bearing age un-
budded. The fruit of these seedlings was of all degrees of excel-
lence. A few of the best of them were selected for propagation and
naming, and they constitute the chief part of the acreage which is
now bearing almonds in California.

Excellent seedling almonds have also been produced by other
growers. The following list includes the sorts most widely grown—
the following being chiefly approved by growers, in the order given:
Nonpareil, Drake, IX, Ne Plus Ultra, Peerless, Texas Prolific,
Languedoc.

*“‘Ajmond Pollination,” by Warren P. Tufts: California Experiment Station Bulletin
No. 306, Berkeley, March, 1919.

VARIETIES OF ALMONDS 435

IXL.—Tree a sturdy, rather upright grower, with large leaves; nuts
large with, as a rule, single kernels; hulls easily, no machine being needed,
nor is any bleaching necessary; shell soft, but perfect; largely discarded
for shy bearing, but desirable in some places.

Ne Plus Ultra.—Large and very long in shape; heavy and regular bear-
er; soft shell; hull free.

Nonpareil.—First called Extra. Of a weeping style of growth; smaller
foliage than the IXL, but still forms a beautiful tree. An extraordinarily
heavy and regular bearer, with very thin shell, of the Paper Shell type.
Ripens early and can be gathered before other varieties are ready.

Lewelling’s Prolific—Originated with the late Mr. John Lewelling; “tree
a great bearer; of drooping habit; nut large and good; soft shell; hull
free.”—Leonard Coates.

Harriott’s Seedling (or Commercial).—From Visalia, where it is a surer
cropper than elsewhere; shell softer than the Languedoc; nut long, of
peculiar shape, quite large; kernel sweet.

King’s Soft Shell.—Originated in San Jose; shell very thin and soft;
regular and abundant bearer.

Princess.—The finest of the Paper Shell class; long, oval, kernel large,
white and sweet.

Languedoe.—Nut large; shell thin; kernel sweet; condemned for irreg-
ular bearing.

California Paper Shell.—Medium size; shell very tender, easily broken
between the finger and thumb; kernel large, white and sweet. Efficient
pollinizer for other varieties.

Drake’s Seedling.—Originated with Mr. Drake of Suisun, of the Langue-
doc class; very prolific, and a regular, abundant bearer. A late blooming
variety.

Golden State.—Originated by Webster Treat. A large soft shell, some-
what longer than the Languedoc, with a full, smooth-skinned meat; parts
from the hull readily. An early variety, but in less favor than formerly.

_ Peerless.—Resembling IXL. Popular in Yolo County for regular and
heavy bearing.

Texas Prolific—Brought from Texas by Robert Williamson of Sacra-
mento, about 1891, as a seedling originated at Dallas, and the only almond
which would bear there. Largely planted as a pollinizer for Nonpareil;
productive, but not selling well in 1919.

Jordan.—This long, hard-shelled almond, notable because of its long,
slim kernel for “salted almonds” and imported at high cost for that pur-
pose, has been introduced both through government distribution and pri-
vate enterprise, notably that of the late John Rock, of the California Nur-
sery Co., of Niles. Too little has yet been seen to determine the value of
the variety in local production. It is especially favored to the Coachella
Valley.

Eureka.—Originated with Mr. A. M. Newland, of Colusa. Has long slim
kernel, resembling Jordan, but smaller and enclosed in a thin shell. Reg-
ularly productive for twenty years with originator.

CHAPTER XXXVIII
THE ENGLISH WALNUT

Although we have in California a grand native walnut tree
which bears the name of the State (Juglans Californica), as noted
in Chapter IV, the nut to which reference is made when the term
‘‘walnut’’ is used is the English walnut or Madeira nut—both of
which are old trade names for the Persian walnut (Juglans regia).
Our native walnut in its varieties and as influenced by environ-
ment,* ranges from a tree of great size and beauty to a shrub. The
variety as it is found in the valleys of Central and Northern Cali-
fornia is a majestic tree widely grown from the nuts for shade and
ornament, from early pioneer days to the present and therefore
now widely distributed and admired. Its greatest economic service
is, however, the contribution of its nuts for seedlings which are

largely depended upon as stocks for grafted/ trees, as will be stated
later. .

The Walnut Product.—The English walnut was introduced to
California during the Mission period, the first being probably grown
by the Mission Fathers with nuts brought from Spain. Away from
the Missions there were also old trees in Southern California at the
time of the American occupation. English walnuts were also
planted both in Southern and Central California by the American
pioneers, but for decades there was no notable commercial produc-
tion. Very large trees planted in the pioneer period are still to be
seen here and there in both coast and interior situations.t

The California product of walnuts during the current century
has been. as follows, in tons of 2,000 lbs.:

POD ora dad 5,430 TOM. ise arth 9,600
WOOK cee wah 6,910 1GMde Putas 12,500
ri em ome 8,520 191955 vous 11,250
180 dee a 5,500 TELE pebebarnae 11,750
POCe er 7,500 191A hee 8,000
100R ie eos 5,750 15 See 14,895
TOME Ais: sy ein 6,125 TOG 14,600
POM Se 6,500 i eee: 16,500
IDWS setae Ck 8,500 (OKGa2 A asi 19,962
T500.! Ae Ae its 8,000

The walnut product is almost exclusively grown in Orange, Los
Angeles, Ventura and Santa Barbara—contiguous counties along the
southern coast of the State, and the headquarters of the California

*A very interesting study of the native walnut in its various forms is given by Prof.
R. E. Smith in Bulletin 231 of the University of California Experiment Station, 1912.

Though this publlication has been out of print for several years, it may be consulted in
libraries.

;Many records of early plantings are to be found in the Report of the California State
Board of Horticulture. 1895-6.

REQUIREMENTS OF THE WALNUT 437

Walnut Growers Association, a very efficient co-operative organiza-
tion, is in Los Angeles. Only about three per cent of the product
of 1918 was grown outside of the area indicated.

During the last few years there has been a disposition to plant
the walnut in other parts of the State and the prospect is that more
widely separated regions will participate in future production, as
local adaptations to the tree have been demonstrated wherever
suitable soils have been found and varieties meeting local require-
ments have been planted.

Soils for the Walnut.—The walnut makes most rapid growth
upon a deep, rich, moist, loamy soil, and shows its appreciation of
good things of the earth as do other fruit trees, and yet it attains
satisfactory size and bearing in less favorable situations. Thriving
trees can be found in the clays and decomposed granite soils of the
foothills, as well as in the valley silts and loams. Adequate moisture
must, however, be had either by rainfall or irrigation, and the
walnut cannot be commended for dry, neglected places nor for soils
which overlie leachy subsoils.

Propagation.—The walnut tree grows readily from nuts treated
as described in! Chapter VIII. For many years the use of seedlings
prevailed, and the nut was looked upon as coming sufficiently true
from seed. Recently, however, this has changed rapidly, and bud-
ding or grafting to secure a high, uniform grade and to secure
fruitfulness in spite of the blight is commanding wide attention.
In growing young trees it is being considered desirable to bud or
oraft rather high so as to get a trunk of the hardier variety which
is used as a stock.

The California black is now chiefly used as a stock for the
English walnut, and either budding or grafting resorted to. The
success of the English walnut on our native stock has long been
known. Mr. John R. Wolfskill, on Putah Creek, in Solano County,
put in a bud in 1875 and the tree reached immense size and large
product. Since then many large native black walnuts have been
top-grafted with the English walnut with notable success, not only
in orchards, but along highways where the native black walnut has
been planted for shade and ornament.

Mr. F. S. Leib, of San Jose, who has given much attention to
stocks for the English walnut, believes that the cross of the Cali-
fornia black and the Eastern black walnuts, and the California
black walnut straight, gives the best seedlings for roots for the
English walnut, but advises close selection of the nuts in the sprout-
ing bed (see Chapter VIII), as the nuts with the longest sprouts:
make the strongest growth in the nursery or in open ground.

The best nuts for seedlings are the native black walnut straight
and the Royal hybrid (every cross between the native Eastern black
walnut and the native California black walnut is called a Royal
hybrid), while the Paradox hybrids (English walnuts crossed with
California black) make a large root and but a moderate top the
first year, and few make good the second year. The Paradox hybrid

438 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

roots are also subject to killing by the oak-root fungus, which the
straight native seedlings and the Royal hybrids both resist.

Budding the Walnut.—Twig buds as used with the olive are also
successful with the walnut and ring budding works well on shoots
of a year’s growth, which have at least attained the thickness of the
middle finger, if the buds are set at the base of these shoots where
the wood is perfectly round. The bandage should pass above and
below the bud so that the bark under it may be pressed down close
upon the stock.

Mr. A. W. Keith, of Selma, in taking a fresh bud from the new
growth, found the large leaf stem a serious impediment in firmly
placing a shield bud upon the cambium of the stock and binding it
there. Shaving it away with a knife left too much exposed tissue.
If the leaf stem would drop off as it does when mature and leave a
healed-over scar, the result would be a flat surface with only the
bud protruding, and this could be easily bound in place so as to
exclude the air. By cutting off the compound leaf, leaving a stub
of an inch or so, the stub thus left dries and parts from the stem
just as a mature leaf does in the autumn, leaving clean, flat buds.

Budding to Hold Over Winter—Mr. Pennington of Vacaville
has been very successful in budding by cutting buds in the regular
shield form, about 1% inches long, cut from branches % to % inch
in diameter, so as to get wide buds with but little wood left in them.
He also prefers to have stocks large, and considers a stock 114 inches
in diameter not too large. He uses ordinary budding twine for
tying, but does not use wax to cover the incisions. He buds as late
as it is possible to get a good flow of sap, as then the weather is
likely to be cooler, which is an important factor, and the growing
season is about finished, which will allow the twine to be left in
place all winter, which he considers advisable. Buds are more apt
to succeed when pushed upward from the cross-cut than downward
from it.

Budding to Force Growth.—Budding during the growing season
to force immediate growth on the buds is successfully practiced,
both in nursery stock and in working over orchard trees, by Mr.
Antone Mardesich, propagator for Mr. Leonard Coates of Morgan
Hill, in this way:

Buds have been successfully put in from April to October, but spring
budding is recommended. The early budding is done from budwood about
half an inch in diameter cut in January, while entirely dormant. About six
buds at the base of last season’s growth are suitable. They must be on
round wood, as buds taken from angular wood do not flatten tightly enough
against the stock. The dormant budwood is packed in damp shavings in a
box in a shed until budding time comes. The shavings are too damp if any
moisture can be squeezed out of them. Sand is likely to dull the budding
knife. If the budwood is to be used late in the spring, it must be kept cold.
If it is to be used early in spring, it may be kept the last week or two in a
place where it will warm up gradually. This starts a sappy loosening of
bark so it can be peeled clean from the stick. Buds may be used even if
swelled somewhat, but those showing color will die. Little spherical, hard
and sound buds, are most successful.

BUDDING AND GRAFTING WALNUTS 439

The stocks must always be full of sap so the bark will lift easily enough
to force the bud under it.

Seedlings and branches on older trees to be budded are cut off three
weeks before budding about a foot above the point of insertion. This seems
to thicken the sap so that when the buds are inserted they stick before
they dry out and the sap does not “drown” the buds. If sap flow in the
stock is weak, the cutting back seems to loosen the bark from the wood.

The shield of bark containing a bud is cut about an inch above and
below it and a quarter inch on each side, tapering to blunt ends. It is cut
narrower if the stock is of smaller diameter than the budstick. The upper
end of the bark shield is grasped and peeled clean from the wood. The
ordinary T cut is made in the stock and the shield with its bud is cut and
slipped in immediately and tied with a cotton string around the stock from
the top of the slit downward to prevent the bud slipping upward as it might
if tied from the bottom up. It is wrapped quite tight, so that the sap oozes
from the bottom of the slit while tying—showing that no air is left under
the bud. No wax or other dressing is used. About two weeks later the
string is cut on the back side of the stock. When the shoot has started
vigorously, cut the stock above the bud back to a three-inch stub. Tie the
shoot to this stub to protect it against wind. Cut the stub off smooth a
year later so it will heal over quickly and paint the wound with asphalt.

For summer budding, buds of the current season’s growth are put into
shoots of the current season’s growth. Such budding, done even as late as
October, has made enough growth to ripen before winter, but ordinarily it
is well to get it all done by the last of August.

Grafting the Walnut.—Grafting into black walnut seedling root
can also be well done by a triangular cut into the edge of the root
stump, as described for grafting into grape-vine stumps in Chapter
XXVI. In the case of the walnut, close binding with a wax band is
desirable.

Large walnut trees can be worked over either by budding or
grafting. If by budding, the large limbs are cut back in the winter,
and in autumn following, buds are put in on as many of the new
shoots as. may be desired, or, in the case of younger trees, the buds
are put under the bark of the branches without forcing out new
growth.

Grafting over is desirable either for substituting a better variety
of English walnut, or for working over a California black walnut
into an English variety. Mr. J. B. Neff, of Anaheim, who has
worked over many old trees, gives the following practical sug-
gestions :

If the trees are from three to five inches in diameter they may be cut
off at about four feet above the ground and below the branches, then four
or five scions may be placed on one stock, or three or four of the branches
may be cut back to within 10 to 24 inches of the trunk and two or three
scions placed on each. All the other branches should be removed from the
trunk.

Old trees of from 12 to 20 years should have the branches cut at places
where they are from three to six inches in diameter, and from five to eight
stubs left, which will be from three to six feet in length and should have
as many as six scions in the large stubs, the other branches being removed
before the scions are put in place.

In sawing large branches, it is necessary to make two cuts, the first
being some distance above or outside the final cut, to prevent splitting the
stub, or the trunk, when the severed part falls.

The scion should always be of solid, mature wood, that is, with as small
pith as can be had readily, and must have good living buds. Each scion

AAQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

should be about one-quarter inch in diameter and have at least two buds.
The growth having buds close together is best, as shorter scions can be
used.

To receive the scions use a heavy butcher knife and mallet to split the
stubs, placing the knife across the stub to one side of the pith, as if a chip
one-half to five-eighths inch thick was to be taken off. Then depress the
handle of the knife to an angle of 30 to 45 degrees and split the edge down
to 24% to 3 inches, allowing the knife to reach the farther side of the stub,
but not making the split entirely across the stub. Open the cleft with an
iron wedge % to %-inch wide and thickest on one edge, placing the thick-
est edge toward the outside.

Trim the cleft in the stub with a sharp knife so it will be smooth. Then
cut the scion so as to fit perfectly and place it so the inner bark (the cam-
bium layer) of both will be on the same line, or at least will cross twice,
then remove the wedge and put hot wax over all the cuts on both stock and
scion at once.

The scions should be examined frequently and any excessive flow of sap
wiped off, and the stub recovered with wax as soon as dry. Excessive flow
of sap for several weeks will cause the loss of the scions, as the callus can
not form in water. This may be controlled by boring one-fourth inch holes
in the body of the tree near the ground. Three or four holes four inches
deep will be sufficient to control the flow of the largest trees. No damage
is done to the body of the tree, as the holes soon grow over.

For grafting in the stems of seedlings or in the smaller branches
of young trees a side graft as described in Chapter IX is success-
fully used, as are also several styles of cleft grafting. One which
is used by Mr. R. Wiltz and others at San Jose consists in splitting
a short stub of a small branch which has been cut about four inches
from its attachment to a larger branch of stem. In this case the
split can only extend to the closely knit wood in the crotch and the
scion is pushed down strongly to the bottom of such a split and it
is held tightly. The two pieces of the deep split are not cut away
but are allowed to protect the short scion which is between them,
and if buds start on these pieces they are allowed to grow a little
to keep the stock from dying back. When the scion starts well
they are removed.

A method of side grafting (so called because the stock is not cut
across but a cleft made in the side of it) has been very successfully
practiced by Mr. Weinshank, of Whittier, both with nursery seed-
lings and on branches of large trees. His work has shown eighty
to ninety per cent successful in the nursery and even more on
branches of large trees. The following is a condensed description
of the method:

The scion is prepared as for a whip graft (Chapter IX), cutting
across obliquely and making another cut right straight down with
the grain in the scion. Then, instead of cutting the stock completely
across like the scion, just simply make a little cut on the side. Do
not cut into the pith of the wood at all. Then, place the two
together by pushing the tongue of the scion (made by the cut on
its shorter side) into the lip cut in the stock; tie with a string and
wax over. The same method on larger trees is performed exactly
in the same way, except that the lip of course on the larger limbs,
which are three or four inches through, would be considerably
larger, and the scion instead of being placed directly in the middle

PLANTING WALNUT ORCHARDS 441

of the lip, or in the center, would be placed on the side so as to have
the cambium of the scion connecting with the cambium on the stock
at least on one side. Three or four, or sometimes five scions are put
on a large limb, and in most cases three or four scions would grow.
After the scion has reached a certain stage of growth, this string
will commence to bind, and must be cut down right over where the
scion is. The wax on either side will tend to hold the string, but as
the wood naturally grows, the strings will draw apart, and it will
not bind as it would if the string was not cut.

Side grafting with a saw-cut, as described for the peach in
Chapter XX, also works well with the walnut.

Treatment After Grafting —A fuller account of the protection
of scions after setting and during their early growth is given by
Mr. Edwin Gower of Fowler, Fresno County, thus explicitly:

Take two folds of burlap, punch holes for the scions to pass through,
making a hood inclosing and covering the entire stump, letting it extend
down the sides a short distance; tie a string around the stump to hold it
in place; by using this method the wax will remain in perfect condition.

After the scion is growing rapdly, cut the string; do not remove it. This
allows the scion to grow without the string cutting it. If small trees, drive
a stake down to tie the new growth. On old trees nail four sticks equal dis-
tances apart around the stump, letting the sticks extend four or five feet
beyond the stump, wrap some string around these sticks; this acts as a
net enclosing the growth of the scion, which grows phenomenally on black
walnut. I have seen instances where they grew fifteen feet in one year.
This net acts as a support and keeps the scion from either breaking or
splitting off by the winds. It is sometimes advisable to nip off the end of
the branches to check the growth. Cut them back vigorously for two or
three years, until such time as they are well attached to the stump.

I have used the bark graft, also the cleft graft, but I prefer the former,
as the scion seems to grow more rapidly and reach maturity sooner.

PLANTING WALNUT ORCHARDS

There is much difference in practice in planting out walnut trees
in permanent place. Some advocate the use of trees two or three
years from the seed, getting as much of the tap-root as possible;
others allow the tree to remain in nursery until it throws out
laterals, which is usually done the fourth or fifth year. T'wo-year-
old trees are generally preferred, but walnut trees of many times
that age can be successfully transplanted if the work is carefully
done. Walnut trees are usually set forty feet in squares, though
some give the large-growing varieties fifty feet. Planting in hex-
agonals at forty-five feet distance gives very satisfactory results.
Some growers plant in squares at thirty feet distance, intending
to remove alternate trees as they crowd each other, first cutting
back, for a time, the trees which are finally to be removed. Sixty
feet is close enough for mature trees.

Planting Nuts in Place—Some walnut orchards are being grown
for sprouted nuts planted where the tree is to grow. At first it was
the custom to put three nuts near together—reducing the seedlings
to one subsequently. Recently the preference is given to planting

4492, CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

one good strongly sprouted nut in a place because removing surplus
seedlings is difficult and likely to disturb the one which is retained.
Any gaps in the planting are filled by planting seedlings from a
side-bed in which a number are grown for this purpose. There are
strong advocates of this method, which requires orchard budding
or grafting, when the trees are well established, in one of the ways
which have been described.

Intercultures with the Walnuts.—In the southern walnut regions
it is common to grow beans, squashes, etc., between the rows of
trees until the latter reach bearing age; root crops which attract
gophers should be avoided. Interplanting of smaller, early-fruit-
ing trees is also practiced to a considerable extent, and alfalfa
growing in the young walnut orchard is also practiced to some ex-
tent, but must be carefully done—if at all.

PRUNING THE WALNUT

The walnut is usually headed higher than ordinary orchard
trees and the pruning needed is in shaping the tree. Upward trend
of the branches should be secured, sometimes by cutting out the
shoots which grow downward, sometimes by tying them up for a
time to the central stem until they are stiff enough to retain this
position. The stem should be protected from sunburn until the
foliage accomplishes this. Whenever shoots are killed back by
sunburn or frost, they should be cut off cleanly below the black
mark which shows how far the injury has extended. If this is
- done, the die-back down the branch is usually prevented. As the
trees become older, removal of some of the interior limbs may be
desirable to admit more lhght to encourage inside bearing.

Systematic Building of the Walnut Tree.—It is becoming clear
that the old practice of allowing walnut trees to grow very much
as they liked is not a good way. The following outline of the way
to secure good form and serviceability, and applying to the walnut
the principles indicated in Chapter XII, is drawn from the ex-
perience of Mr. Eugene S. Kellogg, of Santa Barbara County:

When planted from the nursery walnut trees are generally over six feet
high and they should be headed back, the amount depending on their sub-
sequent care. If no irrigation water is available, they are usually cut to
a foot above the bud union and a new trunk is started. This new shoot
should be carefully staked so as not to become injured by cultivating or
strong winds. At the end of the first season’s growth, this shoot should
be headed to about five feet. You will then have a vigorous, healthy young
trunk, which will make a more rapid growth during the next season than
the tree would have made in two seasons had it been headed to five feet
originally.

Generally when the young tree is to have water it is headed about five
feet above the ground. After the first season’s growth, three main branches
are selected and all others removed. Do not remove small branches and
small spurs. These shade the tree. The three chosen branches should be
about a foot apart and well distributed around the tree. If more than
three branches are chosen, the tree becomes too spreading and the branches
will later come down and become a nuisance. The three chosen branches
should be headed to about three or four feet in length.

PRUNING WALNUTS 443

At the end of the second year’s growth each of these three main
branches will have thrown out from four to eight branches. All but two
on each of these should be removed. These two should be headed to three
or four feet from their origin and they should be in such a position so that
their tips are equally distant from the center of the tree to secure an open
center. After the third season’s growth, each of the six branches is al-
lowed to give rise to two branches and these too are headed back. Many
small branches and fruiting spurs will have appeared all over the trees.
These should be left. Heading back is very necessary at this time. The
tree will have thrown out an immense amount of growth, and unless this is
previously thinned and headed, the wind will either cause the tree to lean
or else blow out large limbs completely. In pruning old trees the chief
aim is to admit the sunlight; remove interfering limbs and limbs that in-
terfere with cultivation. Generally every tree will fall into one of three
types. These are the central shaft, vertical gore and goblet types.

If a tree has a strong central leader, the chief aim is to emphasize this
tendency. Thin out the branches which arise from the central leader. If
a tree has a central leader and the main limbs originate one above the other,
the best way to admit the light is by removing the smaller limbs in several
wedge-shaped areas from the lower branches up. If four gores are cut, the
tree would have the appearance of a four-leafed clover when viewed from a
position above the tree. It will be necessary to thin out all weak wood in
the areas between the gores. If there is no central leader and the tree has
naturally an open center, this should be kept open.

In shaping the walnut tree, such opening of the tree as is de-
sirable near the coast may be undesirable or even dangerous in a
hot interior situation. The bark is sensitive to sunburn and in ex-
treme heat both leaves and nuts suffer and a more dense and self-
shading tree should be developed. This will be secured in part by
the style of pruning and in part by selection of a tree which natur-
ally grows good fohage.

Bloom and Bearing of the Walnut.—The walnut has its stam-
inate and pistillate blooms separate, but both occur on the same
tree. Successful fruiting depends upon the appearance of these two
forms of bloom, without too great interval of time, and although
there seems to be quite a retention of vitality, the lack of bearing
of some varieties has been found to be due to the fact that the cat-
kins disappear too long before the pistillate bloom was sufficiently
developed to receive the pollen.

The bearing age of the walnut depends upon the variety. Some -
of the French varieties are very precocious and have borne fruit
in nursery row at two and three years old, but the pistillate blooms
were then fertilized from catkins growing on older trees. The
practical bearing age of the seedling English walnut in this State
may be rated at six to eight years, according to the variety. Trees
grafted with scions from bearing trees fruit much sooner.

Harvesting Walnuts.—Gathering walnuts is done in different
ways. Some gather them from the ground at intervals during the
months of September and October; others use poles and clean the
trees at one operation; some go over the ground three times, first
picking up what have fallen; second, picking up what have fallen
and striking the limbs lightly to dislodge others which are ripest;
third, picking up again and then knocking off all that remain on the

444 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

trees. In this way gathering lasts a month or six weeks. As fast as
gathered the nuts are placed in slat-bottomed trays, 6x3 feet, by six
inches deep, about fifty pounds in a tray, being thoroughly shaken
up once or twice a day. If the weather is very hot they should be
dried in the shade. When the nuts are dry they are ready for
grading, washing and bleaching. All of these operations are per-
formed in the Walnut Growers Association’s warehouses, which are
established in all the leading producing districts. Even small lots
are handled, which is of advantage to the grower, as considerable
outlay for apparatus is required and some experience is necessary
to get the best results. When beyond the reach of such advantages
the nuts are cleaned and then bleached with sulphur in the way
already prescribed for the almond, but the walnut is not brought to
the color desirable in an almond.

CALIFORNIA WALNUT VARIETIES

Which is the best walnut variety to plant in California or in
any particular region of the State is an open question and decision
apparently still rests upon many coming years of experience in
which all observant growers may participate.

The variety which constitutes the bulk of the crop is the ‘‘Santa
Barbara soft shell,’’ so called because the late Joseph Sexton of
Santa Barbara County bought in San Francisco in 1867 a sack of
imported walnuts, grew seedlings and planted out in orchard form
two hundred of them in 1868. When they fruited he noticed that
sixty of them were of fairly uniform type, superior to the others
and to the other walnuts commonly grown at that time, and he
used them, and sold them to others, to grow seedlings for orchard
planting. Thus the Santa Barbara soft shell is not strictly speaking
a ‘‘variety’’ but a type shown by many seedlings, and it showed
variability enough to suggest selection for ‘‘improvement,’’ which
was followed to the extent of securing nuts from particular trees
for planting, but still practically all the trees were seedlings until
grafting to secure better quality and form, heavier bearing, resist-
ance to blight, ete., began about 1905 to multiply particular seed-
lings because of their distinctive desirability. Although grafting
seedlings for planting and grafting-over bearing trees also, have
rapidly increased in the chief walnut districts, the commercial prod-
uct is still largely from seedling trees descending naturally from
Mr. Sexton’s selected type, which demonstrated remarkable suit-
ability to Southern California coast conditions and satisfied trade
requirements for large production.

Although seedlings from Southern California, both the original
type, which Mr. Sexton’s work displaced, and the Sexton type itself,
were planted at many points in Northern and Central California
and made large and thrifty trees, they bloomed too early to escape
frost and they were too susceptible to injury by summer heat in
the interior, which rarely invaded the coast region even at the
south. In 1871 Mr. Felix Gillet began to introduce to his place near

WALNUT VARIETIES 445

Nevada City the best French walnut varieties as grafted trees,
contrasted their bearing with adjacent non-productive ‘‘Los An-
geles walnuts’’ and demonstrated such superior performance that
he continued importation and propagation until he had introduced
all the French varieties which we now have and stimulated other
nurserymen to their introduction and propagation to the end that
these varieties were planted here and there throughout California
and to the States northward.

The work of these two pioneers has thus far reached this con-
clusion: The Sexton selections and their descendants rule at the
south and fail elsewhere in the State; the Gillet imported French
varieties lead everywhere else in the State and fail at the south.

The varieties most largely propagated in 1919 are Santa Barbara
Soft Shell, Placentia Perfection, Eureka, Franquette, Mayette, Con-
cord, Payne’s Seedling.

Varieties which have enjoyed some prominence may be briefly
characterized as follows:

Santa Barbara Soft Shell (origin already noted).—Nuts usually of good
size, easily cracked in the fingers, and of excellent flavor and quality; se-
lections named as follows: Placentia Perfection, Discher’s Prolific, Neff,
El Monte, Pride of Ventura and others.

Placentia Perfection.—Medium size, smooth, fairly uniform; shell thin
but strong, and fairly well sealed; kernel light tan in color, fairly smooth,
mild flavor, fills shell well; early; generally looked upon as the best, thor-
oughly tried variety for the southern part of the State. Sells as “budded”
at advanced price. ;

Eureka.—Nuts large, fairly uniform, elongated; medium smoothness;
shell medium to thick and well sealed; kernel light cream color, of me-
dium plumpness and is easily cracked out whole; foliage dense and leaves
large; blooms late; doing well in interior valleys.

’ Franquette.—This French variety rose to great favor and has been
largely planted upon the successful experience of Mrs. Emily M. Vrooman,
of Santa Rosa, and the extensive effort at its distribution by the Oregon
Nursery Co., of Salem, Ore. It is a large, elongate-oval nut with shell
rather thick and kernel of high quality. It is a late bloomer, and escapes
blight to a certain extent.

Mayette—tThis variety chiefly constitutes the imported Grenoble wal-
-nuts. It is large, roundish, with a broad base, on which the nut will sit
up; shell thin and white; kernel full and rich; a good bearer and late
bloomer; local Mayette seedlings are being named; one is the “San Jose,”
by R. Wiltz, of San Jose—in disfavor because of shy bearing.

Coneord.—Seedling of Cluster; of the Mayette type, grown by Messrs.
Westgate and Hutchinson of Concord from seedling tree by Felix Gillet.
Introduced by Mr. Leonard Coates in 1908. Claimed to be blight resistant.

Payne’s Seedling.—Nut is of good average quality, of good size and mod-
erately smooth; has attracted attention by its precocity and quite heavy
production of nuts; somewhat susceptible to blight, and by early blooming
gets caught by frost; most largely planted about Linden, San Joaquin
County.

Bijou Seedlings.—Several of these are being grown. Willson’s Wonder,
introduced by F. C. Willson, of Santa Clara, is a large, smooth, desirable
nut, and the tree is reported an early and prolific bearer.

Other French Varieties.—Other French varieties introduced by Mr. Gillet
and others include the following: The Cluster, which fruits, as its name
indicates, in long bunches, sometimes as many as fifteen in a bunch. The

446 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Parisienne is a beautiful variety, the nut large, broad, and shapely; the
tree blooms very late. All the foregoing varieties and the Franquette,
Serotina, Barthere, Mesange, Gant, Meylan and Chaberte, were introduced
by Mr. Gillet in 1871.

Kaghazi.—A variety called Kaghazi was grown and propagated for sey-
eral years by the late James Shinn, of Niles; large and thin-shelled ; late
in putting out leaves and blossoms; source of some promising seedlings.

Japanese Walnut; Juglans Sieboldiana.—This species, native to the north
of Japan, was introduced to California about 1860, and a tree grown from
seed planted about that time is growing at the Tower House, in Shasta
County. Hard shell and only interesting in walnut breeding.

CHAPTER XXXIX
NUTS OF MINOR IMPORTANCE

Nut-bearing plants from all parts of the world have been intro-
duced to California and probably all of them, except those of strictly
tropical requirements, may be found growing successfully here and
there throughout the State. Only the almond and the walnut have
risen to great commercial importance and only a few others have
passed beyond amateurs’ interests.

THE CHESTNUT

The chestnut is not yet produced in large amount in California,
and certain quantities of the nuts are annually imported, the Amer-
ican, Italian, or Spanish and Japanese all being found in the San
Francisco markets. Of chestnuts grown in California, the Italian
predominates, and judging by its success it may be said that a large
area of California is well suited for the growth of the chestnut, as
there are bearing trees in nearly all parts of the State. The chestnut
succeeds on heavy, clayey soil, even if it be rocky.

Chestnut trees are readily grown from the seed, and come into
bearing from six to eight years, though the Japanese sometimes
bear sooner. The growth of chestnuts from the seed is described
in Chapter VIII. In growing from seed of the improved varieties,
there is a tendency toward reversion, and budding and grafting
may be done by the methods described in the chapter on the fig.
The chestnut can also be grafted with the ordinary cleft graft.
Buds or scions should be taken from trees which are fruiting satis-
factorily, and in this way seedlings which have a tendency to bear
empty burs can be turned to good account. Chestnuts ean be grown
in the nursery until several years old, providing they are lifted at
the end of the first year, the tap-root cut off, and the trees reset,
giving them rather more room than during their first year’s growth.
In permanent plantings the trees should have plenty of room, as
they ultimately attain great size. Trees at Grass Valley, Nevada
County, when about twenty years old, fifteen inches in diameter of
trunk, and forty feet high, are reported to bear a barrel of nuts
to the tree regularly. Felix Gillet of Nevada City for many years
made a specialty of propagating a large collection of the improved
French varieties known as ‘‘Marrons,’’ which were distributed to
some extent. The chestnut, aside from its desirability as an orchard
tree, can be commended as a tree for hillsides or a shade tree for
waysides of pastures, and should be more widely planted in Cali-
fornia. The chief product is in the foothill district east of the San
Joaquin Valley.

Quite a number of improved chestnuts of the American species
have been planted in California. Mr. A. L. Wisker of Grass Valley
has several such varieties, of which the ‘‘Rochester No. 20’’ has

448 - CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

seemed most promising. The California Mountain Fruit Co. of
Grass Valley has a ten-acre orchard of chestnuts planted to test
bearing and profitability. The fruit ripens in October and the tree
has also late blooms and burs setting at the same time—which
creates a doubt as to whether the American species knows how to
behave in_our salubrious foothill climate as well as the South
European species do. It is stated that American varieties do not
graft on Japanese or European seedlings as well as they do upon
seedlings of the American wild nuts.

THE FILBERT

The best English cob-nuts have been quite widely tried in Cali-
fornia without successful results. Improved Spanish and French
varieties of the filbert were early introduced by Felix Gillet, of
Nevada City, and have been favorably reported by him as to growth
and bearing. <A few other growers in foothill situations have re-
ported success, but as a rule disappointment has attended ventures
with the filbert. The most favorable regions for farther experiment
are apparently the north slopes of the Coast Range, from Santa
Cruz northward, and other cooler and moister situations, as well as
at an elevation on the Sierra foothills. Mr. Leonard Coates of
Morgan Hill has recently given much attention to the filbert and
has introduced the most prolific European varieties. He has assur-
ance of the fruitfulness of the plant when pruned to encourage
crowth of fruiting wood and necessary pollination is provided for.

THE PEANUT

During the last few years the peanut product of California has
decreased because the chance of profitable competition with Japan,
where the cost of production is much less, is small. Mr. C. E. Utt
of Santa Ana, who has been the largest grower in the State, gives
the following specific statement:

My experience in growing peanuts in this State covers a period of many
years. The last two years I was in the business I planted 400 acres each
year. They netted me a tidy little loss, wiping out all the profits I had
ever made growing peanuts, for occasionally the crop has proven profitable.

A few peanuts have been grown in California in a great many localities
for perhaps fifty years, and most of the attempts to produce them have
proven unprofitable and been abandoned. At one time Orange County pro-
duced something like twenty carloads annually, but recently not more than
one carload a year, and it is perfectly safe to say that peanuts will never
be grown in the Pacific States to any appreciable extent, because the cost
ef production is so much higher here than in Japan.

Mr. Utt gives the following cultural hints: Peanuts require
sandy sediment to give the best results. It is better to shell the
seed and plant one kernel in a hill, 18 inches apart in the rows which
are three feet apart. Plant the seed two or three inches deep, in
good moist earth so as to insure germination. Plant as soon as
frosts are over, in April or May, as they need about six months to
complete their growth. There is very little land that will produce

(See page 442.)

The Loganberry.

CIV.

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PECANS AND PISTACHIOS 449

crops without irrigation. If irrigation is necessary, it must be by
the furrow method, and no flooding must be permitted.

THE PECAN

The pecan, by rapid growth, early fruiting, and general thrift,
seems to be the member of the hickory family best fitted for Cali-
fornia conditions. A tree grown from a nut planted by J. R. Wolf-
skill, on Putah Creek, in 1878, was, when twenty-five years old,
over fifty feet high, with a trunk twelve inches in diameter, grow-
ing luxuriantly and bearing freely. Still older trees, also very satis-
factory in growth and bearing, are to be seen at Chico and Visalia.
The pecan, though grown for thirty years by different parties
around the Bay of San Francisco, either does not bear or keeps the
nuts hanging on until sometimes they sprout on the tree. The
wider extremes in temperature or in humidity in the interior seem
to teach the trees better habits of growth and rest, and moist low-
lands in the great valleys seem best for pecan planting.

Pecan trees grow readily from the nuts if these are fresh.
Planters should secure nuts of selected varieties (for there is a great
difference in size and quality) direct from growers in the Southern
States, and plant as soon as received, in the early winter, or if con-
ditions are not favorable for planting, the nuts should be stored as
described in Chapter VIII. Nuts planted in good nursery ground
in rows as there suggested, and covered about two inches or a little
deeper in dry, loose soil, and then mulched to retain moisture, will
germinate freely. The trees should be transplanted to permanent
place at the end of the first year and then usually the tap-root can
be retained, as some growers deem very desirable; if the trees are
to be put in permanent place later they should be transplanted in
the nursery and the tap-root cut off. The nuts can, of course, be
planted at once in permanent place.

THE PISTACHIO

The pistachio nut (Pistachia vera) was introduced many years
ago, but commercial results are only just beginning to be attained.
The species upon its own root makes a low shrub and is slow of |
growth. The Pistachia terebinthus, from which is derived the ‘‘chio
turpentine,’’ the stock the true pistachio is grafted upon in Europe,
is growing thriftily at several points in the State. Several amateurs
and nurserymen have given enthusiastic effort to the establishment
of the nut in this State. The United States Department of Agri-
culture has also worked largely with it and has distributed about
25,000 of the trees during recent years. The largest plantations
are in the interior valleys and the product is now being attained
in that region. Tribble Bros. at Elk Grove had 250 trees, five-year-
old grafts, in bearing in 1918. C. J. Forbes has 150 trees the same
age and there are about five acres on the Mills orchard at Hamilton
City. The fruiting of the pistachio depends upon pollination, and
one male tree is necessary to six or seven bearing trees.

PART EIGHT: FRUIT PRESERVATION

CHAPTER XL
FRUIT CANNING AND DRYING

The fruit-canning enterprises of California have expanded
almost beyond anticipation since the outbreak of the world-war in
1914. The opportunities for development and the relation of our
almost unlimited capacity for the production of fine fruits to the
new conception of the dietetic value of preserved fruits and of the
inadequacy of production in other parts of the world to meet the
demand which this conception created, aroused wonderful interest
in the capabilities of California. The result has been that our can-
ning industry has advanced, as may be said, from the top down-
ward and from the bottom upward, and the resultant of these forces
has been a great out-push forward and onward. What may be
called growth from the top is the increased capital from outside
sources which has been attracted and the reorganization for ad-
ministration and production of our greatest proprietary concerns
which has been accomplished. Growth upward consists in the
development of co-operative concerns, largely by fruit growers,
which are rising as a factor in production in several districts. So
ereat in fact has been the development of the industry that the
facts about establishments, capital invested and labor employed,
etc., which were gathered by the U. 8. Census Bureau in 1914, are
already so inadequate that they fail to be representative, and
measurements must be awaited until the Bureau undertakes a new
inquiry in connection with the Census of 1920. It is, however,
sufficiently clear that California leads the United States in the
fruit-canning industry as for many years past and leads now by a
wider margin than ever before.

Statistics of production of canned goods which have fortunately
been carefully compiled by private enterprise* for a number of
years, do indicate both the rate of expansion and the relative
amounts of particular kinds of fruits which the industry requires
from the growers, viz.:

California Canned Fruit Product of 1913 and 1917.

1913 1917

Cases Cases
Table fruits, 214-lb. cans, 24 cans per case.......... 4,204,070 6,941,855
Pie fruits; J=2al.; Cans, 12. Per sCasSe. wx wctiee jenn rele ee al e 629,830 3,053,290
TOURS. ox ets tak cocoa no aee eee aaa ere ere UeN ete ieiniese Denes tate 4,833,900 9,995,145

*Notably by Mr. Howard C. Rowley, editor of the California Fruit News of San
Francisco.

~

~ FRUITS USED BY CANNERS 451

The relative use of different fruits is as follows:

1913 1917

Cases Cases
LMTDTL NOSE os OAS org a RANA Miyata Sar Raat iN NY dea pee py te eRe 80,250 271,538
JLSDTPE CONS) sete Ieee aint cn oc tr te i heh Sd MN Papa ge ed a 898,005 2,356,553
\ CHEETA STS Sea ey a oma le SY cal a Aue i eR eC eae EE Se aS aa 351,895 440,134
STE DITES H S e SSe aeT eR RRP Tales COE Rc UES i te a oes al 46,915 85,491
TEEDTES! 8 & BoB Ee Ay rcs AL IA eae Se nen ne We vai ea a ag 874,200 758,142
AGGMES ty TEEESTOTMEL | sa verasdneiacans Semis ote eae eae hws ew along 583,800 1,554,393
PCA CMeS erelil 2 STOWMEH 925% es sisin pis erelivoeieleteteye cnt ie dee hte 1,630,255 3,607,568
emMU TUT Settee Se ite vene ranch AMC hatte lock ete Mr clare Rp chc ie are tesa oo ait es eis 175,290 270,052
GNA LU CS ir ai ctenet dl hei eve hel oucs eo ete Piles fe Rts Ln ae leather 34,470 27,514
TOES Oy nYer greets Sein Pipi ons Seer Sani oem At in re AL ee me eaten 9,090 16,636
4 Bei iCeh fe) OFS gh (SI SURI Ee ae ag at RP a Ne a Se Ber ne eC 103,005 163,341
POC ATV O TIVO rae eeue tee. eis etn oe sr thoes eka MINA e OES shar wicteTe were 21,370 111,093
Miscellaneous (figs, nectarines, quinces, etc.) ........ 2,290 332,692

Thus it appears that the output of 1917 was more than double
that of 1913. In 1918 there was a decrease of a million cases of
fruits, but the output of vegetables increased more than a million,
so that the total cannery output was increased. The year 1919
(now current) is one of exceptional activity and it is anticipated
that the output of canned fruits will take its proper place in an
ascending series.

Canners’ Purchases and Prices.—Approaching the operation of
the canneries from an angle especially attractive to growers, Mr.
C. H. Bentley, vice-president and sales manager of the California
Packing Corporation, kindly furnishes the following estimates of
amounts of fruits purchased and prices paid in the years indicated:

Kinds of Quantities used Dollars paid per ton to growers
Fruits 1918 (tons) 1918 1913
W/:'5 01 0) (G'S LRN OT se 4,500 385. to 45 20.00
PR TITUCOES arias lcs tens anes ea er amass 35,000 75 to 110 30.00
CTISTETETIGS) SON ae i 5,500 200 upward 75.00 to 120.00
(GL EEH TIES kote Ree erate ope en PR 2,000 20 to 25 12.00 to 15.00
Peaches” (free) se o.k 08 2. 47,000 200 upward 75.00 to 120.00
Peaches. (elins)) sais es. as 46,000 60 to 85 20.00 to 25.00
LECH ES IOn ERC ae Rn ane 20,000 70 to 85 30.00 to 40.00
DEENA ps 5 co) chee see ae la ghaie Gio mae 2,500 60 to 70 15.00 to 20.00
IACKWELTICS) oi, cc eielcue ave 2,000 150 to 175 40.00
WIGSAMDEEMICS |. ccrctic ie < ceteeves 750 175 to 200 55.00 to 75.00
SEFAWDELTICS soscc «aise atte ss 800 200 55.00 to 75.00
ASP DETELESi ys seis cite nian os ¢ 100 280 200.00

Fruit Varieties Preferred by Canners.—It is manifestly the duty
as well as the desire of growers to produce an ample supply of fruits
which meet canners’ requirements. Among these requirements are
satisfactory size, clear unblemished beauty, color which will not
interfere with the clear gold of the sirup, and texture which will
endure processing without yielding a desirable degree of firmness
and not slough off cells or fibers to cloud the sirup. To such basic
characters everything desirable in flavors should be added. There
are some variations in desirability produced by difference in local
growing conditions which affect desirability of any particular fruit

452 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

variety and there may be canners’ personal equations also involved
to some extent. At all events it is generally wise for new planters
to consult local cannery superintendents and consider the advice
which they may give in connection with other uses which may be
made of the prospective fruit. The following sketch of varieties
chiefly used by canners may be taken as suggestive, and not ex-
elusive of other varieties, but indicative of the types desired:

Apples—Yellow Newtown Pippin; firm white-fleshed apple re-
quired.

Apricots—Royal, Blenheim, Hemskirke, ieheee

Cherries—Royal Anne, Rockport; soft white cherries not avail-
able and black varieties not largely used.

Figs—Endich, Calimyrna.

Grapes—Musceat.

Peaches—(free) Muir, Lovell, Foster, Early Crawford, ete.;
(cling) Tuskena Orange, McKevitt, Seller’s, Phillips, Levy.

Pears—Bartlett.

Plums—Yellow Egg, Green Gage, Golden Drop, Reine Claude,
Damson.

Blackberries—Mammoth, Lawton.

Loganberries—Phenomenal, Logan.

Strawberries—Clarke, Wilson and similar firm varieties. Vari-
eties chiefly grown for fresh use too soft for canning.

Raspberries—Cuthbert, Antwerp.

The literature of the California canning industry has been
notably extended during the last few years and very satisfactory
special publications are now available.*

CALIFORNIA DRIED FRUIT INDUSTRY

A special census of the fruit-preserving manufactures of the
United States in 1914 shows not only that California stands first
in the dried fruit industry, but that the product was in that year
valued at $30,771,912, and was 88.4 per cent of the whole national
product. An adjacent tabulation gives interesting details of this
product for a number of years.

As suggested in Chapter II it is the function of the sunshine and
dry air of California not only to bring vigorous growth to the tree
and vine, and carry the fruit of both to fullness of size, beauty and
quality, but to continue its beneficent action until the ‘truit, which

*Of California commercial canning operations, detailed account is given in ‘‘The Can-
ning of Fruits and Vegetables,’ by J. P. Zavalla, published by John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1916. Of small scale operations, the California Experiment Station at Berkeley
has published many pamphlets and leaflets, and a complete treatise is also available, viz.
“Home and Farm Food Preservation,’’ by Prof. W. V. Crees of the University of Cali-
fornia, published by the Macmillan Co., New York, 1918.

CALIFORNIA DRIED FRUITS 453

is not required by the trade in fresh ripeness, is given, imperishable
form, in which its beauty, flavors, aromas and nutritive qualities
remain available to delight and nourish mankind until the following
year’s sunshine wins from the earth another supply of fresh ripe-
ness. There are many parts of the earth where good fruit is grown;
there are few where conditions producing such fruit continue to
accomplish its preservation, as they do in California.

Product of California Cured Fruits in Tons—1890 to 1918.

Year Peaches Apricots Apples Pears Plums Nec- Grapes Figs Prunes Raisins
tarines
1890 3,200 3,000 400 100 250 ZOOM he ae 100 9,200 4,000
1895 12,250 5,325 2,280 2,700 2,250 675 2,125 1,325 32,250 45,680
1900 17,170 14,000 3,150 7,275 1,950 435 240 2,000 87,000 47.167
1905 17,500 19,250 3,250 1,750 930 185 193 3,625 37,500 43,750
1910 25,000 16,000 3,100 1,000 375 250 350 3,775 45,000 62.000
1911 14,000 11,000 3,500 1,500 250 200 119 5,500 95,000 65,000
1912 18,000 10,000 2,000 1,000 200 200 100 5,000 102,000 95,000
1913 20,000 9,000 2,000 1,000 600 200 120 6,000 45,000 70,000
1914 34,700 20,000 4,000 1,500 "750 300 Hare. 5,000 60,000 98,000

1915 28,500 16,000 4,000 1,000 950 ZOD PAP Naas. 7,500 67,000 127,000
1916 29,000 11,000 4,500 800 600 PAUL oe) SAE 8,200 65,000 136,000
1917 39,000 16,000 4,000 1,100 900 200° 2.1 I1,000-) 122,000 163,000
1918 19,500 14,500 5,750 2,000 500 ZOO rire 7,300 40,000 167,000

WHY THE DRIED FRUIT PRODUCT IS GREAT

In connection with this notable factor of our horticultural pro-
duction, certain facts should be clearly understood by those who
desire to properly appreciate the industrial resources of the State.

First. Cured fruits in California are a primary and not a
secondary or by-product. It is true, of eourse, that curing fruit
does, to a limited extent, save from loss fruit which shippers and
canners are not at the time paying profitable prices for, and it
frees growers from helpless dependence upon fresh fruit buyers.
But this does not mean that curing is a way of getting something
from refuse fruit, not suited for other purposes. It should be taken
as evidence that, for the most part, grades of fruit which are cured
are the same which are also available for shipping and canning
when prices are right.

Second. Because our cured fruits are a primary and not a by-
product, free investment is made in acres of well-made trays; in
tramways and turntables for their movement from the shelter of
convenient cutting or dipping and spreading houses; in capacious
apartments and mechanical devices for giving the cut fruit its bath
in sulphur fumes to preserve natural colors and to prevent fermenta-
tion and insect invasion; in the carefully prepared drying floors;
in well-fitted packing houses. Such investment has reached many
millions of dollars in the aggregate, and the standing of cured fruits
as primary products is the justification of such outlay.

Third. Forty years ago California dried fruit was a make-
shift, and a disgracefully poor one. As enterprise and investment
proceeded it was soon seen that style and quality alone could re-
quite them. It was then believed that handsome cured fruit which
should only be relieved of its excess of water and still retain color,
flavor and winning beauty, could only be produced in machine-

454 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

evaporators with artificial heat, and a few years were given to
invention, purchase and rejection of all such devices except as
occasional refuges when the California climate forgets itself. When
the demonstration came that with proper pre-treatment California
sunshine and dry air would produce notably fine evaporated fruits
without houses and furnaces, cured fruits entered upon their career
as primary products, and planting to produce them began.

Fourth. The fruit must be well grown, and fruit for curing
should have size and quality which make it first class for other
purposes, with the added excellence of being somewhat more
mature, because it is not required to stand hauling and shipment.
It should, however, be carefully handled to escape bruising, because
discolorations are blemishes. It must be cleanly cut for removal
of pit or core, because trimness, neatness and shapeliness are all
essential to beauty. It must be carefully and evenly spread upon
the trays, especially if it be a cut fruit, so that no interference can
prevent each piece from reaching its best estate. Sulphuring must
be adequate, and yet not excessive, for sulphuring is a protecting
and not a resurrecting process; it is not to improve bad fruit, but
to keep good fruit from becoming bad. The fruit must be suf-
ficiently dried and, yet not over-dried, and during the process must
be protected from dust by the situation and character of the ground
used, even if such protection costs trouble and outlay.

Trays for Drying.—The greater part of the fruit, including
raisins, is placed upon trays for exposure to the sun. There is great
variation in the size of the trays. The common small tray is made
of one-half inch sugar-pine lumber two feet wide and three feet
long, the boards forming it being held together by nailing to a cleat
on each end, one by one and a quarter inches, and a lath or narrow
piece of half-inch stuff is nailed over the ends of the boards, thus
stiffening the tray and aiding to prevent warping. A cross-section
of such a tray is shown at A.

eS
Cross-section of small drying tray.

Since large drying yards have been supplied with tramways and
trucks for moving the fruit instead of hand carriage, larger trays,
three feet by six or three feet by eight, have been largely em-
ployed. These large trays are of nailing ‘‘pine shakes’’ which are
3 ft. long, and 6 in. wide. The sides and ends of the trays are made
of 1x2 in. pine or redwood. The bottom is strengthened by nailing
to the under side, from end to end, three thin strips, one on each
side and one in the middle. The laths and pieces for sides and ends,
cut ready for use, may be obtained from lumber dealers.

APPLIANCES FOR FRUIT DRYING 455

Paper trays of heavy brown, paper are often used in emergencies.
They are cut the size of the wooden trays, covered with cut fruit—
the wooden tray being slipped out after carrying to the drying
ground. They are not a good substitute for wooden trays, however.

Protecting Fruit from Dew.—In the interior there is seldom any
deposit of dew in the drying season, but occasionally there are early
rains before the drying season is over. The fruit is then protected
by piling the trays one upon another, in which operation the thick
cleats serve a good purpose. In small scale operations in dewy
regions the trays are sometimes piled at night, or cloth or paper is
stretched over the fruit, thus reducing the discoloration resulting
from deposits of moisture upon it.

Drying Floors.—F or the most part the trays are laid directly on
the ground, but sometimes a staging of posts and rails is built to
support them, about twenty inches from the ground. Im raisin-
making the drying trays are usually distributed through the vine-
yard, to have as little carrying as possible. In drying tree fruits
the trays are spread where full sunshine can be obtained. Drying
spaces should be selected at a distance from traveled roads, to pre-
vent the deposit of dust on the fruit.

Spaces used for drying are often idle the rest of the year or are
cultivated for grain-hay. When one has water for irrigation it is
often practicable to reduce dust and secure an amount of desirable
feed or hay by putting the piece down in alfalfa. Just before the
space is needed for a drying yard, the alfalfa is mown down close
and raked clean. The yard is then ready for the trays and fruit.
When the drying season is over the yard is cleared, and the space
then is as clean as a clay floor, from being used so much. In three
weeks the top of the ground is green all over, and, before the rains
come there is another cutting of alfalfa.

Drying floors are, however, usually kept bare and as hard as
may be. Drying over alfalfa stubble is slower than over dry, baked
eround. It is common to scrape the ground clean with a weed-knife
and roll or rub it down as smooth and hard as possible.

Grading.—It is of great advantage in drying to have all the fruit
on a tray of approximately the same size, and grading before cut-
ting is advisable. Machines are made which accomplish this very
cheaply and quickly.

Cutting-Sheds.—Shelter of some kind is always provided for the
fruit-cutters. Sometimes it is only a temporary bower made of
poles and beams upon which tree branches are spread as a thatch,
sometimes open-side sheds with boarded roof; and sometimes a
finished fruit-house is built, two stories high, the lower story open-
ing with large doors on the north side, and with a large loft above,
where the dried fruit can be sweated, packed, and stored for sale.
The climate is such that almost any shelter which suits the taste of
the purse of the producer will answer the purpose.

456 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Sulphuring.—The regulations promulgated under the pure food
law enacted by Congress in 1906 established an arbitrary limit to
the percentage of sulphur compounds in evaporated fruits, which
was shown by producers to be destructive to their industry, and
otherwise unwarranted and unreasonable. <As a result of their
protest the enforcement of such regulations was indefinitely post-
poned, pending the results of scientific investigation which began
_in 1898 and never ended, and the use of sulphur has not been inter-
fered with.

Before the employment of the sulphur process, California cured
fruits were suitable only to the lowest culinary uses. They were
of undesirable color, devoid of natural flavor, offensive by content
of insect life. They had no value which would induce production
and discernible future. Placing the trays of freshly cut fruit in
boxes or small ‘‘houses,’’ with the fumes of burning sulphur, made
it possible to preserve its natural color and flavor during the evapo-
ration of its surplus moisture in the clear sunshine and dry air of
the California summer. It also prevented souring, which with some
fruits is otherwise not preventable in such open-air drying, and it
protected the fruit from insect attack during the drying process.

The action of sulphuring is not alone to protect the fruit, it
facilitates evaporation so that about one-half less time is required
therefor. Not the least important bearing of this fact is the feasi-
bility of curing fruits in larger pieces. The grand half-peaches,
half-apricots, half-pears of California are the direct result of the
sulphur process. Without it the fruit must be cut into small sec-
tions or ribbons, which in cooking break down into an uninviting
mass, while, with the sulphuring, it is ordinary practice to produce
the splendid halves with their natural color so preserved that they
have semblance to the product of the canners, and are secured at a
fraction of the cost.

There are various enclosures or houses for the application of
sulphur fumes to the freshly-cut fruit. Some are small for hand
carriage of trays; some are large and the trays are wheeled into
them upon trucks. The most common is a bottomless cabinet about
five or six feet high, of a width equal to the length of the tray and
a depth a little more than the width of the tray. The cabinet has a
door the whole width of one side, and on the sides within cleats are
nailed so that the trays of fruit slip in like drawers into a bureau.
Some push in the trays so that the bottom one leaves a little space
at the back, the next a little space at the front, and so on, that the
fumes may be forced by the draft to pass between the trays back
and forward. The essentials seem to be open holes or dampers
in the bottom and top of the cabinet so that the fumes from the
sulphur burning at the bottom may be thoroughly distributed
through the interior, and then all openings are tightly closed. To
secure a tight chamber the door has its edge felted and the cabinet
is made of matched lumber. Some sulphuring houses are made of
reinforced concrete. Some are merely frames freshly covered with
building paper each season. The sulphur is usually put on a shovel

HANDLING DRIED FRUITS 457

or iron pot, and it is ignited by a hot coal, or a hot iron, or it is
thrown on paper of which the edges are set on fire, or a little alco-
hol is put on the sulphur and lighted, ete. The sulphur is usually
burned in a pit in the ground under the cabinet. The application
of sulphur must be watchfully and carefully made, and the ex-
posure of the fruit should only be long enough to accomplish the
end desired. The exposure required differs with different fruits,
and with the same fruits in different conditions, and must be
learned by experience.

There is much variation in the sizes of houses built to take in
truck loads of trays—some large enough for one truck, some for
two, some built in compartments taking truck-loads side by side,
some long, to take a train of trucks end to end; in one case 54 feet
long, open at both ends, and tram-tracks running through.

Grading and Cleaning.—After the fruit is sufficiently dried
(and it is impossible to describe how this point may be recognized
except by the experienced touch), it is gathered from the trays into
large boxes and taken to the fruit house. Some growers put it into
a revolving drum of punctured sheet iron, which rubs the pieces to-
gether and separates it from dust, etc., which falls out through the
apertures as the drum revolves. Others empty the fruit upon a
large wire-cloth table and pick it over, grading it according to size
and color, and at the same time the dust and small particles of for-
eign matter fall through the wire-cloth The fanning mill for
cleaning grain may also be used for rapid separation of dirt, leaves,
ete., with proper arrangement of metal screens.

Sweating.—All fruit, if stored in mass after drying, becomes
moist. This action should take place before packing. To facilitate
it, the fruit is put in piles on the floor of the fruit-house and turned
occasionally with a scoop shovel; or, if allowed to sweat in boxes,
the fruit is occasionally poured from one box to another. The
sweating equalizes the moisture throughout the mass. Some large
producers have sweat-rooms with tight walls, which preserve an
even temperature. No fruit should be packed before ‘‘going
through the sweat.’’ If this is not done, discoloration and injury
will result.

Dipping Before Packing.—All fruits except prunes can be
packed in good condition without dipping, provided the fruit is not
over-dried. Efforts should be made to take up the fruit when it is
just sufficiently cured to prevent subsequent fermentation. If
taken from the trays in the heat of the day and covered so that
the fruit moth cannot reach it there is little danger of worms. The
highest grades of fruit are made in this way. If, however, the fruit
has been over-dried or neglected, it can be dipped in boiling water
to kill eggs of vermin and to make the fruit a little more pliable for
the press. The dipping should be done quickly, and the fruit al-
lowed to drain and then lie in a dark room, carefully covered, for
twenty-four hours before packing.

458 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Packing.—To open well, packages of dried fruit should -be
‘““faced.’’ The many fine arts of paper lining, etc., must be learned
by observation. Flatten some fair specimens of the fruit to be
packed (and reference is especially made to such fruits as apricots,
peaches and nectarines) by running them through a clothes wringer
or similar pair of rollers set to flatten but not crush the fruit. Do
not face with better fruit than the package is to contain. It is a
fraud which will not in the end be profitable. Lay the flattened
fruit (eup side down) neatly in the bottom of the box. Fill the
box until it reaches the amount the box is to contain, and then
apply the press until the bottom can be nailed on. Invert the box
and put on the label or brand; the bottom then becomes the top. _

Many different kinds of boxes are used. A very good size is
made of seasoned pine, six inches deep by nine inches wide by
fifteen inches long, inside measurement, and it will hold twenty-
five pounds of fruit.

METHODS WITH DIFFERENT FRUITS

It will be impossible to enter minutely into the operations of
drying and packing on a commercial scale, or even to notice all the
small and ingenious arts by which the work is facilitated. Any one
who contemplates production on a large scale should personally
visit leading regions and inform himself by inquiry and observa-
tion. Such an education will save mistakes, which may cost many
times the expense of getting wise. California producers are usually
quite willing to show visitors the methods they employ. Though
this is the better way of proceeding, a few general hints will be
given of methods with different fruits.

Apples.—There seems little use of drying apples unless a very
light-colored, handsome product can be turned out. This ean be
done by sulphuring as soon as cut, and sun-drying in a dry region,
or by the use of a machine evaporator in regions of greater atmos-
pheric humidity. Recently the product has largely increased in
such large producing regions as the Pajaro Valley, and nearly a
hundred drying houses are being operated.

Apricots.—Apricots for drying should be fully ripe but not soft
enough to be mushy. By the use of sulphur and sun heat, an
amber-colored, semi-translucent fruit is obtained. The prevailing
method of gathering is to shake down the fruit upon sheets, but
the best product is hand-picked. Pit the fruit by a clean cut com-
pletely around in the suture; do not cut part way around and then
tear apart—a clean-cut edge is essential. Put on the trays with the
skin down, or with the cup up, as it is sometimes described; sul-
phur, and then put in the sun.

Fine apricots are produced in the interior valley by stacking
the trays as they come from the sulphur house and not exposing the
fruit at all to direct sunshine. Some start in the sun and finish in
the stack. Sufficient curing is not determined by length of expo-

METHODS OF DRYING FRUITS 459

sure but by the condition of the fruit. One grower describes it as
‘fa feel like chamois skin and refusal to slip through the fingers
when pressing.’’ Another grower squeezes a double handful of the
fruits and if they fall apart on opening the hands he considers it
safe to put in the bins. The same tests are suggestive also in the
ease of other cut fruits. ©

A few apricots are dried whole, but the demand for them is not
yet demonstrated.

Berries and Cherries.—These fruits are only dried in the sun
in small quantities, and ordinary farm-house methods are employed.

Figs.—The fruit is generally gathered from the ground, which
is cleaned and smoothed before the crop ripens. In drying black
fies the fruit is placed on trays and in most cases exposed to the
sun, but some growers maintain the advantage of drying in the
shade.

The Adriatics are sulphured. Smyrnas usually are not. Adri-
atics are dried in direct sunlight from one to three days, depending
upon the heat and humidity, while Smyrnas are best dried by stack-
ing the trays so as to allow free circulation of air. Over-dried figs
become tough, woody, and inferior. After sorting out the blem-
ished fruit, the figs are dumped from ‘the trays into perforated
containers, washed for twenty minutes in cold water containing
four ounces of salt to the gallon of water, and again spread out for
a final drying of half a day in the sun. They are then placed in
piles on a clean floor or in sweat-boxes, and allowed to go through
a sweat for about two weeks, being turned two or three times
during that period. Sweating equalizes the moisture and gives a
better texture. The figs can then be stored for packing or sent to
the packing house.

Pears.—California dried pears have been largely made of culls
and windfalls unsuitable for canning or shipping, but there is de-
veloping a product from the best pears which is of high excellence.
It is made chiefly of fruit picked when the stem parts upon raising
with the hand. The tree is picked over three times, the fruit of each
picking kept by itself and allowed to ripen in the shade before
eutting at just the right degree of mellowness. The fruit is halved,
stem pulled out and calyx cut out smoothly, not pared nor cored.
It is sulphured heavily to secure an amber-colored translucent
product. Exposure to the fumes for 48 hours is frequent. Then
the trays are placed in the sun for one-half to one day and curing
is finished in the stack—allowing the curing to occupy from two
to four weeks, according to atmospheric conditions. The fruit
when finished to a leathery texture is held in sweat-boxes for some
time.

Peaches.—Peaches are sun-dried in much the same way as apri-
cots, already described. Hand-pick the fruit when it is fully ripe,
but not mushy; cut cleanly all around to extract the pit and put
on trays cup side up; get into the sulphur box as soon as possible

460 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

after cutting—before the cut surface becomes dry, and sulphur
until juice gathers in the pit-cavity. It is often from four to five
hours in a well-built sulphur house. Peaches are dried both peeled
and unpeeled, but drying without peeling is chiefly done. Peeling -
is sometimes done with the small paring machines or with a knife.
Peeling with lye has been largely abandoned because of discolora-
tion of the fruit after packing, although it can be successfully done
by frequently changing the lye and using ample quantities of fresh
water for rinsing after dipping. The process of spraying lye on
the fruit is cluttered up by patents which are still in litigation.
Some growers peel by slipping off the skin as the fruit comes from
the sulphur-box—placing the half-fruits one by one on another tray,
without spilling the juice in the cup.

The California Peach Growers Association owns the patents on
a process for what they call ‘‘practically peeled’’ dried peaches,
which they are largely using in their packing houses. The peaches
are peeled after drying. They are placed upon a traveling con-
veyor which runs them first through a tank of boiling water in
which soda is dissolved, which loosens the skins and incidentally
removes any dirt on them. Then they go through cold water, which
removes the soda, and into the peeler in which rotating brushes
force the peaches along wire cylinders. This process scrapes off
the skin. Varieties differ in behavior. Muirs peel best. Lovell ©
skins stick much tighter, but a great deal of it is removed and under
all circumstances the fuzz is all taken off, which is a great thing.
After peeling the fruit is dried, resulphured and packed.

Clingstone peaches are successfully handled with curved knives
and spoon-shaped pitters in conjunction with ordinary fruit knives.
Different styles are carried at the general stores in the fruit dis-
tricts, and individuals differ widely in their preferences.

The weight of dried peaches which can be obtained from a certain
weight of fresh fruit, depends upon the variety ; some varieties yield
at least a third more than others, and clings yield more than free-
stones as a rule. Dry-fleshed peaches, like the Muir, yield one
pound dry from four or five pounds fresh, while other more juicy
fruits may require six or seven pounds.

Nectarines.—Nectarines are handled like peaches; the produc-
tion of translucent amber fruit in the sun depends upon the skillful
use of sulphur. Dried nectarines are much like dried apricots, as
the skin is naturally smooth.

Plums and Prunes.—Our pitted plums, which are an acid fruit,
are meeting with more favor than formerly, and the product is
increasing. Pitting is done by hand or by the use of foot-power
‘‘nitters.’? More rapid and capacious machines are being brought
out by inventors.

Prunes are our greatest cured fruit, except raisins. Several
varieties of plums which dry sweet with the pit in are used in
making prunes, as already stated in Chapter XXIII, but the pre-
vailing variety is the Prune d’Agen, or French prune.

METHODS OF DRYING PRUNES 461

Prunes are gathered from the ground, which has been previously
smoothed by rolling or rubbing. About three gatherings are made
as they ripen and fall progressively—shaking the trees only at the |
last gathering.

Prunes are usually graded before drying, and various home-
made contrivances are employed. Some use inclined planes of
adjustable slats, the grader being thus available for other fruits
than prunes; the large fruit rolls along into receptacles at the
bottom, while the small fruit falls through into other receptacles.
Some have a long riddle, say twelve feet long, with three different
sizes of wire screen on it. This riddle is hung upon four ropes with
an incline; the prunes are thrown in the higher end, and by shaking
it they roll down and fall through the holes into boxes underneath.
The first piece of screen should be small, to let only stems and dirt
through, and no prunes. This long hanging screen is also used to
grade prunes after drying. There are several excellent manufac-
tured fruit graders on sale in this State which have largely dis-
placed home-made contrivances.

The next step in the process is dipping in lye to thin and crack
the skin, which facilitates the escape of moisture in the drying
process. In the large caldron lye is made with one pound of con-
centrated lye to each thirty gallons of water, and kept boiling hot.
The fruit is put into wire baskets or galvanized pails with perforated
sides and bottoms, and dipped in the boiling lye for a few seconds,
or until the skin has a wrinkled appearance. After this dipping,
the prunes are placed on trays.

A process of puncturing the skin of the prunes by causing them
to roll over needle points is also employed. There are now manu-
factured very capacious appliances for continuous dipping, punc-
turing and spreading on the trays so that the fruit is handled in
large quantities at a minimum cost. In no branch of our fruit in-
dustry, perhaps, has there been greater advance in labor-saving
devices than in prune handling.

The following explicit hints on the curing of prunes are based
upon wide experience and observation in the Santa Clara Valley:

Be sure to allow the prunes to obtain all of the sugar they can from the
trees by hanging until they drop of their own accord. Do not pick up until
prunes are soft to the touch.

Do not keep prunes in boxes over night. They go through a sweat, and
do not make a first quality of dried fruit, and take much longer to dry. It
is better to let the prunes lie on the ground under the tree for several days
than to let the picked prunes lie in the boxes over one night.

The dipping fluid must be kept at the boiling point and no prunes put in
unless it is boiling. It is not a matter of how strong the lye is, but how
hot is the water. On the trays prunes will either dry or ferment. Unless
the dip is hot enough the prune will not immediately commence to dry, but
will, in a few days, become a chocolate color and refuse to dry, sometimes
a few on a tray, often half and sometimes nearly all. If the water is at the
boiling point all through the dip, two pounds of lye to the 100 gallons of
water may be sufficient. If the water is not boiling, ten pounds of lye to
the 100 gallons of water may be required.

Weather conditions govern the time prunes should remain on the trays.
Grasp a handful of prunes and give them a gentle squeeze and open the

7

462 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

hand quickly; if the prunes separate they are ready to stack the trays and
the fruit should be placed in the bin before it rattles on the trays.

When the prunes are sufficiently dry put them where it will not rain on
them, but do not prevent the air from getting to them. Let the wind have
free access until the rains set in, then close doors and make the house as
snug as you can. In making bins, be sure the boards are dry and the bins
well above ground, or you will have trouble.

For dipping before packing, some use a brine dip—about five pounds of
salt to 100 gallons of water. The salt dip leaves the skin of the fruit in a
bright, clear condition and brings out the blue bloom, which is desirable.
Practically all packers now dip in pure hot water at 210 degrees for 2 to 4
minutes to partially dissolve juice enough to seal the pores of the skin.
Many used to add licorice, glucose, glycerine or prune juice to make the
prunes shiny, but there is no need for this, because the public does not de-
mand a shiny prune. When properly dipped in hot water and packed at
once while hot and soft, a bloom comes back on them as they cool and
harden.

The dipping serves three purposes: It washes dust from the prunes, kills
whatever insects may be in them, though it may not kill moth eggs, and
softens the prunes so they may be attractively packed. More prunes are
spoiled by processing in water not hot enough, than in any other way.

Raisins —The varieties of grapes used for raisins are described
in Chapter XXVIII. The production of raisins has reached such an
extent, and employs so much skill and capital, that the processes
employed to facilitate the curing and packing are so various that a
description of them cannot be attempted. Commercial handling
has been so elaborated and systematized during recent years that
careful observation of actual operations in vineyard and packing
house is necessary to full understanding. A few hints will, how-
ever, be sufficient to help anyone to begin raisin-making. The
following are by Professor Bioletti of the University of California:

To make good Muscat raisins, very sweet, large grapes and two or three
weeks of hot, dry weather are necessary. These conditions occur in the
interior. Nearer the coast the weather is usually cool and rain probable by
the time the grapes are sufficiently ripe.

The riper the grapes the better the quality of the raisins and the heavier
the yield.. They should have at least 25 per cent of sugar. The drying ratio
varies with ripeness from 5:1 to 3:1. At 25 per cent Bal. 3.4 lbs. of fresh
grapes yield 1 lb. of raisins. The time of drying varies from nine days to
thirty, according to the weather. The most favorable maximum daily tem-
perature for quality lies between 80 deg. and 90 deg. F. At much above 100
deg. the drying is quicker but the quality inferior. Showers and cool
weather may prolong the drying even beyond thirty days.

The grapes are gathered directly on to 2x3 ft. trays and dried between
the rows of vines. The vineyard is first prepared by making a low soil ridge
slanting to the south and near the south side of every alternate row. If the
growth of vines is very heavy it may be necessary to cut away the ends of
the spreading canes.

Each tray receives 22 lbs. of grapes, evenly spread and free from trash
and leaves. When about three-fourths dry, the grapes are turned. This is
in about nine days at an average maximum daily temperature of 90 deg. F.
Two men do the turning by placing an empty tray on top of the full one and
revolving both from north to south, so as to change the position of the
grapes as well as turn them. After about three or four days at this tem-
perature, the raisin trays should be “stacked” in piles of ten or more; each
pile being covered with an empty tray. It is advisable to do as much of the
drying in the stack as is possible without running the risk of molding.

In case of threatened rain, the trays are also stacked and then spread out

_RAISIN-MAKING METHODS 463

again when the danger has passed. A little rain will not hurt the raisins
before they are turned. Much rain, or wetting after turning, will injure
their appearance as layer raisins, but they can usually be saved by prompt
turning on to new dry trays. In case of prolonged wet weather, it may be
necessary to sulphur the stacked raisins. This is done by covering the
stacks with a sheet or a balloon sulphur box and burning a few ounces of
sulphur. When dry, the raisins are packed tight into sweat-boxes 2x3 ft.x
8 in. deep, holding about twenty-five trays. For home use, bins or boxes of
any size may be used. Dessert raisins are packed in layers separated by
sheets of Manila paper.

The foregoing relates to the preparation of the standard clusters,
but the method can be used for drying other grapes, though it is
preferable to ‘‘dip’’ in some eases.

Loose Museatels are prepared by being put through the stemmer
and grader. The stemmer removes the berries from the stems, and
the grader, by separating according to size, determines the grade.
During the last few years the seeding of raisins has increased
rapidly, and large establishments for this work, with every ingenious
machinery, have been erected. Seeded raisins constitute a con-
siderable portion of the product.

‘Considerable quantities of dipped raisins are also made of loose
or inferior Museatels. A lye dip of about one pound of potash to
twelve gallons of water is used, and the solution is kept’ boiling hot.
The ripe fruit is dipped for an instant, then plunged in fresh water
for a thorough rinsing, and then placed on the trays. During warm,
dry weather in the interior, the raisins are dried in the shade by
leaving the trays in piles, but if cooler, moister weather prevails,
the trays must be spread out. The product is a handsome amber
color.

Dipped Seedless Raisins.—After much experimentation by Cali-
fornia growers to improve the process of making dipped raisins, the
following method largely used by Mr. G. H. Hecke of Woodland,
Yolo County, in handling Thompson and Sultana raisins has been
widely adopted:

Dissolve 30 pounds of bicarbonate of soda in 30 gallons of water, by
thorough boiling; add 60 gallons of water to this solution and enough good
olive oil to, film the surface of the dip—about a teacupful will generally be
right. If this dip does not sufficiently cut the bloom on the grape, add a
pound or two of ordinary lye to the dip until it is strong enough to remove
it. Keep this dipping solution at about 90 degrees F. and add a tablespoon-
ful of the olive oil from time to time to replace the oil removed by dipping.

These directions, of course, are general, and will serve only as a basis
for operations. Sugar content of grapes, cloudy days during the drying
process, different brands of olive oil, all are factors in the successful adop-
tion of this method, and hence, individual judgment is necessary to obtain
the best results. The raisins produced under this process should be of light
amber color and will dry in less than half the time needed for the undipped
grapes.

GRAPE SYRUP

The manufacture of grape syrup, as a means of disposing of
wine grapes, has recently received much attention and detailed

464 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

descriptive publications can be had from the University Experi-
ment Station at Berkeley.

MACHINE EVAPORATION

Although California summer conditions of adequate heat and
dry air favor open-air evaporation to such an extent that nearly
all our product of cured fruit is secured in that way, there are
some parts of the State where artificial heat would be a safer re-
course and there are occasionally years in which drying fruits
collide with early rains in a way to cause losses even in our best
sun-curing regions.

In 1919, owing to great losses of prunes by the heavy September
rains of 1918 in the coast valleys (which have never been equaled
since the beginning of American occupation) and owing to the
anticipated need of drying grapes because of prohibition of wine
making, there arose a great interest in machine evaporation in
California. This has been ministered to by inventors and by in-
vestigation of available appliances by the University Experiment
Station, of which a preliminary publication became available in
May, 1919, entitled ‘‘Evaporators for Prune Drying.’’ It describes
the types of evaporators and their operation. The subject promises
to develop into freer employment of artificial heat than has ruled
hitherto in California fruit curing, because the new types of evapo-
rators have more adequate capacity than those which were aban-
doned forty years before and because oil has become available as a
source of heat. There is, however, no likelihood that the sun in the
heavens will ever be displaced as the chief agency in California
fruit preservation.

PART NINE: FRUIT PROTECTION

CHAPTER XLI
CALIFORNIA METHODS WITH INJURIOUS INSECTS

The California climate, which so favors tree and vine by a long,
mild, growing season, also enables some insects to multiply much
more rapidly than they do in wintry climes; some having several
distinct broods, others carrying on the work of reproduction and
destruction of plants nearly the year round.

Undoubtedly parasitic and predacious insects preying upon the
injurious species found in the fruit plantations are of assistance, in
greater or lesser measure, in reducing the pests, and this service is
being promoted by the introduction of beneficial insects from other
parts of the world. There are many of our native species of insects
that are valuable in this regard. Other factors, also, such as un-
toward weather-conditions at the time of hatching, bacterial and
fungous diseases of insects, etc., assist the horticulturist in his war-
fare against injurious insects, and yet it must be the undertaking
of every fruit grower to know as many pests as he can and the best
way to fight them.

While the literature upon the subject of insect pests in Cali-
fornia is quite extensive, much of it must be sought in libraries.
Nevertheless there are a number of publications which should be
secured by every fruit grower. These are the bulletins and reports
of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Cali-
fornia, at Berkeley; of the State Board of Horticulture, at Sacra-
mento; and of the Bureau of Entomology of the United States
Department of Agriculture, at Washington.

CLASSES OF INSECTS

In order to arrange injurious insects in classes in a popular way,
the grouping here will be based upon the character of the work
they do. This arrangement has been followed by other writers and
is perhaps better than attempting to group the insects which prey
upon any single tree or plant, because injurious insects seldom re-
strict themselves to a single food plant. Therefore the grouping
will be as follows:

(1) Insects destroying foliage ;

(2) Insects upon the bark or upon the surface of leaf and fruit ;

(3) Insects boring into the twig, stem or root;

(4) Insects boring into the pulp of fruits.

466 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

INSECTS DESTROYING FOLIAGE

Cut Worms and Army Worms.—These are the larvae of Noctuid
moths, which often become abundant over limited areas and do
much damage to trees and plants. Cut worms and Army worms
are terms applied to the same insects in California.

Of the methods used to protect trees and plants from cut worms,
poisoned bait is most common. See Formulas 19 and 19a.

Canker Worms.—These are destructive leaf-feeding caterpillars,
commonly known also as inchworms, loopers or measuring worms,
beeause of the peculiar looping gait by which they move about.
The male moths are slender bodied and have broad, thin wings,
while the females are wingless, heavy-bodied creatures.

While these caterpillars can in large measure be controlled by
spraying with lead arsenate or Paris green (Formulas 16 to 18), it
is desirable to avoid having them upon the trees at all. The wing-
less female moth upon emerging from her cocoon in the ground
immediately crawls up the trunk of the nearby tree and places
her eggs upon the twigs. She can be prevented from ascending
by encircling the trunks with bands of ‘‘tree-tanglefoot’’ or of
eotton-batting during winter and spring.

Tent Caterpillars—Several species of hairy caterpillars called
‘‘tent caterpillars,’’ or ‘‘web worms,’’ from their spinning covers
of cobweb-like material, under which they take shelter in large
colonies; but one, at least, of the group does not spin a web, though
it lives in clusters on, the tree. The worms can be killed by cutting
off and burning the twig holding the cluster or by burning the
colonies in place with a torch on the end of a pole, or by spraying
the foliage (Formulas 16 to 18). The pest can be reduced while
pruning by carefully collecting and burning the egg clusters, which
encirele the twig.

Red-Humped Caterpillar.—Striped caterpillars, not hairy, but
having two rows of black spines along the back, also living in
clusters; of reddish color with yellow and white lines; a short
distance back of the red head of the caterpillar is a red hump on
which are four black spines; black spines are also scattered over the
body, but smaller than those on the back. Spray (Formulas 16 to
18), or cut off and burn colonies.

Caterpillar or Tussock Moth.—A conspicuous caterpillar with
four short, brush-like tufts on its back, and two long, black plumes
at the front, and one at the rear of the body. The insect is fortu-
nately very freely parasitized in the egg form and prevented from
wide injury. It can be controlled by destroying the egg masses
during pruning, as they are white and very conspicuous.

Pear and Cherry Slug.—A small, slimy, dark-colored worm, with
the fore part of the body notably larger than the rear part, eating
the upper surface of the leaves but not usually making holes through
them. ‘The insect can be checked by throwing fine road dust or air-

LEAF-EATING INSECTS 467

slaked lime over the tree, which cakes upon the slime of the worm

and destroys it. On a large scale a spray is best. (Formulas 16
to 18.)

Saw-Fly Worm.—There are several larvae of saw-flies which do
much injury to pear trees, currants, etc., by eating the whole leaf
substance except the larger ribs. The worms are small, not slimy
like the pear slug, the one infesting the pear being about half an
inch when fully grown. The most available remedy is a spray.
(Formulas 16 to 18.)

Large Caterpillars on Grape-vines—The grape-vine is often
seriously injured by the attacks of very large leaf-eating worms
two inches and upwards in length, sometimes with a large horn, or
spine, sometimes without. They are larvae of several species of
Sphinx moths or hawk-moths. The worms when new hatched can
be killed by an arsenical spray or by hand-picking. The numbers
of worms can be reduced by killing the large moths, which are
abundant at nightfall on beds of verbenas or other garden flowers.
These worms are related to the other large caterpillars which feed
on tobacco, tomatoes, ete.

Leaf-Eating Beetles—There are many beetles, large and small,
which infest grape leaves. They can all be reduced by the use of
arsenate of lead or Paris green (Formulas 16 to 18), or those which
drop to the ground when disturbed may be collected in large num-
bers on sheets spread below.

INSECTS UPON BARK OR SURFACE OF LEAVES
OF FRUIT

Leaf Lice.—Leaves of fruit trees, especially the apple, plum, and
walnut, are sometimes almost covered with lice or aphides of differ-
ent colors, from light green to black, some individuals having wings
and some wingless. Available remedies for all these leaf lice are
the kerosene emulsions and other mixtures (Formulas 5 to 12) with
a spray nozzle which sends spray upwards, so as to reach the under
sides of the leaves. Very often these pests are apparently cleared
out by lady-birds and other insects which devour them.

The walnut aphis is reduced by tobacco dust spray.

Thrips—Very minute insects infesting buds, leaves and _ blos-
soms of pears, prunes, cherries, peaches and many other trees and
plants. The attack on leaves and buds causes them to wither and
fall off. Indeed complete defoliation may follow their attack.
When thrips infest fruit blossoms the essential parts are eaten off
by the insects and the attacked blossom sets no fruit. (Formula 5.)

Spraying can be done with safety to opening buds, but should
not be sprayed on trees in full bloom, and its use can be resumed
immediately after the blossoms have fallen, and later on the foliage
for adults and larvae.

468 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Vine Hoppers.—Very minute, yellowish, jumping insects infest-
ing grape-vines very early in the season, and multiplying rapidly.
The vine hopper (often called incorrectly the vine thrips) is the
most widely distributed and most uniformly present of all the grape
insects occurring in the State. It occurs in injurious numbers,
however, chiefly in the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys. The
principal injury caused by this insect is due to the extraction of
the plant juices. These are sucked out by means of a sharp beak
or proboscis, which is inserted into the plant tissues. Spray before
the insects get wings (Formula 12). Clean weeds and refuse from
around fences. Practice clean culture during winter.

False Chinch-Bugs.—Small, grayish-brown insects (about one-
eighth of an inch long when fully grown), which injure the vine
leaves. They drop to the ground when the vine is disturbed, and
may be caught in pans or on sheets.

Grasshoppers.—These pests often invade orchard and vineyard,
and sometimes kill the plants outright by completely defoliating
them. This plague has been successfully met by the use of Formulas
19 and 19a, as commended for cut-worms. A tablespoonful is
thrown by the side of each vine or tree.

Red Spider and Other Mites.—Very minute insects, usually dis-
cernible only with the aid of a magnifier, sometimes destroy the
leaves, causing them to lose their color and health by their inroads
upon the leaf surface. The red spider and yellow mite are con-
spicuous examples; they infest nearly all orchard trees, especially
the almond, prune, and plum. The eggs of the red spider are ruby-
red globules, as seen with the magnifier, and are deposited in vast
numbers upon the bark of the tree, and leave a red color upon the
finger if it is rubbed over them. The eggs are very hard to kill, and
treatment is most effective when applied in the spring and summer
after the mites are hatched out. The popular remedy is a thorough
dusting of the trees with sulphur or spraying with sulphur and
water (Formula 15). On a large scale the sulphur is applied in a
cloud by sulphur machines specially made for this purpose.

Phylloxera.—This pest of the grape-vine is closely allied to the
aphides, and lives both upon the root and leaf, though in this State
the root type prevails and the leaf form is seldom seen. No remedy
has yet been found effectual, but escape is had by using roots resist-
ing the insects, as described in Chapter XXVI. The insects are
recognized, by the aid of a magnifier, as minute yellow lice, chiefly
on the rootlets.

The Woolly Aphis—A louse of dark red color, occurring in
groups, covered with a woolly substance which exudes from the
of the apple, though, as shown by experience, some varieties are
bodies of the insects. The woolly aphis is an almost universal pest
practically exempt from it. As the pest lives both upon root and
top, its annihilation is impossible, but it may be reduced so that the
fruitfulness and vigor of the tree are not impaired. The use of

VARIOUS KINDS OF BORERS 469

wood ashes around the tree close to the trunk has been beneficial.
Removing the earth above the main roots, in a circle two to four
feet in diameter and soaking the ground with tobacco extract
(Formula 11), using from three to five gallons to the tree, has been
found very effective in killing the root form. The insect on the
branches and twigs can be reduced by spraying with the summer
washes, Formulas 5, 6 and 7. lLady-birds often clear away the
woolly aphis from the tree above the ground. Some attention is
- being given to trial of resistant roots and it is likely that such roots
will be generally used here as in Australia. How such trees are
erown is described in Chapter XVII.

Scale Insects—This is a large group of pests which occasion
greater loss and trouble to our fruit growers than all other pests
combined. There are many species, and no orchard tree is exempt
from the attacks of one or more of them, though some trees are
apparently more popular with the pests than others. The fruit
srower should study their life history and classification as laid
down in the works on entomology and apply for specific advice
as to treatment by sending specimens to.the University Experiment
Station at Berkeley.

INSECTS BORING IN TWIG, STEM, OR ROOT

Peach Twig-Borer or Peach Worm.—This larva is probably the
most serious insect pest that the California peach grower has had
to contend with. The creature hibernates as a young larva in
burrows in the crotches of the tree. Destruction of the larvae in
their winter burrows overcomes all damage from these pests. Spray
when the buds are expanding (Formula 2).

The Common Borer.—An insect which has done vast injury in
this State is the ‘‘flat-headed apple borer’’ (Chrysobothris femo-
rata). It affects chiefly apples, peaches and plums, ete., which
have been injured by sunburn. It is a pale-colored grub with a
brown head, the forepart of the body being greatly flattened. The
matured beetle is greenish black or bronze colored, copper colored
on the under side. If any tree receives any damage to the bark,
either by sunburn or other cause, the borer is sure to find it, and
it works itself into the tree, its castings being the only guide to
its presence. The best remedy is prevention by protection from
sunburn, as described in Chapter XI. Keep all bark which can be
reached by the sun thoroughly covered with whitewash by repeated
applications. In the summer and fall look for discolored places
on the bark where the whitewash may not have reached, cut in
and kill the grub with a knife, or, if you find a-hole, push a wire
to the end of it. This examination must include the bark below
the loose ground surface, for younger trees are sometimes girdled
at that point.

Sun-Scald Borer.—Another borer which delights in sunburned
trees is a minute beetle, making a burrow hardly larger than a pin-
hole. It is known as the sun-seald beetle (Xyloborus xylographus).

‘

470 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

The remedy, as in the former case, is to prevent injury to the bark,
for this precedes the attack of the beetle.

The Olive Twig-Borer.—A reddish brown beetle boring into
twigs of olive and other orchard trees, and grape canes, at the axils
of the leaves. It is Polycaon confertus, and it breeds in decaying
logs and stumps and old grape-vines, apparently visiting the fruit
trees merely to gratify its appetite. Its work is not fatal to the
tree, but unless proper pruning and attention be afterwards given,
it may spoil the shape of the young tree. Remove the affected
branches below the burrows of the beetle, or if it would be difficult
to replace a branch, see that the beetle is destroyed and the entrance
to the hole stopped up—this to prevent decay and a weak branch
following.

Peach Crown Borer.—A grub boring into peach trees just below
the ground surface, its presence being shown by copious gumming.
Dig out the grubs thoroughly in the fall and winter. After digging
out all that can be found a band six inches wide of ‘‘asphaltum D’’
should be placed in the spring on the rough bark around the base
of bearing trees, a little above and below the ground line. This
will keep in the perfect insects which come from the cocoons which
are at the openings of the burrows and it will keep out the newly
hatching larvae from eggs which will be then laid on the tree near
the ground by the insects which are not shut in by the asphaltum.
The material is applied warm with a brush. It is easier to apply
two or more coatings than to try to put on more at one time than
will adhere firmly. The first coating will harden very quickly,
and the second can be applied without loss of time. Two coatings
are generally sufficient unless the bark is very rough. A thick
uniform covering is absolutely necessary for the best results.

In the case of young, trees with smooth bark, asphaltum may
induce sunburn and crude oil whitewash is preferred. Fifty pounds
of stone lime (in a barrel), slaked with from 10 to 15 gallons of
warm water. While the lime is boiling, slowly pour in six gallons
of heavy crude oil. Stir and add water to make a heavy paste and
paint that on. This must be used the same day it is mixed and
not used if kept over.

Strawberry Root-Borer.—The larva of another clear-winged
moth (Aegeria impropria) bores into the root of the strawberry
plants. Flooding the vines if the water is retained, four or five
days during the winter, all over the plants, kills the larvae.

Currant and Gooseberry Borer.—A white worm eating out the
central pith of currant and gooseberry plants—the larva of another
elear-winged moth (Aegeria tipuliformis). Spraying with whale-
oil soap after the crop is gathered, pruning out and burning in the
fall of all old wood which can be spared, will reduce the evil.

The Raspberry Cane Borer.—This intruder is a small maggot.
Cut all tips which show signs of wilting and burn them. Thorough
work in topping is absolutely necessary, so as to be sure that none
of the worms remain to produce flies.

PULP-EATING INSECTS 471

INSECTS DEVOURING THE PULP OF FRUITS

The Apple Worm.—The codlin moth (Carpocapsa pomonella) is
one of the great pests of the State. It preys chiefly upon the apple
and pear, but the quince and other large fruits are sometimes in-
vaded by it. The first moths appear at some time after the blossom-
ing of the apple, and deposit their eggs on the young fruit or on
adjacent leaves. The young worm hatches in from seven to ten
days, generally seeks the eye or calyx, and eats its way into the
fruit, and in twenty days its full growth is attained, and it goes
out through the side of the apple, and, by means of its spinnaret,
reaches the ground or some large branch. If landed on the ground,
it usually seeks the trunk, which it ascends and soons finds a hiding
place under the loose bark, where it spins its cocoon, and in eight
or ten days comes forth a moth, ready to lay eggs anew. The egg
is laid all over the fruit and especially at a point where two fruits
touch. Usually we have in this State two broods, at least, but some-
times three, and, naturally, if unchecked, the increase from the first
to the last is enormous. The worms escaping from the fruit in the
fall hibernate as larvae under the loose bark of the tree, or in store-
houses, or in any available dry place.

‘This insect is effectually controlled by spraying (Formulas 16 to
18). The times for spraying and number of applications differ in
the several apple regions of the State and county horticultural com-

- missioners or farm advisors should be consulted.

The Walnut Worm.—tThis is a codlin moth of another species
which ruins walnuts. It is being fought with a dust spray of kaolin
and tobacco extract, concerning which the latest information can
be had from the Walnut Growers Association of Los Angeles.

The Peach Worm.—As already stated, the larva of the peach
moth, which early in the spring bores into the twigs, is sometimes
found later in the season in the flesh of the peach. Hence the im-
portance of saving the fruit by proper treatment of the hibernating
worms which has been given (Formula 2). |

The Diabrotica.—A light green beetle with twelve spots on his
back (Diabrotica soror) is sometimes very injurious to early fruit,
by eating into it when ripe. The insect also eats leaves and blos-
soms. As it attacks the fruit just as it is ready to pick, it is im-
possible to apply any disagreeable or poisonous spray. Sometimes
the insects are driven away by dense smoke from fires in and around
the orchard.

The Dried Fruit Worm.—Dried fruit is often seriously injured
after packing, by a small worm, larva of a moth. The eggs are
deposited 6n the fruit either while drying or while in the packing-
house, or through the cloth of the sacks, or seams of the package.
The eggs may be killed on the fruit before packing, by dipping in
boiling water, and after that preventing the access of the moth.
Infested fruit can also be treated by bisulphide vapor (Formula 20).

A72 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

ANTS AND YELLOW JACKETS

These insects are often of serious trouble during fruit drying.
Ants are most effectually disposed of by slightly opening their holes
in the ground by thrusting down a crowbar and pouring in a couple
of ounces of carbon bisulphide and closing again with earth. Yellow
jackets also nest in the ground in old squirrel or gopher holes, and
they too can be suffocated with carbon bisulphide or by pouring in
gasoline or kerosene and firing it. Hornets which nest in trees are
troublesome, but are much less numerous than the cave-dwelling
species.

Poisoning yellow jackets to carry destruction to the young
brood is practicable. Dr. J. H. Miller, of San Leandro, saved his
fruit in this way:

I bought half a dozen beef livers, five pounds of arsenious acid and sev-
eral pounds of baling wire. Cutting the liver into pieces as large as a
man’s fist, I put them into a hot solution of arsenious acid, and, bending
the wire into a hook at each end, I suspended the pieces from the lower
limbs of trees all around my drying-ground. The fruit was soon deserted,
and the insects busily worked at the fragrant liver, carrying pieces to their
nests, causing the death of those that had been destroying the fruit and
the next generation also, and so completely that there may not be enough
of the pests in that neighborhood the following year to require a repetition
of the treatment. There is no risk in so using the poison, for the yellow
jackets will not return to the fruit, and bees will not go near the meat.

DISINFECTING NURSERY STOCK

Cuttings, scions, young trees and vines, ete., can be freed from
insects by inclosing in a tight box or cask and placing a saucerful
of carbon bisulphide on the top of them, covering it with canvas or
any tight-fitting cover. The bisulphide vapor will destroy all insect
_ life in forty minutes.

Disinfecting such materials on a larger scale may be done in this
way:

Use square canvas sheets, sixteen to twenty feet in diameter, made of
the best ducking, double stitched and then painted with boiled linseed oil
to make it gas-proof. To fumigate evergreen stock use one ounce of cyan-
ide of potassium (in lumps, not pulverized), one fluid ounce of commercial
sulphuric acid, and two fluid ounces of water to one hundred cubic feet of
enclosed space. For deciduous and hardy trees, when dormant, use one-
fourth more of each of the above. When the canvas has been placed over
the stock to be fumigated, prepare the charge. Take a three or four-gallon
glazed earthenware jar, into which pour the necessary quantity of water,
then the sulphuric acid, and place it well under the canvas, the edges of
which are secured with soil or in some way so as to prevent the gas escap-
ing, with the exception of the edge immediately in front of the jar. The
proper amount of cyanide of potassium is then dropped into the jar from a
long scoop, and the tent is immediately closed, and remains so for one hour.

Formula 21 is used for dipping nursery stock.

-

FORMULAS FOR INSECT-KILLING 473

INSECTICIDES

Recipes and hints for use of insecticides may be summarized as
follows:

1. Lime Sulphur:

Quicklime, 33 pounds; sulphur, 66 pounds; water, 200 gallons.

Sift sulphur through box with screen bottom into boiling tank with 50
gallons of water. Add the lime and boil 45 minutes to one hour. Stir fre-
quently. Strain through cheese cloth or burlap and dilute to make 200
gallons. If extra lime is desired strain in milk of lime when spray is
ready for usé.

2. Commercial Lime Sulphur:

If of 82 deg. Baume dilute 1 to 9. If 36 deg. dilute 1 to 11.
Hither of the above for San Jose and other armored scales to be ap-
plied during dormant season, preferably in early winter or early spring.
For Peach Moth, as the buds are expanding in the spring.

3. Distillate 28 deg. to 34 deg. Baume:

Distillate, 10 to 20 gallons; water, 200 gallons.
For use only with power sprayer with good agitator, which is necessary
to make a mechanical mixture of the oil and water.
For the Brown Apricot, Black, and other unarmored scales, and for
Woolly Aphis, to be applied during dormant season, preferably in early
winter.

4. Distillate Potash:

Distillate, 10 gallons; lye or caustic soda, 5 pounds; water, 200 gallons.
Preparation and uses same as under 3. Has the advantage of freeing
trees from moss.

5. Distillate Emulsion:

Stock emulsion: Hot water, 12 gallons; fish oil (see 10) or whale-oil
soap, 30 pounds; distillate 30 deg. to 34 deg., 20 gallons.

Add soap to hot water in spray tank with agitator going. After soap is
dissolved add oil slowly, keeping mixture agitated. Pump out through
nozzle at 175 pounds pressure in storage tank.

For use take: Stock emulsion, 11 gallons; blackleaf 40, 1 pint;
water, 200 gallons.

Place oil emulsion in spray tank, start agitator and add the water.
When diluted add the Blackleaf.

For thrips, Black Peach Aphis, and other plant lice.

6. Kerosene Emulsion:

Dissolve % pound soap in 1 gallon hot water; add 1 gallon kerosene.
Mix thoroughly with spray pump by turning nozzle back into mixture.
a. For plant lice and other sucking insects during growing season, dilute
' with 15 to 25 gallons water.

b. For seale insects, Woolly Aphis and other sucking insects during
dormant season, dilute with 5 to 10 gallons water.

On a small scale dissolve 1 inch cube soap in 1 pint hot water; add 1
pint kerosene. Churn with egg beater.

For growing plants, dilute to 2 or 3 gallons water. For dormant plants,
1 gallon.

7. Miscible Oils:

Commercial preparations of oil so treated as to mix directly with water.
Follow directions on container. Uses same as 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 10.

8. Straight Kerosene or Water White Oil:
Water white oil (42 deg. Baume) or kerosene, 20 gallons, water, 200
gallons.
In use for scale insects of citrus trees. Application by power outfit.

AT4 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

9. Soap Solution:
Soap, 1 pound; water, 5 to 15 gollons.
Whale-oil or fish-oil soap preferable, but for small amounts any yellow ~
laundry soap will answer.
For plant lice and other sucking insects during summer.

10. Homemade Soap:

Water, 6 gallons; lye (98%), 2 pounds; fish oil, 11%% gallons.

Add lye to water in boiler. When dissolved and water boiling, pour in
the fish oil, stirring in mean time, and boil slowly for two hours. This will
give about 40 pounds soap.

For use, dilute with 5 to 15 gallons water for each pound. For same
pests as No. 9.

11. Tobacco or Nicotine:
a. Blackleaf 40 (40% nicotine), 1 pint; water, 200 gallons.
b. Tobacco stems, 1 pound; water, 4 gallons.

Steep stems in 1 gallon warm water and dilute to 4 gallons.

For plant lice and other sucking insects during growing season. For
Woolly Aphis and Peach Aphis underground. A liberal solution, or the
dry tobacco dust in early winter, about the base of the tree, the surface
soil first being removed.

12. Tobacco Soap:
Blackleaf 40, 1 pound (1-10 gal.); liquid soap, 1 gallon—or
Hard soap, 12 pounds; water, 200 gallons. 5
Uses same as 11. Penetrating and wetting power better.

13. Lime Sulphur Tobacco:

Commercial lime sulphur 36 deg., 2.1 gallons; blackleaf 40, 14 fluid
ounces; water, 200 gallons.
For Orange Thrips.

14. Carbolic Lime:

Quicklime, 150 pounds; crude carbolic acid, 2 gallons; water, 200 gal-
lons.
For a disinfecting whitewash.

15.. Sulphur:

a. Dry. Thoroughly dust over foliage, preferably when moist with
dew. Hydrated lime about equal parts with sulphur will increase
adhesiveness.

b. Spray. Commercial sulphur paste, 30 pounds; water, 200 gallons.

c. Spray. Commercial lime sulphur, 4 to 5 gallons; water, 200 gallons.

For Red Spiders and Silver Mite.

16. Lead Arsenate:

The basic type of lead arsenate contains less arsenic per pound than
the acid type, and is a weaker and slower-acting poison. It is not decom-
posed, however, by chemicals of an alkaline nature, such as are usually
applied with it as a combination spray, nor by the damp weather of the
coast regions. It is considered the only safe arsenical to use on stone
fruits, beans or other susceptible plants.

The lead arsenates are usually sold as a paste containing about 50 per
cent of water, or as a dry powder. The paste should be thinned with water
and worked into a smooth cream before adding to the spray tank. The
powder may be added directly to the tank and mixed by means of the agi-
tator.

For codlin moth and defoliating insects, use:

Acid lead arsenate paste, 4 to 8 pounds; water 100 gallons—or
Basic lead arsenate paste, 5 to 10 pounds; water, 100 gallons.

Dry or powdered lead arsenate contains twice as much arsenic as the

paste, therefore use only one-half as much as in the above formulas.

FORMULAS FOR INSECT-KILLING 475

1%. Paris Green:
Paris green, 11-3 to 2 pounds; water, 200 gallons.
For Codlin Moth and most defoliating insects.
Not to be used along coast or moist situations where injury is likely to
result to foliage.
Cn a small scale use Paris green, 1 teaspoonful (% oz.); lime, 3 tea-
spoonfuls; water, 2 gallons.

18. Zine Arsenate:

Zine arsenite, 2 to 6 pounds; water, 200 gallons.
A powerful poison for resistant insects, as the Tussock Moth, or for
early spraying for Canker Worm and Codlin Moth in the dry interior cli-
mates.

19. Poison Bran-mash:

Bran, 25 pounds; white arsenic, 1 pound; molasses (cheap blackstrap
preferred), 2 quarts.
Mix the arsenic and the bran dry, and add the molasses, which has been
diluted with enough water to mix thoroughly to make a dry mash which
will broadcast easily.

19a. Citrus Bran-mash:

White arsenic, 1 pound; molasses (cheap blackstrap preferred), 2
quarts; lemons: (or oranges), 6 fruits; water (about), 4 gallons;
bran, 25 pounds.

Stir thoroughly the arsenic, molasses and water. Grind the lemons, in-
cluding the rinds, in a meat grinder, or chop fine, and add to this liquid.
Then slowly pour this over the bran and stir thoroughly until an even
mixture is secured.

For Cut Worms and Grasshoppers, distribute a small handful about the
base of the vine or tree, or scatter about plants in the garden. May be
distributed broadcast for Grasshoppers and Army Worms.

20. Carbon Bisulphide:

For treatment of stored products and underground insects.

Usual dosage, 1 pint to 1,000 cubic feet space.

Place liquid in saucers or shallow vessels above material to be treated.
Inflammable; avoid lights.

For underground insects, a tablespoonful in holes 3 or 4 feet apart.

21. Resin Dipping Solution:

Resin, 20 pounds; caustic soda or lye, 8 pounds; fish oil, 3 pints;
water, 100 gallons.
Boil resin and caustic soda in 50 gallons of water for 1 hour. Dilute to
100 gallons.
In use for dipping citrus nursery stock for scale insects and Red Spiders.
Kerosene emulsion and lime sulphur solution also used for dipping de-
ciduous nursery stock.

Hydrocyanic Acid Gas.—For details of fumigation processes for
scale insects on citrus trees, apply for publications to the University
Experiment Station and to Horticultural Commissioners in citrus
fruit growing counties. The materials are so poisonous, the appli-
ances so elaborate and the operation, to secure efficient insect kill-
ing without injury to the tree, is so exact and systematic that
careful and experienced fumigators are essential.

CHAPTER XLII
DISEASES OF TREES AND VINES

A few suggestions concerning pathological conditions which ©
arise in trees and vines and prescription of treatment and remedies
may be helpful: First, diseases demonstrated to be caused by fungi
and bacteria; second, ‘abnormal: conditions, of which the causes are
not yet clear.

Powdery Mildews.—Fungi which bring upon the leaf surface
the appearance of a whitish powder and afterwards cause the leaf
to curl and dry without producing marked swelling, perforation or
discoloration, can be checked by the use of sulphur. The chief of
these is the mildew of the grape, the mildew of the apple, appear-
ing chiefly on the young growth, ete. For vine mildew freely apply
finely ground or sublimed sulphur on the young foliage at the first
sign of the trouble. Apple mildew is treated by removing all dis-
torted twigs at pruning.

Leaf-Spotting, Puncturing or Deforming Fungi.—These classes
are usually distinguishable by the results they produce. The mildew
of the peach produces dense, whitish patches on the leaves and
growing fruit; the curl-leaf fungus of the peach produces swellings
and contortions of the leaf; the scab of the apple and pear produces
first a smoky appearance on the leaf and afterwards causes black
scabby patches on the fruit and on the young twigs; the slot-hole
fungus of the apricot, plum, cherry, and almond cuts roundish holes
in the leaves as though a shotgun had been discharged through the
foliage, and then, in the case of the apricot, produces roundish, dark
red pustules on the fruit; the brown rot which attacks both twigs
and fruit of apricots, prune, blackberry, ete., produces eruptions
on plums and peaches; the rust fungi of the under sides of the
leaves, first of a yellowish or orange color, changing to dark brown
or black, and causing the leaf to fall. These fungi are only slightly,
if at all, checked by the dry sulphur treatment, and are best sub-
dued by the use of the Bordeaux mixture as follows:

Bluestone, 16 pounds; quicklime, 20 pounds; water, 200 gallons.

Dissolve the bluestone and slake the lime in separate vats. Thoroughly
mix the dissolved bluestone with one-half the water, and the slaked lime
with the other half. Run the two mixtures together in a single stream into
the spray tank through a fine screen. For convenience the mixing vats
may be placed on an elevated platform, and the two parts mixed as they
are flowing into the spray tank. The milk of lime should be continuously
stirred during the mixing.

This is safe to use on foliage. In the case of the peach blight,
which is an invasion of the young bark by the shot-hole fungus, an
autumn spraying is imperative to protect the dormant twigs. In
spraying for apple and pear scab, the addition of five pounds of
lead arsenate to each one hundred gallons of the Bordeaux Mixture

BLIGHTS AND FUNGI ON FRUITS 477

makes the application answer also for the codlin moth, as described
in the preceding chapter.

The lime, salt and sulphur mixture, as already prescribed for
scale insects in the preceding chapter, is an active fungicide for
winter use. It is a satisfactory curl-leaf preventive when used just
before the buds open.

Toadstool Destruction.—Trees are often destroyed through in-
vasion by toadstool fungi from the decaying roots or wood with
which their roots come in contact. Stone fruits are most suscep-
tible to this trouble, the cherry being least affected. Young apples
are sometimes attacked, but mature trees resist it. Pears and figs
are also largely resistant.

Moss, Lichens, etc., on the Bark.— All trees should be assisted
to maintain clean, healthy bark. This is accomplished by the use
of the lime, salt and sulphur mixture already prescribed for scale
insects. It can also be done by winter spraying with caustic soda
or potash, one pound to ten gallons of water. Hard hitting with
power sprayer is necessary.

Blights and Decays.—There are several blights which are trace-
able to bacteria, parasitic growths which are not discernible as
are the fungi, and not usually amenable to spray treatment, be-
cause they exist wholly within the tissues of the plant and are not
reached by applications. The blights of the pear, the black heart
of the apricot; the olive tuberculosis, ete., are instances. Cutting
back to healthy wood (with tools dipped after each cut in corro-
sive sublimate, one part to one thousand parts of water), and burn-
ing all removed parts, is the best treatment which can at present
be prescribed. |

The walnut blight is caused by a bacterium, and has so far re-
sisted treatment. The disease appears on the nuts, generally worst
at the blossom end and usually first seen there early in the season;
later the spots run together and encompass considerable areas of
the surface, and the nut is transformed into a hateful black mass
and is utterly destroyed. The disease also affects the leaves and
young wood, but does not attack the old wood and the roots as the
pear blight does. It is therefore less serious, though it sometimes
considerably reduces the crop. The recourse seems to be toward
resistant varieties, as stated in the chapter on the walnut.

DISEASES NOT TRACEABLE TO PARASITIC GROWTHS

Sour Sap.—tThere is a fermentation of the sap, quite noticeable
by its odor, which may be found in all parts of the tree, from the
root to the topmost twigs; sometimes in one part and not in an-
other. Sour sap in the root is generally due to standing water
in the soil, and the remedy is drainage. Trees thus affected make
an effort to grow and then the young growth shrivels. Severe
eutting back of the top to reduce the evaporation until the roots
ean restore their feeding fibers is the only treatment of the tree,

478 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

and its success depends upon the extent of the root injury. Sour
sap may also be caused in the branches by the occurrence of frost
after the sap flow has actually started. Cutting back the diseased
parts, aS soon as discovered, to sound wood, is the proper treat-
ment.

Die-Back.—Dying back of twigs or branches may occur without
parasitic invasion through root weakness or partial failure. It
may be due to standing water or to lack of soil moisture, either of
which will destroy the root-hairs and bring the tree into distress.
The treatment is cutting back to sound wood and correcting the
soil conditions, either by irrigation or drainage, as one or the other
may be needed.

Gummosis.—Gumming is not always to be considered in itself
a disease, but rather an indication of conditions unfavorable to the
thrifty growth of the tree. It has been usually found by investi-
gation that trees in perfect condition of health, with the moisture
just enough and not excessive, are not troubled with gumming;
but there are cases in which this statement does not wholly apply.
Prof. H. S. Fawcett has demonstrated that in some cases it is com-
municable because of a fungus cause. Full accounts of this may
be had in University publications.

When there is an outbreak of gum where it can be treated it is
desirable to cleanly remove all the unhealthy bark—cutting clean
to sound bark and covering the wound with Bordeaux paste
prepared as follows:

One pound of bluestone dissolved in 1 gallon of water in a wooden or
earthen vessel by hanging it in the top in a sack. Two pounds of un-
slaked lime, slaked in about one-half gallon of water. Stir together
when cool, making a light blue mixture about the consistency of white-
wash. Apply with a brush. This may also be applied to healthy bark as a
preventive against new infections.

Root Knots.—These are excrescences upon the roots or at the
reot crown of various trees and of grape-vines. Some of the knots
have been studied and the cause demonstrated to be a fungus and
the disease infectious. If the knot has not increased in size suf-
ficiently to seriously interfere with the growth of the tree it can
be smoothly removed, the wound treated with the Bordeaux paste,
and the knot will not reappear at the same place. It depends upon
the condition of the tree whether it is worth while to remove
the knots or not. If the tree has the start of the knot, it will be
helped by removal; if the knot has the start of the tree so that it
it unthrifty, there is small chance of reinvigorating it. This is
apparently true, both with young and old trees. Old trees are
sometimes badly knotted and still productive and profitable.

CHAPTER XLIII

SUPPRESSION OF INJURIOUS ANIMALS AND BIRDS

The beasts of the field and the fowls of the air are sometimes
such grievous trespassers upon the fruit plantation that protection
has to be sought against them. The animals which figure in this
evil work are mainly species of rodentia, some of them burrowers;
as, for example, the ground-squirrel and gopher; others, surface
dwellers, like the hare or jackass rabbit. Occasionally there is in-
jury done by deer in the orchard and vineyard, and coons in the
melon patch, but these larger animals may usually be left to the
hunters and dogs.

RABBITS

Though there are three species prevalent, none are burrowers.
This fact has led fo united efforts at their suppression by driving
them with mounted horsemen, from a wide stretch of country into
a narrow, fenced enclosure, where they are killed with clubs. Dur-
ing the last few years tens of thousands have been killed in this
way, and comparatively few are now found in the localities where
the method has been adopted. Still, however, there are plenty at
large to vex the planter, and he must protect himself against them.

Rabbit Fences.—The surest protection against rabbits is a fence
which prevents their entrance, and many miles of such fence have
been built in this State. Several styles prevail. The ordinary
board fence, with the boards running horizontally, is made rabbit-
proof by placing the lower boards close together, with openings of
but about two inches between them. A barbed wire, with barbs
about two and one-half inches apart, can be used to advantage by
running it along at or a little below the surface of the ground to
prevent scratching under.

The cost of board fences has led to the use of barbed wire and
woven wire fencing, the styles of which can be seen in all fruit-
erowing sections.

Smears Distasteful to Rabbits—Where the expense of a fence
can not be assumed, measurable protection can be had by sprinkling
the leaves or smearing the stems of plants with substances distaste-
ful to the animals, which are quite dainty in this respect. Com-
mercial aloes, one pound to four gallons of water, both sprinkled
on leaves and painted on the bark, give a bitter taste, which repels
rabbits. A tea made of steeping quassia chips is said to produce
the same effect. Rancid grease, bacon rind, liquid manure, pu-
trescent flesh or blood, have all been used as a daub for tree
trunks, and have been approved.

480 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM.

Rabbit Poison.—Pieces of watermelon rind, cantaloupe, or other
vegetable of which they are very fond, may be poisoned with strych-
nine, and then scattered along trails used by the rabbits. They
will not touch the bark as long as they can find this bait, and one
meal is effective, for the rabbit never gets far away from it.

Another preparation is half a teaspoonful of powdered strych-
nine, two teaspoonfuls of fine salt, and four of granulated sugar.
Put all in a tin box and shake well. Pour in small heaps on a board.
It hardens into a solid mass. They lick it for the salt, and the
sugar disguises the poison, which kills great numbers.

SQUIRRELS AND GOPHERS

There is in operation a forced system of destroying ground
squirrels under a special law being administered by the county horti-
cultural commissioners, and all details can be had from such officers
or from the State Directors of Agriculture at Sacramento. Full
details of the life histories of ground squirrels and gophers can be
had by applying to the University Experiment Station at Berkeley
for Circular 181 and Bulletins 281 and 302. These publications de-
scribe methods of killing by fumigation, trapping and poisoning
which will enable any energetic fruit growers to overcome these
pests.

DESTRUCTIVE BIRDS

Fruit growers generally appreciate the value of insectiverous
birds, but there are feathered pests which do such ruinous work
in disbudding the trees in springtime and in destroying the
ripe fruit that protective measures have to be adopted against
them. The so-called ‘‘California linnet,’’ which is not a linnet,
but a finch (Carpodacus frontalis), a persistent destroyer of buds,
and the English sparrow, infamous the world over, are probably
the most grievous pests, though there are other destructive birds,
including the beautiful California quail, which is protected by law,
and yet must be destroyed in some parts of the State or the grape
crop must be abandoned.

For the killing of the smaller birds poison is usually employed,
and it is best administered in, water. Poisoned water made of
one-eighth ounce of strychnine to three gallons of water and placed
in shallow tin pans in the trees, has been widely approved. Cutting
oranges or other fruits available at-the time in halves, spreading
strychnine over the cut surface and impaling the half oranges on
twigs high up in the apricot trees, has destroyed hundreds of lin-
nets. Some advocate the use of the shotgun, No. 30 caliber, with
a small charge of good powder and No. 10 shot. As many as five
hundred linnets have been killed in two days. The advantage of
this plan is that one kills linnets and not other birds, while poison
kills both friends and foes.

CHAPTER XLIV
PROTECTION FROM WIND AND FROSTS

Though the climate of California renders unnecessary the pro-
tection against rigorous weather which fruit growers in some other
parts of the world have to provide, there is often advantage in
securing shelter from winds and protection from late frosts.

The general subject of forest planting in California and of the
effect of preservation and extension of our forest area upon our
fruit industries has received the attention of our best-informed
growers. The planting of shelter belts at intervals across our broad
valleys at right angles to the course of prevailing or most violent
winds has also been urged with great force. These greater enter-
prises and projects are beyond the scope of this treatise. It is
rather concerning the planting of trees to shelter individual pos-
sessions that a few suggestions will be offered.

‘It has been already remarked that on the immediate coast the
successful growth of fruit will sometimes be wholly dependent upon
proper shelter from prevailing winds, and in regions farther from
the ocean the topography may induce strong currents of air which
will illy affect trees and vines. In all such places the fruit grower
should plant wind-breaks, and will find himself well repaid for the
ground they occupy, by the successful production on the protected
area.

In the interior valleys there is also need of shelter from occa-
sional high winds which may visit the orchards either in summer
or winter, and prove destructive both to trees and fruit. In some
cases long lines of the sheltering trees have been cut down because
they affected the fruiting of orchard trees planted too near them,
and afterwards the losses through lack of protection were far
greater than would have been incurred by retaining them.

What Kind of Trees to Plant.—This is a question concerning
which there is much to be learned. Data are accumulating in the
erowth of trees planted to test their suitability, and the planter
will find pertinent suggestion in observation of the behavior of
trees already growing in his region in public parks or in private
dooryards, as well as in existing shelter belts around fruit planta-
tions. For surety of protection it is safer to use locally tested trees
rather than to indulge in attractive experiments.

Quite a number of the larger-growing deciduous fruit trees are
used to some extent along the interior lines of orchards for the
protection of the inclosure. The fig, the walnut, the chestnut, seed-
ling almonds, and apricots are especially commended for such use.

Growing Trees from Seed.—Much that has been said in Chapter
VIII will be suggestive to one who desires to grow his own shelter
trees from seed. Trees from small seeds are best growh in boxes,

482 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

and in many cases, as with eucalyptus and cypress especially, do
best when put in permanent place when quite small. Whether put
at once in permanent place, or in nursery, the land should be deeply
worked and the young plant well planted and cared for.

Cultivation of Shelter Trees—If one desires rapid growth of
shelter trees, they should be cultivated the first few years as
thoroughly as an orchard. Much disappointment results from
allowing roadside trees to shift for themselves in a hard, dry soil.
With such treatment the root extension is naturally most rapid into
cultivated orchard ground, which is undesirable. Cultivate and
enrich the roadside, and the tree will grow chiefly on the waste
land. At the same time the roadside will be prevented from pro-
ducing vast quantities of weed seed, to be blown over the fence,
and the place will have a name for neatness, which is too rare even
in California.

PROTECTION FROM FROSTS

Much attention has been given during recent years to the pro-
tection of citrus fruits as they approach maturity, and of deciduous
fruits as they are starting on their growth, from occasional fall of
the mercury a few degrees below the freezing point. It has been
shown by ample experience that fruits may escape injury by a tem-
perature of 28 degrees if the ground surface is wet and the ex-
posure be but of short duration. Fruit has, therefore, been saved
by irrigation, while that over dry ground has been nipped by the
same temperature. About the same result has been secured by
checking radiation of heat by covering the orchard or vineyard
with a cloud of smoke. Both these protective measures fail when
the temperature falls a few degrees below 28 degrees or when such
freezing temperature is continued for several hours.

During recent years much progress has been made in preventing
frost by numerous small fires distributed among the trees to be pro-
tected, and many devices to secure such distributed heat easily and
economically are being enterprisingly promoted by inventors and
manufacturers. Orchard heating appliances are being widely used.
Discussions of results have been made by the experts of the Uni-
versity, Experiment Station, in Experiment Station bulletins, in
the publications of the U. S. Weather Bureau and in the horti-
cultural journals. The subject is too complex to admit of a brief
generalization except to say that, when orchard heating is thor-
oughly and economically done, it is a most profitable investment
and should be studied by all growers.

SUSCEPTIBILITY OF DECIDUOUS FRUITS

The most systematic observations of danger points in deciduous
fruits have been made by Dr. J. C. Whitten and Professor W. L.
Howard in the course of their work at the Missouri Experiment
Station. Both these experts are now connected with the California

PROTECTION FROM FROSTS 483

Experiment Station at Berkeley and the local bearing of their re-
searches may be had from them by any one interested in the subject.
The protection of vineyards and of early-blooming tree fruits such
as almonds and apricots, by orchard heating and smudging devices,
is increasing each year.

PART TEN: MISCELLANEOUS

CHAPTER XLV
UTILIZING FRUIT WASTES

Some progress has recently been attained in the securing of
horticultural by-products from various kinds of fruit wastes. There
has been a considerable product of cream of tartar from the pomace
and lees of the wineries in Central California. In Southern Cali-
fornia citric acid factories have to some extent used lemons rejected
in packing, and some other by-products of citrus fruits are being
secured in considerable quantities. Vinegar from wine and cider
are, of course, made here as everywhere in fruit countries.

There is also a profitable demand for fruit pits, and apricot and
peach pits, which formerly were burned, are now selling profitably.

Comparative value of fruits, and hay, grains, meals, ete.

100 Pounds Fruit Equivalent to Pounds of

oO

* oO o

z = 5 a @

g S S ; co +O

FRESH FRUITS. ih PA AR a PS Sa 0

oo fa ® 3

pey 3s S “4 pey ~ & ios) a
3 a 6 g is 3 Ss 32 8 8 iS
Bo Boog cB) gs Bye aaa
= 2 Oo eT ys$ © FE) EBS SO ees
Apples: <a... cis see a'saiers 34 20 24 15 15 17 16 18 16 13 9 13
OPanes yc cceis snes e 2 «ene 33 19 23 14 14 16 15 A ors 15 12 8 12
IPBAIA ne isctornie sh blake yolens 40 23 30 17 18 20 19 20 19 15 11 15
PWNS Lope ciel wis 6 be ahaxe 50 30 36 22 24 25 24 26 24 20 14 20
Prtinicke ccietcispiers e/eiehs ne 46 27 33 20 22 23 22 24 22 18 13 18
Apricots 2... .2sics- 40 23 29 nly 18 20 19 20 19 15 iut 15
Nectarines ~........- 43 26 30 19 20 22 21 23 21 17 12 17
WIGS Wy stoves sinless Savoie 50 30 37 23 24 26 25 27 25 20 14 20
GTADES vie coe io choise are 50 30 37 23 24 26 25 27 25 20 14 20
Watermelons ........- 22 13 16 10 10 ita a Ma 12 33 b 8 6 8
Nutmeg Melons ..... 19 LE 13 8 9 9 9 10 9 vf 5 i
DRIED FRUITS.

Dried prunes ...-..-- 175 104 125 78 82 88 84 92 84 67 48 68
Dried apricots ......- 194 115 188 86 90 97 93 102 93 74 53 76
Dried peaches .......- 190 113 1385 85 88 95 91 100 91 12 51 74
Dried PEG. sve sas lacnis 186 110 132 83 85 93 89 97 89 rel 50 12
FRAIRIRIG) baie a iehtlslacauskenel sie 216 128 153 97 100 108 108 111 103 82 59 84

The disposition of waste fruit by growers will, however, lie
chiefly in the line of feeding animals unless denatured alcohol
enterprises which are now being exploited should consume it at

profitable prices.

Waste Fruits for Stock Feeding—Refuse fresh fruit of all
kinds, and especially refuse dried fruits, have nutritive value which
is now being systematically secured. A statement of the value of

e

RAISINS FOR HOGS AND HORSES 485

various fruits as compared with various cattle foods has been pre-
pared by Prof. M. C. Jaffa, of the University Experiment Station,
in the adjacent table. The values are given relatively and not in
money values, which are always changing.

The dried fruits naturally rank far above the fresh material as
stock feed. Of the dried fruits represented in the table, raisins
lead in food value; containing one and one-fourth to one and one-
half times the nutritive ingredients of alfalfa and oat hay, re-
spectively ; 100 pounds of the fruit being practically equal to the
same quantity of grain. The reader can compare other fruits in
the same way.

Concerning the feeding of raisins to hogs, the following state-

ments are made: ‘‘With raisins selling at 21%4 cents per pound
they are much cheaper food for hogs than corn or barley. Raisins
give the hog a hard, sweet meat and are much sought after by the
butchers. Care must, however, be exercised in feeding raisins to
hogs, as they are full of sugar, and consequently too rich when fed
alone. They heat the animal up so that the hogs lose flesh and will
kill the little pigs of a farrowing sow. For fall and winter feeding,
pumpkins, citrons and alfalfa are the best feed to give the hogs in
conjunction with the raisins, but in the spring a change is found
very beneficial. . ,

‘“Wine grapes rich in sugar have been cheaply dried on the ground
and used to advantage for hog feed. One grower says that in 19U8
failing to get $6 per ton for his grapes, he dried them and fed them
to hogs. Having more than the hogs required, grapes were fed to
the horses. The horses soon got a taste for them and seemed to
thrive well on the new diet and in a short time became fat and
sleek, while they were being worked as hard as ever, and we con-
tinued to feed them dried grapes for a whole year. It made the
old horses five years younger, both in dooks and in ability to work.
The hogs fattened up so quick that we thought the pork would be
soft and sloppy, but to our surprise, we never had better bacon and
ham than was produced from these grape-fed porkers. It was not
only solid, but sweet and tender.’’

Prune-fed and raisin-fed pork is indeed an accomplished fact in
California. As to the acceptability of the fruit diet to the hog,
what could be more pertinent and more fitting appendix to this
treatise than this little tale? Years ago, Mr. Balaam, of Farmers-
ville, used to have a pet pig that ran under the fig trees near the
house. When the fruit began to drop, he ate figs and rested in the
shade until he finally grew too fat to move about to gather the sweet
morsels. By this time his owner became so much interested as to
carry him his figs regularly three times daily. Gradually he grew
so fat that his eyes closed entirely, but still he ate figs in content-
ment and delight.

PLATE ILLUSTRATIONS

OPPOSITE
PAGE NO.

California homes submerged in a sea of prune blossoms. 3

Ground view of good job of fruit-thinning............... 127
Deep: plewins: in syoune: orchard.o2.)..2552-2 eee 135
Cement ditches and irrigation by check system.......... L71
A good start toward an apple orchard................... 205
Typical aspect of a bearing apricot orchard............. 217
Younes cherry. orchard in 200d) fonmsss. ere oe ee 234
Bearing peach orchard in an irrigated district........... 251
Profuse bearing of vine by long pruning ................ 313
Bearing of the young date palm in California............ 328
The Sevillano olive as grown in Tehama County......... 355
View in bearing orange orchard)... 21): < sis. s ces oo eee 357
Thet Mammoth Blackberry. oe ssn cle cc cle GIAO e e ercieie nuee teens 408
The. Lhoganberry: Sete ieee o, o-oke cel ale area ARO eee ee eieaer oes 442

California sunshine evaporator with accessory buildings. 452

INDEX :

Page | Apricot—continued Page

PNGORNSs COUIMCE 2 js atlas) ame ea. cginicss 40 OLGSEREES at on 2 as ee 217
catty TT OTCHATE..cF. oc cio le'eisie ble ave 133 OnValmondrOOtr ns «cles ee 220
eH UIIVE VES OUUS ee occ te icialeis score bee ibe 34 DUANE Sitar. sis) stauctewe ts) eiviyetelonsarene 221
Waler OL IrPisation:. ..<.0sisceqs ss 192 PUTAUUTAIN SS poteae vais ae ee chet Pia caliednaee Seeroene 221
PA AOR MP CAT irl theless east 404 Shot-holevEum eS vec elesie cuits 224
PEE. TRIG 2 scare tore, eroretesraieas bee ae 430 stocks) and. soils; foro. 2s 219
growing from seed............. 68 table.of VAFICtICSitan co ew enciooete 218
hulling and bleaching.......... 433 (F105 08 G1 Ca es eke aan oe OE Rarer erates 224
ACM LTTRA ETON LO hares ce suena inlet ate 434 We TLO RIES cane ciesdielehckelelsiicits ual elon teyenaee 227
DEOD AL AELONE 1.75.0) on: «coos aveigie ASI AGL VUES! (0. a calor aeracalaheisl etelae 466
PUAN Mc ao Re ee tees «aigcandteie 432 | Atmospheric humidity............ 21
Simations: and SOUS. ...016<.0)6.4 . AST SAO CHEOchcuitlos cike sites sale cocoa 404
WUD eeieate entices chase teers ce a ee eae AQ MB Dna VEINS Sy ue ci aus 6 arate stoi croton: 396
REDIL CULO Sia te ie ances cutters: sisreee aeesens 199, 434 | Barberry, Native...5......6- 22s. 39
ACMIIMATS AN TUTIOUS 3): 60:0 = 0:0) 0 6S sees AT SUES CQEE DOL a watts bedsiis o Svakostshs (anesar ate tetls 39
Apple in! California. .002.. sa. e ss Ai EVE ATMO LE: leesenesalisse felstee se renal ohe se moked 387
UD MIS SCCSISUATM Cis iesisarave tele wileue oo wes 204 | Berries and currants: 2.) ons ue2 2. 407
ELD SR WiOOUL Ysa ircos excels etc eee Ce 468 | Berries, various wild............. 38
MUBVATUONS ae aeons Metered wlohe dee eieke 458 | Birds; poisoning... 6... 2.02.2. 5.1 480
EXPOSURES TOR Geicoak < ats sacle a anes 203) BlackbDernyn, ARHES selecis oy opel elele ener 408
SRAM OTE 25 Si are ie’ saliecetene te oo sloteve le 208 CULV LION sicciok be maleiaiee ert oeete 409
RU GTGd A EUULENL UT aloret orev he. Stele s: Saisie oe eves 207 TY DLIGS Hie pgetake elese ce suleisinueten sien ate 422
HOCATRTCS VEOTU fe :5 Seis ole Seitte goe ss 20M waistan Ges FOL 27. aces «sanicveiage sae nal 409
MMT CRE Wa Re ecceeh ica Stee Mier hee ok siete ie 476 ADT AS AIWEy Ryccsiss sls tere teveele teas wesaaheds 411
PAHS SOTA Nae bye Sipe rosa hs ate tors Anse kiel's, whale 42 VOMSEVILEY LOE i. crime ees ei alesermian ota 411
APAVew CLAD toe sole catdrmels, oo.cte acs 36 propagation .5. isGis css ee 408
plantine) distance: 262% 2.22. 205 jOVebESW hole Ube bron tur can ee ery 410, 412
picking and packing......°.... 209 VT Cle ce ete te hota ort ee ieilane Joie we a TalaceNoueee site 38
DOMINATION). ioe e-ctate Siete he cee eine rAlat WATMOTIOS Rica tetsterel abet nicietserelereue. sien 412
DLODAZATION ae We ae cele eee occas 204 | Blasting for planting............ 94
LUMINES HAAG Saree dete es eles 205 | Bordeaux Mixture ..............- 476
SAMOS STNUE ats telarcvotese eva. Sreievete ADAGE YM CIS epee e vena tevsiolouwacteetagane TollaNalegst 469
BECOUGCLOP) Si detiowietiae cceine eke 203 | Brush, cutting to kill............ 59
seedlings, growing............. 61| Budding, common method........ 71
SPUD DUR SY 22 bags ous icdneta ae coco ents ee 210 ATRIA creed stereo atetane teceies so store) otsboatte ate 72
SHIM POM era rretorc ia loners Ste oy eR add oe 203 OVE OLA ERECSipchotese iene heen 80
SIGFENOUSE. TOP (ca. 62 ve) ae OR We Sa ON ERE Fase ese ia eee ere sanare sate acehel abana 73
Sumimenvand tally tues sae ae 210)| Bude CULLINS “CO! a. cape eyeiale obser) oh 123
EMINTNN S oncicionstetarotlicne Stathers, a ane ee scat: 207 | Buds, dormant. 2 202s ec se < «tem ote 79
varieties, most popular......... AOD [ial Ow OLIV: 2 orc ae nl ohetiorsl unsiotenonaned he 39
WH SM LO MPIC ep rve rersavedere recone hue are ZO Sd HOACTISFEEUTES n. jee. Stelahers cree e skele ferelo sus 40
SWiTEA DET Macectc atei'sPecatcwarsy crore store siete ZION 216 | Canker -wWOnrmisi.:. ci .)s.0% oleic; ea )-t> ol 466
BRAM ELIF ee ch cen duds sense. x ork. soe tone oe #71) Canned frut product... 22-5 450
VATE CLES: etoile tateie wrahe'iobers iniaie ste ane wate ZL 2 NOAM UNATISULY jefe i 1 ole loves <i res 450
PARRA OME eis he lars Roses et pha hao tole ertolvasecenie DL CACC TAO WETS cia pane’ oer « jor aalerey eta a vasterrer ot ste 466
climatic requirements.......... ZAS \ Onan Owe Ayal SOUL sits s)<iec sere oie 93
BIS CASCS Obey vastiaieia(orcrate aetecke tates 226 | Chamisal and chaparral.......... 57
GUSTATICES LOT wideicieinets eee prete eves hele Zod eC nareOa ls MMAR Geicre ares! sie Sallie 58
EVAN tee ase erator ide We seco soja ce cha raraters ADS RCHERIMOY.ETs wile che as lers'ers ©1016) e oteleta's) =) 396
GSDOSHECS TOT a re jonicnieeic)e «wi cya PABCR h Glirai 3 ant aly) Daan See aE a ee Se eRe a 230
STrOWiIne SCCGIIMNES. 67.0 50k see 65 delayed fruitinie OFS... ss <0. «2 231
MLDS ALAIN rine cetare, chan cious akersuoholens uae 225 GISTANCESALOT ue byerot eats senso wie ce 233
ROCAIIBIES TOM si hss Wi ottle > siete ors peor 218 EXPOSUTESVLOM) « 295.0is's sas aieloie 007 oe 232
AIS SLOT: ca yeore te raisretotcnesiote, oie wale 42 AITIOIS CASE imahe diese cesuniele cel ete stuns 237

488

Cherry—continued Page
SAHIN eS Wes. -o6 ve es jevs io nvelancievarers 236
POGALIFICS FOTIA eeie were ete 229
moisture requirements ........ 238
OUGNABCOSHas sais clots br abevelateare eects 229
pests and diseases............. 236
DOMINATION) Seve sare ete aie a emeabty 232
DEUNINE CHO! aorta, haw aiteletae eae 235
seedlings, growing ........... 64
STU S rere Hibs tye leh e ieee 466
SOUS TOM CDC eis Sete a! oslo. claraterare ae 230
STOCKS, LOU sUNRGE hose ce ear cemntole ene 233
Ah C0 Pee ane Stara St meres An PAT PRNE PR SL 37
VATICUICS SS A awe o eratloenie ete 199, 239

CHESENUTE BEBE: iis iieye alae taccuetee 447
SGCGHNES Veinehitsete se) oh. Jeeta 68
ATIATU US te eC etre Ea It ye ARERR ce IC 40

C@hocoror, Chayotae. Uesce settee nets 397

CILTOM NE. san. Chie ic ete ae teas 394

Clearing Tang for fruit... ences 55
POTTS aie as See Feasts devahels elas ersieeisiere 56, 59
TACT hate ad the) ater eMi testi ie aiear orate 55
STUMP SPWLler se esse cycler elase Wolert eters 56, 58
Willy DOMED» cavonrsiehi ties. cf ctekerele 56
tine toscut: TOMI ee eee esate 59

Climate, divisions of California...
of California, characteristics of.9, 18

of California, why mild........ 10, 18
HOOUMIN Ss cxerovs evn Ga aren sa raxeheate teeta 15
MOUNEAITME to as MAAS ee ee 16
IE DASTS Soil os cialstescvel pielisnstelaherore aanacchotets 13
VG Oicrere iw atere ey ale shore 'p lel a lavereredene gee 14
MeLEULGL OE ae eval cjeeiclensiat Seeker chalet eae 23
Cloudiness, east and west........ 21
Coast pests and diseases......... 14
Codlinw moh eis ehioeas alana e 471
Corner to LNG tHe sae cee ee 88
WOVEE CLODSr. so tines seat e ties 133
Cranberries soca ances ee oe aioe 416
iC C0 Ace ey ot RR re eer Pk re 39
Crops between trees or vines..... 133
Cultivation wets Ae eRe wee 130
DMCA isthe ace vara Orlane 132, 141
hillsides soa eis. ee eee 136
MMELHOGS OF eis iaie. o's, fc renee eh aleeieke 134
DUTDOSCSNOL.; sic ee ae heen 130
shallow, results Of. 22826 oHee 131
SUMIMELR A ren siwieus siete ieee 136, 140
to retain moisture............. 130
without: plowine. 25. uio.e se sites 139
(SUIRAM ES ulate mice amarante Liane ae Ruch 417
CULLUTE TOL (os soe Sine ae ste saree 418
POLIONS STOTT sits. ;cherel wepere etre oeiete 417
VaRieties: ‘STOW sot hire ieee ete 418
BVVEUL GL tere cc aras se pul ete ater Racks kelanaiena eee 38
CrurStaravay lee ss) cm ans eens eens 405
Cuttings, fruit trees from........ 67
TEC WOLMIS eiekicin este mete ec) teeta orate 466
MD UES Sa icoray dt cwaiavslen a aiehe Sta charah ae eisai he 325
at the MISSIONS 2 5i!S) ee a eheechaees 325
DEALING \ALSVOL eee eke bie eee 328

bearing in Solano County......

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Dates—continued Page
DIOOMUINE OL G. cee ke eee 328
TAYSESTAUG Se oe acer elecs manner ena 325
PTOML: SEC 3. Yass atiiorsia ete ae 327
PPONIUESUCKETS® Joo boa eee 327
PLOPASAtiON! Ole. aca cee 326
FECUITEMENTS TOL. see eee 326
transplanting’ M.00%s).. «cauteleas 327

DEW DENPY. hi eWies cla ticie a niet reeaeinare 413

Diabroticas) so. s2cs evden eee 471

Die-backao ies. Was aces Deletes 478

DormantsDuds\\ Saha tise eee 79

Drainage desirable .............. 60

Dried fruits (see Fruits) ........ 452
COVETINE | o). eee eee eee 471
euttins sshedss >. ssa eerie 455
EGIPDINS Uk iepe enero] oo eer 457
dryine Moors) deci ed eee 455
grading and cleaning....... 455, 457
Dackine 5 Oe oe cece. tees eetens 457
DEOAGUCT LOR ieee Le eee eee 452

McC srutTUTT S civioucldeletevo eis oie eres 456
SWeAUINS a Sao vo cca a eae: 457
trays TOPs ws os. ce oe seeker 454
0) af 12 ee AO ae ec 471

FIGerDerries:: 25)o'0s was Meson eerie aii

Hvaporated hrwitsy . eek sae eee 464

Evaporator, sunshine ........... 464

Ferjoa, sellowiana, ... 2s + saek eee 398

Fertilization, science of.......... 142
analyses not guide to.......... 146
essential elements 2.256) 228. 145
plant food, “available” ....... 147
Specific <eieCts) |. is culo chew eee 149
Substances) fOr .452262b0.c-eeee 152
MSE OP Cities cust aha ae OM ee eee 154
valuev‘of \Orzanie:. a.- fee eee 157

Fertilizers in California.......... 143
CAMbION aN) USE! OL. t<.5 «me -ne eeeee 156
for trees and vines............. 143
hime Cand: cypsum: i ckieeere 155
methods of applying ........\ 158
Valwerof -SReEGM esis, oa. Sievctetocheme are 157
when necessary .........--ee08- 150
SOUrces\Of Nitrofenas... sewer 152
sources of phosphoric acid..... 152
sources of .potash: os... treme 152
waste. prodtictS forl.i.2 scenes 158

PIS, shoves eheia ve avai dhe. wale eae ete ae 330
DEATINE APEC Ms oo cide ieleisieheeeeoe 329
DUdGin ge 2d ee oee ee 332
CAPTINCGATON O25 ee ele eens ee 336
5 fea 0 ba ES PS kL a te 459
foes. Of 2.2 Hae ae 337
from “Cuttings, o5/45 veces ceo 332
from: SEAS) 3S 5), ON ee 324
STALIN lh cere elele ale ise eects 333
TNISSION ss c, Fuser era eal oes eet ieee 42
planting and pruning... .i 50.5% 335
recions foro. oo Sle ee eee eee 331
Size Of Old: TPECS)s seace ais ste eee 330
SOS LOM eo eh eco a arate tolerates 331

INDEX

Fig—continued Page
WEETHE ELVES: cecch hee aiivecaiotetatere dcvere 199, 338
SRE TUe TOWELS 05) 0) ch vr ai be oy'w, shovels ebave 448
Ne Ciba ree Me Bae aT crac av n’te dante code hare 40
Frosts, protection from.......... 482
Oreo e CULULVALIOND che ik eee ieke oe ks 6 130
Bruin sardens:) early; ic. .s ok. 3 47
Fruit industries, influence of..... 52
Fruit tmdustries, outlook of...... 53
Fruit interest, extent of.......... 5
Fruit products, value of.......... 51
Fruit shipments, eastern........ 50
RUT p MENT TUTTI Shy) Nee eta ace WG Grevese ere 127
IUPUI ITEC ACTEALC ..ics. ajc eid sels 51
BT LUtTEES, (Wall «cian ck bic cielel ss 47, 265
Baan) OPV ATSC eke sie teat elerere cus eke 452
By INS MGOTS Es 12% atele orecalaeieree ale 455
ET UGOTS site, ote ievuns eyes ole Sain: crows erase 457
grafted, first in Califarnia...... 46
PO GAMO SPOR 5 fast cio stay ew otal o aie ere 12
Vaevas: StOCK LOOWs ciciicss os sls. 484
Fruits, commercial varieties...... 199
BMS OCALMONS: LOT. 6s sss ca ccae es 12
BTS AULT S SUOME. 5) s,:s,0).0's; 005) ouaha ai ale ash 42
SPRL SMT CLEL VIG. vase cers cree eatart a eae lone 36
UL Se EUUISSTAM: « ofa's sleidc eidie oseoce eke 45
Fruits used by canners.......... 452
Fruit, soil ingredients of......... 145
Goat mut, OT) JajODAR ws cs eee one 40
Gonseberry, The. 2b sec. weMe oe aee « 418
MET MEEIGG x Olas tars) wie! ai aie) Sow Giga ae Srausand 419
TECUAPEMENTS, OF \s 2/52 o)6.016)5 ois viens 418
TEL Pin 2) ete 420
RAE CTMEE MS Tein satis). a) sv evevsc aru le sharenh ote 38
OTE CS CMU INITS cea ado scvocoMee fe ete 480
GLEE MULE tC Ole. < «5's, «Dears ea dus wales oie 83
RGpMeeR LUNN ire pafane os, cel sak etoceten’ 1G, <csuch cues o Cloite to
RAIN Ove Scion te tens tava te Gio icone 84
OTS sore tia yets evoeic thereon at vone iataut a eee 82
ONCETHE LUGAR AE PARTE CROL OLD Nant Se a ge AD 76
GME ES ie tote Worecin cea 4 evccecsle one 83
AMAT ee CMe a ocala) craig fe ora aet eye bob ae 76
FSI Es oe cules On eet ans ae OP 76
TET YS) C0 TDR gre Neat an a RO 83
ORION Eee USIay Sutin Ara arrete stn Rial earn tute 81
NVAEN NGL i chats Tol cla Ie ev ereieaa ee ais usin 76
VERE LOT etal virebare ane cnacat ute aura te ff
We MEON DANES secrete een Oat a oie 76
eratts. DlantineOUle cu. c we see 76
(Sey OGG IG RIG eer in nut ag 399
Granecanesd: (Olowns onic oma 51, 291
ae Pane, Sts ee aa 298
conditions of ripenine 2) 02.22%): 19
dibbles for planting........... 304
GISCASGS VOT sie Care lai eins 317
(OHASHI) 01 G/a NREL Arar ne Is Sa a a 303
MAStern No Greed on ae eee ule Noes 323
MOM CULCIMIES a. aeiaeleiesecleoeee © 294
EGON AVECTS: 6. Ae eee eG ere 294
BGO SCOGLGl ean uae Meese eh 294
EPOSESINGUTICS © = .)e.o4 a eee 316
SSUUBUINET IS ys-a) io eo eae 299

489

Grape—continued Page
TEVGUS EY eh clacton thon ad eee ioanices 290
leneth of season), o 2. aia ans 292
TUL GS waiis Siete re whole ao Ace 476
AIUTSSTOM: Se eee nies Sele eh rare eae 42, 44
MUMbDEN, PELIACTE kOe a eee 303
Plantine AevICes Nos cette 304
planting in rows..... Ags wbatios Yot ae 303
DROUHCES Ete iee 6 A eevte fea cn 291
POTN OS Sone taeda are Stepan earls eh asian 307
DOUDINS VlOM So ses Aareaeey ek Wee orale 313
Drimine “Shores o,f es ecietone 308
PESUSEAM EMG oy,. cals eects a aah keane enh 302
rooting in nursery............. 298
SAUD UE ir erecaier her oy speretaraketaen hen eh 293
SOUS ALOT ec ie iionessts, | siasdied raneraraerels 292
stakes, twine, etc............... 307
SUICMOTIINE cs e.e ay ba tpaerela aia emer 315
STUD EUUET IVS Sy esata cli se oe alanis 476
SUMMER PLUNINE sci. ur 6 5 lee 310, 315
SUVAALITOE aceeeue) nilare, «atone nsokss erent eae 463
COP DESI Done Wicane oe lever shamreraleiavererets oie
WEOUMSIN AT aiiare peel orale tere ota relent aerate 314
VATICUICS) oeonels nial dye verter sha emeteeeteiaienaae 319
OVAL Cle. St ere he ravctats pale ehetaaet nar hake ne ratte 37
Grape fruit or pomelo............ 384
Grasshoppers, killing............ 468
Growing season, long............ 23
GTA NES recA, ave Niece rel oveeoacereux teen 397
CRUEUTMITOSIS ea Anais eisisncier ois ate terrane 478
Gypsum: uses Obes sade cote ase 145
Hardpan, breaking up.......... 85, 94
Heat, deficient on coast.......... 13
TMPOTtANCC OL. <cicjore eealeele sinters 18
summer, records of............ 19
Heeling in young trees........... 99
Hexagonal planting............ 91, 92
Hillside; sTOWws (OM. bose oe cae 90
use’ of trianzle oni. foc. 3 cen 93
HIGIES Or TEECS gents roca ees anes ale 94, 95
Huckleberries, wild ............. 39
Humidity, atmospheric ......... 21
GEMGIONT OS Heese cams ce ee 24
CASU ANG WESL. nop ie tiste eine ee eters 22
ECXCESSIVIE Coc Sic cote ns eee 24
INSECtS] IMJUTIOWS rs <2 b,c. cies tie cis teers 465
Insects, remedies ..............-- 473
MES PSH SEE AT OTN Lec) 4) youl aos) eyseholl lobia een cesta elie 160
BEAL AWALER iis See ek aera 192
GULCH ESR hs eA Ne Se Nee stance 185
GAIN ALO ANAL ss Lee cia sie cidhee 194
evils of excessive.............. 161
AOI Ee sea a othe atag eek eee 170
POT CUTUISUITUTUS ys aiece tactics eis 164
for G6CIGUOUS LTUItS!s.~ es 6 oe sss 164
Aumepurldin= For jie. ae ek ve8 184
UIST eS eet a derN ate thee tte 176, 189
how MUG icc e 162, 164
IMPLEMENTS LOT oa wees aeiciewele 172
LD OAPUY GAYS ea ci tel oarecncat coaie are ete 48
TAVRAUS TNS he oper tia shaaye exe scalosdvererhecate 175
TMNCHECKSY inate tres bcp eiecela ee alee 170

490 CALIFORNIA FRUITS:

Irrigation—continued Page
IN LULTOWSiess te aye oles 2 rel i Lf festemene Lyi Feeaetal ey
LGVGlIN So TOTS ooh ocean eae 187
locating contour lines ......... 187
measurement of water ....... 190
methods: Of veka Moe eee 170
WUTSELY. vss celeste ee eee ole 69
objections answered .......... 161
OVEDHEAG EK ied See em Manes 185
relation to cultivation ..k<) 166
relation: to rainiall sot sae es 163
relation’ to SOil- 25572 l42- ses os 165
relation: LO“ tNase “io jen bee ae 166
reservoirs, Small ees los. wee 188
TUNDINES “GItGHeES EON - oe sfsie. eee 185
SUPIGIMN SAMO jac satis Sete 193
SULSSESTLONS HOT. tale. aiere trereseveve wielas 192
Summer. oe bse Suk ewan 170, 179 |
taken rom ~Git@hess oc. vec ce 186
Wellsand, PUNIDS MOK tesa tes 190
WITCCISH LOE hoe cscs bee tecmle caster meets 189
when desirable ............ 160, 164
WV TIER er eachersvele create orn cet eer eea ota 168

SUT Wek oarsce ace force aieds Wieinas oieveaclia keene 40

AUIUDe VOL, GCOMMENECE: Vows cere sues 400

PUTIN MEALLTVIG in sie eve saccs te eaers tate) statins 40

SIMITVS POWGS fois citer a tectene oe sheets sai 79

RAT EVATTI DLE iactorcucne coe tebeteoeerelat sts aaetensts 406

laying out land: for fruit: 7.52: 86

MVEA E GS ot i ya anelens tends ere ahanahatabees 467 |

Wermon a TGs ist encs ase siere ences a 387
CUPID went eae weleetshee carer etree 392
DUC IERN ER eit sates peakeceie are fas egeiaiore se 396
plantinecand priming’. .. 2). =. 389
PEODASALION! cs ccelasite co cnet TO Oo
situations and soils for ....... 388
MABLOUIES ics rarest eeacats cava ececerts thw tee 394

THEMOMMDETLIY), fe oieke sae eres tede sarees 40

TCG CATA fanaise tenets lotsvals ws yevaceuere, apse s 467

ERNE YOO \s etic wea ta ocat he Sua eeu ete oh 387

MG ZAN DELL Vian ts sesrca io delesseekeeseeoet 422

MOC Tats LDNE orci io cseis auacore ste chet 400

IVEATUUITC® 5 (toienehorera stale wiecarcisioe ante oe 157

Manurine at’ plantings: 3. P2c1..as 103

Manzanita > DErrieS. tk. cccs.e oye inlets 39

WEA Shack SATs eateeeeaeieie ae ucoiecoke ane 145

NGaSUrine WILE ~. claws ve oieceterererctcnats 88

MTSTOMUSH UD: ysis sca ae tieweiohere baer 404

Melon tr6Cr4 Sik.n ee seis cs eetece em Cee 404

IVIL Wi. oh chcaet ce eee Sin ale Saeed 476

WEN ET's SATII ~ So. racdSinteste wis ace suede oe 190

NESSION? TrUlts. hocaw tore chemi eee 42

Moisture lost by weed growth.... 130
retained by cultivation ....... 128

Morning Glory, killing ......... at

MOSS; -TFOEMOVANES Mi says tes eee 489

IMEI DELI: 4 MENLO Asc oc cl eseteasis te miedo alle 420

Mulching, after planting ........ 105

Mulching as substitute for culti-

MALT O Tei ac ahs orate hehe ee cbaltes oeratnane 142

Neetarie -c, dees qe ts a's an ote 258 }

HOW TO GROW THEM

Nectarine—continued - Page
compared with peach ......... 258
Grieg ye tates sw oes 258, 460
PUTURE ROE, ori teva aiclatos oes eee 260
VATICUIES Estee ve One Cen ee 259

Nitrozen for iruitse..ae eaaeee 152

INUITS OTe se. aca cteceligr over hearer eepeie eee 61
pudding and ‘erattine ..-ce. : 70
classes of nursery stock ...... 79
growing seedlings ............ 63
imported seedlings ........... 67
AVTISATION A 5 sels sche wee eee eee 69
laying out and planting ....... 68
DVUNING WN! | Aste toate rete 78
selection of site for .......... 62
soil; preparation ‘Of sees 63
soil, proper for ......: WG ci 61
trees: ales’ OF 74.22. e eee 80. 81
trees:) @difssine tee See 98
trees; Gisinfectin= 2.2 ees ee 472
trees: “sclectine hones co. seh ete 97
when. “to plant oo comet cee eae 100

Nuts, growing in California ...... 430
growing from seed ........... 66
Wild ac ee a ee Oe 40

O]Hves hs Sed ag ae eee 341
at. Old): MISSIONS” 44. 3 ooo See 43
PudginNe ec cele eons 345
CANN Sy yo ee ey eee 354
climates for eed eee ee 341
FLOM VCULEIMES sic cisicuens sean one 342
from, ‘SCCO esac csiee access oe ene 342
ST ATCHOE a2 Pears eyes okauk eaten ete 346
localities. far ticsce. ce oe 336
oil makine Aw ecite. tance eee 351
OLLI TIIN ES eo core ice earners aie , 34a
preferred varieties ........... 349
TUNE aes ele arc oot Nee 348
DICK MINS oh tes ciaccme, clove Bie tie meee 353
Small (@uthines 0.7 a2. seca ee 337
SOUS LOR os cciveie cua erecamaneta le ele eunvoee 342
EPUMCNCOMS) cnc.cce o ctoustetetalleystaue sisters _ 844
tWis* DOLE ws ses saieasieta eau 469
WW AIG © goss srarcnsis, picuover terete rehome rere eres 40
Varieties 22 cacao 199, 354

Oxvaneey i352 dos caw cee pee 356, 358
all the year from California... 359
buddins and erating... «ce 368
California regions discussed .. 360
conditions for citrus fruits.... 362
GISCASES <i ious 'o ees) bea chane ks 377
distances -f0f %)cn.ccen em eee 368
fFOM .CULINES, os steeeien tee oe 70, 364
from: clay ers! « aics sls siiee choeheetee 364
{TOM SECO) (dyes cael oae eee 364
in Central (California) ...)/cec: 361
in Southern California ....... 361
MISSION sce clkdstakes aeate aia eee 42
NUTSOLY od. etic so. cl suetsrepe als ae: 367
Gutlook igseoe hse eee 363
planting “in vorchard: 23-2 .-. 370

INDEX 491

Orange—continued Page | Pear—continued Page
POEOR UCBs niet noice sce 53, 851, 3538, 355 gathering and ripening ....... 270
POMEL OM aco.a te srere ate coleetelel eee 364 TV EISALIOM fool, cs slehereiens crea aie etek 267
WI NECHIDE EMS A cece cisvejor a¥ebes alley auer a les/ey o'etece oto largest) OM TeeCOrd jiitte as-yet one 261
ripening first at the north..... 361 localities Sion oc. tee peor 262
SECAIINSS Care Oy 2. leeks 369 TITS SEOMM Steers teens euaieas aucune leiehororetaeee 42
situations and soils for ....... 364 OME GUInGe STOCK 6. cctv eats ences 258
superiority of semi-tropical.... 357 POMMATION Neneh. se eke oro eee 271
MEDS TOU AUTNGIINS ee eoacirane’ «saves et oe ale DropaLcavlioOn OL oe; Miao e sce iton 264
MOM S: INGUSTLY? vsiiscijeccwe 356, 363 POTTY oa ahah lotebdia verde tate SS cheat one 266
eH OUIOS 12, 5-ae bok aetete ae sek eles 200, 381 SCeglinegs SrOw AME. Ate ees 64

Orchard land, preparation of.... 85 SLUG ie teay Tye ur crosses the Pe cecal a eke career 466
laying out in squares ......... 88 SOUS fOr tors See als se 264
alternating SGUaATEeS: o's .)s0c. dels 89 storing and ripening ......... 262
equilateral triangles .......... 89 TMNT TS As hi cee Sc icvencrakee mee eee eee 267
measure and. SIGH. 65.6 6 ede ects 87 VALRILCUIOS Wh doysrerescberectoten g Quek cote LOO ZT
PRMCASUTINE - WALE. Dy titdias ind etnies SAP MEAC CAI, pA IOe Naioke bite (eco retatn je 2 cddelenaterens 449
QMIME ITs PLANTING ar ete. 90 | Persimmon, Japanese ........... 400
fame tor PlaNtiNs asics. elses 100 | Persimmon, Virginian .......... 400

Wrest STADE ses les vee be uae So Persimmon’, CULINE i), 2 acre hoae’s 401

SOME GIRV GF or ielale eicscleis eave oLetaeteleawee od | eRenonmenal DELrhyiic nie sce cee © ores 422

SITTIN TIES |, s/5 02 ec c.sid aigucteuwtacs Sec Ntoree AO TN MITATeS \ cas oot Cee ee 152

A OM Pre ais a ee. ao. s Ohare elec ree rae Has i ed cist Kop 2¥ ge a ee RPI Or Piet Sai sete eg 468
erat: DlAMLING ioc seo cb kee ees we Z4GNEPINCAP DLE) Uso liaels sedate wicks eeeecete Sete 402
appLoved LIStS OF) cs alicne se Oak LO OM PAN Gents: svts,s cre chee Coe pon a tee 40
ERATE, Poe) Sins cuarcheteeetesatore arate olaecaloree 252) |Meioneers: plantin= by |. hea on. 46
UEC Aihe, Getersivis ova ee ae ieee 252A PIStachior LNs 2... slsaiecrsiertene tere 449
PAIS CS icere fot hsb e tay Pagiae aug ate core hoon 252 | Planting, conditions favoring .... 85
distance in planting .......... 246 bar Tor! Settin S10 sss See 96
Gonman tL PUGS 4 sess ie eattuere cle 247 cubtine: backwatter) )e..n: 105, 112
EMBETTER SS I ieee Olin tetas aed 2 ead aed 459 GEBLLU OR Ia > Ane eithe etre mete ene 103
Canty, DEATIMNG! cess ook Gaeee wee 242 dissin= wholes: for’ sees ae octets 94
Se AMA LEVEN PENS oh! Sores eustiatove lars oreo etek 25 Lavine OT MOR’ s:.7. hates eaee ene $7, 2389
Prowilile S€ason Of 5... cee~ oe 23 MULCH See « Keele eevee abe niers 104
PELE ACLOMN it sh ohherte ete le ateae inthe 251 OVETALIOMNY OF peloci ce eseraid oc on eieeeteee 101
POGALIGICS WLOT:y ois view .c.che See ere 243 preparine and, tors. . >, 0 ees oe 85
TGS OVAL OF Uaisid cece sia eileen 241 SI CCU aN garcterkias, eo wn 6 die a alerare eeroes 103
TUNG W: pitiet rou acarsca «helene ae 252 PUT ESTO srorciticcgos hc tare chores suns Stee 100
WPS SIONS wavtots Ac Semin eiake clnarelrets 42 triangular tree-setter ......... 96
MUDGEE Ste apo tos carte ale reat se wee 477, 482 WSC OL MIATUUITOy sete aracs ataloes: soe 103
PDCACH JANNONE Ae coe ewe. wee 246 MISE VOL WALTER CaS sca oatsvate aes 102
PIM OMNES GW. yes o <ifierccd sie esas 455 | Plow, layin Off With). ioc. nee 88
PTAA AUTOM etare wise tld Sate wie a corte 245 | Plowing, devices for ............ 132
POUNDS) | Git eae se ah 116, 242, 248 orchard and vineyard ......... 133
renewal by cutting back...... 242 On, MAI SIGeN oes ce si otactaee eect 134
BOGE OLE «wares ace miter co ale tiers 470 touprealke haragpan .hees arc sien 85
SCCHLUMES ba shoe a alncia cieerll a Bane te Ghilp Plums sande prunes, 2 s.es8 eee oe 274
SOMS LOL 6 aire aoe nthe che ore eee 244 California: falses.. 232.625 .o Gieenls 37
BLOCKS wLOEy een be en Mieielens sie ene 246 confusion in names ........... 280
“BLOGG Uo tre" RR ARe ae amrrrs ar hes ae oe PASS PL, definition of a prune ......... 274
Wal RIGLIES i: tcc /.pterctescdateravs chaveretnts 199, 253 GUVIWSR essa aye ate state eae ee 460

PEaniih: -2TOWINS hs cctew esa oie oe eselere 448 PEONY. ENE GOOG ts v5 osc © csvon ears 276

Pear sc.c5% SIN REC ee ne 261 featir it gh okeae-Weme - ep eaPaemey aR Feats a een Gary e 280
Bartlett, why popular ........ 262 in Southern California ........ 275
DTG re Bohecare stand fe veoedabelegsl flees es 265, 268 length -GEWSEASOMN 5450 sc cae Poole ee
characteristics in California .. 261 TOCHIICIOS TOT: & gis \ao aie cise ea rele ne 274
GISCASES sia days Fg dieha dob cee alate ele 261 TUES STOW Goi reel eleve ere tor everclatats «Sead 43
Gistances -fOF fase «os eee eee 259 PMV LO DALAT Sy ies ete sc ucace Sie Gace whale 276
GLIAL 5 at jcconers ein Prete ub suloreivele are 455 LVM RIT aers aula jaw oaltela ein Sie Wewuave ate Ban
CRT Ei SS ens ona neieveiehe efits aloe 265 DOM ACIOM poche cs eeie cateldnes 283, 284
hOrmaAlicald.SOMetetcetw eos aie ee 258 PLOPALAUONY te ashy vie eel Shade eae 275

499 CALIFORNIA FRUITS:
Plums and Prunes—continued Page
DOUDINE EME eek saree Mist e 277
SPOULIMES yaks ove on aoa eee RE 65
stocks: and “soils jost ses ee 275
ERTIES Osa a ohe: sere th seks Joteae Seer 283
VaRIGURGS! Syciate ue iatelelore anes eete 199, 283
70 ieee eRe ae Parr St lea alee snc Sa Sub 36
Plumcote VERE tau keels eee ee 280
Ponmlesranate, “PRE se wiscehse te 43, 402
POMEIO wanes ewe seeee ee ee ere Obes 384
VATIeCUICS sen en Err scan ate 200, 385
Popular fruit varieties .......... 197
POtaASh ie soe oe eine naa eaten 143
Powder for plantine <2 3262.08. 94
Prickly Bear ia cote te cca een 41, 404
PrUNneveunpeys.\. oce e beso ee 456
VI ULELINS Pore here) ave cua anaceh once kescke te 107
DEATINE EVES uss sahie sees ecoleleiln « 117
GCalirornia Style! Aa. Seaemes 110
SPHOCES Olas cians ee ctasheiete te sae aataiate Oats 123
SAtHeTIMNE > DIUSMG Heise low siele s cee 126
influenced by location ........ 107
low, advantages of ....... 108, 109
LOTT SY =5 CA yer ee gee SD 78
prunings as fertilizer’ ..5. 0.5 .. 158
DUT DOSESt OL. Sac ee ke iS 108
LUNES LOT AG os sic wk ata te ais wee 121
HOOISE c-Si ie Selene ein, Stare Wate sn ee aie ie 125
to renew old trees ............ 123
‘i Wase)/ OTM, SECUTINE, . 350%. ke. 115
wounds; “covering =)... ee. cee 126
VNITIUE OI secs are: eh ncahar euetatie eel eobhors wakes hae 288
Gemandy fOr sy Kee ee 288
DEOPAL ALON ee osie eee 288
PUYSUEEPITN SY rater he creieatlees st Skt opus ate 288
SOUS PLOT settee hs veka ichebs es ake eee 289
VU TLE EL ES We notin ercdayapa tater ieereta ioe 289
Oumcunx planting —.).i.0. 6) sae 90
Rabbi wrenGes ae ee ete eee 479
Rabbits, destroying ............. 479
POISONSMUEOT p-asiscsccsveccia Shocaveee le shes 480
SIMECALSRLOME neo Stake ec eae 479
Rainfall, records: Of) sina eae 12
Rainfall or irrigation ........... 163
I RENISH abe cate abate ge Seay woe ee es ye Atk we 402
RASPBERRY, 2 MONE! Ge ik Beceetere 420
DIAGKACAPS) si. .rs.sne close ae a elare gate 422
JOYA G7 6100 (ST SNe pen rien dete se 423
POE UTUATVEN cereale, Sea Eicheia ee seen eo ete 421
VAnIeCties: “POpular: 2. 25k foactoer 422
VVEUN CL ee tain set eas a Patras cisvenn See ee Sree 38
COR SDIGET Vicict sees RKC Ke eRe 468
RROOUBOE Lic, sie, Sl ee is eee 489
ROOL HOLS Vosges es ee aie 478
Russian introduction of fruits.... 45
See et TN Sea eh bee haan MeN ne Mh Co 39
PS lMOM DERI his 6 Scere cia eee ae Reboee 38
SaADOLBS SWMILEIy Ok navecete cies nee see 405
DEAS WINSECUS Ls siiatecsh les tealesdaratecs 469
SGIONS/MCATENGOLS Sisais Wain gtieteeele 73
SCLECEON OL cociuawis dt en eee Stake eee 73

HOW TO GROW THEM

Page

Sea) Bue ie Barats wien dete Merman 40
Seed, growing trees from ....... 65
Seedlings, imported ............ 67
Septuple;: tayin's: Ot sen shoe oe 89
HeErviceBeELry ccs oases pienso 39
Soils for. fruitse sects. aoe eee 25y
BOODE Hide alec Pewee tee ee 33
Blk ald. kee sions nee ee 34
alluvial} sche ees Pie erent ec 31
bed-rock or hard-pan .......... 34
DIaStRE ssa te eee ee 94
characteristics of California .. 26
classification: \Of 00... eeer 28
Clays 5 SE Bs Soe ae eee 33
GEECCLIVE his 66 cee ale eeekelonnereere ae
deserts es Saas hala ee eee B40)
EXAMINATION AOL Wee dictate 35
PLANO + Whee cutie cto dence ae 32
TOAMS © ais Ser certs 28, 29, 32
WI GSAP sa esse Craters nie eoslcietebens Eich 30
Organics Matter quack cs eee 157
DING Ea taie eo oe teeters 29
TOG he FeV OLS ION See eee 32
river. -pottom 2/2. seeks 31
sedimentary or silty ........... 31
shallow) |blastine) cc hisn eee 94
Sour )SapeAickya Besieaisie ser oho 477
SHPIGEL ATE 25. Nwias os ve nok ene 468
Squares; layinesof inl; So. ae 87
Squirrels, Vdestroyine oem 480
Stock, fruit as food for......... 484
Strawberry...) s<+ vacate Shaan econ 424
CATE OR Sree cracker ele teas aoe 427
COHTMUOUS: Deanin'sS Vienncwereies 428
TARVIN OW LOT: to en eee tee ee 425
planting io. F 6s ee Se is oe ee 427
PrOPASAarion: «. c.\ Lhe ole seine ete 425
Situations. and (soils. ..55. see 424
varieties, popular ......... 200, 428
EUV o | ake t i bivict siotaro a atemieieke mice eres 38
Strawberry. ee: jasecia sates ieee 403
SUMMer PRUMINS. 2 sy cctiemaavercuare a 120
Sunburn, protection from ....... 105
Sunlight, value of direct ........ 20
Sunshine, evaporating .......... 452
TECOLAS:: OL sysicicve agen cia 21
Temperature, lowest ............ 18
records SOb Ambser vaso 18
Thinmine «frit ol Son. 5 deve etoveeeee 127
PETA P Sc asso eis idles iare alee aloe eecetekeeaate 467
Tomato; Viree i vjsisc ae ces ae 406
TOV OW ys cleics josie se vehssic etn arenes ine eae 40
Trees, activity and rest of....... Aly;
heelin & sii joss Ses See aaa 99
selecting. 2v3a 8 ask > oreo 97
Tre@-SELLENS +: . Sin ieic.sebsesie es eee 96
Triangle for laying out ......... 92
Ra bia Fe )hen it tab 7 Pear PR enemies, WIG 41
Tussock moth soos ses eteeee 466
Varieties, chiefly planted ....... 197

INDEX

NTE HOP DELS Nerst Pasl spies s Geis eee .s 468

WATE SIELLOT! (fo, ccs rai etayecs sui’ ('S) 36 asievere 61

Vineyard—see Grape

BVA ENELE. DLACH | nce ts sve creo scsiwsete.e 40

Went SVS VST io ieee la eevee ahere 436
pacteriosis or blight, s.5- 2...) 477
PUCCINI iA cede ore lerehe tang ape rece elie teceers 444
TALES SOTTS OL: We ter che eos stehoie nie cartel sae 443
ROUTE TIVE NS cp oyarese Sisapacstene eipicheieelevei ols 438
culture and Soils. ts lncc sass 437
gathering and drying ......... 443
PETER ILE WO) uae IOS Ser ae cee Mets KARE 439
growing seedlings ............ 68
FUNG hatches. status systeccus: aim iaie) set fo 51, 436
propagation and planting...437, 441
PDN CUNT TEE rshare wiley o fais cepesastey wonekeeers ecars 442
SIT TL Tie SAA eon BPRS, SCRA MEISE MITE 437
MUTE LLCS Ma, cvoreievereleheteio lee siece se 200, 444

493

Walnut—continued Page
WILLE satya ar evee rata areteniy & bre talent ne netetaleaee 40
Water measurements ........... 190
Wier ALD IIA etch eke orb oig Sea eae rakes 75
Weed killing by cultivation...... 141
Weeds, evaporation by ......... 132
Weir measurement ............. 192
What, fruitsto plants ts. shee. 198
Whitewash against sunburn . 105
Whitewash to delay bloom ...... 501
Wild fruits of California ....... 36
IWAN brealesy OS Seu Maher coker eh mae 481
Winter-killing unknown ........ 18
Ware, MeCaASUTINE of auiicco. cece ee 87
Woolly “aphis sis 3 55 lela sixes 468
Woiundssycoverine, co o~. «cmon. 126
Yellow jackets, killing ......... 472

California Vegetables

GARDEN AND FIELD

A MANUAL OF PRACTICE WITH AND WITHOUT IRRIGATION
By EDWARD J. WICKSON.

CONTENTS

Chapter. Chapter. ‘
I. Vegetable Growing in California. b.O.4F (Sune
XXI. Cucumber.

II. Farmers’ Gardens in California.

JII. California Climate as Related to XXII. Egg Plant.

Vegetable Growing. XXIII. Lettuce.
IV. Vegetable Soils of California. XXIV. Melons.
XXV. Onion Family.

V. Garden Irrigation.

VI. Garden Drainage in California.
VEE. Cultivation.
VIII. Fertilization.

XXXVI. Peas.
XXVII. Peppers.
XXVIII. Potatoes.

IX. Garden Location and Arrange- XXIX. Radishes. -
ment. XXX. Rhubarb.
X. The Planting Season. XXXI. Spinach.
XI. Propagation. XXXII. Sauashes.
XII. Asparagus, XXXIII. Tomato.
XIII. Artichokes. XXXIV. Turnip.
XIV. Beans. XXXV. Vegetable Sundries.
XV. Beet. XXXVI. Vegetables for Canning
XVI. Cabbage Family. and Drying.
XVII. Carrot, Parsnip and Salsify. XXXVII. Seed Growing In California.
XXXVIII. Garden Protection.

XVIII. Celery.

XIX. Chicory. XXXIX. Weeds in California.

Fourth Edition—Revised and Extended
Handsomely Illustrated. Cloth Bound

COMMENDATION OF ‘‘CALIFORNIA VEGETABLES”

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Not only interesting but valuable to every one in this State who cultivates ever so
small a lot of ground. The author is eminently qualified for the work which he has just
completed.—San Francisco Bulletin.

It treats of the proper culture of all leading vegetables in California. It is full of
It is so clear that whoever uses it as a guide book can not

information and instruction.
The work is freely illustrated and handsomely bound.—

go astray in vegetable culture.
Sacramento Record-Union.
Covers every part of the State in technical

Petaluma Courier.
It treats of every feature of vegetable production in plain, common-sense terms, and

gives reasons for its assertions—Pomona Times.

analysis and physical demonstration.—

Price $2.00, Postpaid Anywhere
Address, PACIFIC RURAL PRESS, Publishers SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.

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This, the latest work of the author, consists of 1000 of the most
important questions on every subject that have perplexed the farm-
er during the last few years, and which have been submitted to the
editor. In this book, the problem appears with its solution by Prof.
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The answers to these questions are of vital importance to every
farmer, no matter in what branch of farming he is engaged and the
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interests him without delay.

The departments of the book consist of the most important prob-
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Live Stock and Dairy, Diseases of Animals, Feeding Farm Animals,
Poultry-keeping and Pests and Diseases of Plants.

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Sacramento Valley Irrigated Land Co., himself the author of books on potato growing and
swine, contains the kind of endorsements that our new book, ‘‘Second Thousand Answered
Questions in California Agriculture,’ is receiving.
I am delighted with your new book. It is a most valuable addition to Cali-
fornia’s agricultural literature and should be in the hands of every farmer in the
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tion, that would be effected if every new settler in California could have this book
and ‘California Fruits’? and ‘‘California Vegetables” before he buys or settles on a
California farm. Congratulations and best wishes. Sincerely.
Ww. S. GUILFORD

‘“SECOND THOUSAND ANSWERED QUESTIONS IN CALI-
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is undoubtedly the best reference book that has ever been published, and
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Contains 256 Pages. Handsomely bound in cloth.
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