1Y i? rastagy ani CREA OAs sae riage Mop PHOT Toe IN asta Fon zee ‘ oranataniny A: ET eeepc oe | epee Se 34 i RA aes NED Sa ets iat i , = > @) C HARVARD UNIVERSITY ud LIBRARY OF THE Museum of Comparative Zoology i ~ea 5 . ie: | “sil } cat a a Aen ‘ 4 I an i i 5 7 Fé, 7 ea iy Pe MAY ‘i vf A C14 i 7 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Volume 89 1975 THE OTTAWA FIELD-NATURALISTS’ CLUB OTTAWA CANADA Information Concerning Content of Articles The Canadian Field-Naturalist is a medium for publication of research papers in all fields of natural history. If possible, major articles should be illustrated. Notes Short notes on natural history and related topics written by naturalists and scientists are welcome. Range extensions, interesting behavior, pollution data, and other kinds of natural history observa- tions may be offered. It is hoped, however, that naturalists will also support local natural history publications. Letters Letters commenting on items appearing in this journal or on any developments or current events affecting natural history and environmental values are welcome. These should be brief, clear, perti- nent, and of interest to a wide audience. The Canadian Field-Naturalist News and Comment Informed naturalists, biologists, and others are invited to present documented narratives and com- mentaries upon current scientific and political events that affect Canadian natural history and the environment. Contributions should be as short as possible and to the point. Book Reviews Normally, only solicited reviews are published. Biologists and naturalists, however, are invited to submit lists of titles (complete with pertinent in- formation regarding authors, publisher, date of publication, illustrations, number of pages and price) for listing under “New Titles.” Special Items As The Canadian Field-Naturalist has a flexible publication policy, items not covered in the tra- ditional sections can be given a special place provided they are judged suitable. Reviewing Policy of The Canadian Field-Naturalist Manuscripts submitted to The Canadian Field- Naturalist are normally sent to an Associate Editor and at least one other reviewer. If their comments concerning the scientific merit and suitability of the manuscript for publication are widely diver- gent or if an original referee’s field of competence does not cover the entire contents of the manu- script, one or two additional referees are asked to review it. Referees are requested to complete their reviews within three weeks or to return the manu- script immediately and suggest an alternate re- viewer. Reviews offering a general appraisal of the manuscript followed by specific comments and recommendations for revision are most useful to the Editor and author. Most manuscripts with a content suitable for The Canadian Field-Naturalist must undergo re- vision — sometimes extensive revision. After re- submission, manuscripts that required major revision are usually returned to the original referees for re-evaluation. Some manuscripts must be rejected if they are scientifically un- sound, unimportant (i.e. they do not contribute any worthwhile information), or are otherwise unsuitable for publication. The Editor makes the final decision on whether a manuscript is accept- able for publication and in so doing aims to main- tain the scientific quality and overall high stan- dards of the journal. Vf The CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Published by THE OTTAWA FIELD-NATURALISTS’ CLUB, Ottawa, Canada WIUS. COMP. ZOOL LIRRARY Volume 89, Number 1 January-March 1975 The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club FOUNDED IN 1879 Patrons Their Excellencies the Governor General and Madame Jules Léger The objectives of this Club shall be to promote the appreciation, preservation and conservation of Canada’s natural heritage; to encourage investigation and publish the results of research in all fields of natural history and to diffuse information on these fields as widely as possible; to support and co-operate with organizations engaged in preserving, maintaining or restoring environments of high quality for living things. Members of Council* President: Ewen C. D. Todd W. J. Cody Allan H. Reddoch Vice President: Roger A. Foxall eee ye shee Recording Secretary: A. J. Erskine J. H. Ginns Lorraine C. Smith W. Grimm C. G. van Zyll de Jong Corresponding Secretary: J. Donald Lafontaine Vi. Humphreys G. J. Wasteneys Mpeaediers Cu GGrndh : H. N. MacKenzie Presidents of the SO pee. Aileen Merriam Affiliated Societies P. J. Narraway *This Council is in office until the Annual Business Meeting on 20 January 1975. Correspondence: Address to The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club, Box 3264, Postal Station C, Ottawa, Canada K1Y 4J5 The Canadian Field-Naturalist The Canadian Field-Naturalist is published quarterly by The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club with the as- sistance of contributions from the National Research Council of Canada and The Canadian National Sports- men’s Show. Opinions and ideas expressed in this journal are private and do not necessarily reflect those of The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club or any other agency. Editor: Lorraine C: Smith Assistant to the Editor: Donald A. Smith Book Review Editor: Anne Innis Dagg Associate Editors C. D. Bird W. Earl Godfrey W. O. Pruitt, Jr. E. L. Bousfield Charles Jonkel John S. Rowe Francis R. Cook J. Anthony Keith Stephen M. Smith A. J. Erskine G. Herbert Lawler Robert E. Wrigley Copy Editor: Marilyn D. Dadswell Business Manager: W. J. Cody Production Manager: J. E. Dafoe Box 3264, Postal Station C Chairman, Publications Committee: C. G. Gruchy Ottawa, Canada K1Y 4J5 Subscriptions and Membership Subscription rates for individuals are $7.00 per calendar year. Libraries and other institutions may subscribe at the rate of $12.00 per year (volume). The annual membership fee of $7.00 includes club publications. Subscriptions, applications for membership, notices of changes of address, and undeliverable copies should be mailed to: The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club, Box 3264, Postal Station C, Ottawa, Canada K1Y 4J5. Back Numbers Most back numbers of this journal and its predecessors, Transactions of The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club, 1879-1886, and The Ottawa Naturalist, 1887-1919, may be purchased from the Business Manager. All material intended for publication should be addressed to the Editor: Dr. Lorraine C. Smith, Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6— Cover Photograph: The Minnedosa pothole country where agriculture and duck nestings are often in opposi- tion. Photograph supplied by Erik K. Fritzell. See article on page 21. The Canadian Field-Naturalist VOLUME 89, NUMBER1 — | JANUARY-MARCH 1975 Looking Ahead For many years The Canadian Field-Naturalist has been internationally recognized as an important national natural history publication and those of us currently responsible for it are dedicated to maintaining its position as a first-class scientific journal. We intend to continue publishing The Canadian Field-Naturalist to communicate new information to scientists and naturalists. The journal serves as an outlet not only for the work of scientists but also for that of amateur naturalists, people who have significant contributions to make to our understanding of many aspects of natural history. At the beginning of 1975, our 96th year of publication, with the change to a new printer and greatly increased printing costs because of inflation, it is essential to evaluate some aspects of the financial support of the journal, in particular with respect to its relation with its publisher, The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club. Although The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club has several important objectives, the most significant and lasting of the many contributions that the club has made to society is the publication of The Canadian Field-Naturalist. Because, unfortunately, this fact has not always been clear to all local members of the club, from time to time controversies have arisen regarding the cost of publishing the journal relative to other uses of the club’s funds. The two opposite positions are that publication of the journal is draining the club’s financial resources excessively, and on the other hand, that the journal is financially straitened by subsidizing the club’s other programs. What the controversy resolves into is the question “What proportion of our approximately 1300 members maintain their association with The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club entirely or mainly because they wish to receive (that is, subscribe to) The Canadian Field- Naturalist, in contrast to belonging in order to take part in or support the club’s other activities?” In the past these discussions have been most unsatisfying and unscientific; although everyone had an answer, no one had any facts. The Publications Committee, therefore, decided to obtain some facts. Thus a questionnaire initiated by the committee formed part of the club’s membership renewal form for 1974. Unfortunately, because of the considerable delay before the question- naire was mailed, and the method used to circulate it, those members who had already paid their 1974 membership fees as well as all our Life and Honorary Members — perhaps 200 to 300 in all—did not receive the questionnaire —a fact we did not discover until it was too late to remedy it. Although the questionnaire was carefully thought out so that it would be clear and straight- forward, the printed version was different in some respects from that prepared by the committee. Part of the questionnaire received by the membership was unclear and one key sentence was omitted. One other unfortunate thing occurred. The Publications Committee received only the questionnaire portion of the returned renewal notices; all names and addresses had been removed. Thus although the anonymity of the respondents is assured, we can only say we are sorry to those who expected to hear from the club either because they offered their services, made suggestions, or asked questions. We had hoped to analyze the responses on a geographic basis (for instance to compare the replies from those in the Ottawa area, i.e. local members, with those from elsewhere). We know that many local members are club members in the full sense, but we also know that there are people in the Ottawa area who are members of the club only to receive The Canadian Field-Naturalist. Likewise we know that many non-local members 1 22 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 are only ‘subscribers’ to the journal, while there are some from outside the Ottawa area who enjoy being members of the club. For the time being, however, the relative numbers in these categories are unknown. Considerable useful information was provided by the 848 questionnaires returned; only 30 of these did not contain replies to our questions. The first asked members to mark all their reasons for being members of The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club and also to indicate their major reason. The answers to the first question follow. All reasons Major reason To attend the excursions and lectures of the club 43% 11% To serve on Council or club committees 4% 1% To receive Trail & Landscape 51% 10% To receive The Canadian Field-Naturalist 15% 74% * To support other club activities 19% 4% * For 61% of the persons responding to this question, The Canadian Field-Naturalist was the only reason for their membership in the club. The second series of questions was preceded by the statement that during the past two years 40% of all membership fees collected by The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club have been allocated to The Canadian Field-Naturalist and 60% to other club activities including Trail & Landscape. The sentence that originally followed and which might well have influenced the replies had it been present was omitted; this sentence stated that funds from subscriptions to The Canadian Field-Naturalist (currently available only to institutions and libraries) and to Trail & Landscape go directly to the publications. The questions and replies follow. Do you think subscriptions to The Canadian Field-Naturalist should be available to individuals without club membership? Yes 58%; No 24%. Do you think subscriptions to Trail & Landscape should be available to individuals without club. membership? Yes 33%; No 41%. Do you think fee schedules for club membership should be based on publications received by members? (At the present time Trail & Landscape is sent only to Ottawa area members, but is . available to other members who request it.) Yes 50%; No 27%. Comments on the questionnaire showed a strong concern for The Canadian Field-Nat- uralist. Several people who were not primarily interested in the journal understood its relevance and importance. The anonymous comment that perhaps best supports our own view was, “I am grateful to the club for maintaining what I regard as a national journal but I have only a slight interest in other club activities. I belong to clubs where I live. To have my name on your list inflates your real membership as defined as those with a definite interest in the club. I think it more realistic to sell me the journal and keep the club for those with an interest in the Ottawa area.” To the Publications Committee the opinions of the membership were unequivocal; most people are members because of The Canadian Field-Naturalist. Because only 40% of their membership fees are credited to the journal, these members are clearly subsidizing other club activities. In view of these quantitative results and the many comments on the questionnaires, the committee made two recommendations to improve the current inequitably low financial position of The Canadian Field-Naturalist. The first, to offer subscriptions to individuals at the same rate as membership in the club, was passed at the meeting of the Council of The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club on 18 November 1974. Although it was too late for this forward step to be implemented for those renewing their memberships in the club for 1975, 1975 LOOKING AHEAD 3 we hope that a mechanism will be put into motion to advertise and accept subscriptions from new people during 1975. Present club members will be able, if they wish, to become subscribers for 1976, so that all their fees will then be available to publish the journal. The second recom- mendation, for a more equitable split of current membership fees (i.e., at least 60% should go to the journal) was to be directed to the Finance Committee in time for incorporation into the club’s budget for 1975. Both these measures are consistent with the results of the questionnaire and should provide the extra funds to allow the journal to cope with the inflated publication costs ahead. Other questions that have arisen lately include, “Is The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club still the most appropriate publisher for The Canadian Field-Naturalist?” and “Could The Canadian Field-Naturalist survive if it separated from the club and had to stand on its own?” On 19 Febru- ary 1973 Anne Hanes, Editor of Trail & Landscape, wrote to the Council, “The Canadian Field- ‘Naturalist . . . has become a business. The club, however, as a local natural history society is not a business, and should not be treated as one. A local natural history society devoted to resolving local problems and fulfilling local needs is vitally needed; The Canadian Field-Nat- uralist is performing another major function. . . . The Canadian Field-Naturalist staff can’t make major changes in content, format or budget, however, without consulting the Council.” Further- more she felt that the club and the journal were “both suffering by the necessity to remain together.” Following Anne’s letter, the interrelations of the club and the journal were debated in Council. A statement from A. J. Erskine, Recording Secretary, on 9 April 1973 said, “The Canadian Field-Naturalist is the only Canadian journal devoted strictly to natural science. This unique publication evolved initially from a local publication of The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club. Members of the club, more than 50 years ago, saw the need for a natural history publica- tion of national scope and with this end The Ottawa Naturalist became The Canadian Field- Naturalist. I believe there are strong reasons why the club and the journal should continue their present association with at most minor change.” The Editor’s similar views were expressed at the same time. In addition she strongly recommended that “subscriptions to The Canadian Field- Naturalist be available to individuals without the obligation of becoming club members.” On 18 June 1973 a statement to the Council from Allan’ H. Reddoch, then Corresponding Secretary, said, “The Canadian Field-Naturalist is basically an archival journal to record orig- inal field observations. By maintaining high standards and accepting professional work, it assures itself a circulation and storage in major libraries. I strongly urge that The Canadian Field-Naturalist remain under the control of The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club.” A statement from the Publications Committee on 14 May 1973 included the following, “The Canadian Field- Naturalist has presented and will continue to present papers on a variety of aspects of natural history and will thus retain its uniqueness. In doing this The Canadian Field-Naturalist will encourage amateur and professional naturalists, generalists and specialists, to become aware of the many facets of and many approaches to natural history. The committee is not going to sug- gest changes in the present relationship.” The discussion helped to clarify the different roles of the club and the journal and the interrelations and we think there was general agreement that their separation is neither necessary nor desirable. The possibility of the Canadian Nature Federation serving as an alternative to The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club as the publisher of The Canadian Field-Naturalist has been brought up from time to time and consistently rejected. If The Canadian Field-Naturalist were to become affiliated with the Canadian Nature Federation, it might well be slanted to become much more concerned with environmental or conservation issues than with recording the results of research and field observations in natural history, and we do not want to see this happen. Other publica- tions should fill the former important niche and The Canadian Field-Naturalist should continue 4 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 to play its own established role. Moreover, although we agree with the basic objectives of and give our support to the Canadian Nature Federation, we do not feel that this young organiza- tion is sufficiently ‘mature’ or ‘financially sound’ to be considered as a viable alternative to The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club as the publisher of our journal. In conclusion, we think that The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club should be commended for providing an almost unique service for generations of naturalists and natural scientists in Canada and elsewhere by publishing The Canadian Field-Naturalist and its predecessors since 1880. Al- though we believe that The Canadian Field-Naturalist could, if necessary, survive on its own if it had a strong Board of Trustees, we think The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club is still the most appropriate publisher of the journal, especially when one considers the long history of close association between the club and the journal. We look ahead to future volumes of The Canadian Field-Naturalist being published by The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club and hope that our per- sonal views expressed herein are supported by most of our readers. LORRAINE C. SMITH and DONALD A. SMITH Floristic Analysis of the Missouri River Bottomland Forests in North Dakota: WARREN R. KEAMMERER,? W. CARTER JOHNSON,? AND ROBERT L. BURGESS? Department of Botany, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota 58102 2 Present address: Stoecker-Keammerer and Associates, Ecological Consultants, 395 30th Street, Boulder, Colorado 80303 3 Present address: Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (operated by Union Carbide Corporation for the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission), Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830 Keammerer, W. R., W. C. Johnson, and R. L. Burgess. 1975. Floristic analysis of the Missouri River bottomland forests in North Dakota. Canadian Field-Naturalist 89(1): 5-19. Abstract. Much of the forest vegetation along the upper Missouri River has been inundated and destroyed by a series of large reservoirs. In North Dakota, the remnant forests fall readily into two classes, those dom- inated by Populus deltoides Marsh., and the more mesic forest of Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh., Acer negundo L., Ulmus americana L., and Quercus macrocarpa Michx. The vascular flora of these forests is comprised of 220 species, representing 54 families and 152 genera. Seven families (Compositae, Gram- ineae, Cyperaceae, Leguminosae, Labiatae, Rosaceae, and Ranunculaceae), all large families abundant in north-temperate regions, account for over half the total flora. Analysis of the Raunkiaer life-form in the flora of the bottomland forests shows the composition to be predominantly hemicryptophytic (53.2%). Phanerophytes and cryptophytes make up about 17% each, therophytes 11%, and only 1% of the flora is chamaephytic. Geographically, 73.2% of the species are North American, including arctic, subarctic, sub- arctic-temperate, and temperate distributions. Another 8% are circumpolar, while 18.6% are of European or Eurasian derivation. Many of the latter are widespread and well-known waifs, agricultural weeds, and other ruderal species. A complete checklist is given, including notes on local distribution and relative abundance. Introduction Ecosystems of restricted extent occurring in regions consisting overwhelmingly of another vegetation type stimulate scientific interest. For example, localized alpine tundra in New England has an appeal that diminishes in the broad expanses of tundra in the Canadian Arctic. Such is also the case with deciduous forests in North Dakota. Areas of deciduous forests in North Dakota are mostly restricted to the floodplains of the major river systems (Red River of the North, the Sheyenne, the James, and the Missouri Rivers). All of these except the James River have been intensively studied (Nelson 1964; Wanek 1967; Burgess etl 2 1973): The Missouri River Valley is situated in the west-central portion of North Dakota sur- rounded by gently rolling hills covered by agricultural lands and mixed grass prairie. The valley itself is clearly delimited by tall bluffs, particularly on the western side of the flood- plain. The Missouri River at one time flowed unimpeded from its source in the highlands of Montana, through the grasslands of North and South Dakota, joining the Mississippi River near the present-day site of St. Louis, Missouri. The river now has high dams along most of its upper course. Reservoirs created by Gavins Point, Fort Randall, Big Bend, and Oahe dams have left little bottomland forest in South Dakota. Oahe Reservoir inundates bottomlands as far north as southern Burleigh County, North Dakota. Lake Sakakawea, created by Garrison Dam, has permanently flooded the bottomland in North Dakota from Riverdale to within a few miles of the Montana—North Dakota boundary. The diminishing extent of these forests prompted the initiation of an intensive study of the bottomland forests of the Missouri River in North Dakota of which this iS a part. 1 Contribution No. 182 from the Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome, US-IBP, and Publication No. 628, Environ- mental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 6 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Description of the Study Area Location Vol. 89 waters of Oahe Reservoir which roughly ap- proximate the southern boundary of Burleigh The study area (Figure 1) is bounded on County (ca. 46°36’30” N, 100°37’30” W). the north by Garrison Dam (47°30’ N, 101° Within this region, the river meanders for 27'30” W) and on the south by the back-up approximately 130 km in a southeasterly direc- LAKE SAKAKAWEA eon re” En DAKOTA ve Cae i : Per, 7» RIVERDALE . GARRISON DAM 25) (24 Sa 20? = MERCER ea \2 MCLEAN RIVER a STANTON ON n y 2148 ote. 9 WASHBURN KNIFE Q\ 22 29 | & 28 Di SANGER@\ 15 | 26 Ne = — 25 14 OLIVER | | PRICE@\ ‘3 12 BURLEIGH | ae MANDAN MORTON KILOMETERS Figure 1. The location of the study area within North Dakota, and the general location of all intensively studied forest stands (numbered 1 through 34) on the Missouri River floodplain in North Dakota. 1975 tion, representing a north-south airline dis- tance of approximately 100 km. The floodplain on both sides of the river was included in the study area. Climate The Northern Great Plains region falls within a climatic regime described by Thorn- thwaite (1948) as Dry Subhumid Mesothermal (C,B,’). On an average annual basis, pre- cipitation is substantially less than potential evapotranspiration, which generally restricts deciduous forest to low ground where soil moisture conditions are more amenable. This region is subject to great fluctuations in weather conditions (Borchert 1950; Coupland 1958). The climate of Burleigh County is repre- sentative of the study area. The average January and July temperatures are —12.6 and 21.6°C, respectively, with extremes of 45.6 and —42.8°C (Kume and Hansen 1965). The average length of the growing season is 140 days, with the latest average date of killing frost about 10 May and the earliest in the fall approximately 27 September. The average precipitation is 47.9 cm for Burleigh County. Seventy percent of this falls during the growing season, with about 50% in May, June, and July. Flooding History One of the unique features of the study area is that even though it is a floodplain, it has not been subjected to flooding since the com- pletion of Garrison Dam in 1954. Prior to 1954, flooding played a significant role in determining vegetation patterns. Information on the flooding history is scanty. In the period 1943-1953, five flood years were recorded (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, personal communication). In 1943 and 1949, floods were caused by ice jams and flooded approx- imately 50,000 hectares. The 1952 flood was major, the worst recorded flood for the Mis- souri River, with an estimated 96,400 hectares inundated along the main stem of the river. In the Bismarck area, there also was con- siderable silt deposition ranging in thickness from a few centimeters to nearly 2 meters. KEAMMERER ET AL.: FLORISTIC ANALYSIS — MISSOURI RIVER FORESTS 7 Physiography and Geology West-central North Dakota is included in the Glaciated Missouri Plateau section of the Great Plains Province (Fenneman 1931). Kume and Hansen (1965) recognized four districts of the Plateau: (1) Glaciated Missouri Slope, (2) Coteau Slope, (3) Missouri Coteau, and (4) Missouri River Trench. The study was restricted to the floodplain of the Missouri River Trench district. The floodplain varies in width from less than 1.6km near Garrison Dam to more than 11.0km just south of Bismarck. Several major terraces occur. The lower terraces are alluvial in origin and were forested prior to settlement. The upper bed- rock terraces, usually covered with grassland, were not included in the study. Different levels occur on forested terraces, forming a complex of land forms which differ in height above the river by as little as 1.0m from one level to the next. An abundance of intermittent and ephemeral streams empty onto the floodplain along both sides of the river. South of Bismarck, alluvium and outwash deposits average 30-35m in depth. Layers of glacial till have been encountered in test drillings and indicate a possible period of glaciation in the valley in early (?) Wisconsin time (Kume and Hansen 1965). The valley is underlain by the Hell Creek and Fox Hills formations (Cretaceous), topped by the Tul- lock, Ludlow, Cannonball, and Tongue River formations of Tertiary age, which are exposed on the steep, dissected valley walls. Outlying patches of the Tongue River formation occur as buttes along both sides of the river, both north and south of Bismarck (Carlson 1969). These areas are similar in appearance to the badlands along the Little Missouri River in North Dakota, a similarity also reflected in the plant species found on these “outliers of the badlands.” Soils The soils along the Missouri River are developed on recent alluvial deposits and are mostly medium-textured and calcareous (Omodt et al. 1968). Profile development is minimal with only A and C layers distinguish- able. Flooding has played an important role in the development of soils along the Missouri 8 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST River. The initial point bar deposits are over- whelmingly sandy, and unless these deposits are subsequently flooded, and fine-grained sediments (silts and clays) deposited on top of them, the original texture will remain essentially unchanged. Also of considerable import is the burial of well-developed soil profiles during floods. This results in complexly layered pro- files consisting of buried soils and intermixed lenses of sand, silt, and clay. Present Vegetation The present vegetation of the floodplain is a mosaic of aquatic, riparian, and terrestrial communities. Recent meander cut-offs have formed two large oxbow lakes (both adjacent to the river about 32 km north of Bismarck and 40 km north of Mandan). Several small ponds occur on the floodplain, but their origin is obscure. Marshes occur in partially filled ox- bow lakes and in abandoned channels, usually dominated by cattail (Typha latifolia). The riparian communities are found on sand bars and the river banks. These areas are usually colonized by sedges, horsetails, and shrubby willows. Coverage on the river banks is variable. In some areas the banks are quite similar to the sand bars, especially in aggraded areas; on cutbanks there is usually little or no plant cover. Wind-blown sand dune communities, forests, and cultivated fields are characteristic terres- trial types. The sand dune areas, adjacent to the river’s edge, are not common. Herbaceous cover is sparse. Young cottonwoods (Populus deltoides) and shrubby willows (Salix spp.) are alternately buried and exposed by the shifting sands. Forests of differing composition are the most widespread of the natural communities, occur- ring on all floodplain terraces from the river’s edge to the edge of floodplain (Figure 2). Forest dominants include cottonwood, green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica var. subinteger- rima), box elder (Acer negundo), and Amer- ican elm (Ulmus americana). Subdominants include peach-leaved willow (Salix amygda- loides) and bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa). The understory constituents of these forests are quite diverse. Common shrubs and woody Vol. 89 vines include dogwood (Cornus stolonifera), wolfberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), poi- son ivy (Rhus radicans), chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), Juneberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), woodbine (Parthenocissus inserta), and fox grape (Vitis vulpina). The forests differ considerably in physiog- nomy. Young cottonwood—willow forests exhibit large numbers of small trees (6-12 m tall) with few other woody species present. In older cottonwood forests, the trees are tall (18-24m) and widely spaced with large, straight unbranched boles (61-9l1cm in diameter) and little crown branching; thus, the canopy in these forests is never closed, and sufficient light is always available for shrub and herb development. These forests contain numerous species of tall shrubs and saplings which form a distinctive synusium. The more xeric nature of the open canopy cottonwood forests is reflected by the large number of prairie grasses and forbs in the understory. Forests of green ash, box elder, American elm, and bur oak exhibit relatively closed canopies resulting in a considerable decrease in the amount of light available to lower synusia. Thus, these forests lack the tall shrub and sapling layer characteristic of cottonwood forests. The ash — box elder — elm — oak forests at maturity rarely attain a height greater than 23 m, but in many of these stands a few old cottonwood trees approach 30m in height, rising above the other members of the over-~- story. Soil fertility, available water capacity, and organic matter were generally highest in these forests; consequently they were consid- ered the most mesic on the floodplain (Burgess et al. 1973). Cultivated lands currently occupy the greatest area of the floodplain, and this ‘area has been increasing since the completion of Garrison Dam. Without a threat of flooding, more land is being cleared and irrigated. Thus, the vegetation on the floodplain presently is in a state of flux, changing from natural diverse communities to cultivated monocultures. The once extensive forests are being reduced and, unless preventive measures are taken, will soon disappear. KEAMMERER ET AL.: FLORISTIC ANALYSIS — MISSOURI RIVER FORESTS 1975 “A3O[0I3 DOVJINS-Qns pue sdovJINs 9Y} pue UOTeIO30A JO UONNGLIsIp je1oues 94} Suimoys ‘vore Apnys oy} pouloy yey} vJoyeq YON ul AoyjeA IMOssIPY oY} JO UOTIOd oY} JO WONSes-ssolID oNeWUIEISeIq “7 AUN] Miche tg ka hte aes ek Or! ie S1l0S WVO1 S1lI0S AGNVS ee ee ee AyY3801V44NE AYA HOVH HSV N33u9 SGOOMNOLLOD 91734 LNVID M34 V yvoO Yuna 43073 x08 Neeree nae NEI vO una yaaa xo HSV N33u9 4O 3unLXxIWaV 1S3YO4 4O SSHOLVd HSv N3349 AW NEENS) || Celution New MOTI —S331N0O GNV SASTIVA W13 NVOIMaWY W173 NVOINaWY GOOMNOL LOD SJOVYYSL vwvyo ama | JOVENSL PAE | SOVYNSL Puz 1s 4YOO1S ASTIVA SIaIVed SSVES S3SSVYOLVSHM ae S3SSV493 103 3N Pg Sa oO Ds Re lie ake 8 eel EM Seo eo ARE ae ot Q4xXIW-SGNV1dN w3isame 371117 ea | | Sta 7 HSYMLNO ONY WAIANTIV S / Sivud ; \ NO/LV W404 \ WIFYD TIF SSVY9 GaXxIW / eS —— — — — — — — — — — — — NOILVWHOF TIVEGNONNYD (NOILOSS SSONO IILVWWVHOVIC ) GN ‘ASTIVA IYNOSSIW 10 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Flora The vascular flora of the bottomland forests along the Missouri River in North Dakota includes 220 species representing 4 divisions, 54 families, and 152 genera. Some of these species also occur in the adjacent prairie areas or in other habitats on the floodplain, but no attempt was made to document the entire floodplain flora. The list also includes a small number of aquatic species which are probably relicts of previous periods when some of the younger forests in which they occur were periodically flooded. Comparison of the Missouri River forest flora with that of other forested areas within the state was difficult, since other investigators have used slightly different techniques. Since previous studies were not floristic in nature, usually only more common species were listed; however, an examination of the species lists from these studies is of interest. Many species of affinity with the eastern deciduous forest were encountered by Wanek (1967) in a study of the gallery forests along the Red River of the North (e.g., Trillium cernuum, Arisaema atrorubens, Uvularia grandiflora). Some of these extend as far westward as the Sheyenne River (Nelson 1964), but are lacking in the flora of the Missouri River forests. Con- sequently, the Missouri River forests almost completely lack a vernal flora so characteristic of many types of eastern deciduous forest. The coniferous forests of western North Dakota (Pinus ponderosa and Pinus flexilis) are of limited extent and are floristically similar to the surrounding prairies because of their savanna-like nature (Potter and Green 1964a, b). Some of the more open cottonwood forests along the Missouri River also show a characteristic floral similarity to the mixed- grass prairie on the uplands above the floodplain. The only previous report of the plants of the Missouri Valley in North Dakota was a brief survey conducted after it was learned that much of the valley would be flooded. In this study, Stevens (1945) reported 52 species of vascular plants. He stated that because of lack of time very few notes were made about herbs. Of the 52 species he listed, only 16 were not found in the floodplain forests in this study; Vol. 89 and of those 16, 12 were noted on the bluffs of the floodplain or in areas adjacent to the forests. In southeastern South Dakota, Wilson (1970) lists 43 species occurring in five cottonwood stands along the Missouri River. Thirty-one of these are also found in the forests along the Missouri in North Dakota. Johnson (1950), working in the same region, reported 51 species of vascular plants occurring in four sites. In bottomlands of the Missouri River in North Dakota only 25 of these species occur. Of all these studies only the forests along the Red River show a greater floral richness than that of the forests along the Missouri River in North Dakota. This floral richness may well be a reflection of the area involved in each of the studies. Wanek (1967) sur- veyed 54 stands, 34 stands along the upper Missouri were included in our investigation, and only a few stands along the Missouri in South Dakota were studied. As the area in- creases, an increase in richness is anticipated. An examination of the families represented in the flora reveals that the Compositae (36 species) has the most representatives; the Gramineae, represented by 26 species, is second. Five other families with 10 or more species in the flora, along with the number of species found in each, are as follows: Cyper- aceae 14, Leguminosae 13, Labiatae 12, Ros- aceae 11, and Ranunculaceae 10. Together these seven families account for 55.4% of the total flora. The angiosperms compose 97.3% of the flora; the conifers, 0.9%; the ferns, 0.5%; and the horsetails, 1.4%. Stevens (1963) lists 106 families, 519 genera, and 1,143 species as occurring in North Dakota. The flora of the bottomland forests thus includes 50.9% of the families, 29.3% of the genera, and 19.2% of the species found in North Dakota. Life Forms The life form classes used in this study are based on the position of the overwintering bud (Raunkiaer 1934). The life form of each species in the bottomland forests was deter- mined from its growth habit. The subdivisions of life forms (Table 1) for the species were determined with the aid of MacDonald (1937). 1975 KEAMMERER ET AL.: FLORISTIC ANALYSIS — MISSOURI RIVER FORESTS 11 TABLE 1 — Abbreviations of life forms of plants used in describing the flora of the bottomland forests along the Missouri River, North Dakota Ph — Phanerophytes (perennating bud at least 0.25 m above soil surface) MM — Mega- Meso-Phanerophytes (greater than 8 m in height) M — Micro-Phanerophytes (2-8 m in height) N — Nano-Phanerophytes (0.25—2.0 m in height) (Suffix sey? with any of the above symbols indicates a vine) Ch — Chamaephytes (perennating bud between 0 and 0.25 m above soil surface) H —Hemicryptophytes (perennating buds in soil surface) Hp — Proto-Hemicryptophytes without runners (plant leafy throughout) Hs Hr Hpr — Proto-Hemicryptophytes with runners Hsr —Semi-Rosette with runners Hrr — Rosette with runners — Semi-Rosette without runners (plant with large basal leaves and smaller cauline leaves) — Rosette without runners (plant with well-developed basal leaves and no cauline leaves) (Runner is here used for either hypogeal or epigeal shoot) Cr — Cryptophytes (perennating buds covered by soil or water) G —Geophytes (perennating buds covered by soil) Grh — Rhizome Gst — Stem-tuber Grt — Root-tuber Gb — Bulb Gr — Root-bud Gp — Root-parasite HH — Helo-, Hydrophytes (perennating buds covered by water) Th — Therophytes (annual plants, perennating buds contained in seed) S —Stem Succulents (stems enlarged; serve as water storage organ) E —BEpiphytes (non-rooted plants growing on other plants) Considering all species, the majority of them are hemicryptophytes (53.2% ) (Tables 2 and 3), and the greatest number of these are semi- rosette plants without runners (Hs, 23.6% ). Cryptophytes rank second in numbers of species and make up 17.6% of the flora. All of these are geophytes, with rhyzome geophytes being the most common (12.5%). Phanero- phytes comprise 17.1% of the flora and are mostly microphanerophytes (9.2%). Thero- phytes comprise 10.6% of the flora, and chamaephytes are poorly represented with only 1.4% of the total flora. An examination of native species only (Table 2) reveals that phanerophytes, hemicryptophytes, and crypto- phytes comprise a greater proportion, and chamaephytes and therophytes a smaller pro- portion, of the native flora than of the total flora because of the annual weedy nature of many of the introduced species (24.4% of which are therophytes). The native flora of the bottomland forests can be characterized as a hemicryptophytic- cryptophytic flora on the basis of comparison with Raunkiaer’s (1934) normal spectrum (Table 2). The percentage of hemicrypto- phytes is twice as great as that in the normal spectrum. Cryptophytes are about three times more abundant than in the normal spectrum. The other classes (phanerophytes, chamae- phytes, and therophytes) are, respectively, 0.4, 1.1, and 0.5 times as abundant as in the normal spectrum. For the total flora the above values change to 2.0 for hemicryptophytes, 2.9 for cryptophytes, 0.4 for phanerophytes, 0.2 for chamaephytes, and 0.8 for therophytes. Geographical Affinities The geographical affinities of the flora of North Dakota have been examined by Stevens (1920) and Rudd (1951), with special refer- ences to the vegetation formation with which the species are most closely affiliated. Wanek and Burgess (1965), examining the sand prairies in southeastern North Dakota, found that the flora was predominantly of western derivation, (primarily Great Plains and Rocky Mountain floristic regions). Also of importance were species of tall- and mixed-grass prairie regions and especially species more or less 12 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 TaBLE 2— Life form spectrum of species in Missouri River bottomland forests i No. of Species species Native and introduced 216 Native in bottomland forests 175 Normal spectrum* * After Raunkiaer (1934). Percentage distribution of species Ph Ch H Cr Th 17.1 1.4 S522 17.6 10.6 18.3 1.1 54.3 18.8 7.4 46.0 9.0 26.0 6.0 13.0 TABLE 3 — Spectrum of subdivisions of life forms of seed-bearing plants in the bottomland forests of the Missouri River in North Dakota. Values are percentages of the total flora Rhee Gat) Gy H (53.2) 280 LAs 92 33.7 restricted to sand environments. Burgess and Disrud (1969) used a somewhat different approach in an analysis of the geographical affinities of wetland vegetation of the Turtle Mountain region in north-central North Dakota. The region of geographical affinity for each species was determined from Scoggan (1957). This analysis revealed that the flora in this region had components characteristic of six major distributional types: Circumpolar, North Temperate, North American, Amphi- Atlantic, European, and Eurasian. While var- ious diverse sources are available for inter- preting global distributions of plant species, Scoggan (1957) lists the vast majority of the species occurring in the Missouri Valley forests and consequently was used as the primary source for determining the geograph- ical affinity of each species. For species not occurring in the flora of Manitoba, Fernald (1950) was used to determine the extent of a species range. The species in the flora show four main categories of distribution patterns and five secondary groups (Table 4). The main cat- egories are of two major types: latitudinal (Circumpolar) and longitudinal or continental (North American, European, and Eurasian). The same relationship can be seen in the secondary groups, which also show latitudinal (arctic, subarctic, and temperate) and longitu- dinal (eastern and western) separations. MM MMv M N eS Hp Hs Hr Hpr Hrs Hrr|Grh Gst Grt Gb Gr Gp HH 12.0 23.6 18 83 69 05/125 09 19 09 09 05 O {10.6 TABLE 4 — Summary of the geographical distribution of the species present in the flora of the bottomland forests of the Missouri River, North Dakota Geographical No. of % of distribution species flora Circumpolar distributions Arctic circumpolar (Ca) 1 0.4 Arctic-subarctic circumpolar (Cas) 2) 0.9 Subarctic circumpolar (Cs) 10 4.5 Subarctic-temperate circumpolar (Cst) 4 1.8 Temperate circumpolar (Ct) 1 0.4 Subtotal 18 8.0 American distributions Arctic American (Aa) 1 0.4 Subarctic American (As) 25 11.4 Western (Asw) 2 0.9 Subarctic-temperate American (Ast) 30 13.6 Western (Astw) 3 1.4 Temperate American (At) 47 21.4 Eastern (Ate) 25 11.4 Western (Atw) 28 12.7 Subtotal 161 73.2 Other distributions European (Ep) 24 10.9 Eurasian (Er) 17 7.7 Subtotal 41 18.6 1975 Most of the species (73.2% ) show charac- teristic North American distributions (Table 4). Forty-seven species from temperate North America comprise the largest subdivision (21.4%). An additional 53 species are dis- tributed in the temperate American region, but these are restricted to either eastern (11.4) or western (12.7%) parts of the zone. Thus, even though a deciduous forest vegetation type exists along the Missouri River in North Dakota, the number of species centered in the temperate regions of western North America is greater than the number of species of eastern distribution. Many of these eastern species, however, would not be able to withstand the environmental conditions of the surrounding mixed-grass prairie and, therefore, would not be found in this region were it not for the ameliorating effects of the forest (e.g., Circaea quadrisulcata, Polygonatum commutatum, Aquilegia canadensis). Subarctic-temperate American and subarctic American distributions account for 13.6% and 11.4% of the flora, respectively. Circumpolar distributions comprise only 8.0% of the flora. Subarctic circumpolar distribution includes 10 species (4.5% ) and is the best represented of the circumpolar distributions. European and Eurasian distributions (Table 4), which cor- respond to the introduced species in the flora (18.6%), are represented by 24 species (10.9% ) and 17 species (7.7% ), respectively. The high percentage of introduced species in the forest flora may be the result of local disturbance. Some of the introduced weeds (e.g., Lactuca serriola, Setaria viridis, and Arctium minus) were found only on disturbed sites. Other introduced species (e.g., Pastinaca sativa, Rorippa armoracia, Syringa vulgaris, and Lonicera tatarica) are remnants of past cultivation, either in old gardens or ornamental plantings. Format of the Annotated Flora The list of flora (Table 5) incorporates as much information about each species as pos- sible in a relatively small space. The scientific name of each species is presented along with its authority. Nomenclature follows Gleason and Cronquist (1963) except in cases where more recent revisions or monographs have shown other names to be correct. A species KEAMMERER ET AL.: FLORISTIC ANALYSIS — MISSOURI RIVER FORESTS 13 preceded by an “(I)” is an introduced species. A key to the life-form abbreviations can be found in Table 1. Since Raunkiaer’s (1934) system applies only to seed-bearing plants, no life form is given for horsetails or ferns; how- ever, they may be considered cryptophytes. A key to the abbreviations for geographical affinity is given in Table 4. Following the geographical affinity is a statement concerning the relative abundance of the species in the bottomland forests. Four categories of species abundance were selected: rare, scattered, common, and abundant (Bur- gess 1965). Gradations from one category to the next are indicated by the use of the modifiers “very” and “relatively.” Thus a species that is very scattered is more abundant than a species that is relatively rare. A very rare species is one that might require weeks of searching to locate, whereas a very abundant species would be one seen upon entering almost any of the bottomland forests. Three habitats or forest categories are mentioned: cotton- wood, mesic, and bottomland forests. If a species is found almost exclusively in either cottonwod or mesic (green ash — American elm — box elder) forests, the abundance state- ment is related to one of these two forest types. For example, Agropyron repens is listed as “rare, cottonwood forests,” indicating that it is restricted to cottonwood forests and is not found in mesic forests. A statement which mentions the species abundance in relation to the “bottomland forest” implies that the species may be found in either cottonwood or mesic forests. The phrase “locally abundant” was employed to describe species which may be restricted to a certain habitat, but which pro- liferate in that habitat, e.g., Circaea quadri- sulcata. x Acknowledgments This research was supported in part by the North Dakota Water Resources Research Insti- tute with funds provided by the Office of Water Resources Research, USDI, and in part by the Eastern Deciduous Forest Biome, US-IBP, funded by the National Science Foundation under Interagency Agreement BM569-01147 AO9 with the Atomic Energy Commission—Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 14 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 TABLE 5 — Annotated vascular flora of the bottom!and forests of the Missouri River in North Dakota Taxon Division Arthrophyta Equisetaceae — Horsetail Family Equisetum arvense L. Equisetum hyemale L. Equisetum laevigatum A. Br. Division Pterophyta Ophioglossaceae — Adder’s Tongue Family Botrychium virginianum (L.) Sw. Division Coniferophyta Cupressaceae — Cypress Family Juniperus communis L. vat. depressa (Pursh.) Juniperus scopulorum Sarg. Division Anthophyta Graminae — Grass Family (1) Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. Agropyron smithit Rydb. Agrostis stolonifera L. Andropogon gerardi Vitm. Bromus ciliatus L. (1) Bromus inermis Leyss. (1) Bromus tectorum L. Calamovilfa longifolia (Hook.) Scribn. Elymus canadensis L. Elymus virginicus L. Mubhlenbergia racemosa (Michx.) BSP Oryzopsis bymenoides (R. & S.) Ricker. Oryzopsis micrantha (Trin. and Rupr.) Thurb. Panicum capillare L. Panicum virgatum L. Phalaris arundinacea L. (1) Phleum pratense L. (1) Poa compressa L. Poa pratensis L. (1) Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv. (1) Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv. Spartina pectinata Link. Sphenopholis intermedia (Rydb.) Rydb. Sphenopholis obtusata (Michx.) Scribn. Sporobolus cryptandrus (Torr.) Gray. Stipa viridula Trin. Cyperaceae — Sedge Family Carex aquatilis Wahl. Carex aurea Nutt. Carex brevior (Dewey) Mackenzie Carex cristatella Britt. Carex granularis Mihl. Carex gravida Bailey. Carex laeviconica Dewey. Carex pennsylvanica Lam. Carex saximontana Mackenzie. Carex sprengeliz Dewey. Carex vulbinoidea Michx. Eleocharis acicularis (L.) R. & S. Scirpus americanus Pers. Scirpus acutus Muhl. Commelinaceae — Spiderwort Family Tradescantia bracteata Small. Life form Grh Grh Grh Grh Grh Grh Grh Grh Grh Grh Hp Geographical distribution Ce Ast Ast Ate Ate Ast Habitat and abundance Relatively common, cottonwood forests; rare, mesic forests Scattered, cottonwood forests, but locally abundant Rare, cottonwood forests Scattered, mesic forests; rare, cottonwood forests Relatively rare, cottonwood forests Relatively rare, cottonwood forests Rare, cottonwood forests Relatively scattered, cottonwood forests Scattered, cottonwood and mesic forests Relatively rare, cottonwood forests Very scattered, cottonwood forests Relatively abundant, mesic forests; relatively common, cottonwood forests Very rare, cottonwood forests Scattered, cottonwood forests Common, cottonwood forests; scattered, mesic forests Abundant, mesic forests; relatively scattered, cottonwood forests Common, cottonwood forests; scattered, mesic forests Rare, cottonwood forests Rare, mesic forests Scattered, recently grazed bottomland forests Scattered, cottonwood forests, locally forming patches Scattered, mesic forests Relatively rare, cottonwood forests Scattered, mesic forests Very abundant, mesic forests; abundant, cottonwood forests Relatively scattered, disturbed sites within bottomland forests Relatively scattered, disturbed sites within bottomland forests Scattered, cottonwood forests Relatively scattered, mesic forests; scattered, cottonwood forests Rare, bottomland forests Relatively rare, cottonwood forests Scattered, cottonwood forests Rare, wet areas of bottomland forests Rare, cottonwood forests Common, mesic forests; relatively common, cottonwood forests Rare, mesic forests Very scattered, mesic forests Very scattered, mesic forests Relatively common, bottomland forests Common, mesic forests; scattered, cottonwood forests Relatively rare, mesic forests Relatively scattered, mesic forests Very rare, mesic forests Very rare, mesic forests Very rare, young cottonwood forests Very rare, young cottonwood forests Very rare, cottonwood forests 1975 KEAMMERER ET AL.: FLORISTIC ANALYSIS — MISSOURI RIVER FORESTS 15 TABLE 5 — Annotated vascular flora of the bottom'and forests of the Missouri River in North Dakota Life Geographical Taxon form distribution Habitat and abundance Juncaceae — Rush Family Juncus balticus Willd. Grh As Very rare, young cottonwood forests Liliaceae — Lily Family Allium stellatum Ker. Gb Atw Very rare, mesic forests (1) Asparagus officinalis L. Grh Ep Scattered, cottonwood forests Lilium philadelphicum L. Gb Ate Very rare, mesic forests Polygonatum commutatum (Schult. f.) A. Dietr. Grh Ate Scattered, mesic forests Smilacina stellata (L.) Desf. Grh As Abundant, mesic forests; very common, cottonwood forests Smilax herbacea L. Hpr At Relatively scattered, mesic forests Orchidaceae — Orchid Family Habenaria viridis (L.) R. Br. var. bracteata (Muhl.) Gray. Grt As Very scattered, relatively undisturbed mesic forests Salicaceae — Willow Family Populus deltoides Matsh. MM At Abundant, bottomland forests Salix amygdaloides Anderss. MM At Relatively scattered, cottonwood forests Salix interior Rowlee. M As Very rare, young cottonwood forests Salix lutea Nutt. M Astw Scattered, cottonwood forests Salix missouriensis Bebb. M Ate Scattered, cottonwood forests Betulaceae — Birch Family Corylus americana Walt. M Ate Very rare, mesic forests Fagaceae — Beech Family Quercus macrocarpa Michx. MM Ate Relatively common, older mesic forests Ulmaceae — Elm Family Ulmus americana L. MM Ate Abundant, mesic forests; relatively scattered, cottonwood forests (1) Ulmus pumila L. M Er Very rare, open cottonwood forests Moraceae — Mulberry Family Humulus lupulus_L. Grh Cse Scattered, mesic forests Urticaceae — Nettle Family Parietaria pennsylvanica Muhl. Th Ast Scattered, mesic forests Urtica dioica L. var. procera (Muhl.) Hpr As Relatively scattered, mesic forests Polygonaceae — Smartweed Family ; s (1) Polygonum convolvulus L. Th Ep Relatively rare, mesic forests (1) Rumex crispus L. Hs Ep Very rare, mesic forests Rumex venosus Pursh. Hs Atw Very rare, cottonwood forests; locally abundant along : sandy banks Chenopodiaceae — Goosefoot Family (1) Chenopodium album L. Th Er Common, disturbed sites in bottomland forests Chenopodium hybridum UL. Th As Scattered, disturbed sites in bottomland forests Nyctaginaceae — Four-o’clock Family Mirabilis nyctaginea (Michx.) MacM. Grt At Relatively rare, cottonwood forests Caryophyllaceae — Pink Family Arenaria lateriflora L. Hpr Cs Relatively scattered, mesic forests Stellaria longifolia Muhl. Th Cs Very rare, mesic forests Ranunculaceae — Crowfoot Family Actaea rubra ( Ait.) Willd. Grh As Relatively scattered, mesic forests Anemone canadensis L. Hs Ast Relatively abundant, bottomland forests Anemone cylindrica Gray. Hs At Rare, cottonwood forests Anemone virginiana L. Hs Ate Relatively common, bottomland forests Aquilegia canadensis L. Hs Ate Scattered, mesic forests Clematis ligusticifolia Nutt. Mv Atw Relatively common, cottonwood forests Ranunculus abortivus L. Hs As Relatively common, mesic forests Ranunculus macouniuw Britt. Hs As Very rare, cottonwood forests Thalictrum dasycarpum Fisch. & Ave-Lall. Hs At Relatively abundant, bottomland forests Thalictrum venulosum Trel. Hs As Common, mesic forests; relatively scattered, cottonwood forests Cruciferae — Mustard Family Arabis holboelliz Hornem. Hs As Very scattered, cottonwood forests Descurainia richardsoniu (Sweet) O. E. Schultz. Hs As Very rare, mesic forests 16 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 TaBLE 5 — Annotated vascular flora of the bottomland forests of the Missouri River in North Dakota ~ Life Geographical Taxon form distribution Habitat and abundance (1) Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb. Th Ep Rare, disturbed sites in mesic forests (1) Erysimum cheiranthoides L. Th Er Relatively scattered, bottomland forests (1) Hesperis matronalis L. Hs Ep Scattered but locally abundant, mesic forests Lepidium densiflorum Schrader. Hs Ast Rare, cottonwood forests (1) Rorippa armoracia (L.) Hitche. Grt Ep Rare, mesic forests Saxifragaceae — Saxifrage Family Ribes americanum Mill. N At Common, mesic forests Ribes missourtense Nutt. N Ate Relatively common, mesic forests Ribes odoratum Wendl. N Atw Relatively rare, mesic forests Rosaceae — Rose Family Agrimonia striata Michx. Hpr Ast Scattered, mesic forests Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt. M Asw Common, bottomland forests Crataegus rotundifolia Moench. M Ast Scattered, bottomland forests Fragaria vesca L. Hrr At Scattered but locally abundant, mesic forests Geum canadense Jacq. Hs Ate Relatively rare but locally abundant, mesic forests Geum aleppicum Jacq. vat. strictum ( Ait.) Hs Ast Scattered, mesic forests Potenulla norvegica L. Hs As Relatively rare, mesic forests Prunus americana Marsh. M At Scattered, mesic forests Prunus virginiana L. M Ast Common, bottomland forests Rosa woodsuw Lindl. N Asw Common, cottonwood forests; scattered, mesic forests (1) Rubus idaeus L. Hpr Ep Rare but locally abundant, mesic forests Leguminosae — Bean Family Amorpha fruticosa L. M Atw Very scattered, cottonwood forests Amphicarpa bracteata (L.) Fern. Hpr Ate Common, mesic forests Astragalus canadensis L. Hp Ast Scattered, mesic forests Desmodium canadense (L.) DC. Hp Ate Scattered, cottonwood forests Glycyrrhiza lepidota Pursh. Hp Atw Common, cottonwood forests Lathyrus ochroleucus Hook. Hp As Very rare, mesic forests (1) Medicago lupulina L. Th Ep Very common, cottonwood forests (1) Medicago sativa L. Hp Er Relatively rare, cottonwood forests (1) Melilotus alba Desr. Hs Ep Common to abundant, cottonwood forests (1) Melilotus officinalis (L.) Desr. Hs Ep Common to abundant, cottonwood forests Psoralea lanceolata Pursh. Hp Atw Relatively rare, cottonwood forests (1) Trifolium repens L. Hsr Ep Very rare, cottonwood forests Vicia americana Muhl. Hp Ast Common, cottonwood forests; relatively scattered, mesic forests Oxalidaceae — Wood-sorrel Family Oxalis stricta L. Hpr At Relatively common, bottomland forests Linaceae — Flax Family Linum lewis Pursh. Hp Aa Very rare, cottonwood forests Euphorbiaceae — Spurge Family (1) Euphorbia esula L. Hpr Ep Scattered, bottomland forests Anacardiaceae — Cashew Family Rhus radicans L. var. rydbergi (Small) Rehder. N At Very abundant, bottomland forests Rhus trilobata Nutt. N Atw Very rare, bottomland forests Celastraceae — Staff-tree Family Celastrus scandens L. Mv Ate Common, bottomland forests Aceraceae — Maple Family ‘ Acer negundo L. MM At Abundant, mesic forests; relatively common, cottonwood forests Rhamnaceae — Buckthorn Family (1) Rhamnus catharticus L. M Ep Relatively scattered, mesic forests Vitaceae — Grape Family Parthenocissus imserta (Kern) Fritsch. MMv At Abundant, bottomland forests Vitis vulpina L. MMv At Abundant, bottomland forests Violaceae — Violet Family Viola paptlionacea Putsh. Hr Ate Relatively common, bottomland forests Viola rugulosa Greene. Hr Astw Relatively common, mesic forests Elaeagnaceae — Oleaster Family (1) Elaeagnus angustifolia L. M Er Scattered, cottonwood forests Shepherdia argentea Nutt. M Ate Relatively common, cottonwood forests 1975 KEAMMERER ET AL.: FLORISTIC ANALYSIS — MISSOURI RIVER FORESTS 17 TABLE 5 — Annotated vascular flora of the bottomland forests of the Missouri River in North Dakota Life Geographical Taxon form distribution Habitat and abundance Onagraceae — Evening Primrose Family Circaea quadrisulcata (Maxim.) French. & Sav. Grh Ate Rare but locally abundant, mesic forests Oenothera strigosa (Rydb.) Mack. & Bush. Hs Ast Scattered, bottomland forests Umbelliferae — Parsley Family Cicuta maculata L. Hs As Very scattered, mesic forests Heracleum lanatum Michx. Grt As Scattered, mesic forests Osmorhiza longistylis (Torr.) DC. Hs At Common, mesic forests (1) Pastinaca sativa L. Hs Ep Rare, bottomland forests (escaped from cultivation) Sanicula marilandica L. Hs Ast Common, mesic forests Cornaceae — Dogwood Family Cornus stolonifera Michx. M As Common, cottonwood forests, scattered elsewhere Primulaceae — Primrose Family Lysimachia ciliata L. Hpr Ast Very common, bottomland forests Oleaceae — Olive Family Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh. var. subintegerrima (Vahl). Fern. MM At Abundant, mesic forests; common cottonwood forests (1) Syringa vulgaris L. M Ep Very rare, bottomland forests (escaped from cultivation ) Apocynaceae — Dogbane Family Apocynum androsaemtfolium L. Hp As Rare, bottomland forests Apocynum sibiricum Jacq. Hp Ate Common, bottomland forests Asclepiadaceae — Milkweed Family Asclepias ovalifolza Decne. Hp Atw Relatively rare, cottonwood forests Asclepias syriaca L. Grh Ate Relatively abundant, bottomland forests Asclepias verticillata L. Hp At Scattered, cottonwood forests Convolvulaceae — Morning-glory Family (1) Convolvulus arvensis L. Gr Er Relatively scattered, bottomland forests Convolvulus sepium L. Hp Cst Relatively rare, bottomland forests Cuscuta gronoviz Willd. Th At Scattered, bottomland forests Cuscuta pentagona Engelm. Th At Rare, bottomland forests Boraginaceae — Borage Family Hackelia americana (A. Gray) Fern. Hs At Scattered but locally abundant, mesic forests Onosmodium molle Michx. : var. occidentale (Mack.) Johnst. Hs At Relatively rare, bottomland forests Verbenaceae — Vervain , Family Verbena hastata L. Hp At Rare, bottomland forests Verbena urticifolia L. Hp Ate Rare, bottomland forests Labiatae — Mint Family Agastache foeniculum (Pursh.) Kuntze. Hs Astw Scattered, bottomland forests (1) Leonurus cardiaca L. Hp Ep Rare, bottomland forests Lycopus americanus Muhl. Hpr Ast Relatively scattered, bottomland forests Lycopus asper Greene. Hpr Atw Rare, bottomland forests Mentha arvensis L. Hpr As Scattered, mesic forests Monarda fistulosa L. Hpr Ast Very common, bottomland forests (1) Nepeta cataria L. Hp Ep Scattered, mesic forests Physostegia parviflora Nutt. Hp Ast Very rare, bottomland forests Scutellaria galericulata \.. Hpr As Very scattered, mesic forests Scutellaria lateriflora L. Hpr Ast Scattered, mesic forests Stachys palustris L. Gst As Scattered, bottomland forests Teucrium canadense L. var. occidentale (Gray) McClintock & Epling. Hpr At Relatively common, bottomland forests Solanaceae — Nightshade Family Physalis heterophylla Nees. Grh At Common, cottonwood forests (1) Solanum nigrum UL. Th Ep Very scattered, bottomland forests Scrophulariaceae — Figwort Family Penstemon grandiflorus Nutt. Hs Atw Very rare, cottonwood forests Scrophularia lanceolata Putsh. Hp At Very scattered, mesic forests Orobanchaceae — Broom-rape Family Orobanche ludoviciana Nutt. Gp At Very rare, cottonwood forests Phrymaceae — Lopseed Family Phryma leptostachya L. Hp Ate Common, bottomland forests 18 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 TABLE 5 — Annotated vascular flora of the bottomland forests of the Missouri River in North Dakota Life Taxon form Plantaginaceae — Plantain Family (1) Plantago major L. Hr Rubiaceae —- Madder Family Galium aparine L. Th Galium boreale L. ; Hpr Galium triforum Michx. Hp Caprifoliaceae -— Honeysuckle Family (1) Lontcera tatarica L. M Sambucus canadensis L. M Symphoricarpos occidentalis Hook. M Viburnum. lentago L. M Cucurbitaceae - Gourd Family Echinocystis lobata (Michx.) T. & G. Th Compositae — Composite Family Achillea millefolium L. var. lanulosa (Nutt.) Piper. Hsr Ambrosia psilostachya DC. Hpr Ambrosia trifida L. Th Antennaria microphylla Greene. Ch (1) Arctium minus Schk. Hs (1) Artemisia absinthium L. Ch Artemisia biennis Willd. Hs Artemisia glauca Pall. Hs Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. Ch Aster ericotdes L. Hsr Aster laevis L. Hs Aster simplex Willd. Hsr Bidens frondosa L. Th Chrysopsis villosa (Putsh.) Nutt. Hp (1) Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Gr Cirsium undulatum (Nutt.) Spreng. Hs (1) Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Tenore. Hs Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronq. Th Conyza ramosissima Cronq. Th Erigeron philadelphicus L. Hsr Erigeron strigosus Muhl. Th Erigeron subtrinervis Rydb. Hsr Helianthus maximiliani Schrader. Hp Helianthus tuberosus L. Gst Hieracitum canadense Michx. Hp Lactuca canadensis L. Hs Lactuca pulchella (Pursh.) DC. Hs (1) Lactuca serriola L. Th Ratibida columnifera (Nutt.) Woot & Standl. Hs Solidago altissima L. Hsr Solidago gigantea Ait. Hsr Solidago rigida L. Hsr (1) Sonchus arvensis L. Hpr (1) Taraxacum officinale Weber. Hr (1) Tragopogon dubius Scob. Hs Vernonia fasciculata Michx. Hp Geographical distribution Habitat and abundance Er Rare, cottonwood forests Cse Rare, bottomland forests Cs Common, mesic forests; scattered, cottonwood forests Cs Abundant, mesic forests; relatively common, cottonwood forests Er Rare, mesic forests (escaped from cultivation) Ate Rare, bottomland forests Ast Very abundant, bottomland forests At Relatively common, mesic forests Ate Scattered, bottomland forests As Relatively rare, bottomland forests Atw Relatively common, cottonwood forests At Scattered, bottomland forests Atw Rare, young cottonwood forests Er Common, disturbed mesic forests Ep Scattered, bottomland forests At Rare, bottomland forests Atw Relatively common, cottonwood forests At Common, cottonwood forests; scattered elsewhere At Relatively rare, cottonwood forests Ast Common, bottomland forests Ast Common, bottomland forests Ast Relatively rare, mesic forests Atw Very rare, cottonwood forests Er Common, bottomland forests Atw Scattered, cottonwood forests Ep Very rare, bottomland forests Ast Rare, bottomland forests At Rare, bottomland forests Ast Common, bottomland forests Ast Scattered, cottonwood forests Atw Very rare, young cottonwood forests Atw Rare, cottonwood forests Ate Common, bottomland forests Cs Very scattered, bottomland forests At Scattered, bottomland forests As Common, bottomland forests Ep Scattered, disturbed sites in bottomland forests Atw Rare, cottonwood forests Ast Common, bottomland forests At Common, bottomland forests At Rare, cottonwood forests Ep Common, bottomland forests Er Common, bottomland forests Ep Common, bottomland forests At Relatively rare, bottomland forests Literature Cited Borchert, J. R. 1950. The climate of the central North American grassland. Annals of the Associ- ation of American Geographers 40: 1-39. Burgess, R. L. 1965. A checklist of the vascular flora of Tonto National Monument, Arizona. Journal of the Arizona Academy of Science 3(4): 213-223. Burgess, R. L. and D. T. Disrud. 1969. Wetland vegetation of the Turtle Mountains, North Dakota. I. Analysis of the Flora. Prairie Naturalist 1(2): 19-30. Burgess, R. L., W. C. Johnson, and W. R. Keam- merer. 1973. Vegetation of the Missouri River floodplain in North Dakota. Research Project Tech- nical Completion Report #WI-221-018-73.. North Dakota Water Resources Research Institute, Fargo. 162 pp. Carlson, C. G. 1969. Bedrock geologic map of North Dakota. North Dakota Geological Survey Miscel- laneous Map No. 10. Coupland, R. T. 1958. The effects of fluctuations in weather upon the grasslands of the Great Plains. Botanical Review 24: 273-317. 1975 Fenneman, N. M. 1931. Physiography of western United States. McGraw-Hill, New York. 534 pp. Fermald, M. L. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. 8th edition. American Book Co., New York. 1632 pp. Gleason, H. A. and A. Cronquist. 1963. Manual of vascular plants of northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. D. Van Nostrand Co., Princeton, New Jersey. 810 pp. Johnson, D. F. 1950. Plant succession on the Missouri River floodplain near Vermillion, South Dakota. M.A. thesis, University of South Dakota, Vermil- lion. 44 pp. Kume, J. and D. E. Hansen. 1965. Geology and ground water resources of Burleigh County, North Dakota. Part I— Geology. North Dakota Geolog- ical Survey Bulletin 42. 111 pp. MacDonald, E. S. 1937. The life forms of the flower- ing plants of Indiana. American Midland Natural- ist 18: 687-773. Nelson, P. W. 1964. The forests of the lower Shey- enne River Valley, North Dakota. M.Sc. thesis, North Dakota State University, Fargo. 148 pp. Omodt, H. W., G. A. Johnsgard, D. D. Patterson, and O. P. Olson. 1968. The major soils of North Dakota. North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 472. 60 pp. Potter, L. D. and D. L. Green. 1964a. Ecology of ponderosa pine in western North Dakota. Ecology 45(1): 10-23. Potter, L. D. and D. L. Green. 1964b. Ecology of a northeastern outlying stand of Pinus flexilis. Ecol- ogy 45(4): 866-868. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography, being collected papers of C. Raunkiaer. Translated by H. G. Carter, A. Fausboll, and A. G. Tansley. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 632 pp. KEAMMERER ET AL.: FLORISTIC ANALYSIS — MISSOURI RIVER FORESTS 19 Rudd, V. E. 1951. Geographical affinities of the flora of North Dakota. American Midland Naturalist 45: 722-739. Scoggan, J. J. 1957. Flora of Manitoba. National Museum of Canada Bulletin 140. 619 pp. Stevens, O. A. 1920. The geographical distribution of North Dakota plants. American Journal of Botany 7: 231-242. Stevens, O. A. 1945. Plant and animal populations of the Missouri River Valley in North Dakota. North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station Bimonthly Bulletin 8(2): 20-25. Stevens, O. A. 1963. Handbook of North Dakota plants (with revision appendix). North Dakota Institute for Regional Studies, Fargo. 324 pp. Thornthwaite, C. W. 1948. An approach toward a rational classification of climate. Geographical Re- view 38(1): 55-94. Wanek, W. J. 1967. The gallery forest vegetation of the Red River of the North. Ph.D. thesis, North Dakota State University, Fargo. 211 pp. Wanek, W. J. and R. L. Burgess. 1965. Floristic com- position of the sand prairies of southeastern North Dakota. Proceedings of the North Dakota Academy of Science 19: 26—40. Wilson, R. E. 1970. Succession in stands of Populus deltoides along the Missouri River in southeastern South Dakota. American Midland Naturalist 83(2): 330-342. Received 20 August 1974 Accepted 13 November 1974 ive. as, cad’ a as mee i a erie 5 an Swi cade ie Sk Ca ge mT i % 5 sar 2 Effects of Agricultural Burning on Nesting Waterfowl Exik K. FRITZELL* Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Ilinois * Present address: U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, Jamestown, North Dakota 58401 Fritzell, E. K. 1975. Effects of agricultural burning on nesting waterfowl. Canadian Field-Naturalist 89(1): 21-27. Abstract. Agricultural burning in an intensively farmed region within Manitoba’s pothole district is shown to affect the nesting activities of ground-nesting ducks. All species, except Blue-winged Teal (Anas discors), preferred unburned nest cover, although success was higher in burned areas, where predators may have exerted less influence. Attitudes of farmers, burning chronology, and nest destruction by fires are also reported. Introduction Attention has been given recently to the importance of adequate nest cover for the man- agement of dabbling ducks, particularly with regard to man’s use of the land (Martz 1967; Kirsch 1969; Dwyer 1970; Oetting and Cassel 1971; Jarvis and Harris 1971; Page and Cassel 1971). Agricultural practices in many instances are detrimental to the welfare of waterfowl. Just as drainage has reduced the number of wetlands available for waterfowl, farming operations such as grazing, mowing, and burning can also diminish the quantity and quality of upland cover available for ground- nesting ducks. It is important to document the impact on upland nesting waterfowl of the frequent burning of fields, slough edges, fencerows, roadsides, and other waste areas. The objectives of this study, which was conducted during the spring and summer of 1970 and 1971, were to (1) determine the chronology and the amount of agricultural burning in the Minne- dosa, Manitoba area, (2) investigate attitudes of farmers concerning burning as an agri- cultural practice, (3) evaluate areas burned in fall and spring as nest cover, and (4) com- pare nesting success in burned and unburned cover. Study Area The study area, located south of Minnedosa, Manitoba (part of a region where waterfowl 21 studies have been conducted for over 20 years) consists of rolling terrain characterized by a mosaic of small wetlands, groves of aspen (Populus spp.) and oak (Quercus spp.), and cultivated fields. Cereal grain farming is the principal land use; cattle raising is of less im- portance. The upland vegetation consists pri- marily of smooth brome (Bromus inermis), slender wheatgrass (Agropyron trachycaulum) , wolfberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), wiid prairie rose (Rosa arkansana), and other grasses and forbs. Common wetland emergents are cattail (Typha latifolia), bulrush (Scirpus spp.) and whitetop (Scolochloa festucacea). Detailed descriptions of the area may be found in articles by Bird (1930) and Evans et al. (1952). A 4-square-mile study area characteristic of the surrounding landscape was selected for intensive nest studies. On 1 May 1970, it included approximately 640 permanent, semi- permanent, and temporary potholes totalling over 300 acres of water. Narrow bands of upland vegetation surrounded these wetlands on which cultivation was impossible. Only a few wetland areas were enclosed by upland cover totalling more than 1 acre. Mowing of slough edges and roadsides was insignificant throughout the duration of the study. Light grazing was observed only once. It occurred in early 1971 before the growing season began. DD THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Methods A 42-square-mile block was surveyed once each year in early spring to estimate the extent of fall burning done by farmers. It was sub- sequently surveyed at weekly intervals through- out the study to determine the amount of burning done in the spring. From the roads that criss-crossed the area, the acreage of each burn and the number of slough edges involved were described and estimated. During the two-year study, farmers were interviewed informally to determine the justifi- cation and techniques they used for burning cropland, slough edges, and waste areas. Ques- tionnaires relating to ‘burning, agricultural techniques, and wildlife values were sent to 100 farmers during the fall of 1970. Two censuses of breeding pairs and brood beat-outs (Blankenship et al. 1953) were conducted each year along a transect (% xX 8 miles) adjacent to roads throughout the study area. The data collected gave insight into breeding populations and served as a check on production data obtained from nest studies. When burning occurred on the 4-square- mile area, all burned vegetation, except stubble, was searched for burned nests. Destroyed nests were extremely difficult to locate because most of the burning was done in the afternoon when laying hens were off their nests and the eggs were covered with vegetation. Consequently, the number of burned nests discovered repre- sents a fraction of those actually present. Burned areas off the study area were searched occasionally. Potential duck nesting cover was measured by the use of aerial photos and a Bryan Modified Acreage Grid, as well as by personal observations and estimates. Searches for active nests were made daily between 0700 and 1300 hours through a por- tion of the study area. All potential cover, except cultivated fields and stubble, was tra- versed by individuals thrashing vegetation with sticks or dragging a rope strung with tin cans between them. A Chesapeake Bay Retriever usually accompanied one of the field workers and aided in flushing hens and finding hatched or destroyed nests. Areas burned during each Vol. 89 nesting season or during the previous fall were searched more regularly than unburned areas to insure complete coverage. Each nest was marked by attaching sur- veyor’s flagging to vegetation or by placing stakes 10 to 20 feet from the site. All nests were examined to determine location, species, number of eggs, stage of incubation, cover type, cover condition, and distance to water. The calculated hatching date being used as a guide, nests were reexamined to determine their fate. Small mammal populations, as an indicator of prey density, were surveyed in burned and unburned areas from May through July 1971. From 35 to 50 mousetraps were set 3 or 4 nights a week in comparable burned and un- burned cover. The number and species of the catch were recorded. Results and Discussion Amount of Burning The survey of 42 square miles showed that approximately 2,928 and 577 acres of cropland, roadsides, fencerows, slough edges, and miscel- laneous areas were burned during the springs of 1970 and 1971 respectively. Approximately 275 slough edges were burned in 1970 com- pared with 230 in 1971. The reduction in the total amount of burning done in spring 1971 was due to extremely wet weather in late May and June. In addition, a late fall in 1970 permitted farmers to burn an estimated 3,225 acres, including 581 slough edges. Comparable data were not collected on the 42 square miles in the fall of 1969; however, a substantial in- crease in fall burning was observed during the two years. Data from the 4-square-mile study area indicated 220 acres and 31 slough edges were burned in the fall of 1969, while 550 acres and 97 slough edges were burned in the fall of 1970. Three hundred acres of the 4-square-mile study area indicated 220 acres and 31 slough and 700 acres burned in the springs of 1970 and 1971 respectively, 50 acres were idle. Similar proportions of idle to cultivated land and burned to unburned land were present in the surrounding area. OWS Chronology of Burning The timing of burning and of nest initiation for an early-nesting species, the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), and a late-nesting species, the Blue-winged Teal (Anas discors), in 1970 are compared in Figure 1. The extremely late spring in 1970 delayed breeding as well as burning activity. Comparable data for 1971 are presented in Figure 2. 7 [e) ine) on NESTS INITIATED OR ACRES BURNED (PERCENT) ip) fo) APRIL MAY FRITZELL: AGRICULTURAL BURNING AND NESTING WATERFOWL 23 During the study, most burning occurred after the peak of first nest initiation by Mal- lards and Pintails (Anas acuta), and before most Blue-winged Teal nesting activity. It ap- pears that early-nesting ducks are more suscep- tible to destruction of nests by fire than later- nesting species. Mallards often prefer heavy, rank growth as nest sites, and Pintails often nest in stubble fields (Milonski 1958). Because BURNING MALLARD BLUE-WINGED TEAL WEEK ENDING FIGURE 1. Chronology of burning and nest initiation of Mallards and Blue-winged Teal, 1970. NESTS INITIATED OR ACRES BURNED (PERCENT) ip) to) BURNING MALLARD escece BLUE*=WINGED TEAL SLO ee [Ne el aan =) eae eae | Cee Suet were Chania ens APRIL MAY JUNE JULY WEEK ENDING FicurE 2. Chronology of burning and nest initiation of Matlards and Blue-winged Teal, 1971. 24 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST both of these types of cover are subject to heavy burning, Mallard and Pintail nests are highly susceptible to fire destruction. Blue- winged Teal are capable of, perhaps even prefer, nesting in short, often sparse vegetation (Glover 1956; Burgess et al. 1965). Such scant cover is not intentionally ignited as often as heavy cover. As a result, the nests of the late-nesting teal are less subject to fire destruc- tion. Attitudes of Farmers Informal interviews and questionnaires indi- cate that the attitudes of the farmers in the Minnedosa area vary considerably concerning burning as an agricultural technique. Some farmers were strongly opposed to burning, while others ignited fields and idle lands whenever conditions were favorable. Most farmers, however, burned some stubble and associated upland cover during the year. Slough edges were burned whenever possible where cattle-raising created a demand for hay. The farmers indicated that they use burning to control wild oats, willow (Salix spp.), aspen, and weeds; for clearing brush; for removing old bottom from a potential hay crop, stubble, and roadside vegetation; to dry out fields in spring; to increase hay production; and “because my father did it.” The local agricultural extension agent appraised the prevalent burning practices as the farmers’ “inability to cope” with modern farming methods. Dixon (unpublished report on file at Man- itoba Department of Mines, Resources and Environmental Management) found that the majority of 40 farmers questioned on a town- ship southwest of Minnedosa believed sloughs should be burned. The reasons they had for burning were for control of willow, aspen, and weeds; generation of new growth of hay; and elimination of old bottom. In addition, most farmers believed fields should be burned in the fall. Spring burning was believed to be neces- sary if weather or time did not permit fall burning. Breeding Populations The most common ducks using the study area were Blue-winged Teal and Mallards with 36 and 10 pairs per square mile respectively. Vol. 89 Data compiled by Stoudt (1967) showed a shift in species composition had occurred in the Minnedosa area from the period 1949— 1955 to 1964-1967. Mallards were the most abundant breeders during the former period, while Blue-winged Teal were the most numer- ous during the latter. During this study, teal continued to flourish while Mallard populations remained low. One explanation (Stoudt 1967) is that the impact of increased hunting pres- sure and intensive farming operations has been greater on the Mallard than on the teal popula- tion. Sellers’ (1973) results for the same area suggest that a lack of cover had affected breeding Mallard populations more than hunting pressure had. Moyle (1964, p. 16) showed that Mallards were more successful than Blue-winged Teal in areas where agri- cultural activity was light, and the reverse was true where agricultural activity was intense. Comparative surveys of breeding populations on unburned and burned areas were not made. Noticeably fewer Mallard pairs, however, used a 1-square-mile portion of the study area con- taining twice as much burned acreage, and having limited mowing and grazing, than used sections with less burned area. Cover conditions and land usage may limit the species of duck capable of successfully utilizing a particular area for breeding activities. Nest Destruction by Fire Approximately 38.0 acres of potential nesting cover, excluding stubble, were burned in the spring of 1970. The figure was approx- imately 26.0 acres in 1971. Fifteen burned nests were found in 1970, but only four were located in 1971. A Green-winged Teal (Anas crecca) removed one badly charred egg from a burned nest and laid at least four additional eggs. The clutch of five charred and at least four fresh eggs was later flooded and deserted. Similar behavior of hens continuing to nest after fires has been reported by Leedy (1950), Sowls (1955, p. 96), and Moyle (1964). Five additional burned nests were found off the study area in 1970. One of these was a Canvasback (Aythya_ valisineria) nest destroyed by a fire that swept over emergent vegetation. It was located 25 feet from dry land in 24 inches of water. 1975 Nest Densities Uncultivated nest cover contained 0.19 nest per acre on burned areas and 0.49 nest per acre on unburned areas (Table 1). These densities differ significantly (P < 0.01) when tested against an expected 50:50 ratio by chi- square methods. Other studies have shown limited duck nesting in burned cover (Glover 1956; Keith 1961, p. 51; Ward 1968). Page and Cassel (1971) found no nests in burned railroad rights-of-way. TABLE 1 — Densities of duck nests in burned and un- burned idle nesting cover, 1970-1971 Number of Cover type Acreage nests found Nest/acre Burned 1970 50 4 0.08 1971 50 15 0.30 Total or average 100 19 0.19 Unburned 1970 250 80 0.32 1971 250 166 0.66 Total or average 500 246 0.49 Sixteen of 19 nests found in burned areas were Blue-winged Teal nests. Teal did not show a significant preference for either burned or unburned cover. All other species combined, however, significantly preferred (P < 0.05) unburned nest cover. Martz (1967) found Blue-winged Teal nesting in mowed meadows on a North Dakota refuge significantly more than expected. Page and Cassel (1971) and Oetting and Cassel (1971) found unmowed areas were preferred by all upland nesting ducks. Kirsch (1969) found more nests of all species on ungrazed upland cover than on grazed areas. Nest Success The hatching success of 246 dabbling duck nests, which had not been abandoned because of my disturbance, was 15.0% in unburned cover. Five of 13 nests (38.5%) in burned cover were successful (Table 2).1 Most duck nesting-land use studies have found success 1 Excludes six nests deserted by laying hens. FRITZELL: AGRICULTURAL BURNING AND NESTING WATERFOWL DS higher in idle undisturbed areas with adequate residual growth than in disturbed areas with sparse cover (Moyle 1964, p. 17; Martz 1967; Kirsch 1969; Page and Cassel 1971; Oetting and Cassel 1971). Glover (1956) found that Blue-winged Teal nests located in light to sparse cover were more successful than those in heavier cover. Burgess et al. (1965) found the nest success of Blue-winged Teal was 47% on grazed areas and 14% on ungrazed areas. Kirsch (1969), however, reported that the Burgess et al. study was conducted where ungrazed cover consisted of narrow strips or small clumps of vegetation, rendering duck nests especially vulnerable to predators. Moyle (1964, p. 16) found poor duck nesting success in areas where the only idle cover consisted of strips and clumps associated with intensive agriculture. Idle land in the Minnedosa area is also limited to small strips and clumps. Eighty- three percent of all nests located in the study were found in narrow bands of cover, slough edges, fencerows, and roadsides. Sixty-nine percent were located less than 50 feet from water. Keith (1961, p. 62) and Page and Cassel (1971) found that nesting success was reduced, possibly because of increased predator activity, when nest-to-water distance was de- creased. The present study further illustrates that predators are extremely effective where cover consists of narrow bands of vegetation. The difference in hatching success between burned and unburned cover suggests a reduc- tion of predator activity in the burned areas. Predators searching for food may find it less available in sparse, green new growth than in undisturbed areas with residual growth. Trap success for all small mammals was approximately equal. It averaged 10.8% in burned cover and 12.6% in unburned cover. No meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus) were caught during 1,474 trap-nights in burned cover. Fifty were taken during 961 trap-nights in unburned areas. The absence of voles was due primarily to the lack of residual vegetation necessary for surface runways. Cook (1959) and Schramm (1968) also found Microtus spp. populations severely decreased by burning of grassland vegetation. 26 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 TABLE 2 — Fates of 265 dabbling duck nests in burned and unburned idle nesting cover, 1970-1971. Destroyed Number of Farming nests Deserted Hatched Predators Flood Fire operations 1970 Unburned 80 9 11(15.5)@ 45 (63.4) — 15(21.1) = Burned 4 1 2(66.7) 1(33.3) = aad gas 1971 Unbumed 166 17 22(14.8) 118(79.2) 6(4.0) 3(2.0) — Burned 15 5 3 (30.0) 5(50.0) — — 2(20.0) a Figures in parentheses are percentages. Meadow voles are a preferred food for some edge (Bird 1930). Indiscriminate annual carnivorous mammals. Scott (1947) reported that red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) favored voles over deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus). Errington (1967, p. 30) said that foxes “relished”’ voles. Most fox food-habits studies indicate a high consumption of voles. Red foxes, and perhaps other important nest pred- ators in the Minnedosa area, such as raccoons (Procyon lotor) and striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), may avoid burned areas when hunting. They may concentrate their activity on undisturbed areas that contain more voles and duck nests, and that perhaps afford more con- cealment. Keith (1961, p. 62) and Milonski (1958) found that heavy cover is traversed extensively by striped skunks, and suggest that concealment is an important influence in their movements. Conclusion Relatively thick cover with adequate residual vegetation is necessary for the successful nesting of most dabbling ducks. Idle land, described by Duebbert (1969), in the Crop- land Adjustment Program demonstrates the effectiveness of predator-proof nesting cover. Such cover is essential for increased duck pro- duction in agricultural areas where the only available cover occurs in narrow strips easily and efficiently searched by predators. Controlled burning is an efficient tool in wildlife habitat management. The aspen park- lands of Canada are ecotonal in nature and have been subject to periodic burning for centuries. Natural events, including fire, con- trolled the fluctuations of the forest-prairie burning, however, reduces the quantity and quality of suitable nesting cover for adequate duck production. The isolated islands of upland cover remaining around sloughs and other waste areas should be left undisturbed for several years where high quality nest cover is reduced by agricultural practices. Acknowledgments I acknowledge the assistance of H. A. Hoch- baum and R. E. Jones of the Delta Waterfowl Research Station, the agency sponsoring this research. I thank J. N. Krull, Southern Illinois University, for encouragement and guidance; J. Stoudt, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for advice during fieldwork; and K. A. West for field assistance in 1971. Literature Cited Bird, R. H. 1930. Biotic communities of the aspen parkiand of central Canada. Ecology 11(2): 356— 443. Blankenship, L. H., C. D. Evans, M. H. Hammond, and A. S. Hawkins. 1953. Techniques for brood production studies. Contribution for the Mississippi Flyway Council Technical Committee. Mimeograph. 14 pp. Burgess, H. H., H. H. Prince, and D. L. Trauger. 1965. Blue-winged Teal nesting success as related to land use. Journal of Wildlife Management 29(1): 89-95. Cook, S. F., Jr. 1959. The effects of a fire on a population of small rodents. Ecology 40(1): 102- 108. Duebbert, H. F. 1969. High nest density and hatching success of ducks on South Dakota CAP land. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resource Conference 34: 218-228. 1975 Dwyer, T. J. 1970. Waterfowl breeding habitat in agricultural and non-agricultural land in Man- itoba. Journal of Wildlife Management 34(1): 130— 136. Errington, P. L. 1967. Of predation and life. Iowa State University Press, Ames. 277 pp. Evans, C. D., A. S. Hawkins, and W. H. Marshall. 1952. Movements of waterfowl broods in Man- itoba. United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Special Scientific Report, Wildlife, Number 16. 47 pp. Glover, F. A. 1956. Nesting and production of the Blue-winged Teal (Anas discors Linnaeus) in northeast Iowa. Journal of Wildlife Management 20(1): 28-46. Jarvis, R. L. and S. W. Harris. 1971. Land-use patterns and duck production at Malheur National Wildlife Refuge. Journal of Wildlife Management 35(4): 767-773. Keith, L. B. 1961. A study of waterfowl ecology on small impoundments in southeastern Alberta. Wildlife Monograph 6. 88 pp. Kirsch, L. M. 1969. Waterfowl production in rela- tion to grazing. Journal of Wildlife Management 33(4): 821-828. Leedy, D. L. 1950. Ducks continue to nest after brush fire at Castalia, Ohio. Auk 67(2): 234. Martz, G. F. 1967. Effects of nesting cover re- moval on breeding puddle ducks. Journal of Wild- life Management 31(2): 236-247. Milonski, M. 1958. The significance of farmland for waterfowl nesting and techniques for reducing losses due to agricultural practices. Transactions of the North American Wildlife Conference 23: 215-227. Moyle, J. B. 1964. Ducks and land use in Min- nesota. Minnesota Department of Conservation Technical Bulletin 8. 140 pp. FRITZELL: AGRICULTURAL BURNING AND NESTING WATERFOWL 729 | Oetting, R. B. and J. F. Cassel. 1971. Waterfowl nesting on interstate highway right-of-way in North Dakota. Dakota. Journal of Wildlife Management 35(4): 774-781. Page, R. D. and J. F. Cassel. 1971. Waterfowl nesting on a railroad right-of-way in North Dakota. Journal of Wildlife Management 35(3): 544—550. Scott, T. G. 1947. Comparative analysis of red fox feeding trends on two central Iowa areas. Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 353: 427— 487. Sellers, R. A. 1973. Mallard releases in under- stocked prairie pothole habitat. Journal of Wild- life Management 37(1): 10-22. Schramm, P. 1968. Effects of fire on small mam- mal populations in a restored tall-grass prairie. In Proceedings of a Symposium on Prairie and Prairie Restoration. Edited by P. Schramm, Knox College, Galesburg, Illinois. pp. 39-41. Sowls, L. K. 1955. Prairie ducks, a study of their behaviour, ecology and management. Stackpole Company, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. 193 pp. Stoudt, J. H. 1967. A preliminary report on the status of mallard populations in the pothole region of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and the Dakotas. A paper presented at Waterfowl Seminar, Delta Waterfowl Research Station, Delta, Manitoba, August 17-18, 1967. Mimeograph. 12 pp. Ward, P. 1968. Fire in relation to waterfowl hab- itat of the Delta Marshes. Proceedings of the Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference, Tallahassee, Florida 8: 255-267. Received 7 May 1974 Accepted 14 September 1974 ecu ie Comments on the Distribution and Natural History of Some Mammals in Minnesota LAWRENCE R. HEANEY and ELMER C. BIRNEY Bell Museum of Natural History, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, U.S.A. 55455 Heaney, L. R. and E. C. Birney. 1975. Comments on the distribution and natural history of some mammals in Minnesota. Canadian Field-Naturalist 89(1): 29-34. Abstract. Data on the distribution and natural history of 18 species of Minnesota mammals are presented in an attempt to update information available in the last comprehensive account of the state’s mammalian fauna, which was published more than 20 years ago. New information is given for four insectivores, three bats, one lagomorph, nine rodents, and one carnivore. In the more than 20 years since the last comprehensive report on the mammals of Min- nesota appeared (Gunderson and Beer 1953), much information on the distribution and nat- ural history of mammals in the state has been gathered. Important papers include those by Beer (1953) on Clethrionomys gapperi and Napaeozapus insignis, Beer and MacLeod (1955) on Reithrodontomys megalotis, Birney (1974) on Gulo gulo, Bue and Stenlund (1953) on Felis concolor, Clough (1959) on Napaeozapus insignis, Davis and Ernst (1971) on Zapus hudsonius, Dickerman and Tester (1957) on Onychomys leucogaster, Erickson and Bue (1954) on Odocoileus hemionus, Ernst and Ernst (1972) on TYamias striatus, Gunderson (1955) on Myocastor coypus and (1965) on Martes americana, Handley (1954) on Phenacomys intermedius and Microtus chrotorrhinus, Hibbard (1970) on Didelphis virginiana, Hibbard and Beer (1960) on Perognathus flavescens, Mech (1973) on Lynx canadensis, Robins (1971) on Spermophilus franklinii, and Timm (1974) on Méicrotus chrotrorhinus. The purposes of this paper are to bring together unpublished distributional records of small mammals within the state and to provide information on reproduction and natural his- tory where it is appropriate. We hope that this information, together with citations to recent literature on Minnesota mammals, will serve students of the state’s mammalian fauna as a supplement to Gunderson and Beer’s (1953) The Mammals of Minnesota until such time as that work can be more thoroughly updated. 29 Specimens referred to, unless otherwise noted, are housed in the mammal collection of the James Ford Bell Museum of Natural His- tory; catalogue numbers refer to this collection. Species Accounts Sorex arcticus. Three specimens (12743-12745) of the arctic shrew from Carver County (1 mi N, 2 mi W of Victoria) taken on 20 January (2) and 5 February 1973 (1) constitute the southern- most records for the species in the state. An additional specimen (11615) from a southwestern marginal locality (Dassel, Meeker County) was taken on 20 April 1969. Arctic shrews were sec- ond in abundance only to meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus) in a_ grass-sedge meadow in Anoka County (Carlos Avery Game Management Area, 54 mi N, 1 mi W of Lino Lakes) in the summer of 1973. Later that summer they were found to be abundant near the edges of a large cattail marsh further south, also in Anoka County (Blaine). These observations, together with the discovery of a population in Carver County, lead us to believe the species is fairly widely distributed and not uncommon in suitable habitat along the southern boundary of its range in Minnesota. Microsorex hoyi. The pygmy shrew has been reported from eight counties in the state. Bailey (1929) reported 14 specimens from Elk River, Sherburne County; there is an additional spec- imen, collected in 1927 from Elk River, in the Museum of Natural History, University of Kan- sas. Cahn (1937) stated that several shrews of this species were taken at Ely, St. Louis County, but cited no preserved specimens. Quimby (1943) trapped one specimen in Itasca State Park, Clear- water County. Rom (1940, p. 30) reported three specimens from Kekekabic Lake, Lake County, 30 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 TABLE 1 — Data on selected specimens of Microsorex hoyi from Minnesota MMNH Specimen Total Weight, Reproductive number Date length Tail g Sex information Habitat 2926 13 July 1950 91 30 — @ 6 embryos 3 L, 3 R), a crown-rump = 8 mm 12749 28 Aug. 1972 99 29 4.7 2 Nulliparous — 21749 28 Aug. 1972 99 29 4.7 Q Placental scars visible — 7587 30 Oct. 1966 84 29 2.4 @ Nulliparous Dry cornfield, seeded 2 years before 7588 29 Dec. 1966 87 28 4.2 Q — Moist area (heavy moss) near drainage ditch 12750 31 Dec. 1966 89 30 5.6 ? — Tamarack swamp with the statement that “the average measure- ments in millimeters were 112—39-11-—2.5 (total length, tail, hind foot, ear), which is a good indication that it was this species, rather than Sorex cinereus.” Actually, these measurements are more like those of Sorex than of Microsorex (cf., Table 1). Additionally, no specimens were kept, no examination of the dentition was report- ed, and no Sorex cinereus, usually abundant in this area, were recorded. We doubt the specimens were identified correctly. Gunderson (1950) trap- ped one pygmy shrew on the Cedar Creek Natural History Area, Anoka County, and Gunderson and Beer (1953) noted additional specimens from Koochiching, Lake of the Woods, Pine, Dakota, and Steele Counties. The specimen from Steele County was not preserved; it, as with Rom’s specimens, should be viewed with skepticism. We are unable to locate the specimen from Pine-Coun- ty, and we have uncovered no source for their Dakota County record. Additional specimens are now available from Anoka County (Cedar Creek Natural History Area, 2926), Beltrami County (13 mi N, 5 mi W of Fourtown, 7588), Clear- water County (8 mi N, 24 mi W of Berner, 8908), Hubbard County (LaSalle Creek, Itasca State Park, 12746, 12747), Isanti County (5 mi S, 2 mi E of Isanti, 12748, 12749), and Wadena County (2 mi S, 4 mi W of Nimrod, 7587, 12750). The two specimens from Hubbard County were live-trapped by P. A. Rutter on 19 and 20 September 1972. They lived in captivity until 20 October 1972 and 12 January 1973, respectively. Miscellaneous information on the natural history of Microsorex hoyi in Minnesota is summarized in Table 1. Partial skulls of two pygmy shrews were re- moved from the stomachs of owls and given to the Museum by R. J. Oecehlenschlager. One (12751) was in a Barred Owl (Strix varia) taken 8 October 1972 at 24 mi N, 1 mi E of Oylen, Wadena County, and the other (12752) was in a Great Gray Owl (Strix nebulosa) killed at 14 mi N of Oylen, Wadena County (date unknown). Long (1972) mentioned only a hawk (Buteo) and a garter snake (Thamnophis) as documented predators of Microsorex hoyi. Scalopus aquaticus. Gunderson and Beer (1953) indicated that the eastern mole is common in the southern portions of Minnesota, but recorded having seen specimens from only four eastern counties (Hennepin, Houston, Ramsey, and Sherburne). Their “other records” (1.e., spec- imens not seen) were from Clearwater, Dakota, and Winona Counties. The Clearwater County record is based on Swanson’s (1943, p. 44) observations of the “characteristic runs” of Scal- opus in Itasca State Park. Despite frequent col- lecting in the area, no specimens have been procured. The star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata), a common species in that area, some- times makes similar runs, and perhaps was re- sponsible for the runs seen by Swanson. For these reasons it seems unlikely that Scalopus occurs there. Three specimens in the Bell Museum constitute new documented distributional records for S. aquaticus; one of these, from 10 mi SW of Onamia, Mille Lacs County (11934), is the northernmost record for the species, previously documented from no farther north than Elk River, Sherburne County (Bailey 1929). Field notes accompanying specimens from the other localities (Nobles County, 14 mi S, 54 mi W of Kinbrae, 7930; and Renville County, 14 mi N of Morton, 12324) indicate that Scalopus is common in suitable habitat in southwestern Min- nesota. 11975 Condylura cristata. Gunderson and Beer (1953, p. 36) recorded a possible occurrence of Condy- lura from Olmstead County; records in the Bell Museum indicate that the source was an amateur who found what he believed to be a star-nosed mole dead on the road near Rochester. Until specimens are secured from that part of the state, this record should be viewed skeptically. Gunderson and Beer’s southernmost documented locality is in Chisago County. Eight specimens have been acquired since 1962 from the Carlos Avery Game Management Area, Anoka County (54 mi N, 1 mi W of Lino Lakes). This locality is south of Elk River, previously the southernmost locality for which specimens were - available (Bailey 1929). Most of the eight were found dead along dirt roads or captured in live-traps set for Microtus in a grass-sedge meadow. This species is probably more abundant in the southern part of its range than was believed by Gunderson and Beer (1953). Lasionycteris noctivagans, Gunderson and Beer (1953) summarized the available county records of silver-haired bats in Minnesota. Timm (The mammals of Cook County, Minnesota. Uncom- pleted M.Sc. thesis, University of Minnesota) examined one from Cook County, and we have five from three other counties; these are Henne- pin County, no specific locality, 3394, and Min- neapolis, 4942, 12790; Wadena County, N of Oylen, 8041; Wright County, 5 mi N of Maple Lake, 5057. The specimen from Wadena County, taken on 24 June 1968, carried two embryos 20 mm in crown-rump length (1L, 1R) and the one from Wright County is a subadult. Specimens have been collected in Minnesota from 24 April. through 29 August. Lasiurus borealis. In addition to the localities plotted by Gunderson and Beer (1953), the red bat is known from Cook (Timm, manuscript), Itasca (Cahn 1921), and Benton (Swanson 1945) Counties. We now have additional spec- imens from Carver (Camden, 1567-1569), Clear- water (Preacher’s Grove, Itasca State Park, 12756), Aitkin (no specific locality, 12754), Hubbard (Itasca State Park, 12755), Houston (4 mi S of Reno, 5120), and Lincoln (Lake Hendricks, 12757) Counties, indicating that the species is probably state-wide and fairly common. The earliest date on which a specimen was taken in the state is 29 May, and the latest date is 30 September. The female taken on 29 May carried two embryos; our collection includes four ju- veniles, all captured in July. HEANEY AND BIRNEY: MAMMALS IN MINNESOTA 31 Lasiurus cinereus. Since the publication of The Mammals of Minnesota (Gunderson and Beer 1953), Beer (1954) reported a hoary bat from a cave in St. Paul, Ramsey County, and Timm (manuscript) obtained another in Cook County. We have specimens from five additional counties, all in northern Minnesota: Hubbard County, Itasca State Park, 12758; Koochiching County, 4 mi N, 44 mi E of Pelland, 7629; Norman County, Ada, 4088; Polk County, 2 mi S of Fertile, 12759; St. Louis County, Lake Burntside, 7631. The specimen from Hubbard County, taken on 23 July 1963, is a large subadult, but the others are fully adult. All were taken between 30 May and 3 September. Lepus americanus. The snowshoe hare, although abundant and widespread in the northern part of the state, has a spotty and poorly defined dis- tribution in the southern and central parts. Bailey (1929, p. 163) reported them “fairly abundant until about the close of the nineteenth century” and rare afterwards in Sherburne County. Swan- son (1945) doubted that they extended as far south as Minneapolis-St. Paul. Gunderson and Beer (1953) listed Mille Lacs County as the southernmost verified record in the state and Houston County as having a possible occurrence. De Vos (1964, p. 218) stated that Lepus amer- icanus was “once present in all forested portions of Minnesota... [but]... now usually survives along the southern boundary of its range in swampy woodlots largely covered by coni- fers ... .” Trapping on the northern fringe of Minneapolis-St. Paul has yielded 16 specimens from four localities. Two localities, East Bethel, Anoka County, 12761-12762, and 4 mi S, 43 E of Isanti, Isanti County, 12763, 12773-12775, are similar to the conifer swamps described by de Vos, but the other (Blaine, Anoka County, 12760, 12764-12772) is a series of loosely connected willow-aspen marshes wholly lacking in coniferous vegetation. Spermophilus richardsonii. Richardson’s ground squirrel has been reported from Kittson, Lac Qui Parle, Lincoln, Norman, Polk, and Traverse Counties (Swanson 1945), all on the Dakota border of the state. Gunderson and Beer (1953) noted possible records from Lyon and Polk Counties. Specimens now are available from another border county (Rock County, 14 mi NW of Luverne, 8035, and 5 mi N, 2 mi E of Luverne, 12779), and from two more easterly localities: Jackson County, Round Lake Water- fowl Station, 12778, and Ottertail County, E of Fergus Falls, 6541. 32 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Glaucomys volans. The distribution of the southern flying squirrel in Minnesota is uncertain. Swanson (1945) reported specimens from Aitkin, Anoka, Hennepin, Ramsey, Sherburne, Stearns, and Steele Counties. In addition, Gunderson and Beer (1953) claimed specimens from St. Louis and Washington Counties and listed Clearwater County as having an “authentic record,” but they neglected to mention Swanson’s (1945) record from Stearns County. We are unable to locate a source for the “authentic record” from Clearwater County and consider it questionable. Frequent collecting over many years in Itasca State Park, Clearwater County, has yielded many specimens of the northern flying squirrel, Glaucomys sabri- nus, but none of G. volans. The record from St. Louis County is also questionable and once again we are unable to locate its source. It possibly was a subadult G. sabrinus, which is common there and easily could be confused with G. volans. The northernmost verifiable record of Glaucomys volans in Minnesota, therefore, is Howell’s (1918) report of a specimen from Aitkin, Aitkin County. -We have three specimens that further define the range of G. volans in Minnesota. These are from Crow Wing County, Upper Long Lake, 7877; Mille Lacs County, Wahkon (= Waukon) Bay, Mille Lacs Lake, 8164; and Renville County, 2 mi N, 4 mi E of Morton, 12830. It is possible that G. volans occurs farther north and west than these records indicate, but acceptable evidence for such an argument does not exist. Onychomys leucogaster. Dickerman and Tester (1957) discussed the seven specimens of the northern grasshopper mouse previously known from Minnesota. Since that time, 11 additional specimens have been collected from the western portion of Minnesota: Clay County, Baker, 12780; Grant County, Hwy. 29, 1 mi E of Herman, 5492; Jackson County, 4 mi S of Alpha, 8982, 8983; Kandiyohi County, 2 mi W of Will- mar, 6068; Lyon County, 6 mi N of Tracy, 8984; Murray County, 6 mi N, 2 mi E of Currie, 8107; Nobles County, 2 mi N, 14 mi W of Wilmont, 7611, 8985, 8986; Stevens County, 1 mi S of Morris, 8106. Specimens from Jackson and Kandiyohi Counties provide the easternmost records for the species. Available reproductive information follows. Testes lengths: 11 June, 22 mm; 9 August, 9 mm; 29 August, 8 X 3 mm; 31 August, 11 X 7 mm; 10 September, 6.5 mm; 10 September, 8 mm; 13 September, 7 mm; 16 September, 5 mm. Uterine activity: 22 August, 3 placental scars; 13 Sep- tember, no embryos and no placental scars. Vol. 89 Clethrionomys gapperi. The red-backed vole, although common in the northern two-thirds of the state (see Powell 1972), is rarely encountered in the southern third, having been reported only from Nicollet County (Beer 1953). Bowles (1975) discussed the status and history of the several known populations of this species in Iowa. He commented on the degree and duration of isola- tion of these populations, previously thought to be about 80 miles SSE of the nearest populations in Minnesota. Specimens from intermediate local- ities are now available from Minnesota. A single specimen was taken 27 August 1967, 2 mi N, 4 mi W of Wanamingo, Goodhue County (8692). Two were taken 4 mi W of Owatonna, 1146 ft, Steele County, one each of 8 and 22 October 1972 (11988, 11989). These, the south- ernmost records for the state, are from the Kaplan Woods State Park, the only large (4 square mile), undisturbed deciduous forest in this part of the state. This finding seems to support Bowles’ con- tention that red-backed voles were once more widespread along the southern portion of their range in Minnesota and Iowa, and that the lowa populations probably have been isolated there for much less than the 8,000—3,000 years postulated by Blagen (1967). Red-backed voles probably will be found in the southeastern corner of the state, wherever large stands of deciduous forest remain undisturbed. Microtus ochrogaster. The prairie vole is wide- spread and at times may be locally abundant in southern and west-central Minnesota, but popula- tions are encountered only rarely and the dis- tribution limits in the state have remained poorly known since Swanson (1945) summarized the records available to him. Allen (1936) com- mented on the status of the species in Houston County. Our collection contains additional spec- imens from Pipestone (44 mi N, 8 mi W of Holland, 8060) and Wadena (5 mi SE of Nim- rod, 7440, 7712-7728) Counties. Swanson (1945) commented on a north-south cline in external dimensions in the species, giving 156-38-20 mm as mean dimensions for total length, tail length, and length of hind foot, re- spectively, for seven prairie voles from Fairport, Iowa, 147—36-19 as means of four specimens from Houston and Winona Counties, Minnesota, and 128—30-16 as means of 51 voles from Sher- burne County. Our sample of 18 specimens from Wadena County has mean dimensions of 115.6— 25.5—15.7; the largest individual was 127—27-16. The average weight for this sample is 16.2 g; the heaviest vole weighed 20.6 g. All appear to £975 be in adult pelage. The only reproductively active female had 10 placental scars (5 L, 5 R). Microtus pinetorum. Since Hatfield (1939) reported a specimen (skin only, 3267) of the pine vole taken on 21 March 1935 from Caledonia, Houston County, collecting efforts have produced only a single additional specimen (5564), taken on 1 September 1961 in an apple orchard in La Crescent, Houston County. Synaptomys borealis. The northern bog lem- ming has been reported from only two localities in Minnesota. Wetzel and Gunderson (1949) reported a specimen from Williams, Lake of the Woods County (951), and another (2552) from Warroad, Roseau County. Subsequently, a third specimen (11687) was taken 10 mi S of Big Falls, in central Koochiching County, on 28 May 1971. This adult male represents an extension of the known range of this species in the central United States approximately 50 miles to the south. Synaptomys cooperi. In addition to localities reported by Gunderson and Beer (1953), south- ern bog lemmings have been captured in Roseau (Swanson 1945) and Cook (Timm, manuscript) Counties. Additional records now are available from Hubbard (Itasca State Park, 5118), Itasca (2 mi S, 4 mi W of Bergville, 7605), Koochiching (10 mi S of Big Falls, 12781), Wadena (10 mi N of Nimrod, 8038), Counties, all in the northern half of the state. Pregnant females have been taken on 23 June (four embryos, 2 L, 2 R), 14 September (three embryos 4 mm in crown—rump length, 1 L, 2 R), and 25 September (three embryos, 4 mm in crown-rump length, 1 L, 2 R). Testes measured 7 mm on 4 July, 8 mm on 28 July, 4 mm on 19 August, and 6 mm on 14 September. Subadults have been taken on 12 June, 22 July, and 17 September. Erethizon dorsatum. Swanson (1945) reported that the “southernmost recent record of the porcupine in Minnesota is from Mille Lacs Coun- ty.” Gunderson and Beer (1953) reported having seen specimens only from Carlton, Lake, and St. Louis Counties, all part of the northern coni- ferous forest. This apparently was a result of the decline of porcupines within the deciduous forest after 1890 and 1929, when specimens were taken in Elk River, Sherburne County (Bailey 1929, and University of Kansas collection). Records now available to us indicate that the porcupine again has become common in the deciduous forest south to Minneapolis. Specimens collected since 1953 are available from: Anoka County, 1 mi N HEANEY AND BIRNEY: MAMMALS IN MINNESOTA 33 of Fish Lake, 12787, and 2 mi SE of Fish Lake, 5696; Aitkin County, 24 mi N, 3 mi E of Aitkin, 11979, and 8 mi E of Hill City, 5502; Carlton County, 6.7 mi S of Cloquet, 4868; Clearwater County, NW side of Itasca State Park, 4969; Mille Lacs County, 2 mi NE of Page, 7993; Pine County, 14 mi S, 4 mi E of Cloverdale, 12788. Martes pennanti. As Gunderson and Beer (1953) noted, the fisher once was a common ‘mammal throughout the wooded portions of the state, but by 1880 it probably persisted only in small populations in such places as St. Louis and Pennington Counties. In a recent discussion of the status of the fisher, de Vos (1964, p. 216) con- cluded that the species had “spread somewhat in northeastern Minnesota.” Our records indicate that fishers probably persisted in the northern portions of the state, and, partly as a result of nearly complete protection by the state, are now abundant in Cook, Koochiching, Lake, and St. Louis Counties. They apparently are fairly com- mon in Beltrami and Lake of the Woods Counties as well. In addition to the 20 specimens from Cook County obtained by Timm (manuscript), 13 have become available since 1953 from the following localities: Beltrami County, 5 mi N, 11 mi W of Kelliher, 12389; Koochiching County, Pine Island, 4479, and Ray, 5643, 5668, 5669, 5676— 5678; Lake County, (near) Ely, 5662, and 10 mi NW of Finland, 3986; St. Louis County, Lake Vermillion, 4376, 12789, and Hibbing, 5673. Acknowledgments We acknowledge the donation of valuable specimens by L. J. Anderson, P. A. Rutter, R. J. Oehlenschlager, and O. T. Kalin. R. M. Timm read the manuscript and assisted us throughout its preparation. Partial support of field work came from a research grant to Birney from the Graduate School, University of Minnesota. Literature Cited Allen, P. F. 1936. Microtus ochrogaster in Minnesota. Journal of Mammalogy 17: 291. Bailey, B. 1929. Mammals of Sherburne County, Min- nesota. Journal of Mammalogy 10: 153-164. Beer, J. R. 1953. Two new locality records for mam- mals in Minnesota. Journal of Mammalogy 34: 384-385. Beer, J. R. 1954. A record of a hoary bat from a cave. Journal of Mammalogy 35: 116. Beer, J. R. and C. F. MacLeod. 1955. The harvest mouse in Dakota County. Flicker 27: 176. 34 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Bimey, E. C. 1974. Twentieth century records of wol- verine in Minnesota. Loon 46: 78-81. Blagen, W. S. 1967. Habitat ecology of a relict red- backed vole population in Iowa. Ph.D. thesis, lowa State University, Ames, Iowa, 230 pp. Bowles, J. B. 1975. Distribution and biogeography of mammals of Iowa. Texas Tech University, The Museum, Special Publications. (/n press.) Bue, G. T. and M. H. Stenlund. 1953. Recent records of the mountain lion, Felis concolor, in Minnesota. Journal of Mammalogy 34: 390-391. Cahn, A. R. 1921. The mammals of Itasca County, Minnesota. Journal of Mammalogy 2: 68-74. Cahn, A. R. 1937. The mammals of Quetico Provin- cial Park of Ontario. Journal of Mammalogy 18: 19-30. Clough, G. C. 1959. Extension of range of the wood- land jumping mouse. Journal of Mammalogy 40: 449. Davis, W. H. and C. H. Ernst. 1971. The taxonomic status of Zapus in northwestern Minnesota. Amer- ican Midland Naturalist 85: 265-267. de Vos, A. 1964. Range changes of mammals in the Great Lakes region. American Midland Naturalist 71: 210-231. Dickerman, R. W. and J. Tester. 1957. Onychomys leucogaster in Kittson County, Minnesota. Journal of Mammalogy 38: 269. Erickson, A. B. and G. T. Bue. Additional mule deer records for Minnesota. Journal of Mammalogy 35: 457-458. Ernst, C. H. and E. M. Ernst. 1972. The eastern chip- munk, Tamias striatus, in southwestern Minnesota, U.S.A. Canadian Field-Naturalist 86: 377. Gunderson, H. L. 1950. A study of some small mam- mal populations at Cedar Creek Forest, Anoka County, Minnesota. Minnesota Museum of Natural History, Occasional Paper 4: vii+ 1-49. Gunderson, H. L. 1955. Nutria, Myocastor copyus, in Minnesota. Journal of Mammalogy 36: 465. Gunderson, H. L. 1965. Marten records for Minne- sota. Journal of Mammalogy 46: 688. Gunderson, H. L. and J. R. Beer. 1953. The mammals of Minnesota. Minnesota Museum of Natural His- tory, Occasional Paper 6: xii+1-190. Vol. 89 Handley, C. O., Jr. 1954. Phenacomys in Minnesota. Journal of Mammalogy 35: 260. Hatfield, D. M. 1939. Northern pine mouse in Minne- sota. Journal of Mammalogy 20: 376. Hibbard, E. A. 1970. Additional Minnesota opossum records. Loon 42: 77-78. Hibbard, E. A. and J. R. Beer. 1960. The plains pocket mouse in Minnesota. Flicker 32: 89-94. Howell, A. H. 1918. Revision of the American flying squirrels. North American Fauna 44: 1-64. Long, C. A. 1972. Notes on habitat preference and re- production in pigmy shrews, Microsorex. Canadian Field-Naturalist 86: 155-160. Mech, L. D. 1973. Canadian lynx invasion of Minne- sota. Biological Conservation 5(2): 151-152. Powell, R. A. 1972. A comparison of populations of boreal red-backed vole (Clethrionomys gapperi) in tornado blowdown and standing forest. Canadian Field-Naturalist 86: 377-379. Quimby, D. 1943. Notes on the long-tailed shrews in Minnesota. Journal of Mammalogy 24: 261-262. Robins, J. D. 1971. Movement of Franklin’s ground squirrel into northeastern Minnesota. Journal of the Minnesota Academy of Science 37: 30-31. Rom, W. N. 1940. Small mammals of northeastern Lake County, Minnesota. Flicker 12: 29-32. Swanson, G. A. 1943. Wildlife of Itasca Park — The mammals. Flicker 15: 41-49. Swanson, G. A. 1945. A systematic catalog of the mammals of Minnesota. Jn The mammals of Min- nesota. Edited by G. A. Swanson, T. Surber, and T. S. Roberts. Minnesota Department of Conserva- tion, Technical Bulletin 2. pp. 52-102. Timm, R. M. 1974. Rediscovery of the rock vole (Microtus chrotorrhintus) in Minnesota. Canadian Field-Naturalist 88: 82. : Wetzel, R. M. and H. L. Gunderson. 1949. The lem- ming vole, Synaptomys borealis, in northern Minne- sota. Journal of Mammalogy 30: 437. Received 19 June 1974 Accepted 7 November 1974 Behavior of a Young Bald Eagle at a Southern Ontario Nest FLORENCE M. WEEKES Box 11398, Postal Station “H”, Ottawa, Ontario K2H 7V1. Weekes, F. M. 1975. Behavior of a young Bald Eagle at a southern Ontario nest. Canadian Field-Naturalist 89: 35-40. Abstract. A series of observations at a southern Ontario nest of the Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) disclosed some points in the development of an eaglet and in its adjustment to life off the nest. The question is raised as to how well birds of prey can adapt to human interference and lack of wilderness conditions, par- ticularly during the learning period. In 1973, a sequence of observations of be- havior was made at a nest in Essex County, Ontario, where a pair of Bald Eagles (Hal- iaeetus leucocephalus) raised one young. The nest was chosen for study after it became ev- ident that it was possibly the only 1973 nest holding an eaglet in southern Ontario — an area where the Bald Eagle, once common, appeared in 1973 to be on the verge of extinction (Weekes 1974). Methods During April and May the nest was visited eight times (total observation time 25 hours). From 31 May to 22 June the nest was visited daily (total observation time 250 hours). Watches started as early as 4:20 a.m., and end- ed as late as 9:25 p.m., E.S.T., and lasted from 1 to 16 hours. The nest tree was not climbed nor the nest measured. The nest was estimated to be about 7 feet across and was in the dying crown of a shagbark hickory. This was one of three hickories standing after the surrounding land had been cleared for agriculture. The tree was almost 1 mile north of Lake Erie and 34 mile north of the road and main farm buildings. About %4 mile north of the nest a creek up to 500 feet wide flowed in an east-west direction, with several marshes extending from it. The land around these waters was wooded, with the result that the open area north of the nest was bordered by an irregular line of trees, the closest being about 1800 feet away. Area crops included beans, corn, wheat, and market vegetables. 35 While the eaglet was on the nest many ob- servations were made with a telescope (15x, 30, 45, 60>) set up in a barn 500 feet west of the tree. Other observations, and almost all those after the eaglet flew, were made on foot in the field, woods, marsh, and creek areas, usually with 7 or 12 binoculars. The barn was dilapidated and not in current use except for storage. Positioning of the telescope was limited by the uncertain condition of the floor, by the presence of much old equipment, and by the necessity for sighting through one of many narrow gaps in the walls. A position was found about the middle of the barn where the telescope was protected from all but the most driving rains, and from which a good view of the nest, but not the peripheral side areas, was possible. Identification of the adults was not always possible because sexual dimorphism was slight and because they were absent from the nest in- creasingly. Age of the young was surmised by comparisons with other area nesting dates, by the landowner’s observations of earliest nest occupancy, and by the author’s observations. Incubation was expected to take 34-35 days (Herrick 1932), and nest life after hatching 10-13 weeks (Herrick 1933). Observations The farmer reported 26 February 1973 as the date when the eagles began staying at the nest. The eaglet was first seen by the author 18 April. During a 22-hour period it stood once for a few seconds and staggered about 18 inches across the nest. 36 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Sham Fighting and Feeding On 5 May the eaglet made a sham attack on one of the parent birds. At 7:14 p.m., the eaglet was settled low when the adult began pecking at it, twice lifting the young’s wing in its beak. The adult frequently shook small light — feathers from its beak. The eaglet stood up and twice took a “fighting” stance, wings out and beak pecking at the adult. It settled back down. The adult picked up several sticks in succession, proferring them toward the eaglet. The eaglet pecked at two and then resettled. The whole process lasted about 7 min. A few minutes earlier the adult helped the eaglet eat a long piece of intestine. The adult offered the eaglet one end of some thin drip- ping red (and probably slippery) entrail. The eaglet took the end in its mouth. The adult then grasped the entrail about 12 inches from the eaglet’s mouth. While the eaglet gulped and swallowed, opening and closing its beak, the adult held the entrail taut, leaving always about 12 inches between them. The adult also opened and closed its beak as it regulated the flow from the prey to the eaglet. Finally, the adult moved its beak toward that of the young bird and let the final about 6 inches go. The eaglet finished swallowing it. On 11 May an adult gave the eaglet one end of a piece of fresh intestine about 12 inches long. As soon as the eaglet took it the adult let go. The eaglet gulped and grabbed a few times, without losing the food, and swallowed it. On 21 May the eaglet ate four to six small whole fish, swallowing them headfirst and whole. The last one was so large the eaglet had to open its beak wide and make swallowing motions for several seconds before the tail dis- appeared and it could close its beak. The eaglet then stood with its head bent well down for about 1 min. Its body jerked hard twice but nothing was cast. At no time did I see any cast- ing by any of these eagles. Fish were the main food seen at the nest, and were usually brought in from the north. One particular area of the nest, on the north side, seemed to serve as a pantry. Both storage and feeding generally took place there or from there. When the eaglet grew strong enough sometimes to carry its food around in its beak it Vol. 89 still tended to return to the habitual place for prolonged feeding. Of 39 feedings recorded as to place, 27 were in this north area, 9 were on the south side, and 3 were in the center. Feed- ings at the south or center were generally of short duration, sometimes just a few seconds, while feedings on the north side lasted up to about 20 min. As the dark plumage grew, the eaglet dis- carded many down feathers while preening. Usually it would just open its beak and the feather would blow away. When a feather stuck on the tongue or mandible the eaglet would open its beak wide, waggling its tongue and shaking its head vigorously, or vary this proce- dure with rapid biting motions. During one 20-min preening period on 9 June, the eaglet five times spent several seconds in fits of vio- lent throat clearing in apparent efforts to dis- lodge feathers. The bird’s hawwr hawwr sounds were Clearly audible in the barn. On 12 June a second session of sham fighting was seen. An adult returned to the nest with food. The eaglet flapped its wings and twisted — its head down and around to present its beak to the parent’s for feeding. The adult remained where it had landed on the nest edge and chittered quietly. The chick flapped about, banging the adult with its wings. The adult walked to nest center. The chick climbed to the nest rim, flapped its wings about six times and leaped up and landed with its talons spread on the adult’s back. It jumped back to the nest rim and repeated the whole manoeuvre, elicit- ing no response from the adult. The chick then jumped down and fed itself. The adult watched for about 2 min and flew to a perch off the nest. Disturbances The only birds that harassed the eagles near the nest were gulls. A noisy flock of them often chased an adult coming to the nest. They would circle and call over one or both adults perched near the nest, diving to within about 7 feet of them. The eaglet would flatten itself on the nest. The harassed adult might squeal or squawk, but never chased the gulls. Only once was a gull seen to dive at a bird on the nest. On 12 June the eaglet was alone practicing flying when one gull dived a few times toward 1975 it, calling once. The eaglet showed no reaction. The only bird seen chased away was a Red- tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), which flew _ over 21 May when both adults were at the nest. The male gave chase. Crows rarely came near the nest, but occasionally harassed an adult flying over the woods. At first any walking around by this observer provoked both adults into circling and calling, and would result in the eaglet’s getting down out of sight. They seemed undisturbed when I was inside the barn or sitting quietly just out- side it. They soon began to ignore my walking about near the barn during the day, but almost any movement at twilight when they seemed settled for the night would provoke calling and circling. By 8 June I was able, by careful approach, to walk to within 200 feet of the nest tree and sit in the open watching it for periods of up to 1% hours without exciting the female. On this day the male flew away at first, but after about 3% hours he returned and became very agitated. The male’s reaction to my ap- proach to any of his regular perch trees at the field/woods edge or in the marsh was some- times as vocal and restive as was his reaction to my approach to the nest. Actions that seemed to disturb the eagles or change their behavior were avoided as much as possible. Fledging There were many convenient branches over and around the nest, but up to 14 June all the eaglet’s practice flights were over or across the nest with landings back on the nest proper. Practice flying was only occasional. On 14 June the eaglet stood for one period of 4% hours without lifting its wings, and during another period of almost 3 hours it flapped a total of seven times without becoming airborne. At the end of this second period, at 7:02 p.m., the eaglet suddenly started running across the nest. This was the first time it was seen to run. It picked up a small stick and shook it vigorously, displaying unusual energy. Then it took off in a vertical flight and landed on a branch almost overhanging the nest, about 3 feet above it. The female, perched nearby, seemed to pay no attention. The male was ab- sent. The eaglet executed the off-nest perching WEEKES: BEHAVIOR OF A YOUNG BALD EAGLE 37 three times. At 7:10 p.m. it was quiet on the nest again. At 7:24 p.m., the male returned, dropped a small fish in the nest and perched near the female. Both were on perches they often used for the night. Twice when I started moving slowly near the barn the male began calling. At 7:56 p.m., I sat down and he settled on a ‘branch about 6 feet above the nest. At 7:57 p-m., the eaglet squealed loudly and flew, once, up to its new perch and back down again. Neither adult showed reaction. The weather was clear and warm. Sunset was 8:05 p.m. They all seemed settled for the night. I did not move. At 8:10 p.m., the male flew away in a fast, direct, climbing flight to the west-north- west, a direction they had taken before for only a few short flights. At 8:12 p.m., the female followed him. Neither called. They flew out of sight. I walked around and then went about 100 feet directly toward the nest and back. The adults did not return. Night fell. At 9:25 p.m., the eaglet was still standing on the nest. With the exception of 3 June and 6 June, when evening checks were not made, one or both adults were observed at the nest at every sundown or near-sundown check from 31 May to 13 June, inclusive, and would be found on the same perches if I arrived early the next morning. On 15 June at 4:20 a.m. (sunrise 4:45 a.m.) the eaglet was alone on the nest. At 5° a.m, it jumped once to its new perch and back. It was strong enough to complete the manoeuvre with wings spread but not flapping. It did no more practicing. It disappeared between 5:35 a.m. and 5:40 a.m., while I was walking around not more than 400 feet from the nest. I neither saw nor heard it leave and did not see or hear the adults, although I glanced from time to time around the horizon. I had earlier clocked the adults from nest to woods in as few as 20 s. Post-fledging Observations The eaglet did not return to the nest during this study. Shortly after 8 p.m., 15 June, one of the adults was at the nest eating a fish. The bird’s head jerked from side to side about every 1 to 4 s, so violently that blood and 38 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST bits of flesh were flung in all directions. The frequent head turnings of the eagles, which Herrick (1933) calls “that index of circumspec- tion,’ were common at all times to the adults but not to the eaglet. No eagles roosted at the nest the night of 15 June. There were no eagles around at dawn 16 June. At 6:25 a.m., several starlings and grack- les entered the nest and began feeding. Such smaller birds had flown around and over the nest before, but had not landed on top. When first found off the nest, 16 June, the immature was perched near the marsh with the adults nearby. Even though I called out it stood silent and still, not even twitching its head, as I stood within 60 feet of it. It was facing in my direction. After I had walked away the imma- ture was noted to have turned about 180 de- grees to be again facing in my direction, but while I watched and called out it again re- mained still and silent. On 17 June, 2:30 p.m., one of the adults carried a large piece of fish from the nest to the woods where the young had been shortly be- fore. Both adults roosted by the nest 17 June. On 18 June one adult roosted at the nest. None of the birds was subsequently seen near the nest. On 19 June the three eagles were seen briefly soaring over the woods. Otherwise the imma- ture exhibited a pattern of low flights and a tendency to remain near cover of the trees. It frequently would fly into the foliage where its dull plumage gave it effective camouflage. The morning of 20 June, the immature and an adult were perched in a tree on the south bank of the creek when someone came along in a boat. The birds flew away. In the afternoon of 20 June the three eagles were in a marsh north of the creek. At one point the immature stood on the ground with about 50 seagulls wheeling noisily about 100 feet over it. An adult was perched near. Neither bird seemed to react, but the immature flew when two dogs ran toward it. All three eagles were constantly harassed, both flying and perching, by Red- winged Blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). The latter had been common around the eagle nest but had not interacted with them there. In this new area the adults still flew if approached, but I walked openly to within 60 feet of the im- Vol. 89 mature. For about 44% min it remained silent and still. Then it flew to join the adults. One adult was seen on the north side of the creek early 21 June, but for the rest of 21 June and 22 June none of the birds was sighted there or in any of the usual areas to the south of the creek. There had been, and continued to be, a steady increase in the amount of human activity in the fields (mainly farming, some people out walking) and along the creek (fish- ing and boating). Discussion For purposes of this study it was assumed the egg was laid on or about 26 February 1973, and hatched 1 or 2 April. February 26, 1973, was the date of first noted occupancy of an- other Bald Eagle nest (unsuccessful) in south- western Ontario. Development milestones of the Essex eaglet seem consistent with its having hatched 34-35 days from that approximate date. It would thus have flown at 10 weeks and 4 + 1 days. The eagles were active later in the day than had been anticipated. Herrick (1924a) ar- ranged nest watches from 5 a.m. to 7 p.m., as he considered this the entire period of daily activity for Bald Eagles in his study area. His work was done at Ohio nests less than 1 degree south and less than 1 degree east of the Essex nest. Bird activities dictated by day length would be expected to be timed about the same in either locality. When there are two or three eaglets in one nest, play or practice fighting would be expect- ed among them (Herrick 1924d). For the single eaglet here recorded, sham fighting with the parent may have taken the place of some of this. Herrick (1933) provides the only informa- tion that seems available on the problem young eagles might have in learning to feed on intes- tine. He reports a pair of Bald Eagles each twice offered their two young long pieces of intestine, but the eaglets (age unspecified) refused the food every time and the parents finally ate it themselves. Gerrard (1973) reports that food-begging calls can be heard from young Bald Eagles when they are otherwise hidden among trees after leaving the nest. Although this observer never happened to hear.the Essex eaglet calling 1975 after it left the nest, it is possible the adult seen carrying food to the woods on 17 June was taking it to the young. Of the many other birds in the vicinity of southern Ontario Bald Eagle nests, crows, gulls, and hawks seem to be the main birds with which the eagles interact, and the interaction seems to be mainly chasing or harassing with- out contact. In June 1969, in Elgin County, I watched a tiercel Bald Eagle chase a Red-tailed Hawk from over a nest containing an eaglet. At a Middlesex County nest, in March 1971, before there were any signs of incubation, a male chased away a Red-tailed Hawk that was harassing the female in flight. Later, with the male absent, the female was harassed for a short time by a crow, again both in flight. Less be- ligerent behavior can be expected when nesting is not a factor. It is probable that 14 June 1973 was the first night the Essex eaglet was left alone. The change in the adults’ behavior followed so closely on the eaglet’s being seen perched off the nest that it seemed as if the eaglet’s be- havior might have triggered their response. The eaglet might have just flown away on its own on 15 June, but it is possible one or both adults appeared briefly over the woods and that the eaglet flew to them. Herrick (1933) notes an eaglet making a mile on its first flight. Behavior as generally reported (Herrick 1924b, c; Retfalvi 1965) indicates that before leaving the nest eaglets can be expected to make many practice flights to nearby perches, and that after leaving the nest they can be ex- pected to make frequent return visits to perch or feed during a period of up to several weeks. The Essex eaglet’s abrupt and complete nest- leaving might have been partly attributable to the constant presence of a human observer, and was probably influenced by the fact that the nest was in a very exposed position com- pared to the perches near the feeding grounds. Where a nest tree is in a fairly open area there is an apparent regular tendency for Bald Eagles to move with their young to areas affording better cover, after the young can fly. This seems to have occurred in 1971, when an eaglet fledged from the Essex nest was reported by local observers to have “just disappeared” within a few days of flying. The same was true WEEKES: BEHAVIOR OF A YOUNG BALD EAGLE 39 of a Bald Eagle fledged in Elgin County in 1969, where the nest was in an open area with thicker woods nearby. These nests, as in the cases of at least some others found in exposed positions, were built when the nest trees were still part of woodlots. At one southwestern Ontario nest which was situated in a well- wooded and seldom-visited area, two eaglets hatched in 1971 were still to be seen with the adults as late as September of that year. When the Ontario Department of Lands and Forests cleared woods for a camping area near a Bald Eagle nest in the District of Algoma, northern Ontario, in 1961, the eagles used the nest to raise a young, but moved back as soon as the eaglet could fly (L. G. Larose, report from the Royal Canadian Mounted Police to the Cana- dian Audubon Society). The Essex eaglet off the nest exhibited a pattern that included stillness, silence, and some camouflage. Survival might be enhanced by these factors, but might be hindered by the young bird’s lack of alertness or irritability. At another southwestern Ontario nest, in 1974, an eaglet perched about 5 feet above its nest while the author sat in full view about 100 feet away for 3% hours. The adults were absent. The bird only occasionally turned its head, and dur- ing periods of up to 134 hours the only move- ment noted was that of the nictitating mem- brane, which ‘blinked about every 1 to 3 s. Full-grown eaglets, on and off the nest, have often been noted to turn to face this observer, but whether this is from wariness or curiosity is difficult to determine. Human disturbance and lack of cover trees may be important factors in timing of complete nest-leaving and in some areas might mean a crucial shortening of the time needed for an eaglet, or any bird of prey, to learn survival techniques. Such factors should be kept in mind in assessing reasons for species disappearance or in attempting species preservation. Brown and Amadon (1968) note that the great major- ity of birds of prey die in their first year, and that larger ones are more likely to be shot. Literature Cited Brown, L. and D. Amadon. 1968. Eagles, hawks and owls of the world. Volume 1. Hamlyn Publishing Group, Middlesex. 414 pp. 40 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Gerrard, J. M. 1973. The Bald Eagles in Canada’s northern forests. Nature Canada 2(3): 10-13. Herrick, F. H. 1924a. An eagle observatory. Auk 41(1): 89-105. Herrick, F. H. 1924b. Nests and nesting habits of the American Eagle. Auk 41(2): 213-231. Herrick, F. H. 1924c. The daily life of the American Eagle: late phase. Auk 41(3): 389-422. Herrick, F. H. 1924d. The daily life of the American Eagle: late phase (concluded). Auk 41(4): 517-541. Herrick, F. H. 1932. Daily life of the American Eagle: early phase. Auk 49(3): 307-323. Herrick, F. H. 1933. Daily life of the American Eagle: early phase (concluded). Auk 50(1): 35-53. Vol. 89 Retfalvi, L. 1965. Breeding behaviour and feeding habits of the Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) on San Juan Island, Washington. M.Sc. thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B. C. 180 pp. Weekes, F. M. 1974. A survey of Bald Eagle nesting attempts in southern Ontario, 1969-1973. Canadian Field-Naturalist 88(4): 415-419. Received 24 May 1974 Accepted 19 November 1974 Comparative Concentrations of Twelve Elements in Substrates and Leaves of Scirpus validus and Other Aquatic Plant Species in a Sewage Lagoon and in Unpolluted Habitats ERNEST SMALL! and JOHN D. GAYNOR? 1 Biosystematics Research Institute, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, Ontario 2 Soil Research Institute, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, Ontario Current address: Research Station, Agriculture Canada, Harrow, Ontario Small, E. and J. D. Gaynor. 1975. Comparative concentration of twelve elements in substrates and leaves of Scirpus validus and other aquatic plant species in a sewage lagoon and in unpolluted habitats. Canadian Field-Naturalist 89: 41-45. Abstract. Concentrations of 12 elements were examined in vegetation and associated soils and water of 12 rooted aquatic plant species growing in the lagoon of a sewage treatment plant, and elsewhere in unpolluted habitats. Near the point of discharge of effluent into the lagoon, the substrate accumulated sludge, with very high concentrations of chlorine, zinc, and copper, and also notably high concentrations of phosphorus, iron, and calcium. The only rooted aquatic plant species successfully colonizing this area was Scirpus validus (the common bulrush), which accumulated significantly higher concentrations, in the leaves, of phosphorus, iron, chlorine, nitrogen, sodium, and magnesium, compared with the same species in non-sludge areas of the la- goon, and in unpolluted habitats. Eleven additional aquatic plant species were found in the lagoon, rooted in sandy sediment adjacent to the sludge area. These species appeared excluded from the sludge area. Concen- trations of the 12 elements examined in substrates and leaves of these species growing just outside the sludge area did not differ notably in comparison with concentrations in unpolluted habitats. Introduction Effluent from sewage treatment plants is often channelled into lagoons, where “pol- ishing” occurs through the action of sunlight, waves, oxygen, and bacteria, resulting in less harmful ultimate discharge into a river system. The effects of such discharge on natural aquatic vegetation in the immediate path of the effluent have been little studied from the point of view of element uptake (see review of sub- ject area by Antonovics et al. (1971)). This paper reports a brief investigation of element concentration in plants and substrates of a sewage lagoon, in comparison with unpolluted sites. Site Description The Watts Creek sewage treatment plant of Ottawa directs its effluent, via Watts Creek, into Shirleys Bay of the Ottawa River, where berms extend 1 km out from the mainland to form a large lagoon, less than a metre deep 41 in late summer, which is continuous with the river. A simplified diagram of the sewage lagoon is presented in Figure 1. The sewage plant was constructed in 1961, with a design capacity of 1.5 million gallons per day, and was enlarged in 1972 to a total capacity of 8 million gallons per day. The plant provides primary and secondary treatment to the sewage prior to discharge, removing perhaps 90% of solid material, and presently treats effluent at a rate of about 300 lb chlorine per day. The conductivity of the water at the discharge point of Watts Creek into the lagoon in August of 1973 was about 200 »MHO/cm, and this gradually tapered off to about 50 »~MHO/cm 1 km toward the center of the river. About 20 m from the discharge point of Watts Creek into the sewage lagoon, a large growth of the very common bulrush Scirpus validus Vahl. begins, and extends almost continuously for about 500m away from the discharge area 42 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST sewage treatment plant sewage bay FIGURE 1. discussed in text. toward the river, with scattered patches of this species occurring for a further kilometre to- wards the center of the river. For a distance of about 75m from the discharge point of Watts Creek, Scirpus validus is essentially the only rooted aquatic plant found. (Floating duckweeds, Lemna minor L. and Spirodela polyrhiza (LL) Schleiden, also grow profusely in this area, as do microscopic algae.) The substrate of this region is an OOzy sewage deposit, hereafter termed “sludge.” At the limits of this zone, the substrate changes very noticeably to a sandy sediment, and several other rooted higher aquatic plant species are found in addition to S. validus. These include the emergent aquatic species Typha latifolia L., Sparganium eurycarpum Engelm., Ponte- deria cordata L., Sagittaria rigida Pursh, and Sagittaria latifolia Willd., the floating-leaved Nymphaea odorata Ait., and the submersed species Ceratophyllum demersum L.., Ana- Vol. 89 e = Scirpus validus L. o = other aquatic species sludge accumulation zone zone with little sludge Highly simplified diagram illustrating basic topographical relationships charis canadensis (Michx.) Rich. Heteranthera dubia (Jacq.) Macm., Potamogeton perfo- liatus L., and Vallisneria americana Michx. Methods Samples of sediments and leaves were col- lected August 20-24, 1973. Sampled plants of Scirpus validus were consistently chosen growing in water less than a metre in depth, and extending at least a metre out of the water. The top 50 cm of leaves, well out of the water, were collected. Massed collections of about 100 leaves were made at 32 sites, and at each site a sample of soil representing the top 15 cm of substrate, was collected. Thirteen sites in the heavily-polluted sludge zone, where only Scirpus validus is found, were sampled. An additional 19 sites of growth of S. validus, representing less-polluted areas of the lagoon, the Ottawa River, and other sites in the Ottawa 1975 district, were sampled. Single massed samples of soil and leaves from each of the other 11 rooted aquatics listed in the previous para- graph, from the areas bordering the sludge zone, and from a control unpolluted area out- side the lagoon, were also collected. All samples were air-dried at 35°C prior to anal- ysis. Two litres of water were collected from the most polluted area occupied by S. validus, and from an unpolluted site occupied by this species about 2km away toward the center of the river. The water was filtered through a 0.45-micron membrane filter on collection. Leaf tissue analyses were conducted as follows. Nitrogen was determined by the Kjeldahl method as described by Horowitz (1965); Cl as described by Ward and Johnston (1962); P by the molybdo-vanadate method (Parks and Dunn 1963); Mg by atomic ab- sorption (Hackman 1967); and Ca, K, Fe, Ni, Zn, Na, Cu, and Mn also by atomic absorption (Macbride 1967; Jones 1969). For soil samples, phosphorus was extracted with NaHCOs and determined colorimetrically by the method of Watanabe and Olsen (1965). Ammonium and nitrate nitrogen were extracted by shaking % hour with 2N NaCl, and analyzed with an autoanalyzer (Keay and Menage 1970). A water-saturated soil paste was equilibrated 1 hour, filtered, and chloride determined by titration with Hg(NO3). (Teloh 1956). Exchangeable metals were extracted Y hour with one part soil to two parts 0.05 M ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) in 0.01 M CaCl, and 0.1M_ triethanolamine (TEA), at pH 7.3. Analysis was by atomic absorption. Water samples were analyzed for trace metals by atomic absorption. Ammonium and nitrate nitrogen and phosphorus were analyzed by autoanalyzer (Keay and Menage 1970; Sowden 1972). ; Observations Concentrations of the elements in Scirpus validus in the sewage lagoon proved to depend strongly on whether the plants were growing in the sludge deposit area or elsewhere. Just outside the sludge zone, element concentrations in soils and plants of S. validus are fairly comparable to levels completely outside the SMALL AND GAYNOR: CONCENTRATIONS IN SEWAGE LAGOON PLANTS 43 lagoon. Accordingly samples taken from the sludge area were treated as a group, and compared with all other collected samples. Element concentrations of the additional 11 aquatic species examined just outside the sludge-area also proved to be roughly com- parable to concentrations in the same species growing outside the sewage lagoon, and these results are not reported. Means and standard errors of the means for element concentrations, and the results of tests for each element in soils and in plants between the sludge group and the other samples, are presented in Table 1. Phosphorus, Fe, and Cl were present in significantly higher concentrations in both soil and plant samples of the sludge area compared to other areas. Calcium, Zn, and Cu were present in signif- icantly higher concentrations in the sludge soil samples, and N, Na, and Mg were present in significantly higher concentrations in the sludge- zone plant samples. Correlation coefficients between element levels in soils and plants, for all 32 sites examined, are also given in Table 1, simply as an indication of trends. The levels of chloride in soils and plants were highly correlated (r = 0.76). Dissolved element levels for several elements in the water over the sludge area and in the adjacent river are given in Table 2. Levels of dissolved P, N, Mg, and K are much higher in the sewage lagoon. Discussion The sewage lagoon examined proved to be distinctly structured. Near the point of dis- charge into the lagoon, the substrate had accumulated a great deal of sludge. The only rooted aquatic plant successfully colonizing this area was the bulrush Scirpus validus. The notably high concentrations of Cl, Zn, and Cu in the sludge zone may be responsible for the exclusion of other rooted aquatics here (per- haps by altering the competitive relationships of the other plant species in comparison with S. validus). Concentrations of six of the 12 elements examined were significantly higher in the plants of S. validus of this region, compared to concentrations in more peripheral areas of the sewage lagoon and in unpolluted sites, indicating altered ion availability in the sludge 44 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 TABLE 1 — Mean content and standard errors (S.E.) of 12 elements in leaves of Scirpus validus and cor- responding substrates in sludge of sewage lagoon, and in other substrates. r = correlation coef- ficients between plants and soils for contents of elements. For sludge samples, n = 13; for others, n= 19. * =significantly higher, P= 0.05; ** =P =0.01; *** = P —0.001. Plants (ppm dry matter) Substrates (ppm air-dry soil) Element Sewage sludge Other sediments Sewage siudge O her sediments mean S.E. mean S.E. mean S.E. mean S.E. r P 3190 *** 70 2440 110 Ses Sal 27.0 3.2 0.38* Fe 505.5* 100.4 241.6 19.1 457.4** 41.6 259.6 41.6 0.03 Cl 16200 *** 700 11600 400 214.4*** 46.5 26.3 3.1 0.76* ** N(NHs) 39.4 12.8 19.4 2.5 — N(NOs) 1.39 0.39 1.35 0.65 — N (Total) 33200 *** 1000 27000 1300 — — — — — Na 2640 *** 160 1100 130 — — — — — Mg 1780 * 320 1470 80 Die, 1.9 16.6 3.1 0.09 Ca 5190 120 5940 360 28.62** 2.14 19.02 1.81 0.00 Zn 17.8 1.5 16.9 1.6 50.9* 16.5 15.6 2.9 0.42* Cu 7.25 0.57 7.36 0.70 WARE DNS} 2.90 0.78 0.01 Mn 207.8 15.1 360.1 87.8 25.6 5.3 60.7* 13.2 0.48** K 16600 500 17700 600 57.3 7.8 50.4 3.3 0.40* Ni —t! — —! — 1.43 0.15 1.36 0.26 0.42** 1 Frequently beneath reliable detection limit of 5 ppm. TABLE 2 — Levels of dissolved elements in water over sludge area, and in adjacent river Water River Element over water sludge (ppm) (ppm) P 0.750 0.003 Fe < 0.1 < 0.1 NH.—N 1.8 < 0.1 NO;—N 0.7 0.1 Na 25.3 2.1 Mg 0.88 0.25 Zn < 0.1 < 0.1 Cu < 0.1 < 0.1 Mn < 0.1 < 0.1 K 4.78 0.69 Ni < 0.1 < 0.1 zone. Eleven additional rooted aquatic species grew in coarse sediment just outside the sludge- area, and appeared unable to penetrate very far into the sludge zone. As with the plants of S. validus growing in the sandy sediment bordering the sludge, element concentrations were not very different from those found in the same species well outside the sewage lagoon. Determination of the exact causes of why only Scirpus validus was present in the area of high sludge deposition is beyond the scope of the present limited study. This would require evaluation of the response to various levels of the particular combination of elements found in the sewage lagoon, coupled with competition experiments employing the various species present. The concentrations of elements found in Scirpus validus growing in the high sludge deposition area are not particularly high judged by concentrations which have been observed in other plants (Antonovics et al. 1971), and element concentration in particular plant species cannot be used to reflect accu- rately environmental toxicity without previously establishing the relationship between element — uptake and growth. The present study has served simply to suggest that whereas substrate conditions in areas of high deposition of sewage sludge appear to restrict drastically the number of aquatic plant species present, just beyond the areas of high sewage sludge accumulation many rooted aquatics appear able to grow successfully, and to grow without unusually high accumulation of elements present in the most contaminated adjacent sewage areas. Acknowledgments The technical assistance of M. McGrath and C. O'Meara in the analysis of the soil and water samples is gratefully appreciated. Leaf tissue analyses were conducted by the Tech- 1975 nological Services Unit of the Department of Agriculture. We thank Drs. A. J. Maclean, M. Webber, and I. L. Bayly for criticism of the manuscript. Literature Cited Antonovics, J.. A. D. Bradshaw, and R. G. Turner. 1971. Heavy metal tolerance in plants. Advances in Ecological Research 7: 1-85. Jones, B. J. 1969. Elemental analyses of plant leaf tissue by several laboratories. Journal of the Asso- ciation of Official Analytical Chemists 52: 900-903. Hackman, M. 1967. Minerals in feeds by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Journal of the Asso- ciation of Official Analytical Chemists 50: 45—50. Horowitz, W. (Editor). 1965. Official methods of analysis of the association of official argicultural chemists. 10th edition. Association of Official Agri- cultural Chemists, Washington, D.C. 957 pp. Keay, J. and P. M. A. Menage. 1970. Automated determination of ammonium and nitrate in soil extracts by distiliation. Analyst 95: 379-382. Macbride, C. H. 1967. Determination of secondary and minor plant nutrients in fertilizers by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. 3rd _ collaborative study. Journal of the Association of Official An- alytical Chemists 50: 401-407. SMALL AND GAYNOR: CONCENTRATIONS IN SEWAGE LAGOON PLANTS 45 Parks, P. F. and D. E. Dunn. 1963. Evaluation of the molybdovanadate photometric determination of phosphorus in mixed feeds and mineral supple- ments. Journal of the Association of Official Agri- cultural Chemists 45: 836-838. Sowden, F. J. 1972. Effects of silicon on automated methods for the determination of phosphate in water. Canadian Journal of Soil Science 52: 237-243. Teloh, H. A. 1956. Determination of serum chloride. American Journal of Clinical Pathology 26: 535- 542. Ward, G. M. and F. B. Johnston. 1962. Chemical methods of plant analysis. (Revised edition). Canada Department of Agriculture Pub!tication 1064. 59 pp. Watanabe, F. S. and S. R. Olsen. 1965. Test of an ascorbic acid method for determining phosphorus in water and NaHCO; extracts from soil. Soil Science Society Proceedings 29: 677-678. Received 9 July 1974 Accepted 26 September 1974 eet a) paplria Preliminary Study of Seasonal Moose Movements in Laurentides Provincial Park, Quebec YVON E. ROUSSEL,! EMILE Aupy,? and FRANCOIS POTVIN? 1 Wildlife Management Service, Department of Tourism, Fish and Game, Quebec City, Quebec 2 Biological Research Service, Department of Tourism, Fish and Game, Quebec City, Quebec Roussel, Y. E., E. Audy, and F. Potvin. 1975. Preliminary study of seasonal moose movements in Laurentides Provincial Park, Quebec. Canadian Field-Naturalist 88(1): 47-52. Abstract. This paper reports preliminary results on the seasonal movements of 179 tagged moose in Lauren- tides Provincial Park. The linear distance between locations was calculated according to seasons, and sex and age of the animals. Movements of yearlings and 2-year-old males are greater than those of adult males. From one summer to the next, adult males do not wander more than adult females; however, from summer to fall, adult males move more than adult females. From summer range to winter range, movements of adult males are not Statistically different to those of adult females. Studies suggest that the moose in the study area are a migratory population. To achieve an effective management of moose populations, one must have a knowledge of the movement patterns of the species. This would then provide a basis for controlling logging operations and hunting. The principal objective of the present study, which was con- ducted within Laurentides Provincial Park (Figure 1), was to seek some consistency in the wanderings of moose according to seasons, and sex and age of the animals. Previous moose-movement studies had been initiated by DesMeules and Brassard (1964) in the same study area in 1962. Study Area The 9,573-square-kilometer (3,696-square- mile) Laurentides Provincial Park, situated 50 km (30 miles) north of Quebec City, lies between latitudes 47°30’ and 48°20’ N. Longi- tudinal boundaries are 71°00’ and 72° 15’ W (Figure 1). A controlled moose hunt has been held each year within the study area since 1962. The annual harvest of moose is approx- imately 125. Furthermore, there are some 50 moose road-killed yearly. Brassard et al. (1974) class the forest of Laurentides Provincial Park in the “Forest zone 4.” This zone of boreal forest is characterized by the occurrence of balsam fir (Abies bal- samea), black spruce (Picea mariana), white spruce (Picea glauca), and paper birch (Betula 47 papyrifera). The rough topography and shallow soils of this zone lower its productivity. Snow precipitation ranges from 300 to 500 cm (120 to 200 inches) per year; scattered observations indicate that the snow accumulation on the ground varies from 60 to 150 cm (25 to 60 inches). The mean period without snow- fall extends from April 20 to October 31 (Wilson 1971). Moose density in Forest zone 4 is quite low: 1.5 moose per 10 square kilometres (3.8 moose per 10 square miles). In the park area, however, the moose density reaches 3.5 moose per 10 square kilometers (9.5 moose per 10 square miles) (Bouchard and Moisan 1974). Large parts of the study area were logged over by extensive clear-cutting operations. In addition, past budworm epidemics have created an irregular forest canopy resulting in an even distribution of small patches of cover, adjacent to openings of younger forest. Material and Methods Tagging As described by Roussel and Pichette (1974), a helicopter, a snowmobile, and a boat were used to restrain and mark 157 moose. Furthermore, 22 animals were tagged during April 1973 using M-99 (Etorphine). The temporal distribution of tagged moose 48 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 e 76° JAMES a a BS of y 4, i a J ; | Ci Rye i ai i cs JS MATAGAMIe 2% ENITCHEQUON ) MANICOUAGAN ¥ LAC MISTASSINI ©) (ie RESERVOIR CHIBOUGAM AU : f wl AC SI+JEA ee ROBERVAL LD e VAL-D'OR {LE D'ANTICOSTI r ! MANIWAKI ff HUL pf = fwonrné ar Te° VL LAURENTIDES PARK Ficure 1. Location of the Laurentides Provincial Park, Quebec according to age-class and sex is illustrated in Table 1. A numbered metal or plastic tag was affixed to one or both ear pinnae of all animals. As well, 164 of the 179 tagged animals were fitted with a numbered collar of the type described by Roussel and Pichette (1974). Observations Observations were reported by project per- sonnel, park staff, and visitors. As with every movement study using tags, some limitations are present, e.g., summer observations were mostly made during the tagging operations near aquatic feeding sites; fall observations were principally done by hunters and, during the winter, systematic searches of the study area were done using a helicopter. A certain bias in the observation procedure is evident but this bias cannot be accounted for. All the observations were mapped on 1:50,000 topo- graphic charts. The linear distances between TABLE 1 — Number, sex, and age groups of moose tagged from 1969 to 1973 in the Laurentides Provincial Park, Quebec Adults Calves Year Male Female Male Female Total 1969 6 (2)* 17 (1) 1 0 19 1970 17 (2) 18 (1) 4 6 45 1971 qT (2) 10 (O) 7 4 28 1972 13 (2) 12 (2) 1 4 30 1973 12 (2) 21 (1) 12 12 57 Total 55 (10) 73 (5) 25 26 179 * The number in parenthesis refers to the numbers of yearlings included in the number of adults. 1975 observations were computed to the nearest 0.2 kilometer (0.1 mile). Data Analysis All tagged moose were aged (whenever possible) and sexed. We consider that calves- of-the-year can be accurately identified by relative body-size during the first 10 months of life. Yearlings and adults were classified according to the methods explained by God- dard (1970). The following three periods were distin- guished: 1, Summer (S): 2, Fall (F): from June to August; from September to No- vember (the rutting period and hunting season); 3, Winter (W): from December to May. Table 2 illustrates the symbolization used to classify the observations according to the period of the year and the age of the animal. Each symbol (S, F, and W) has a subnumber corresponding to the age of the animals. When an animal was observed more than two times in the same season, an overall mean of all the possible distances between all the observed locations was calculated. An overall ROUSSEL ET AL.: SEASONAL MOOSE MOVEMENTS IN QUEBEC 49 mean for inter-seasonal (or inter-year) move- ments was estimated using the distance between observed locations from one season (or year) to the next. Results and Discussion Of the 179 tagged moose, a total of 179 different observations was made on 78 dif- ferent animals. The combined data suggest all movements of yearlings and 2-year-old males are greater (P=0.05) than those of adults (Table 3). Females were excluded from this particular analysis because of insuf- ficient data. Results were then divided into three age groups: (1) calves, (2) yearlings and 2-year-olds, and (3) adults. Intra-seasonal and Intra-year Movements Young males (yearlings and 2-year-olds) moved more than adult males during the same summer (Table 4). This had been suggested by Goddard (1970). Movements of adults during the same sum- mer as shown in the same table have the same range as those reported by Goddard (1970), Houston (1968), Ballenberghe and Peek (1971), and others. Data are in accor- TABLE 2 — Symbolization used to classify the observations with respect to period of the year and the age of the animal. S = summer, F = fall, W = winter. Estimated age Age group Symbols Unknown age symbols Calf (0-12 months) - So» Fo, Wo — Yearling 13-24 months) S, F,, W, — Adults (25 —36 months) | So, Fo, Wo* Soe Was * Further observations on those animals are considered in ** 25 months + (first year of observations). *** 25 months + (second year of observations). n+? ~n+1? MWe the S,, F,, W,, heading. TABLE 3 — Comparison between mean linear distance (in kilometres) travelled by two different age groups of tagged moose in the Laurentides Provincial Park, Quebec. Pairs of data having the same letter are statistically different; a = P < 0.05. Yearling and 2-year-olds Mean (N) All movements 12.7 (18) Age group Three years and older Range Mean (N) Range 0.0-32.0 (a) 3.4 (40) 0.0-11.3 (a) 50 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST dance with the hypothesis suggested by Bal- lenberghe and Peek (1971), Peterson (1955), and Ritcey and Verbeek (1969), that heavy use of aquatic feeding sites by moose explains the small summer range observed. A slight difference (P=0.20) between adult males and adult females was noted. This difference is apparently not influenced by the presence of the calf: there is no significant difference (P < 0.20) between females with and with- out calves (Table 5). Knowlton (1960) reported that adult males have a greater sum- mer range than females with calf. We think that this may be a tentative conclusion as a result of limited data. Phillips et al. (1973) reported that similar-sized areas were occupied by cows with calves and those without calves. Intra-seasonal and Inter-year Movements Movements of adult males and females from Vol. 89 one summer to the next are not statistically different (Table 6) and the mean distance of travel for both sexes is 2.0 kilometres (1.2 miles). This is in agreement with Geist’s (1963) hypothesis and the results of Goddard (1970). Adult females appear to wander the same distance yearly (S, — S,11 observations and W, — W,+1 observations are not dif- ferent and are of 1.9 kilometers (1.2 miles) ). This is in close agreement with findings by Phillips et al. (1973), LeResche (1970), and Houston (1968). Movements of calves of either sex from their first winter to the second are not different from those of adult females over the same time period (Table 6). This comparison, however, is based on small samples (five and eight respectively) and may reflect the behavior of only a portion of the population. TABLE 4 —Intra-seasonal and intra-year movements (in kilometres) of tagged moose in the Laurentides Provincial Park, Quebec. a, b=P< 0.05. Pairs of data having the same letter are statistically different; Males Females Movement Mean (N) Range Mean (N) Range In the same summer (S, and S,) 6.3 (6) 0.0 — 26.5 (a) No data In the same summer _ (S,) 1.8 (11) 0.0—7.6 (a, b) 3.4 (18) 0.0—11.6 (b) TaBLE 5 — Intra-seasonal and intra-year movements (in kilometres) of tagged female moose with and with- out calves in the Laurentides Provincial Park, Quebec. Pairs of data having the same letter are statistically non-different; a = P < 0.20. Movement In the same summer (S,) Female with calf Mean (N) Range 3.4 (8) 0.0-6.1 (a) Female without calf Mean (N) Range 3.5 (10) 0.0-11.6 (a) TABLE 6 — Intra-seasonal and intra-year movements (in kilometres) of tagged moose in the Laurentides Provincial Park, Quebec. Pairs of data having the same letter are not statistically different; a, b, c=P> 0.20. Movement Males Females Combined data Mean (N) Range Mean (N) Range Mean (N) Range W, to W, Insufficient data Insufficient data 4.5 (5) 0.0—5.6 c) S, to S.44 2.1 (15) 0.0-11.3 (a) 1.9 (16) 0.0-5.8 (a, b) 2.0 (31) 0.0-11.3 W,, to Wi 44 Insufficient data 1.9 (8) 0.0-5.8 (b, c) — 1975 Inter-seasonal and Intra-year Movements Adult males are less active in their move- ments between summer and fall of the same year than are yearlings and 2-year-olds (Table 7). This result has been observed by Pimlott (1959), Simkin (1965), Phillips et al. (1973), Goddard (1970), and Endress (1963). Saunders and Williamson (1972), however, presented data which do not agree with ours and those mentioned. Our data suggest that summer and fall wanderings of adult males were greater than those of adult females. Thus adult females are less active than males during the rutting season, as was also concluded by Houston (1968), Knowlton (1960), Goddard (1970), and Phillips et al. (1973). Between the summer and winter ranges a mean linear distance of 6.9 kilometres (4.3 miles) has been calculated for adults. No dif- ference has been observed between the males and females. Adult females’ movements from summer to fall are less than movements from summer to winter (Table 7). This may be owing to the fact that during the fall, adult females are nearly in their summer range. Inter-seasonal and Inter-year Movements As illustrated by Table 8, there is no dif- ference between winter and summer move- ments for calves compared with adults. Although the calf is not with the cow at the beginning of the summer, having been separated from the female during winter-tagging operations, it seems that their movements are not different. ROUSSEL ET AL.: SEASONAL MOOSE MOVEMENTS IN QUEBEC 51 Migratory Aspects The means of inter-summer and inter-winter movements of adult moose are both 1.9 kilo- metres (1.2 miles). But the distance travelled from summer to winter ranges is 6.9 kilometres (4.3. miles). This variable is statistically (P=0.05) different from the other two. The fact that summer and winter ranges are non-overlapping suggests that there could be a migratory behavior among this population. This is the first time that this aspect of move- ment has been noted in Quebec although it is quite common in other North American moose populations, as reported by LeResche (1972) in Alaska, Houston (1968) in Wyo- ming, Knowlton (1960) and Stevens (1970) in Montana, Nielson and Shaw (1967) in Idaho, Edwards and Ritcey (1956) and Hatter (1946) in British Columbia, Ballenberghe and Peek (1971) in Minnesota, and Goddard TABLE 8 — Inter-seasonal and inter-year movements (in kilometres) of tagged moose, Lauren- tides Provincial Park, Quebec. Pairs of data having the same letter are not statistically different: a = P < 0.20. Movement Males and Females Mean (N) Range W, to S, 7.7 (8) 3.7-15.9 (a) W,, to Soy 7.4 (11) 2.4-10.8 (a) TABLE 7 — Inter-seasonal and inter-year movements (in kilometres) of tagged moose in the Laurentides Provincial Park, Quebec. Pairs of data having the same letter are statistically different; a, b, Cc, d= P< 0.05. Movement Males Females Combined data Mean (N) Range Mean (N) Range Mean {N) Range S,;_» to Fy_» 15.1 (7) 3.2-—31.4 (a) No data = S, to F, and 7.6 (5) 2.7-10.2 (a,b,c) 3.5 (8) 0.0 — 5.3 (b, d = By to Sn44 S, to W, and 6.3 (6) 1.6-—9.5 (c) 7.4 (11) 2.4-—13.4 (d) 6.9 (17) 1.6 -— 13.4 W, to Si 44 2 (1970) in Ontario. It is, however, evident that these moose migratory movements do not have the amplitude of those reported by Hatter (1946) in British Columbia, but they are within the range recorded in Ontario by Goddard (1970). There are some aspects, such as the move- ments of calves and yearlings, that are at present unavailable, but future observations should furnish the much-needed data. Those additional data will allow us to calculate a statistically sound mean for each type of move- ment and will give us a complete proof of the migratory behavior of this population. We hope to extend the study area as well. Acknowledgments We express our gratitude to wildlife tech- nicians of the Service, Jacques Turgeon and Aldée Beaumont, who made the field observa- tions during the study. We are also indebted to Linda Garrard for her aid in the prepara- tion of the manuscript. Literature Cited Ballenberghe, V. V. and J. M. Peek. 1971. Radio- telemetry studies of moose in northeastern Minne- sota. Journal of Wildlife Management 35(1): 63-71. Bouchard, R. and G. Moisan. 1974. Controlled moose hunts in Quebec’s Provincial Parks. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Moose Ecology, Quebec, 1973. Naturaliste Canadien 101. (Jn press.) Brassard, J. M., E. Audy, M. Créte, and P. Grenier. 1974. Distribution and winter habitat of moose in Quebec. Paper presented at the International Sym- posium on Moose Ecology, Quebec, 1973. Natu- raliste Canadien 101. (Jn press.) DesMeules, P. and J. M. Brassard. 1964. Une mé- thode pour le marquage automatique de lorignal. Québec, Ministére du Tourisme, de la Chasse et de la Péche, Service de la Faune, Rapport 3: 148-159. Edwards, R. Y. and R. W. Ritcey. 1956. The migra- tions of a moose herd. Journal of Mammalogy 37(4): 486-494. Endress, H. P. 1963. Moose checking station, Lake Superior Provincial Park, October 1-14, 1962. Re- source Management Report, Ontario Department Lands and Forests 68:9-18. Mimeo. Geist, V. 1963. On the behavior of the North Amer- ican moose (Alces alces andersoni, Peterson 1950) in British Columbia. Behavior 20: 377-416. Goddard, J. 1970. Movements of moose in a heavily hunted area of Ontario. Journal of Wildlife Man- agement 34(2): 439-445. THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 Hatter, J. 1946. A summarized interim report on a study of the moose of central British Columbia. Report, Provincial Game Commission. pp. 44-52. Houston, D. B. 1968. The shiras moose in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Grand Teton Natural History As- sociation, Technical Bulletin 1. 110 pp. Knowlton, F. F. 1960. Food habits, movements and populations of moose in the Gravelly Mountains, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management 24(2): 162-170. LeResche, R. E. 1970. Moose investigations. Alaska Department Fish and Game. P-R Project Report, W-17-2. 13 pp. Multilith. LeResche, R. E. 1972. Migrations and population mixing of moose on the Kenai Peninsula (Alaska). Paper presented at the 8th North American Moose Conference and Workshop, held in Thunder Bay, Ontario, February 16-18, 1972. pp. 185-207. Nielson, A. E. and W. M. Shaw. 1967. A helicopter- dart gun technique for capturing moose. Proceed- ings of 47th Annual Conference of the Western Association State Fish and Game Commissioners. pp. 183-199. Peterson, R. L. 1955. North American moose. Uni- versity of Toronto Press, Toronto. 280 pp. Phillips, R. L., W. E. Berg, and D. B. Siniff. 1973. Moose movement patterns and range use in north- western Minnesota. Journal of Wildlife Manage- ment 37(3): 266-278. Pimlott, D. H. 1959. Reproduction and productivity of Newfoundland moose. Journal of Wildlife Man- agement 23(4): 381-401. Ritcey, R. W. and N. A. M. Verbeek. 1969. Observa- tions of moose feeding on aquatics in Bowron Lake Park, British Columbia. Canadian Field-Naturalist 83(4): 339-343. Roussel, Y. E. and C. Pichette. 1974. Review of the techniques used to restrain and mark moose in Lau- rentides Park, Quebec. Paper presented at the 9th North American Moose Conference and Workshop held in Quebec, March 29-30, 1973. (In press.) Saunders, B. P. and J. C. Williamson. 1972. Moose movements from eartag returns. Paper presented at the 8th North American Moose Conference and Workshop held in Thunder Bay, Ontario, February 16-18, 1972. pp. 177-184. Simkin, D. W. 1965. Reproduction and productivity of moose in northwestern Ontario. Journal of Wild- life Management 29: 740-750. Stevens, D. R. 1970. Winter ecology of moose in the Gallatin Mountains, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management 34(1): 37—46. Wilson, C. V. 1971. Le climat du Québec. Premiére partie, Atlas climatique. Service Météorologique du Canada. Information Canada T57-7/11-1. Received 18 June 1974 Accepted 12 August 1974 Notes Harmful Effects of Small Mammal Populations on a Tree Plantation in Southern Ontario Abstract. Excessive girdling damage to trees on sev- eral hardwood plantations established in southern Ontario prompted an investigation into the species and numbers of potentially destructive rodents to be found on one such plantation. Live-trapping and ear- tagging methods revealed the presence of at least 33 animals per acre. Of the 281 animals handled in a total of 623 captures and recaptures, 78.3% were Microtus pennsylvanicus. ; Résumé. Des dommages excessifs d’annélation subis par les arbres de plusieurs plantations de reuillus situées dans le sud de |’Ontario ont amené 4a faire dans une de ces plantations une étude des espéces et du nombre de rongeurs potentiellement destructeurs qui peuvent vivre dans ce genre d’habitat. Grace a des méthodes de piégeage et d’étiquetage d’animaux vivants, on a relevé la présence d’au moins 33 ani- maux a l’acre. Des 281 animaux étudiés d’un total de 623 captures et récaptures, 78.3% étaient de l’espéce Microtus pennsylvanicus. One of the most destructive and conspicuous type of damage to young orchard and plantation trees occurs when rodents remove the outer bark and devour the underlying cambium layer. If girdling is complete, trees are killed. If girdling is not complete, vigor of the trees is reduced. The extent of such damage varies with the abun- dance and number of species of rodents present. Losses as great as 95-99% of plantation-grown trees are not uncommon (Moore 1940; Eadie 1954; von Althen 1971). Before control measures to alleviate damage of this nature can be effec- tively undertaken, basic information must be obtained as to which small mammal species are present in the area, population fluctuations with time, feeding habits, alternate foods available, and acceptability of candidate rodenticide baits. Excessive rodent damage had occurred in past years on the Coulson Tract, an area about 30 miles southwest of Toronto, Ontario (von Althen 1971). This abandoned farmland was planted in 1958 with white ash (Fraxinus americana L.) and basswood (Tilia americana L.) saplings. Within a year many of the original planting stock had been either girdled by “mice,” browsed by 53 rabbits (presumably Sylvilagus floridanus), or smothered by tall weeds. During 1959, intervening rows of white pine (Pinus strobus L.) and white spruce (Picea glauca L.) were planted and subsequently suffered similar rodent damage. Between 1960 and 1965, dead trees were replaced each spring and the weeds between the tree rows were cut each fall using a rotary mower. Tree losses from girdling damage were espe- cially severe during the winter of 1967-1968 (von Althen 1971). Although Phosbait-treated grain was applied by management personnel to the area each autumn to reduce numbers of small mammals, surveys were not undertaken to assess the effectiveness of the control measures. In 1971 the Canadian Wildlife Service was requested to determine the number and species of small mammals present on the Coulson Tract as a prelude to the hopeful development of more effective control measures. The plantation at that time consisted of several incomplete rows of white pine alternating with several rows of white spruce. Only scattered remnants of the 1958 white ash—basswood planting remained. By August dense weeds 1 to near 2 metres high, consisting of wild carrot (Daucus carota L.), Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense L. Scop.), wild aster (Aster spp.), and goldenrod (Solidago spp.) dominated much of the area. Abundant grasses, including quackgrass (Agropyron repens L. Beauv.), chess (Bromus secalinus L.), downy brome grass (Bromus tectorum L.), and timothy (Phleum pratense L.) provided a suitable habitat for a large population of small mammals. Live Trapping For the small mammal survey a rectangular grid of 8.3 acres (3.4 hectares) was established on a 20-acre (8.1-hectare) sector of the Coulson Tract. Three hundred Sherman-type live-traps were set at marker stakes spaced 40 feet apart on rows 30 feet apart. Traps were baited with a paste mixture of ground beef suet, raisins, walnuts, 54 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST rolled oats, peanut butter, and oil of aniseed. A small handful of ‘“Terylene fiberfill” placed in the back of each trap provided nesting material. Plywood covers placed over each trap prevented excessive exposure to sun and chilling at night. The bait was replaced each time the trap caught an animal. Fresh bait was supplied to all traps midway through the 10-day trapping schedule. All 300 traps were checked twice daily, gener- ally between 7:00 a.m. and 10:30 a.m., and again between 5:00 p.m. and 7:30 p.m. Trapping was carried out between September 16 and 26, 1971 (Period 1). Captured mice (Peromyscus spp.), meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus), and short-tailed shrews (Blarina brevicauda) were marked with ear tags and a numbered ring tag was applied to the ankle of masked shrews (Sorex cinereus) before release. As the small mammal population level had been determined in the initial trapping period, the opportunity was taken to test the use of an anticoagulant rodenticide. Rozol-treated oat groats, applied at a rate of 2.5 pounds per acre (2.8 kilograms/hectare) were broadcast using cyclone seeders over the 20-acre study area on September 28. Live-trapping and tagging were carried out on the 300-trap grid for a second 10-day period (Period 2) between September 30 and October 9. Because of the short interval of time between application of the rodenticide and the second period of trapping, it was considered unlikely that reproduction or reinvasion would have altered significantly the population level. For this reason, a second non-poisoned control area was not considered necessary in evaluating the effectiveness of the poison application. A total of 281 small mammals were taken in 623 captures and recaptures during the two 10- day trapping periods. The number of new animals taken in any one 24-hour period ranged from 3 to 31, while total daily captures ranged between 3 and 73 individuals. The number of individuals captured and the corresponding percentage of the total number of animals handled were as follows: Microtus pennsylvanicus 220 (78.3%), Sorex cinereus (10.3%), Peromyscus sp. 18 (6.4%), Blarina brevicauda 14 (5.0%). The number of new animals taken, alive and dead, during each check of the traps, the number of recaptures, alive and dead, the accumulating number of tagged animals released and presumed to be therefore available for recapture, and the ratio of total recaptures in the total daily catch were parameters used in calculating the population (following Hayne 1949) and fiducial limits (95% Vol. 89 probability) of the small mammals present on the study area. The calculated rodent population (shrews excluded from the trapping data) on the area was 28.7 animals per acre (24.2 to 35.2; 95% confidence interval) at end of Period 1, and 31.6 animals per acre (29.8 to 33.5) at end of Period 2. Eighty-two of the 126 Microtus (65%) tagged during the first 10 days of trapping were trapped one or more times again following application of the poisoned bait, indicating much of the resident rodent population had not been killed by the bait during the latter 3 weeks of the study. A subsequent survey indicated the entire marked population had either succumbed to similarly treated poisoned bait left over winter in 50 feeder stations distributed over the 20-acre study area, had suffered natural mortality, or had moved out of the area. An inadequate concentration of rodenticide on the grain bait and/or an inadequate rate of field application may have caused the apparent ineffectiveness of the attempted control measure within the study period. Similar broad- cast applications using higher concentrations and rate of seeding proved entirely successful in later studies (Radvanyi 1974a, b). The home range of 119 Microtus captured two or more times was calculated and expressed in Figure 1 as square-footage mean values for animals captured the same number of times. For this purpose, one-half the distance from the outer- most trap in which the animal was taken and the next trap in line in which it was not taken was used to delineate the home range boundary (following Stickel 1954). Relatively few deer mice or shrews were trapped on the study area and the frequency of recapture of these species was too low to warrant comment on home range. Shrews appeared distributed uniformly over the grid area while Peromyscus were taken mainly on that portion of the grid adjacent to a more open and recently tilled field. Discussion The live-trapping and tagging survey of the Coulson Tract indicated an autumn population of at least 33 small mammals per acre on the area. Of the 281 animals captured, 78.3% were Micro- tus pennsylvanicus, the species most likely respon- sible for much of the girdling damage on the area. Whereas a large percentage of the individ- uals being taken during the last few days of trapping were juveniles and a high ratio of the adult females encountered were still pregnant, the calculated population must be considered as 1975 Home range (in square feet x 1000) DENA CG: ag Number of times animals were caught NoTES 55 10 12 14 16 Ficure 1. Calculated home range of 119 Microtus captured two or more times. Bracket indicates sample size. being a conservative evaluation of what the actual population would become shortly thereafter. While the greater portion of rodent damage occurs during winter months, fresh basal attacks on particularly the deciduous component of the plan- tation trees were noted as early as mid-August during 1971. As no previous small mammal study had been carried out on the Coulson Tract area, it was not possible to conjecture where the population level would fit into the 3- to 4-year cycle. Home range calculations based on an _in- adequate number of recaptures may greatly underestimate the actual home range of individ- uals. While the home range of Méicrotus is generally accepted as being between 4 and } acre (Blair 1940; Radvanyi 1962), this value varies undoubtedly with habitat, sex of animal, and season. A Student’s “t” test analysis of the data based on four or more captures of Microtus on the Coulson Tract, as compared with home range of animals captured three times or less, indicated 56 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST there is a very highly significant (at the 0.1% level) difference in the size of home range of the two groups, with animals captured four times or more having the larger home range. Within the group captured four times or more, home range estimated on the basis of the first three points of capture only was significantly smaller (at the 5% level) than those based on all points of capture. Within the group captured four times, the home range based on the first three points of capture was significantly smaller (at the 1% level) than that using all four capture points. Similarly, of animals captured five times, home range based on the first three points of capture was significantly smaller (at the 1% level). On the other hand, of animals captured five times, the home range based on the first four points of capture was not significantly different from that based on all five points of capture, but that for the first three captures was significantly lower than that based on four captures (5% level). Considering only those animals captured four times or more, the mean home range of 55 Microtus on the Coulson Tract was 7,505 square feet or just over one-sixth of an acre. Of these, 15 male animals had a mean range of 9,560 square feet, while that of 40 females averaged 6,735 square feet. The dense grass vegetation may have restricted the movement of Microtus some- what, or at least reduced the need to move extensively in search of food and/or shelter. On the other hand, the relatively small home range may have resulted from high population levels existing on the study area. Krebs (1966) noted adult male Microtus in dense populations moved about considerably less during the breeding season than did those occurring in sparse populations. The points of recapture do not explain why the two animals captured 10 and 11 times respectively had the largest home range. The animals in question were taken in nine and seven traps respectively. Both had travelled extensively back and forth across the grid. The final points of capture for each were in traps bracketed by traps in which they had previously been taken. Both were resident animals and were not being captured in an extended line of traps as the animals made their way across the grid. While several authors have documented the excessive damages that small mammals can cause to plantation areas (Parker 1941; Littlefield et al. 1946; Staebler et al. 1954; Jokela and Lorenz 1959), yet a paucity of data exists relating population levels on such areas to what numbers of animals can be tolerated before control mea- Vol. 89 sures become imperative. Almost a half century ago Seton (1929) estimated that meadow voles could number 10,000 per square mile during peak years. Eadie (1954) suggested suitable habitat may support 30 to 60 mice per acre in mid- summer of an average year but that these numbers could double, triple, or quadruple during a peak year in the 3- to 4-year cycle. Mice were so abundant in the Oregon meadow mouse irruption of 1957-1958 (Vertrees 1959) as to stimulate newspaper accounts of 10,000 mice per acre. Field studies of that rodent irruption revealed 800 mice per acre was a more accurate evaluation. United States Department of Agriculture scien- tists state each vole requires approximately 30 pounds of green vegetation, eaten or wasted, per year (Wood 1947). In other words, as few as 66 Microtus can devour one ton of vegetation per year, be this in the form of grass, immature grain heads, mature grain, or cambial bark. If this rate of destruction could be applied to a square mile of habitat similar to that of the Coulson Tract, the rodent population on such an area would number 20,212 animals and these would be capable of destroying the equivalent of over 306 tons of vegetation per year! Even very high densities of big game animals in ideal habitat — say 25 white-tailed deer or four moose per square mile — consume only approximately 20 tons of vegetation per species per year (Telfer 1972). The immensity of the impact of small mammals on the environment is seldom ap- preciated and until more effective weed- and rodent-control methods are developed and used on the Coulson Tract, successful establishment of tree plantations will continue to be a precarious endeavor. Literature Cited Blair, W. F. 1940. Home range and populations of the meadow vole in southern Michigan. Journal of Wildlife Management 4(2): 149-161. Eadie, W. R. 1954. Animal control in field, farm, and forest. The Macmillan Company, New York. Hayne, D. W. 1949. Two methods for estimating populations from trapping records. Journal of Mammalogy 30: 399-411. Jokela, J. J. and R. W. Lorenz. 1959. Mouse injury to forest planting in the prairie region of Illinois. Journal of Forestry 57(1): 21-25. Krebs, C. J. 1966. Demographic changes in fluctu- ating populations of Microtus californicus. Ecolog- ical Monographs 36: 239-273. Littlefield, E. W., W. J. Schoomaker, and D. B. Cook. 1946. Field mouse damage to coniferous planta- tions. Journal of Forestry 44(10): 745-749. 1975 Moore, A. W. 1940. Wild animal damage to seed and seedlings on cutover Douglas fir lands of Oregon and Washington. United States Department of Agri- culture Technical Bulletin 706. 28 pp. Parker, L. A. 1941. Factors causing rodent damage to tree plantations in southeastern Minnesota. Journal of Wildlife Management 5(3): 297-303. Radvanyi, A. 1962. Effects of small mammals on forest regeneration in Alberta. Canadian Wildlife Service Project Progress Report No. 2 (Project M 1-4), Edmonton, Alberta. 73 pp. Radvanyi, A. 1974a. Survey and control of small mammal populations on two hardwood plantations in southern Ontario. Forestry Chronicle. 50(5): 181-185. Radvanyi, A. 1974b. Small mammal census and con- trol on a hardwood plantation. Proceedings of the Sixth California Vertebrate Pest Conference, An- aheim, California, March 5—7, 1974. pp. 9-19. Seton, E. T. 1929. Lives of game animals. Doubleday, Doran and Company, New York. 4 volumes. Staebler, G. R., P. Lauterbach, and A. W. Moore. 1954. Effect of animal damage on a young con- -iferous plantation in southwest Washington. Journal of Forestry 52(10): 730-733. NOTES 57 Stickel, L. F. 1954. A comparison of certain methods of measuring ranges of small mammals. Journal of Mammalogy 35(1): 1-15. Telfer, E. S. 1972. Report on the establishment of range trend transects at Elk Island National Park. Canadian Wildlife Service, National Parks Project 6248. 15 pp. Vertrees, J. D. 1959. The Oregon meadow mouse irruption of 1957-58. Federal Cooperative Exten- sion Service, Oregon State College, Corvallis. 88 pp. von Althen, F. 1971. Mouse damage in an 8-year-old plantation. Forestry Chronicle 47(3): 160-161. Wood, K. 1947. A nature guide for farmers. L. R. Larson Publishing Company, Vancouver, B.C. 116 pp. ANDREW RADVANYI Canadian Wildlife Service Edmonton, Alberta T5J 1S6 Received 15 February 1974 Accepted 3 September 1974 Notes on the Distribution and Habitat of Amphibians and Turtles in Northwestern Quebec In May 1974 we collected amphibians in northwestern Quebec, and thereby considerably clarified or extended the known ranges of some species. As this was a late wet spring we almost certainly missed species that we might have other- wise found, and our dates for breeding are not representative of a normal year. All of our spec- imens will be deposited in the collection of the National Museum of Natural Sciences, National Museums of Canada. Most of our observations come from four camps (see Figure 1): Louvicourt Camp, (10-20 May, 22 May, 26— 28 May) 4 km north of Louvicourt, Louvicourt Township, Abitibi County, 48°6’ N, 77°23’ W. This area was burned, apparently about 30 years ago, and grew back to jack pine (Pinus bank- siana), paper birch (Betula papyrifera), and trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides), with alders (Alnus sp.) dominant in wet areas. We collected in the ditches along Highway 113, which are confluent with a small lake through an area of leatherleaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata) marsh. Lac Cameron Camp, (20-22 May) southwest side of Lac Cameron on the townline of Des- jardins and Franquet Townships, 49°18’ N, 76°47’ W. We collected in small ponds in a gravel pit near an abandoned sawmill. The cleared area was surrounded by a dense forest of paper birch, spruce (Picea), balsam fir (Abies balsamea), and Populus. Typha latifolia (common cattail) was the dominant emergent plant in the ponds. Chaste Township Camp, (22-23 May) small lake east of Highway 61, mile 47.5 from Amos, Chaste Township, 49°7’ N, 77°58’ W. This is a small kettle lake, apparently without fish, sur- rounded by spruce forest, much of which was recently cut over, and fringed by a floating bog mat dominated by leatherleaf. Douay Township Camp, (23-25 May) near a lake northwest of Highway 61, mile 81 from Amos, 49°35’ N, 78°5’ W. This is an area of jack pine forests, with spruce or Populus stands in the lowlands. We collected in ditches along Highway 61, that were confluent with an outlet of the lake and had little emergent vegetation. 58 a THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 100 kilometers S \ N Ee Wo f\ 2 >A BL ry S aS . ->) <' eS \ = Sf eMatagami & . SS 4 4) » ¢ 0 ‘ ) Go C3 (\ %S leet — Sag ( Abitibi ee ( X qq 14 Englehart ONTARIO FIGURE 1. SS ae 3 (s Amos y p D, C} ay) Val oor @ Gye Boe NSS A J LAA QUEBEC Map showing some localities mentioned in the text. 1 = Louvicourt Camp, 2 = Lac Cameron Camp, 3 = Chaste Township Camp, 4 = Douay Township Camp. Species Accounts BLUE-SPOTTED SALAMANDER. (Ambystoma la- terale). Abundant at all camps, and taken at several other localities. Most were taken in min- now traps in roadside ditches or ponds, adjacent to fairly mature spruce or deciduous forests; we took a few under logs in such habitats, and found many crossing the road a few kilometers south of the Douay Township Camp on the night of 25 May. RED-SPOTTED Newt. (Notophthalmus virides- cens). We took one adult male, in breeding condition, in a minnow trap at the Louvicourt Camp on 28 May. We did not find any efts at this locality despite extensive collecting of other salamanders under logs and in pitfall traps. Logier and Toner (1961) did not report this species from Western Quebec or from adjacent Ontario north of Lake Temagami, Nipissing District. RED-BACKED SALAMANDER. (Plethodon cine- reus). Abundant at the Louvicourt Camp, but not found elsewhere despite considerable searching. Most (80% ) of the specimens were found within or under burned logs in a stand of jack pine. The soil was a fine reddish washed sand and the ground cover was mostly Cladonia spp. and other lichens, with some blueberry (Vaccinium angusti- folium). On 17 and 19 May most of the salaman- ders taken were in the sun-warmed upper 3-4 cm of the decayed burned logs. Of the 46 taken, two were of the plain, or lead-backed, morph, one was intermediate, and the rest were of the striped morph (see Schueler 1974). This species’ 1975 abundance at this camp is a puzzling contrast to its apparent absence elsewhere. The only more northerly record from Quebec is McCoy and Durden’s (1965) unsubstantiated (specimens lost in transit) record from the James Bay lowlands. AMERICAN ToaD. (Bufo americanus). We took 10 at the Lac Cameron Camp, both in the ponds and moving towards them at night, and heard one short trill. We also found one there under a board in a shallow depression which may have been its hibernaculum. We found no toads else- where, perhaps because of the late sping. SPRING PEEPER. (Hyla crucifer). Abundant at all camps and calling abundantly throughout the region. Pairs were found in amplexus at the Lac Cameron Camp (20 May, water 11°C) but not elsewhere. MINK FRrRocG. (Rana _ septentrionalis). Over- wintered tadpoles (mean body length = 32.9 mm, stages 28-37, mean 36.3 (Gosner 1960), n = 48) were common at the Louvicourt Camp, and we took two adults there on 28 May. Woop Froc. (Rana sylvatica). Abundant at all camps and calling abundantly throughout the region. Amplexed pairs were observed at all camps. At the Louvicourt Camp the first eggs were laid on 16 May, when the water temperature at dusk first exceeded 9°C (10.5°). These and later eggs had hatched and calling was much reduced there on 26-28 May. NORTHERN LEOPARD FROG. (Rana pipiens). Common at the Louvicourt and Douay Township Camps in the deep (21 m) ditches and at the margins of the lakes. Calling was heard only at Louvicourt, and only when the water temperature reached 12°C on 19 May. Vigorous calling from the margin of the lake there on the nights of 26 and 27 May have indicated breeding, but we found no eggs. SNAPPING TURTLE. (Chelydra serpentina). Mr. Peter St-Denis of Val d’Or and other local people told us that snapping turtles were taken infre- quently in lakes in the Val d’Or area. Chelydra is also found well north of its previously reported range in adjacent Ontario, as Mr. James C. Rice, of this department, saw a large adult of this unmistakable species in a shallow oxbow of the Englehart River, 2.5 km west of Englehart, Timis- kaming District, on 28 July 1973. These are the first eastern reports of this species from the vicinity of the Arctic Watershed (Logier and Toner 1961). NOTES 59 Discussion Several of these records significantly extend the ranges of the respective species known to Bleakney (1958) and Logier and Toner (1961). We report them here, however, largely to point out the efficiency with which funnel-ended wire-mesh minnow traps and pitfall traps took forms which were difficult to obtain by active collecting. A minnow trap placed in a ditch or pond overnight near appropriate habitat usually caught 5-30 Ambystoma, which we saw infrequently in the same habitat during active collecting, and such traps caught most of the tadpoles and the only Notophthalmus. The traps we used had 6.5-mm mesh and 3-cm apertures; small Ambystoma could escape through the mesh. A ditch, 3-m long and 20-cm deep, at the Louvicourt Camp caught 11 Ambystoma, four Plethodon, and our only yearling Hyla between 22 and 28 May. Acknowledgments We thank the National Museum of Natural Sciences for the loan of equipment, National Re- search Council of Canada grant *A5999 to James D. Rising for financial support, Peter St-Denis and Sujanna Brisebois of Val d’Or for their hos- pitality, and Francis R. Cook for his helpful criticism of the manuscript. Literature Cited Bleakney, J. S. 1958. A zoogeographic study of the amphibians and reptiles of eastern Canada. Na- tional Museum of Canada Bulletin 155: 1-119. Gosner, K. L. 1960. A simplified table for staging anuran embryos and larvae with notes on identifica- tion. Herpetologica 16: 183-190. Logier, E. B. S. and G. C. Toner. 1961. Checklist of the amphibians and reptiles of Canada and Alaska. Royal Ontario Museum, Life Sciences Division, Contribution 53: 1-92. McCoy, C. J. and C. T. Durden. 1965. New distribu- tion records of amphibians and reptiles in eastern Canada. Canadian Field-Naturalist 79: 156-157. Schueler, P. W. 1974. Color morphs of the Red- backed Salamander, Plethodon cinereus, in New York and New England. Engelhardtia. In press. FREDERICK W. SCHUELER - ALETA R. KARSTAD Department of Zoology University of Toronto Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A1 Received 10 June 1974 Accepted 11 October 1974 60 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 Nest Site Availability as a Factor Limiting Population Size of Swallows There are many examples of competition for nest sites in hole-nesting birds (Norton 1917; von Haartman 1957; Erskine 1964). The extent to which the availability of nest sites limits popula- tion size is more difficult to demonstrate. In hole- nesting species, especially those species that can- not excavate their own cavity, nest-site availability is critical to breeding success. This study investi- gates the changes in the population sizes of the Eastern Kingbird, Tyrannus tyrannus, Purple Martin, Progne subis, Barn Swallow, Hirundo rustica, and Tree Swallow, Iridoprocne bicolor, following the introduction of artificial nest sites at Long Point, Ontario. The Eastern Kingbird, although not a hole- nesting bird, is included here because it feeds on aerial insects as do the three swallow species (Holroyd 1972). As the number of swallows breeding in the study area increased, changes in the size of the Eastern Kingbird population were noted. Methods Long Point, Norfolk County, Ontario, is a 20-mile-long sand peninsula extending from the north shore of Lake Erie. The eastern tip (1.25 miles in length and 0.5 square miles in area) comprises the study area. The vegetation consists of the early stages of dune succession (Haylock et al. 1970). Cottonwoods line the dune ridges; sedge swales and ponds dominate the interdune. Most cottonwoods are less than 30 feet high but in a few clumps, trees reach 45 feet. The records of the Long Point Bird Observa- tory, dating from 1960, were searched for obser- vations of bird-breeding attempts at the eastern end of Long Point and for notes on the con- struction of nest boxes. Additional and more complete records of nesting birds were collected in the summers of 1970 to 1973 by the author. Results Breeding bird censuses, conducted on part of the present study area from 1965 to 1968, showed that the Eastern Kingbird was the most common breeding bird (4 pairs on 48 acres) (Fairfield 1969). The only hole-nesting species were the Starling, Sturnus vulgaris, and the Common Flicker, Colaptes auratus. There were no other flycatchers (Tyrannidae) and no swallows (Hirun- dinidae) breeding in the area censused in those four years although they did nest in other parts of the present study area. The Eastern Kingbird, Eastern Wood Pewee (Contopus virens), and Eastern Phoebe (Sayornis phoebe) were the only flycatchers known to remain during the summer months in the study area. During the summers of 1970 and 1971 an Eastern Wood Pewee sang throughout the summer. The pewee was always observed near the end of the point in a small grove of cotton- woods, but no observation was made of young or of a second pewee. It is not likely that a breeding attempt was made. The only known Eastern Phoebe nest was located in an abandoned car in 1967, and the nest was destroyed by a predator. In the study area, all Eastern Kingbird nests were found in cottonwoods and the mean nest height above ground was 12 feet (range 5 to 30 feet, N = 24). Data from 1967 to 1973, including accurate mapping of adult kingbird territories by G. Fairfield since 1968, show that the breeding population of Eastern Kingbirds has fluctuated from 6 to 12 pairs (mean 9.7, Table 1). TABLE 1 — Territorial pairs of Eastern Kingbirds Year Total 1964* 1 1965* 6 1966* 8 1967 10 1968 12 1969 10 1970 9 1971 11 1972 10 1973 6 * Data incomplete. Swallows breeding in the area include the Tree Swallow, Barn Swallow, Purple Martin, Cliff Swallow (Petrochelidon pyrrhonota), and Bank Swallow (Riparia riparia). Two pairs of Cliff Swallows attempted to breed in 1965. Both pairs attached their mud nests to building walls. One pair was evicted by a pair of House Sparrows (Passer domesticus), and the second pair lost its brood of four young when the nest collapsed. n7S In 1972 a pair of Cliff Swallows successfully fledged at least four nestlings. From 1967 to 1969 Bank Swallows excavated 5, 19, and 2 holes respectively in low. sharp banks on the south side of the south dune. No data were collected on nesting success and the banks have since collapsed. Apartment house boxes are the only nest sites used by Purple Martins in the study area. Through the 1950s and earlier, the local lightkeepers put up some nest boxes. During the early 1960s, however, these boxes fell into disrepair and few Purple Martins bred in the study area. A colony has thrived for many years at the Gravelly Bay cottages (about 4 miles west of the end on the north shore of Long Point). In 1963 and 1964, a 16-hole apartment house was available in the study area and used by martins. From 1965 to 1967 the house was taken down while experiments were conducted with a large (6 X 6 X 6 feet) structure with boxes on the outside. Only one egg was ever laid by a Purple Martin in this structure. Since 1968, apartment house boxes have been available as nest sites in the study area (Table 2). TaBLE 2—Number of breeding pairs of Purple Martins in the study area Number Number of Number Year of boxes apartments occupied 1961 several 1962 = 1963 1 16 16 1964 1 16 14 1965 2 4+ (42) 2+(1) 1966 1 (42) 0 1967 1 44 (42) E(B) 1968 1 16 ? 1969 2 32 17 1970 3 48 39 1971 3 48 44 1972 4 64 54 1973 3 48 42 NOTES: 1961, 1962, and 1968 data are incomplete; 1965 to 1967—The 42-hole box is included but it was unsuitable for the Purple Martins; 1970 to 1973 — Two boxes were checked each year. Occupancy in other boxes was estimated from these data. All recorded Barn Swallow nest sites at Long Point were in or on buildings. At the end of the point, the Barn Swallows have built nests in three general locations: a ruined lighthouse building, an old barn which is part of the present lighthouse complex, and other buildings scattered on the end of the point. NOTES 61 The old lighthouse building, located about 4 mile from the east end of the point, has collapsed but the original supporting pillars still hold the floor of the building 6 feet above ground level. Barn Swallows nested on the sides of the beams under the floor. The old unused barn had interior beams about 8 feet above the floor and these beams also were used as nest sites by the Barn Swallows. The other houses and buildings supplied overhanging eaves under which the Barn Swallows often nested. Nests in these locations were generally 10 to 12 feet aboveground. The numbers of known Barn Swallow nesting attempts in the ruins, the old barn, and the other buildings are summarized in Table 3. The number of pairs involved was not known. Since the Barn Swallows may raise more than one brood per year, the number of nesting attempts will be more than the number of Barn Swallow pairs. Until 1970 only two or fewer checks were made on Barn Swallow nests during the summer months. Many nesting attempts were probably not noted. Since 1970 coverage has been more intense. Until 1970 the majority of the Barn Swallows nested in the old barn. In 1970 the swallow access routes, namely the doors and windows of the barn, were closed. There was a corresponding increase in the number of nesting attempts made in the ruins. In 1969, two Tree Swallow nests were found in natural cavities in cottonwoods. Both cavities had previously been excavated by another species, probably the Common Flicker. The only data recorded were for single visits to each hole when one egg and three eggs were noted as nest con- tents. A pair of Tree Swallows fledged three young from a nest in a tree trunk in 1973. Since 1963 nest boxes placed in the study area have been occupied by Tree Swallows. Until 1969 boxes were placed at a height of 4 to 8 feet on cottonwood trunks. These boxes faced in all compass directions. In 1969 all of the boxes were moved and set 4 to 54 feet high on poles in a grid. The grid was rectangular, 23 rows by 5 rows, and the boxes were placed 80 feet apart, all facing east. In 1971 the grid was expanded to 160 boxes and sheet metal “shields” were placed on many poles to deter predators. The number of boxes available and occupancy rates are summarized in Table 4. Discussion Many birds have specific nest-site requirements (Caldwell 1964; Gibb 1964; Holcomb and Twiest 62 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST TABLE 3 — Number of breeding attempts by Barn Sallows in the study area Year Barn Ruins Other 1960 — 1961 ? 1962 ie 1963 8 1964 3 1965 6 1966 11 1967 15 1968 16 19 0 0 0 0 SiGe WAANRH OY | 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 — ~“ ——_ ORINE NH WUeE LD Vol. 89 Total Comments 13 One check, July 2 ? Not visited ? Not visited 12 Two checks, June 9, July 11 5 Two checks in May 15 Checks from June 4 to 19 16 Two checks, June 1 and 11 20 Two checks, July 4 and 5 24 One check, June 26 20+ Two checks, June 12 and 29 30 Many visits 27 Many visits 31 Many visits 30 Many visits NOTES: Checks from 1960 to 1969 recorded only one brood or part of a brood each year. The barn was closed in May, 1970. TABLE 4— Number of nesting attempts of Tree Swallows in the study area Other species Number Number of nesting of boxes nesting attempts Year available attempts in boxes 1963 6 2) 3 1964 12 4 1 1965 46 18 7 1966 44 17 12 1967 42 i7/ 5 1968 95 39 12 1969 107 52 0 1970 105 69 1 ee 1971 174 89 1 1972 171 152 1 1973 152 = 2 Other species nesting in the boxes House Wren 1 Eastern Bluebird 19 Starling D) House Sparrow 22 Brewer's Blackbird 1 * Data lost in a fire. 1968). The Eastern Kingbird prefers open habitats such as farmland, parklands, open woodlots, and river edges (Bent 1942; Godfrey 1966). The habitat of dunes and scattered cottonwoods at the end of Long Point appears ideal for the kingbird and indeed, excluding those species that inhabit artificial nest sites, this species is the most common breeding bird in the study area. The number of breeding pairs has fluctuated from 6 to 12 during the last five years and although this variation may not be random biologically, it is within the realm of chance statistically (chi- square Goodness of Fit, P= 0.5). The increase in swallow numbers during the study period does not appear to have had any detrimental effect on the size of the Eastern Kingbird population. Eastern Kingbirds are highly territorial and in the study area they often include a relatively dense stand of cottonwoods in their territories. There are, however, many stands of cottonwood in the study area that appear suitable for nest sites that are not used by kingbirds, and stands occupied one year are often vacant the next. The availability of cottonwoods for nest sites does not appear to be a limiting factor of population size in the study iarea. Johnston (1971) found the Eastern Kingbird was not syntopic with other flycatchers. The habitat at the end of Long Point appears unsuit- able to other flycatchers. The dearth of other tree-nesting species, including other flycatchers, precludes competition for nest sites with the Eastern Kingbird. Unlike Eastern Kingbirds, Purple Martins nest colonially. “Before the advent of the white man the [Purple] Martin used natural cavities of trees and cliffs for nesting sites” (Bent 1942, p. 490). In 1955; G. Bennet (Ontario Nest Record Scheme) recorded a pair of Purple Martins using a tree cavity near the base of Long Point as a nesting site. The study area at the end of Long Point does not have any suitable tree cavities for Purple Martins and all recorded 1975 nesting attempts have been in artificial nest boxes. Suitable nest boxes were heavily used by Purple Martins every year that they were available. The - high occupancy rate by this species shows that the lack of suitable nesting sites is still the major factor limiting population size. The addition of more apartment house boxes would likely result in an increase in the number of Purple Martin breeding pairs. The Barn Swallow also tends to nest in groups. Nineteenth century ornithologists found Barn Swallows nesting “in rocky caves, in crevices in rocky cliffs, on shelves of projecting rocks where some protection from above was afforded and even in holes or natural cavities in cut banks” (Bent 1942, p. 442). There are no such cliffs or rocky slopes on Long Point. The Barn Swallows in the study area use buildings to support their nests. The number of nest sites in use from 1963 to 1969 appeared to be relatively constant. The low count of five in 1964 probably reflects the early inspection date. The increased number of recorded attempts from 1970 to 1973 reflects the more regular checking rather than a population increase. The population size remained relatively con- stant despite an apparent abundance of nest sites. The increased use of the ruins in 1970, after the closing of the barn, indicates there were unused nest sites in previous years. Thus there was always an excess of nest sites, and some factor other than nest-site availability limited the size of the breeding population of Barn Swallows until 1970. Since 1970 there still may be an excess of nest sites, as sites used one year may not be used the next. The Tree Swallow is a hole-nester. Its natural nest sites are in hollow stumps, hollow limbs, and trees (Norton 1917; Taverner 1919). Nest boxes and “niches in buildings” (Norton 1917, p. 258) have served as artificial nest sites for many years. The existence of a suitably sized hole and cavity is possibly the chief factor controlling the location of a Tree Swallow nest (von Haartman 1957). Unlike hole-builders, such as woodpeckers, that are able to construct their own cavities in their preferred habitats, Tree Swallows are dependent on existing holes. The Common Flicker is the hole-building species in the study area, and the aggressive Starling uses the old flicker cavities. This competition for nest holes between the Starling and Tree Swallow has virtually eliminated the use of natural cavities by Tree Swallows in the study area. NOTES 63 The number of nesting pairs of Tree Swallows is directly related to the number of boxes avail- able. From 1965 to 1967 both the number of boxes and the number of nesting attempts were relatively constant. The increase in nesting at- tempts each year after 1968 appears to be due to the increase of available boxes, although the Tree Swallow numbers seem to lag behind the increase in boxes. From 1968 to 1972 there is no indica- tion of a leveling-off in the number of Tree Swallow pairs. If the number of boxes were in- creased in the future, there is no reason to assume that the number of Tree Swallows would also increase. Thus the availability of nest sites ap- pears to be the critical factor limiting the number of breeding Tree Swallow pairs at the end of Long Point. Chapman (1935) gave similar conclusions for a New England colony that he established in open farmland. Whittle (1926) describes a colony of Tree Swallows of 150 pairs, all nesting in boxes within three-quarters of an acre of ideal open habitat. Conclusion Populations of the Purple Martin, Barn Swal- low, and Tree Swallow are normally limited at Long Point by the availability of suitable natural nest sites. The Eastern Kingbird is the exception. The three swallow species have all increased in numbers with the availability of artificial nest sites. The Barn Swallow, however, appears now to have an excess of nest sites and seems to be limited by some other factor. The Tree Swallow and Purple Martin populations still seem limited by nest-site availability. Acknowledgments This study could not have been undertaken without the cooperation of the Long Point Obser- vatory and the enthusiasm of its members who gave their time and energy to collect a great deal of the data. I thank them all and extend a special thank you to M. Bradstreet, G. Fairfield, and D. J. T. Hussell. I am indebted to the Canadian Department of Transport, the Long Point Com- pany and their employees for their assistance throughout the study. I am grateful to Dr. D. M. Power, Dr. W. G. Sprules, and E. M. Holroyd for their critical read- ing of earlier drafts of this manuscript. This study was financed by National Research Council of Canada grants A4901 to Dr. Power, and A6388 to Dr. Sprules. 64 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Literature Cited Bent, A. C. 1942. Life histories of North American flycatchers, larks, swallows and their allies. United States National Museum Bulletin 179: 1-555. Caldwell, L. D. 1964. Dove production and nest site selection in southern Michigan. Journal of Wildlife Management 28: 732-738. Chapman, L. B. 1935. Studies of a Tree Swallow colony. Bird Banding 6: 45-47. Erskine, A. J. 1964. Nest site competition between Bufflehead, Mountain Bluebird and Tree Swallow. Canadian Field-Naturalist 78: 202-203. Fairfield, G. M. 1969. Long Point breeding bird cen- sus. Ontario Bird Banding 5: 1-6. Gibb, J. A. 1964. Nest site selection. In A new dic- tionary of birds. Edited by A. L. Thomson. Mc- Graw-Hill Book Co., New York. 928 pp. Godfrey, W. E. 1966. The birds of Canada. National Museum of Canada Bulletin 203. 428 pp. Haartman, L. von. 1957. Adaptation in hole-nesting birds. Evolution 11: 339-347. Haylock, B. J., J. Cebrowski, and G. L. Holroyd. 1970. A study of sand dune succession at Long Point. Long Point Bird Observatory Newsletter 2(2): S—10. Vol. 89 Holcomb, L. C. and G. Twiest. 1968. Ecological fac- tors affecting nest building in Red-winged Black- birds. Bird Banding 39: 1422. Holroyd, G. L. 1972. Resource use by four avian species of aerial insect feeders. M.Sc. thesis, Uni- versity of Toronto. 100 pp. Johnston, D. W. 1971. Niche relationships among some deciduous forest flycatchers. Auk 88: 796— 804. Norton, A. H. 1917. Remarks on the nesting habits of swallows. Bird Lore 19: 257-258. Taverner, P. A. 1919. Birds of eastern Canada. Bi- ological Series 3. Queen’s Printer, Ottawa. Whittle, C. L. 1926. Notes on the nesting habits of Tree Swallows. Auk 43: 247. GEOFFREY L. HOLROYD Department of Zoology University of Toronto Toronto, Ontario MSS 1A1 Received 4 June 1974 Accepted 14 September 1974 Common Redpolls Nesting at Edmonton, Alberta On 20 April 1974, Mrs. J. Harrold Elliot of Edmonton called-me to say a pair of Common Redpolls (Acanthis flammea) were nesting in her garden. The nest was situated 7 feet from the ground in the leafless branches of an Amur maple (Acer ginnala) but was partly obscured by the seed clusters that still hung on the tree. When ‘the report was checked on 22 April the nest held three eggs. Mrs. Elliot commented that the male had been seen feeding the female on the nest. On 6 May 1974, after I had mentioned this nesting in a weekly column on birds that I write for the Edmonton Journal, I received two more reports of breeding redpolls. Mrs. Fred Jones telephoned to say she had a nest just 3 feet from the ground in her cotoneaster hedge (Cotoneaster lucida), while Mrs. R. E. Miller told of another nest 7 feet up in a chokecherry (Prunus virgin- iana) in her garden. Neither of these women seemed aware of the rarity of such nestings and would not have reported them had they not read the note in the newspaper. Both commented that they too had seen the male feeding the female at the respective nests. These nests were checked on the same day they were reported and each was found to hold four unfledged young. All three of these nests were on the south side of the North Saskatchewan River in Edmonton but were in widely separated areas. Then on 10 May 1974, Wesley Hochachka reported he had found another redpoll’s nest at Devon, some 15 miles southwest of Edmonton. This nest was 10 feet up in a Manitoba maple (Acer negundo). When identification was con- firmed on 12 May it held four well-grown young. The identification of the birds at each of the nesting sites was made by two or more competent observers. These included Dr. Kathleen Ball, Dr. Cyril Hampson, Reginald Heath, Edgar T. Jones, Dr. Robert W. Turner, and the writer. Of the four reported nestings three were suc- cessful with the young seen on the wing. The fourth, that in the garden of Mrs. Miller, met 1975 disaster. The female disappeared during the afternoon of May 6 and next morning the young were dead in the nest. The male remained in the vicinity for a few hours on 7 May and then left. With the reporting of these four nests one. wonders how many more were not found, went unrecorded, or were not identified. Redpolls, both Common and Hoary, were unusually numerous in the Edmonton area during the winter of 1973-74 but they have been just as common in years gone by when no nesting was reported. It has been suggested to me that in the past, such nestings have been overlooked. This could have happened in one locality but scarcely across the settled parts of Canada where the birds are more or less common winter visitors. The only comparable nesting records that I am aware of are reported from Mortlach, Saskatchewan by Lahrman and Nero (1961. Blue Jay 19(3): NOTES 65 113-114) and from Saskatoon, Saskatchewan in 1970 by Hans Blokpoel (recorded in Canadian Field-Naturalist 84(4): 394-396). Weather in Edmonton throughout the winter was moderately cold with much greater snowfall than usual. Spring was late but most of the snow, at least in the city, had gone before the birds nested. It is difficult to see what bearing weather had on these not only southerly but remarkably early nestings. ROBERT LISTER 11115-84th Ave. Edmonton, Alberta Received 6 June 1974 Accepted 23 September 1974 An Unusual Association of Damselfly Naiads with Fish Carcasses ! On 27 June 1974 many damselfly naiads of the genera Ischnura and Enallagma were clinging to floating carcasses of the cisco (Coregonus artedii) in Oneida Lake, New York. Thousands of these fish die each summer, probably as a result of stresses from heavy parasitism by sea lampreys (Petromyzon marinus) (Dence and Jackson 1959) and the annual cycle of increasing temper- atures and decreasing levels of dissolved oxygen (Frey 1955). Because the cisco is a coldwater fish (Frey 1955) it is restricted to the deepest water near the center of the large lake (207 km?), from which the dying and dead fish float to the surface and may be subsequently blown toward shore. These particular fish had died during a relatively calm period, however, and were still floating in water over 9 meters deep and over 2 kilometers from shore. Since the carcasses had not previously been in shallow water or near shore, it appeared that the naiads were somewhat pelagic, a departure from their normal benthic existence. No damselfly nymphs have been found in bottom samples taken over 15 years in the off- shore areas of Oneida Lake. A few have been taken, however, in nets towed near the surface 1 A contribution of Federal Aid in Fish and Wildlife Restoration Project F-17-R. in deep water to capture fish fry. The Coena- grionidae are listed by Pennak (1953) as climbers that move about on vegetation or organic debris. Since windrows of floating vegetation are common offshore in Oneida Lake, it appears that the naiads, along with the uprooted plants to which they aré clinging, are transported by water currents to the surface of deeper areas. Reasons for the subsequent congregation of the predaceous naiads on the carcasses are not known. Literature Cited Dence, W. A. and D. F. Jackson. 1959. Changing chemical and biological conditions in Oneida Lake, New York. School Science and Mathematics 59: 317-324. Frey, D. G. 1955. Distributional ecology of the cisco (Coregonus artedii) in Indiana. Investigations of Indiana Lakes and Streams 4: 177-228. Pennak, R. W. 1953. Fresh-water invertebrates of the United States. Ronald Press Co., New York. 769 pp. MICHAEL D. CLADY Department of Natural Resources Cornell University Ithaca, New York 14580 Received 16 July 1974 Accepted 14 September 1974 66 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST The Fern Genus Woodsia in Manitoba The woodsias are small ferns which are found on rock outcrops, cliff faces, and screes. Three species were reported from Manitoba by Scoggan (1957): Woodsia glabella R. Br., W. ilvensis R. Br., and W. alpina (Bolton) S. F. Gray. Woodsia ilvensis is by far the most frequently found species in the province. It occurs on out- crops throughout the Precambrian formations of southeastern, central, and northern Manitoba (Scoggan 1957). A specimen collected by Bour- geau labelled Winipeg [sic], which was cited by Brown (1964), undoubtedly came from some- where in the Winnipeg River drainage area (see discussion under W. oregana). ; Woodsia glabella is much rarer. It is found occasionally on limestone outcrops in the central part of the province. Sir John Richardson collected the first specimen of Woodsia alpina from the province of Manitoba at Norway House (K; photo DAO). This was reported by Hooker (1840) sub W. hyperborea as “Canada to the Saskatchewan. Pursh. Dr. Richardson. Drummond,” and by Macoun (1890) also sub W. hyperborea, as “Norway House, Lake Winnipeg (Richardson).” Ritchie (1956) reported a specimen of W. alpina from Tod Lake near the Saskatchewan border (Ritchie 1264 (MAN; photo DAO)). Here the species grew in a deeply shaded cliff ledge on the north-facing side of a high outcrop ridge on the northwest shore of the lake. At the time, Ritchie considered this to be the first authentic record for Manitoba but the earlier report by Hooker and Macoun has since been verified. Recently, two species of Woodsia, W. oregana D. C. Eaton and W. scopulina D. C. Eaton (W. oregana var. lyallii (Hook.) Boivin) have been discovered in the western part of central Man- itoba. Jackson et al. (1922) reported Woodsia oregana for Manitoba but without locality. This report was repeated by Lowe (1943) as “on rocks. In a previous list without locality.” Scoggan (1957) repeated this report, stating that there were no sup- porting specimens. There are indeed no supporting specimens in the herbarium of the University of Manitoba (MAN) nor are there any at Ottawa (CAN, DAO), but Brown (1964) in his mono- graph of the genus Woodsia, cited a Bourgeau specimen labelled Winipeg which is preserved at Kew. This specimen (“Winipeg [sic], dans les Rochers, Bourgeau”; — Figure 1) however, will not have been collected in the vicinity of the city of Winnipeg which lies in an area of heavy clay Vol. 89 soil at the junction of the Red and Assiniboine Rivers, but rather from some rocky outcrop in either Manitoba or Ontario along the Winnipeg River system between Lake of the Woods and Lake Winnipeg. There is no date on the specimen, but from the record of Astronomical Observations taken in 1857 (Palliser 1859), it can be deter- mined that the party was at Fort Frances on July 1, Rainy River on July 3, Portage de Bois on July 4, Winipeg River on July 5 and 6, Winipeg Lake on July 11, and Upper Fort Garry (the site of the city of Winnipeg) on July 16. Data for the collections of Woodsia oregana are as follows. Manitoba: 70 to 80 clumps in schist over + mile of 5-ft-high shore cliff, associated with the lichen Xanthoria elegans, Bakers Narrows Provincial Park, 8 miles SE of Flin Flon, J. D. Lafontaine, 13 August 1973 (DAO); growing with Woodsia scopulina in dry crevices in schist cliff 4.5 miles by road N of Bakers Narrows Provincial Park (5 miles SE of Flin Flon), J. D. Lafontaine, 14 August 1973 (DAO). These represent the first authentic records of W. oregana from Manitoba. The data for Woodsia scopulina are as follows. Manitoba: about 12 clumps in schist cliff, 4.5 miles by road N of Bakers Narrows Provincial Park (5 miles SE of Flin Flon), J. D. Lafontaine, 14 August 1973 (DAO). Here it was associated with W. oregana. This is the first record of Woodsia scopulina for Manitoba. Like W. oregana, W. scopulina is known in Thunder Bay District, Ontario and at Lake Athabaska in Saskatchewan. Woodsia oregana, however has a broader range in Saskatchewan than W. scopulina, being known as well from the Cypress Hills and near Bengough in the Wood Mountain district (DAO). Scoggan (1957) gave a key to four of the five species of Woodsia reported in this paper. This key is expanded here to include W. scopu- lina: Stipes jointed near the base. Stipes chaffless or with a few scattered scales Indusia of 5—8 short filamentous seg- ments; stipes green or Straw-Cololaeey = ee W. glabella Indusia of 10—20 long curving filament- ous segments overtopping the mature sporangia; Stipes bro will, soe W. alpina Stipes very chaffy, at least When young 0.0... W. ilvensis 1975 NOTES ~ | Ve oe i = EI Es | - — ae ae a Cea! Ee al —~— = aS Woodsia oregana 5.C.uaton Sept. 1956 Le A SE i i “PHOTO DETERMINED BY DONALD F. M. BROWN FicurE 1. Woodsia oregana, Winipeg, Bourgeau (K). 68 WOODSIA OREGANA THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 WOODSIA ILVENSIS MILES 100 200 300 400 500 200 400 #4600 KILOMETERS WOODSIA SCOPULINA Ficure 2. Distribution of Woodsia species in Manitoba. Stipes not joined. Indusia plate-like; pinnae and rachis bearing glands and articulates hairse. W. scopulina Indusia composed of glandular articulate hairs and linear lobes; pinnae and rachis bearing glands but no anticulate Mains. sss eae W. oregana Maps depicting the known distribution of the five Woodsia species in Manitoba are shown in Figure 2. Literature Cited Brown, D. F. M. 1964. A monograph of the fern genus Woodsia, Beihefte zur Hedwigia 16: 1-154. Hooker, W. J. 1840. Flora Boreali-Americana. Volume 2, Part 12. Henry G. Bohn, London. pp. 241-328. Jackson, V. W., J. F. Higham, H. Groh, and C. W. Lowe. 1922. Checklist of Manitoba flora. Nat- ural History Society of Manitoba, Winnipeg. 36 pp. Lowe, C. W. 1943. List of the flowering plants, ferns, club mosses, mosses and liverworts of 1975 Manitoba. Natural History Society of Manitoba, Winnipeg. 110 pp. Macoun, J. 1890. Catalague of Canadian plants. Part V. Acrogens. William Foster Brown & Co., Montreal. Palliser, J. 1859. Papers relative to the exploration by Captain Palliser of that portion of British North America which lies between the northern branch of the River Saskatchewan and the frontier of the United States; and between the Red River and Rocky Mountains. Eyre and Spottiswoode, London. 75 pp. Ritchie, J. C. 1956. Additions and extensions to the flora of Manitoba. Rhodora 58: 321-325. NOTES 69 Scoggan, H. J. 1957. Flora of Manitoba. National Museum of Canada Bulletin 140: 1-619. WILLIAM J. Copy J. DONALD LAFONTAINE Biosystematics Research Institute Central Experimental Farm Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0C6 Received 20 September 1974 Accepted 19 November 1974 Scheuchzeria palustris 1. (Scheuchzeriaceae) in Northwestern North America In the eighth edition of Gray's Manual of Botany, Fernald (1950) gave the North American range of the circumpolar Scheuchzeria palustris as Newfoundland to Manitoba and Washington south to New Jersey, Pennsylvania, northern Ohio, northern Illinois, northern Iowa, Nebraska, New Mexico, and California. These North American populations he (Fernald 1923) had designated as var. americana Fern. on the basis of what he described as larger follicles with longer curving beaks and larger seeds. The variety, however, may not be distinct and Hultén (1968) comments that the difference is not well marked in Alaskan specimens. When Fernald wrote the section of the manual on Scheuchzeria, he probably relied on his 1923 paper for the Canadian distribution. Thus he did not take into account the collections of Hugh Raup from the south shore of Lake Athabaska in northwestern Saskatchewan (Raup 1936), and he was apparently unaware of the collections from Prince Albert National Park, Saskatchewan (W. P. Fraser, 20 Aug. 1935 (DAO)) reported by Fraser and Russell (1937, 1944), Nestow, Alberta (E. H. Moss 4411 (DAO)) in 1938, or Pigeon Lake, Alberta (G. H. Turner 5858, 5867 (DAO) ) in 1947 (Turner 1949). From British Columbia too there is a collection from as early as 1939 preserved at Ottawa: Reid Lake, 20 miles north of Prince George (H. Groh 618 (DAO)). But indeed there are earlier rec- ords of S. palustris from British Columbia: Lulu Island (Henry 1915) and Horsethief Creek (Ulke 1935). Henry (1915), too, mentions the occur- rence of S. palustris in Alaska. Other collections from these provinces have been gathered more recently. It is evident that, although the species is rather dispersed in its distribution because of its peculiar habitat requirements, it is by no means as rare as was indicated by Fernald. During the early stages of preparation of the Checklist of the Vascular Plants of Continental Northwest Territories, Canada (Porsild and Cody 1968), Erling Porsild suggested that S. palustris would eventually be found in southern Mackenzie District. This suggestion was based on the proximity of suitable habitats in that area to the known stands on the south shore of Lake Athabaska. The following summer (1966), while conducting field studies in that part of Mackenzie District adjacent to the Saskatchewan border, I found Scheuchzeria at three different sites: Porter Lake, Scott Lake, and Spearfish Lake. These collections were reported by Cody and Porsild (1968). More recent surveys have since proved the occurrence of this plant as far north as about 64°N latitude in Mackenzie District, and indicate that the plant is not as rare in the District as earlier suspected. Data for these collections is as follows: dominant in a wet thaw pocket, peat plateau near Barefoot Lake southeast of Trout Lake, 60°20’ N, 120°45’ W, 8 July 1971, J. S. Rowe 1758 (DAO); in an ombrotrophic peatland 70 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Ficure 1. Canadian and Alaskan distribution of Scheuchzeria palustris as known from the Ottawa Herbaria (DAO, CAN) (closed circles) and selected references (open circles). in a flooded depression growing in Sphagnum majus, southwest corner of Heart Lake, 60°48’ N, 116°37’ W, 27 June 1972, S. S. Talbot 2263 (DAO); open bog area with Sarracenia purpurea and Sphagnum magellanicum near base of Horn Plateau, 61°48’ N, 120°15’ W, 16 July 1971, P. Darron 1839 (DAO); in ooze in cold bog by small lake on top of Ebbutt Hills, 62°20 N, 1222187 We te uly OO We we Codvels7s9 (DAO); common in wet thaw pockets of bog hollow in peat plateau south of Willow Lake River 62-307 Net22°2300 Wedd July Od 1s Jess. Rowe 1955A (DAO); common in wet Sphagnum of cold bog, unnamed lake southeast of Cartridge Hills, 63°52’ N, 120°05’ W, 9 July 1970, W. J. Cody 18742 (DAO). The boggy and often quaking bog margins of small ponds and lakes, in which S. palustris is frequently found growing in profusion, are not the types of habitats through which the casual collector of plants will venture. Also the narrow grass-like leaves, although they are quite stiff and have a characteristic green coloration, might easily be overlooked if the plant was lacking flowers or fruit as is frequently the case. Thus a more detailed knowledge of the distribution of this plant in the boreal forest zone may have to wait until more extensive botanical or ecological sur- veys are conducted. Hultén’s (1968) map of Scheuchzeria palustris suggests that there is a major gap in its distribu- tion in most of the province of Manitoba. The only Manitoba collection known to him was the one from Reindeer Lake (Baldwin 2418 (CAN) ) in the northwest part of that province (Baldwin 1951). I would suggest, however, that this ap- parent void is due to a lack of botanical activity in the boreal parts of Manitoba rather than an actual absence of the species. This is borne out at least in part by an unreported collection made in 1961 on Hecla Island in southern Lake Win- nipeg (W. G. Dore 19587 (DAO)). The only known site in the Yukon is the one from Halfway Lakes, 15 miles north of Mayo where it was collected by J. A. Calder (Calder et al. 4223 (DAO)). In 1947, Dutilly, Lepage, and O’Neill collected Scheuchzeria palustris 5 miles south of Anchorage in Alaska. Their collections were undoubtedly available to E. Hultén when he mapped the 1975 species for his flora (Hultén 1968), as was the material from the Kenai Peninsula gathered by J. A. Calder (Calder 6804 (DAO)). The dot on Hultén’s map from the Anchorage area would cover both of these collections. Another Alaska locality shown on Hultén’s map about 200 miles northwest of Anchorage in the valley of the Kuskokwim River west of the Alaska Range of mountains is based on a collection made by W. H. Drury (1956). A map of the Canadian and Alaskan distribu- tion of Scheuchzeria palustris as known from the herbaria at Ottawa (DAO, CAN) and selected literature references is given in Figure 1. Literature Cited Baldwin, W. K. W. 1951. Botanical investigations in the Reindeer—Nueltin Lakes area, Manitoba. Na- tional Museum of Canada Bulletin 128: 110-142. Cody, W. J. and A. E. Porsild. 1968. Additions to the flora of Continental Northwest Territories. Cana- dian Field-Naturalist 82: 263-275. Drury, W. H. 1956. Bog flats and physiographic processes in the upper Kuskokwim River Region, Alaska. Contributions from the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University 178: 1-130. Fernaid, M. L. 1923. The American variety of Scheuchzeria palustris. Rhodora 25: 177-179. Fernald, M. L. 1950. Gray’s manual of botany. Eighth edition. American Book Company, New York, N.Y. 1632 pp. NOTES 71 Fraser, W. P. and R. C. Russell. 1937. List of the flowering plants, ferns and fern allies of Saskatch- ewan. University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon. 46 pp. Fraser, W. P. and R. C. Russell. 1944. A revised, annotated list of the plants of Saskatchewan. Uni- versity of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon. 64 pp. Henry, J. K. 1915. Flora of Southern British Colum- bia and Vancouver Island. Gage and Company Ltd., Toronto, Ontario. 363 pp. Hultén, E. 1968. Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California. 1008 pp. Porsild, A. E. and W. J. Cody. 1968. Checklist of the vascular plants of continental Northwest Terri- tories, Canada. Canada Department of Agriculture, Plant Research Institute, Ottawa. 102 pp. Raup, H. M. 1936. Phytogeographic studies in the Athabaska—Great Slave Lake Region, I. Catalogue of the vascular plants. Journal of the Armold Ar- boretum 17: 180-315. Turner, G. H. 1949. Plants of the Edmonton District of the Province of Alberta. Canadian Field-Natural- ist 63: 1-29. Ulke, T. 1935. List of the vascular plants of the Horsethief Creek—Purcell Range, British Columbia. Canadian Field-Naturalist 49: 49-55. WILLIAM J. Copy Biosystematics Research Institute Canada Department of Agriculture Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0C6 Received 16 May 1974 Accepted 23 September 1974 Possible Intra-specific Killing by a Great Gray Owl On 23 January 1974, at 1200 hours, I ob- served a possible case of intraspecific “predation” by a Great Gray Owl (Strix nebulosa). The location was 15 feet off Hihgway 93 (57°27’ N, 117°26’ W) at 5000 feet above sea level in Jasper _ National Park, Alberta. The ambient air temper- ature was about —3°C (26°F), with: a southwest wind gusting to 20 mph. The observation of a Great Gray Owl standing on top of a dead Great Gray Owl was made from a bus containing 20 students. When the bus stopped, the feeding bird flew off. Examination of the site did not reveal any signs of a significant struggle. The thin body of the dead owl was still warm. No blood was found, nor were broken bones. or external hemorrhages present. A small area of skin had been opened on it’s breast, and there was a hole approximately 1.5 inches (3.81 cm) in diameter in the ear area. Feathers were scattered in small quantities downwind from the site. This observation implies at least two things: (1) the owl was feeding on carrion; (2) the owl preyed upon an individual of its own kind. The Great Gray Owl preys almost entirely on mice and voles (Bent 1938; Craighead and Craighead 1956; Law 1960; Godfrey 1967; Hog- lund and Lansgren 1968; Nero 1969; Brunton and Pittaway 1971). In some cases birds have been found to constitute small portions of the Great Gray Owl’s diet: the common crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) (Bent 1938); the redpoll (Acan- this sp.) (Fisher 1893); and the Hazel Hen (Tetrastes bonasa) (Mikkola and Sulkava 1970). The taking of birds by Great Gray Owls must be assumed to be uncommon; however, of 4,026 prey items examined in their study of pellets, Mikkola and Sulkava (1970) found 1.1% avian remains, including finches, adult and young game birds (Tetraonidae), two jays (Garrulus glan- darius), and a Tengmalm’s Owl (Aegolius fune- rea). In Canada, however, Brunton and Pittaway 72 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST (1971) had not observed the Great Gray Owl to feed on birds. One could assume that the dead owl may have been hit by an automobile, but park wardens informed us that the road had been closed to public travel up to this date because of danger from avalanches. We were the first travellers on it for some time, other than the wardens. This information, and the lack of external hemorrhages, suggest that the Great Gray Owl attacked and killed an individual of its own kind, possibly an individual diseased or starved to a point where the live bird responded to it’s ab- normal behavior. My thanks to Mr. R. Fyfe and Dr. A. Oeming for their helpful remarks in reviewing the manu- script. Literature Cited Bent, A. C. 1938. Life histories of North American birds of prey. Part 2. Dover edition, 1961. United States National Museum Bulletin 167. Brunton, D. F. and R. Pittaway, Jr. 1971. Observations of the Great Gray Owl on winter range. Canadian Field-Naturalist 85: 315-322. Vol. 89 Craighead, J. J. and F. C. Craighead, Jr. 1956. Hawks, owls and wildlife. Dover edition, 1969. 443 pp. Fisher, A. K. 1893. The hawks and owls of the United States. United States Department of Agriculture. Godfrey, W. E. 1967. Some winter aspects of the Great Gray Owl. Canadian Field-Naturalist 81: 99-101. Hoglund, N. H. and EK. Lansgren. 1968. The Great Gray Owl and its prey in Sweden. Viltrevy 5: 363-416. Law, C. 1960. The Great Gray Owl of the wood- lands. Blue Jay 18: 14-16. Mikkola, H. and S. Sulkava. 1970. Food of Great Gray Owls in Fenno-Scandia. British Birds 63: 23-27. Nero, R. W. 1969. The status of the Great Gray Owl in Manitoba, with special reference to the 1968— 1969 influx. Blue Jay 27: 191-209. Bos M. FISHER 10830-69 Avenue Edmonton, Alberta T6H 2E2 Received 29 April 1974 Accepted 17 October 1974 Intergeneric Grouse Hybrids (Bonasa X Canachites) Gray (1958), Short (1967), and Johnsgard (1973) imply that no hybrids are known involy- ing the Ruffed Grouse, Bonasa umbellus. Sim- ilarly, Ouellet (1974) in describing a recently taken specimen of such a hybrid Bonasa umbellus Canachites canadensis, considered it to be the first known example of such a cross. Actually instances of hybridization between Bonasa umbellus and Canachites canadensis have been known for a long time. Downs (1888) recorded an example he found at a butcher’s shop in Halifax, Nova Scotia. This specimen is still extant and may be examined in the mounted bird collection of Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia (Tufts 1962). Piers (1894) mentions this and other specimens of B. umbellus X C. cana- densis. Literature Cited Downs, A. 1888. A catalogue of the birds of Nova Scotia. Proceedings and Transactions Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science 7(2): 142-178. Gray, A. P. 1958. Bird hybrids. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Bucks, England. 390 pp. Johnsgard, P. A. 1973. Grouse and quails of North America. University of Nebraska, Lincoln. 553 pp. Ouellet, Henri. 1974. An intergeneric grouse hy- brid (Bonasa x Canachites). Canadian Field- Naturalist 88(2): 183-186. Piers, Harry. 1894. Notes on Nova Scotian Zool- ogy: No. 3. Transactions Nova Scotian Institute of Science 8: 395—410. Short, L. L., Jr. 1967. A review of the genera of grouse (Aves, Tetraoninae). American Museum Novitates 2289: 1-39. Tufts, R. W. 1962. The birds of Nova Scotia. Nova Scotia Museum, Halifax. 481 pp. R. W. TUFTS Wolfville, Nova Scotia Received 3 October 1974 Accepted 3 October 1974 1975 The Sandhill Crane in Quebec Abstract. Recent observations and two specimen rec- ords establish that the Sandhill Crane (Grus can- adensis) occurs and has probably bred in the James Bay lowlands of Quebec. The species heretofore was not known to occur in Quebec. Résumé. I] est maintenant possible d’homologuer la Grue du Canada (Grus canadensis) pour le Québec sur la foi de deux spécimens et d’observations ré- centes. Certaines de ces observations, consignées dans les basses terres de la partie orientale de la baie James, permettent aussi de croire que l’espéce a pu nidifier dans cette partie du Québec. The Sandhill Crane (Grus canadensis) until now was not known to occur in Quebec (Godfrey 1966; Todd 1963; Walkinshaw 1973), although it has been found to be a regular breeder in the lowlands of northern Ontario (Lumsden 1971). As the James Bay lowlands of Ontario and Que- bec are contiguous, it was suspected that this crane could occur in Quebec also. Elsewhere in eastern Canada, east of Quebec, it is accidental (Godfrey 1966). During the spring, summer, and fall of 1972 air surveys by helicopter were undertaken by the Canadian Wildlife Service in the James Bay low- lands of Quebec, between 50° and 52° N, and 72° and 80° W. Concurrently, during June and July 1972, Ouellet conducted ornithological field studies on behalf of the National Museum of Natural Sciences in the southern part of the James Bay lowlands. -As a result of these surveys, the Sandhill Crane observations recorded establish that the species occurs and possibly breeds in Quebec. Our Que- bec observations for 1972 are summarized as follows: Cabbage Willows Bay (mouth of brook at 51°31’, 79°18’) a, near mouth of brook, one, 7 May (Bourget), b, near mouth of brook, two, 18 May (Bour- get), c, 4 miles south of coordinates, two, 4 July (Bourget), d, 2 miles south of coordinates,two, 11 July (Ouellet), e, 3.5 miles east of coordinates, four, 14 July (Ouellet), f, 2.5 miles south of coordinates, two, 16 July (Ouellet) ; Fort Rupert (51°30’, 78°45’) a, 6 miles southwest, two, 3 July (Bourget), b, 3 miles southwest, two, 5 July (Bourget), NOTES 713 c, 5 miles southwest, three, 5 July (Bourget) ; Pontax River (near 51°30’, 78°40’) a, 1 mile south of river, two, 4 July (Lehoux, Rosa), b, near mouth, two, 5 July (Bourget) ; Boatswain Bay (51°25’, 79°00’) a, 3 miles inland, two, 6 July (Bourget). Two additional records were obtained in the spring of 1974 (fide S. Curtis), as follows: Tees Bay (53°43’, 79°03’) a, one specimen, 13 May; North of Fort George, but probably not farther than Paul Bay (54°00’, 78°55’) ad, one specimen, in May. The birds observed by Bourget on 5 July in the Cabbage Willows Bay area were in a bog and behaved as if they were near a nest or had young when the helicopter moved in close, but no other evidence of breeding could be obtained. On 14 July, Ouellet watched through a telescope four birds that were displaying at a distance of ap- proximately two miles. The display observed was very reminiscent of that described for that species by Hersey and Brandt (in Bent 1926). This sug- gests that these birds were probably nesting in the vicinity. Unfortunately, the display area could not be reached for further investigation. A specimen which had been dead for a few weeks was found by Bourget in July, hanging in a tree near Fort Rupert. It was saved and is now preserved as a skeleton (National Museums of Canada, Cat. No. S392). On the basis of its tarsal length (232 mm) it probably belongs to the subspecies C. c. rowani, according to the measurements provided by Walkinshaw (1965). The Tees Bay specimen, an adult female, belongs also to the subspecies C. c. rowani on the basis of its measurements and coloration (National Museums of Canada Cat. No. 60151). It therefore appears that there is a small sum- mer population of Sandhill Crane in the James Bay lowlands of Quebec. Further studies should be undertaken to determine the size of the pop- ulation and the area it occupies in this highly vulnerable region. The fact that this part of Que- bec has now become readily accessible by road and that extensive works that will upset the present ecological conditions will probably be undertaken in the vicinity in the years to come, means that these wary birds may be driven away from the only area where they are now known to occur in Quebec. 74 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST We thank Messrs Denis Lehoux and Jacques Rosa for providing their observations, and Ger- main Tremblay for his assistance in the field (Canadian Wildlife Service) as well as Messrs Richard M. Poulin and Michel Giroux for their assistance in the field (National Museum of Na- tural Sciences.) We are thankful to Mr. Steven Curtis (Canadian Wildlife Service) for providing the 1974 information and the Tees Bay specimen. We are also grateful to Dr. W. Earl Godfrey and Mr. H. Boyd for their critical reading of the manuscript. Literature Cited Bent, A. C. 1926. Life histories of North American marsh birds. United States National Museum Bul- letin 135. Godfrey, W. E. 1966. The birds of Canada. National Museum of Canada Bulletin 203. 428 pp. Vol. 89 Lumsden, H. G. 1971. The status of the Sandhill Crane in Northern Ontario. Canadian Field-Nat- uralist 8(4): 285-293. Todd, W. E. C. 1963. Birds of the Labrador Penin- sula and adjacent areas. University of Toronto Press, Toronto. Walkinshaw, L. H. 1965. A new Sandhill Crane from Central Canada. Canadian Field-Naturalist 79(3): 181-184. Walkinshaw, L. H. 1973. Cranes of the world. Win- chester Press, New York. HENRI OUELLET! ANDRE BOURGET? 1 National Museum of Natural Sciences National Museums of Canada Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0M8 2 Canadian Wildlife Service 1141, route de l’Eglise Sainte-Foy, Québec G1V 3W5 Received 24 May 1974 Accepted 24 September 1974 An Additional Record of the Fulvous Tree Duck in Quebec Records of the Fulvous Tree Duck (Dendro- cygna bicolor) in Canada have been summarized by Munro (1967. Occurrence of the Fulvous Tree Duck in Canada. Canadian Field-Naturalist 81 (2): 151-152). The following records were then reported from Quebec: Lake St. Peter, near Nicolet, in the fall of 1955; and from the Thurso area on the Ottawa River, in mid-September 1964, in May 1965, and in August 1966. A specimen in the flesh was recently donated to the National Museum of Natural Sciences by Mr. M. Demers, through the courtesy of Mr. Denis Germain, Service de la Conservation, Minis- tere du Tourisme, de la Chasse et de la Péche du Québec. The specimen had been secured by Mr. Demers near Montmagny on 3 November Carex illota L. H. Bailey in Alberta In 1969, while one of us (H) was examining a collection of Carices made by the other (S) from the Sunshine area of Banff National Park, an immature specimen (Scotter 11387) was encoun- tered which could not be satisfactorily keyed from Moss (1959). By a process of elimination in which section Ovales was excluded because the perigynia, although young, appeared wingless, 1973. The bird weighed 495.5 g. It proved to be a female in good condition, with little sub- cutaneous fat. The alimentary canal contained pieces of unidentified plant material. This spec- imen (National Museums of Canada No. 59932) constitutes the northernmost record of the species in eastern Canada (Godfrey, W. E. 1966. The birds of Canada. National Museum of Canada Bulletin 203. 428 pp.; Munro, op. cit.). HENRI OQUELLET National Museum of Natural Sciences © National Museums of Canada Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0M8 Received 24 May 1974 Accepted 2 September 1974 the plant was assigned to Carex bipartita. Two years later a similar but fully mature specimen (Scotter 17135) was collected in Jasper National Park. Cronquist’s (1969) treatment of Carex in Vascular Plants of the Pacific Northwest was now at hand, and using that reference, the spec- imen keyed out speedily and clearly to Carex illota L. H. Bailey, a species not cited for Alberta in 1975 current manuals. It was then realized that the earlier specimen, Scotter 11387, was immature material of the same species. Collection data for the two specimens are as follows: 11387: “Banff National Park, Simpson Pass region, 51°04’45” N, 115°50’ W. Open area along stream and lake shore, 7000’—7300’. G. W. Scotter 11387, 26 July 1969.” Specimens in Fraser Herbarium, University of Saskatchewan, and in Canadian Wildlife Service herbarium, Edmonton. 17135: “Jasper National Park, 52°43’ N, 118° 19’ W. Meadow south of the east end of Moat Lake, Tonquin Valley. G. W. Scotter 17135, 12 August 1971.” Specimens in Canadian Wildlife Service herbarium, Edmonton, and Department of Agriculture Herbarium, Ottawa. Carex illota looks amply distinct from all other Ovales in its densely congested inflorescence and small dark perigynia, 2.5—-3.2 mm long, which lack marginal wings or serrulations on the sides of the beak. Cronquist (1969) gives the range as “... Olympic and Cascade mts. of Wash. and adj. B.C., s. in the Cascade-Sierran axis to Calif., w. [sic] to Mont., Wyo., and Colo. . . .” Boivin (1967) omitted it entirely from Canada, but he may have submerged it in something else. It is evidently not too uncommon in British Columbia; the Fraser Herbarium has a sheet from Vancou- ver Island — a 50-50 mixture with C. macloviana (J. A. Calder & K. T. MacKay 31883, 25 July 1961, Forbidden Plateau, 49°39’ N, 125°11’ W) — and recently it was collected in Mount Revel- stoke National Park at 51°03’ N, 118°07’ W, altitude 5800’ (Landals and Scotter 1062, 1973). Harrington (1964) gives its altitude in Colorado as 8500-12000 feet, so 6000—7000 feet would not be unreasonable in the Canadian Cordillera. Porsild (1959) included C. illota in a checklist of vascular plants of the Sunshine region, Banff National Park. But he had no voucher specimen from there, nor are there any from Alberta in the National Herbarium in Ottawa. He believes the specimens cited actually were C. festivella (A. E. Porsild, personal communication). Among his collections not yet inserted in the National Herbarium is one specimen of C. illota from Alberta. It was collected along the road to Cam- eron Lake, Waterton Lakes National Park, on 19 September 1945, collection No. 15101 (A. E. Porsild, personal communication). The problem in identifying C. illota is prin- cipally one of keys in floras. With a specimen in hand, one may arrive at proper identification of C. illota by using Henry (1915), Rydberg (1922), NOTES 75 Harrington (1964), or Cronquist (1969). One cannot get to C. illota by using the keys in Mac- kenzie (1931-35), Davis (1952), or Hermann (1970), because in these works the perigynia must be winged for one to gain entry to Section Ovales, and no provision has been made for keying C. illota in sections with wingless perigynia. Although these are the first known specimens of C. illota from Alberta, in view of the difficult- ies described in the foregoing paragraph, one may - well wonder whether older Alberta specimens exist, mislabelled in herbaria. A botanist identify- ing it for the first time would naturally consult Mackenzie’s treatment, go astray at the fork of his key which contrasts “perigynia narrowly to broadly winged-margined” with “perigynia at most thin edged,” and stay lost thereafter. Literature Cited Boivin, B. 1967. Enumération des plantes du Canada. Naturaliste Canadien 94(6): 471-528. Cronquist, A. 1969. Cyperaceae. Jn Vascular plants of the Pacific Northwest. Volume 1. Edited by C. L. Hitchcock, A. Cronquist, M. Ownbey, and J. W. Thompson. University of Washington Press, Seattle. Davis. R. J. 1952. Flora of Idaho. W. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa. Harrington, H. D. 1964. Manual of the plants of Colorado. 2nd edition. Sage Books, The Swallow Press, Chicago, Ill. Henry, J. K. 1915. Flora of Southern British Colum- bia. W. J. Gage & Co., Toronto. Hermann, F. J. 1970. Manual of the Carices of the Rocky Mountains and Colorado Basin. Forest Ser- vice, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Handbook No. 374. Mackenzie, K. K. 1931—35. Cariceae. In North Amer- ican flora. Volume 18 (parts 1—7). The New York Botanical Garden, New York. Moss, E. H. 1959. Flora of Alberta. University of Toronto Press, Toronto. Porsild, A. E. 1959. Botanical excursion to Jasper and Banff National Parks, Alberta: alpine and sub- alpine flora. National Museum of Canada, Depart- ment of Northern Affairs and National Resources, Ottawa. Rydberg, P. A. 1922. Flora of the Rocky Mountains and adjacent plains. The New York Botanical Gar- den. Second edition reprinted (1954) by Hafner Publishing Co., New York. GEORGE W. SCOTTER! JOHN J. HUDSON? 1Canadian Wildlife Service Edmonton, Alberta 2W. P. Fraser Herbarium University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan Received 21 May 1974 Accepted 11 October 1974 76 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 Tree Nesting Sites and a Breeding Range Extension of Brewer’s Blackbird in the Great Lakes Region Brewer's Blackbird (Euphagus cyanocephalus) has been expanding its breeding range eastward into the Great Lakes region since the turn of the century (Stepney and Power 1973; Walkinshaw and Zimmerman 1961). It was first recorded breeding at Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1914 (Roberts 1914) and had reached Sudbury, Ontario by 1962 (Devitt 1964). To date, this expansion represents a distributional increase of over 700 miles. Throughout the expanded portion of its range this blackbird nests commonly in small groups usually not larger than 12 pairs. Its typical nesting areas are along highway and railroad rights-of- way, particularly where these are adjacent to one another and surrounded by agricultural lands. Its nests in this part of its range are usually placed on the ground. On 9 June 1974 eight nests of this species were located at Warren, a town on the eastern boundary of Dunnet Township in the District of Sudbury. This record not only constitutes a very recent eastward expansion of the breeding range of near- ly 60 miles, but is unusual in that the nests were placed in trees. The birds occupied the common right-of-way of the highway and railroad im- mediately to the east of Warren, nesting in a row of pines (Pinus sp.) planted adjacent to the high- way. The nests were from 43 to 6 feet above the ground and the distances between adjacent nests varied from approximately 15 to 360 feet. They contained either eggs or young (Table 1). TABLE 1 — Number of eggs or young, approximate age of young, and heights of nests of Brewer’s Blackbird nesting at Warren. Asterisk denotes an apparentiy abandoned nest in which the eggs were cold and wet. Nest Nest Nest number contents height (feet) 1 6 young, 6 days old 4.0 2 5 young, 8 days old 4.0 3 5 eggs 6.0 4 5 young, 7 days old 55 5 5 eggs 5.0 6* 6 eggs 4.5 7/ 5 young, 9 days old 5.5 8 3 young, 6 days old 5.0 1 infertile egg Nesting at Warren constitutes the first substan- tiated record for the species east of the immediate Sudbury area at that latitude. The presence of the species has been implied by the statement “[they] continue to spread along the highways and rail- ways rights-of-way toward Lake Nipissing . . .” but no details were given (Goodwin 1966). In late May 1971 and 1972 the author examined seemingly suitable habitat along the highway be- tween North Bay and Sudbury. The species was not detected east of Sudbury though a breeding colony has been observed at Estaire, 25 miles south of Sudbury since 1970, and Devitt (1964) found the species breeding at Rutter, 60 miles south of Sudbury in 1962. Data indicate that the species nested at Warren for the first time in 1973. Three old nests were also found along with the active ones, but in 1972 no evidence of the species was detected. Brewer’s Blackbird has been moving eastward at an overall rate of approximately 11 miles per year. Expansion from Sault Ste. Marie to Sudbury was seemingly favored by increased amounts of favorable habitat, and the rate in that region was about 17 miles per year (Stepney and Power 1973). The amount of potential habitat, however, decreases sharply for about 45 miles from Sud- bury east to the town of Hagar. From there farther east to Sturgeon Falls the amount of apparently suitable habitat increases again. It took Brewer’s Blackbird 11 years to cover the 60 miles from Sudbury to Warren, giving an apparent expansion rate in this region of about 5 miles per year. There are apparently only three accounts of this species nesting in trees in the Great Lakes region. The first instance occurred in Saint Paul, Minnesota in 1942 (Roberts 1942) and the second at Sault Ste. Marie in 1954 (Speirs 1954). On two other occasions nests of this species have been recorded at heights of less than 1 foot from the ground. The nest located at Luther Marsh, On- tario in 1967 was situated in a shrub (Goodwin 1967) and over the past five years several nests in one colony site at Sudbury investigated by the author have been situated in very low shrubs. Neither of these examples, however, is regarded as a true departure from ground nesting. In both instances if they had been placed any lower the nests would have been in contact with water beneath the shrubs in which they were built. 1975 Examination of these reports involving arboreal nesting suggests a common fiactor may have in- fluenced departure from normal ground-nesting behavior. The trees chosen in at least two of the cases were evergreens which, as a result of prun- ing, supported a thick growth of foliage. The type of tree occupied in Saint Paul was not in- dicated though it was stated that the trees were part of a hedge. As a hedge, it is likely these latter trees also supported a denser growth of foliage. This unusually dense foliage provided nest sites that approximated the amounts of con- cealment and support normally present only on the ground. With the same nesting requirements available in these two non-ground sites as are normally provided only by ground ones, the fact that trees were involved appears to be incidental. The sites selected in trees seem to be chosen for the same characteristics that sites on the ground are chosen. In the present case all eight nests were placed within the excessively thick growth which had developed around the flattened tops of the trees where their crowns had been removed. The nests at Sault Ste. Marie were likewise placed in dense foliage which had resulted from pruning (Speirs, personal communication). Evergreens grown without human interference apparently do not offer the same inducement to nesting as pruned trees. Four colony sites under investiga- tion since 1970 have contained evergreens (Pinus and Picea spp.), but the trees have never been occupied, though the nests were often placed near them on the ground. In addition, evergreens provide concealment for nests at a time early in the breeding season when deciduous trees are not in full leaf and much of the herbaceous vegetation has not matured. This may explain, in part, why the tree nestings in- volved evergreens and why the birds often place NOTES ii) their nests on the ground near or at the base of the trunk of an evergreen. I gratefully acknowledge the financial assistance of The Canadian National Sportsmen’s Show in 1973 and 1974, part of a five-year study of Brewer’s Blackbird in Ontario. This paper de- veloped from these investigations. Literature Cited Devitt, O. E. 1964. An extension in the breeding range of Brewer’s Blackbird in Ontario. Canadian Field-Naturalist 78: 42—46. Goodwin, C. E. 1966. Nesting season June 1 to August 15. Audubon Field Notes 20: 566. Goodwin, C. E. 1967. Nesting season June 1- August 15. Audubon Field Notes 21: 563. Roberts, T. S._ 1914. Brewer’s Blackbird (Euphagus cyanocephalus) breeding in southeastern Minnesota. Auk 31: 538-540. : Roberts, T. S. 1942. The season and breeding bird census. Audubon Magazine 142: 10. Speirs, J. M. 1954. Brewer’s Blackbird nesting at Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. Federation of Ontario Naturalists Bulletin 65: 29. Stepney, P. H. R. and D. M. Power. 1973. Anal- ysis of the eastward breeding expansion of Brewer’s Blackbird plus general aspects of avian expansions. Wilson Bulletin 85: 452-464. Walkinshaw, L. H. and D. A. Zimmerman. 1961. Range expansion of Brewer’s Blackbird in eastern North America. Condor 63: 162-177. Puitiep H. R. STEPNEY Department of Zoology University of Toronto Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A1 Received 16 July 1974 Accepted 19 November 1974 Glaucous- winged Gull Predation on Feral Rock Doves In early July of 1972, in the Vancouver freight yards of the C.N.R., the author and Mr. W. Parks had occasion to observe a Glaucous-winged Gull (Larus glaucescens) carrying a live pigeon (Co- lumba livia) in its mandibles. On _ further observation it was observed that the gull put the pigeon down and proceeded to peck at the strug- gling victim until it could no longer make escape attempts. We frightened the gull away before it could kill the victim. The wounded pigeon had feathers missing just posterior to the rib cage on the dorsum but otherwise appeared in good health. On subsequent inspection, at least six dead pigeons were found in the same general vicinity. These birds all had lesions in the same general body area where the previously examined victim had feathers pulled out. But these all had large holes in the back, and the viscera were missing. The victims were adults or flying young. We had several opportunities to observe the hunting be- havior of the gulls. Pigeons would flock around a 78 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST grain spill and go into a feeding frenzy. The hunt- ing gull would land nearby and walk casually into the feeding flock. Once there, it would make a vigorous attempt to capture a pigeon. The pigeons usually responded either by flying away, or flying or running in a short arc around the gull. They did not appear very frightened. Finally, in late July, on top of a boxcar, a gull was seen pulling the viscera out of a pigeon and eating them. Thus, although we have never seen the sequence of hunting—capturing—killing—eating in its entirety, we have seen enough of it to con- clude that Glaucous-winged Gulls are preying on pigeons. It would appear that only a few adult gulls in this freight yard are involved in this kind of behavior and these are not often successful. F. J. Sanford (1974. An instance of gull preda- tion. Discovery (New Series) 2(4): 120) also ob- served this kind of predation. But he observed The Feral House Cat as a Predator of Varying Hares A Note by Doucet (1973. House cat as predator of snowshoe hare) in the Journal of Wildlife Management (37: 591) concerning the house cat (Felis domestica) as a predator of varying hare (Lepus americanus), has prompted me to add my observations to this little-known facet of predation. Doucet comments that he was unable to find any reference in the literature of a domestic cat killing a varying hare, but then described a probable cat-hare encounter at Lac Carré Ecological Station in Quebec. The purpose of this note is to describe two similar encounters that I observed between feral house cats and varying hares in northern Michigan. From the 1940s through the early 1960s, the Upper Peninsula of Michigan experienced a con- siderable depopulation of its rural areas. In particular, many of the marginal farms were abandoned, and large numbers of house cats that were traditionally kept on farmsteads were left to fend for themselves. With such abandonment, numbers of domestic cats reverted to a feral state and were commonly observed during this period in forested lands adjacent to old farmsteads. In mid-November 1960, I was engaged in a Northern Michigan University zoology project that involved, among other things, the collecting of varying hares for laboratory analyses. I made Vol. 89 only young pigeons being killed, whereas we ob- served both young and adults being preyed upon. This predator—prey association may have evolved since Vancouver became an important grain port. It appears that the pigeons have not yet developed a behavioral adaptation to this predation by gulls. The laxity of their response to the approach of the gull seems inappropriate considering the gravity of the consequences of capture. I thank Mr. Wayne Parks for. assistance in making observations. JORMA A. JYRKKANEN Department of Zoology University of British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1W5 Received 1 April 1974 Accepted 22 November 1974 collections, by snaring, along the headwaters of Younger’s Creek, 8 km northwest of Amasa, in Iron County, Michigan. On 13 November at approximately 0830 hours, while walking toward the first of my snares, I heard the vocalization of a varying hare under stress, similar to that reported by Doucet. Shortly thereafter I arrived at the first snare and witnessed a large light- colored house cat in the process of dispatching an adult varying hare that was caught in the snare. The predator was disturbed by my arrival and ran off, leaving the dying hare. Investigation revealed that the hare had been snared. immedi- ately before my arrival, as evidenced by a lack of strangulation and no wire marks on its neck from the snare. There were several punctures at the base of the skull which were bleeding slightly. There was no doubt that although the hare had been captured by the snare, the cat was responsible for its death. Because my interest had been aroused by this incident, I then attempted to determine whether this was an isolated occurrence. The varying hare population was high in the study area during the autumn of 1960, and this, along with the relatively large numbers of feral house cats in the vicinity, created a good opportunity for further observa- tions. 1975 Snow conditions favored tracking, and con- sequently between 14 and 16 November, I began to search for house cat signs by making transects through the study area. Once a cat had been located, I tracked it and made observations on its predatory activity. Altogether, I followed what appeared to be two separate house cats during three days, for an approximate total distance of 20 km. I tracked the first house cat for about 8 km, and during this distance it was unsuccessful in obtaining prey, although it twice pursued (for several tens of metres), varying hares that it flushed from forms. This cat had also apparently made several attempts at capturing subnivean small mammals during this period, but it was not possible to determine its success. The second house cat appeared to have devel- oped a different, and more successful, hunting method: its tracks, followed over some 12 km, indicated that it had waited in ambush along a well-used varying hare runway until its prey arrived. During the time I tracked it, the cat made attempts, two successful and one unsuccessful, at preying on a hare in this fashion. The successful ambush of its prey was made from beneath a low white spruce (Picea glauca) limb that paralleled a hare runway. The greatly deranged snow leading away from this location indicated that a vigorous struggle had taken place. Several flecks of blood, NOTES 719 and much hair from both the varying hare and the darker-colored cat, further illustrated the struggle between predator and prey. Drag marks leaving this area led to another low-limbed spruce tree, under which was found a relatively freshly-killed, but now cold, adult varying hare. It had been partly eviscerated, and the liver, heart, and lungs eaten. Tracks of the feral house cat led away from its prey, but I followed no longer, newly convinced of the ability of the house cat to prey successfully upon an adult varying hare. As similarly found by Doucet, the distance covered by the two house cats, and the efforts they exerted in attempting to secure large prey, is noteworthy. These observations indicate that whether feral or wandering, the house cat may, in some locations and under certain conditions, be a more significant predator on varying hares than has previously been recognized. Don GILL Boreal Institute for Northern Studies University of Alberta Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E9 Received 24 July 1974 Accepted 24 September 1974 Sight Record of a Western Skink on Vancouver Island The status of the western skink (Eumeces skiltonianus) on Vancouver Island, British Co- lumbia is in doubt (Cowan 1937; Carl 1968). Neither Patch (1934), Mills (1948), nor Logier and Toner (1961) included Vancouver Island in the Canadian range of this species. On the other hand, Ditmars (1907, p. 199), Van Denburgh (1922, p. 583), and Taylor (1935, p. 426) list it for the island, Van Denburgh citing Boulenger (1887) as authority for the record and Taylor listing British Museum specimens. Boulenger (1887, p. 373), however, gives no details, merely listing Vancouver Island for specimens of this skink donated to the British Museum of Natural History by J. K. Lord. Thus Cowan (1937, p. K21) and Carl (1968, p. 24), lacking any addi- tional information, considered Boulenger’s listing as incorrect. This skink’s known mainland range in British Columbia is in the Arid Transition Zone east of the Cascade Mountains in the south- central portion of the province (Cowan 1937; Logier and Toner 1961). A sighting of the western skink at Wolf Lake, about 12 miles northwest of Courtenay, on 28 August 1972 is therefore of interest. My wife and I first saw the lizard apparently sunning on a sand bank along an old skid road at the base of Constitution Hill near the lake. The skink, which was 5 to 6 inches long, quickly ran into the underbrush, but we were able to view clearly two distinctive bluish-brown longitudinal bands on each side of its body, bluest on the tail, before it was out of sight. These bands distinguished this individual from the northern alligator lizard (Gerrhonotus caeruleus) which we have observed about 5 miles from Wolf Lake. Thus, the lack of observations of this skink on Vancouver Island may reflect more a lack of herpetological work 80 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST than an actual lack of skinks, although the pos- sibility that the species has recently arrived naturally or by introduction cannot be ruled out. I thank Francis R. Cook and Patrick T. Gregory for comments on this note. Literature Cited Boulenger, G. A. 1887. Catalogue of lizards in the British Museum. Volume 3. London, England. xii + 575 pp. Carl, C. G. 1968. The reptiles of British Columbia. Third edition. British Columbia Museum Handbook Number 3. 65 pp. Cowan, I. M. 1937. A review of the reptiles and amphibians of British Columbia. Report of the Pro- vincial Museum of British Columbia for 1936. pp. K16-K25. Ditmars, R. L. 1907. The reptile book. Doubleday, Page and Company, New York, xxxii + 472 pp. Logier, E. B. S. and G. C. Toner. 1961. Check list of the amphibians and reptiles of Canada and Alaska. Life Sciences Division, Royal Ontario Museum, Contribution Number 53. 92 pp. New Records of Amphibians and Garter the James Bay Area of Quebec The following observations were made during the summer months of 1973 and 1974 while the authors were working on an environmental study for the Service d’Environnement, Société d’Ener- gie de la Baie James (SEBJ) in the James Bay region of Québec. In 1973, work was done at Lac Attila (53°35’ N, 77°35’ W) and in 1974 at Lac Nathalie (53°29’ N, 77°26’ W) (Figure 1). The study involved the use of the sand-transect tech- nique (Bider 1968) as well as the collection of specimens. Specimens were catalogued at the National Museum of Canada (NMC). Range extensions for blue-spotted salamander (Ambys- toma laterale), spring peeper (Hyla crucifer), leopard frog (Rana pipiens), and mink frog (Rana septentrionalis) were recorded. American toad (Bufo americanus), wood frog (Rana sylvatica), and eastern garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis) were also collected in the area. The specimen of Ambystoma laterale, NMC 15854, was captured at Lac Attila on 20 August 1973 near a small stream overgrown with sphag- num (Sphagnum spp.), willow (Salix spp.), and alder (Alnus spp.). All salamander movements followed the axis of this stream. During the five- month study period in 1973, 29 crossings by Ambystoma were recorded on the transect, be- Vol. 89 Mills, R. C. 1948. A checklist of the reptiles and amphibians of Canada. Herpetlogica 4 (second sup- plement). 15 pp. Patch, C. L. 1934. Eumeces in Canada. Copeia 1934: 50-51. Taylor, E. H. 1935. A taxonomic study of the cos- mopolitan scinoid lizards of the genus Eumeces with an account of the distribution and relation- ships of its species. Kansas University Science Bul- letin 23: 1-643. Van Denburgh, J. 1922. The reptiles of western North America. California Academy of Science, Occa- sional Papers Number 10. Volume 1. 611 pp. MARTIN K. McNICHOLL Department of Zoology University of Alberta Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E1 Received 27 September 1974 Accepted 6 November 1974 Snakes in tween 12 July and 8 October, indicating the presence of several animals. The salamanders were recorded over 3 mile from permanent water. The specimen of A. laterale represents a range extension of over 300 km from the previous record in northwestern Québec, the River Again at the southern end of James Bay (50°51’ N, 79°28’ W) (McCoy and Durden 1965) (Figure 1). In Labrador, Bleakney (1958) recorded it at Goose Bay, indicating that it may be an isolated northern disjunct there. : The three anurans were captured at Lac Nathalie in 1974. Specimens of Hyla crucifer, NMC 15861, Rana pipiens, NMC 15859, and R. septentrionalis, NMC 15862, were captured in a pond during the breeding season in the: first and second week of June. Substantial choruses and populations of larvae and adults were noted in several ponds of the area. The previous range limit of H. crucifer in the area was recorded by McCoy and Durden (1965) at River Again. It also has been reported, but not collected, at Menihek Lake (Bleakney 1958, p. 15) in western Labrador (Figure 1). The specimen taken at Nathalie represents an exten- sion of over 300 km of the peeper’s range in northwestern Québec. It was noted that Hyla 1975 =U ee 100 200 300 400 500 MILES A SCALE O NOTES 81 LG-29 AIRPORT \o E NATHALIE 0 ? aaa 2 ay SNE ee MATAGAMI SCALE O 5 10 MILES Ficure 1. A: Map of Québec showing the study area (blackened square indicated by arrow) and locations of previous capture records. 1. River Again; 2. Point Comfort; 3. Lac Aigneau; 4. Menihek Lake; 5. Lac Melville. B: Map showing the Attila and Nathalie sites in relation to the surrounding area. preferred ponds with abundant grass or sedge cover for breeding. Rana pipiens has been reported at Lac Melville, Labrador (Bleakney 1958, p. 33). The previous record of its occurrence in northwestern Québec was at Point Comfort, at the southern end of James Bay (Logier and Toner 1961) some 200 km south of Nathalie (Figure 1). Rana septentrionalis has been collected from Lac Aigneau in north central Québec (Logier and Toner 1961, p. 42), as well as at River Again (Figure 1) (McCoy and Durden 1965). The specimen from Nathalie is a range extension in northwestern Québec. Their highest concentrations were found in the string bogs which are common in the region. On 17 July 1973 an 87-cm (total length) specimen of Thamnophis sirtalis, NMC 15852, was captured at Lac Attila. The snake was a gravid female bearing six large-yolked eggs, 15—20 mm, and one smaller, 10 mm. One embryo removed and measured was 45 mm total length. Following the capture of the specimen, two snake crossings were recorded on the transect. At Nathalie in 1974, a Thamnophis skin was col- lected, one was observed, and one crossing was recorded on the transect. This species has been previously reported north as far as Fort George in western Québec (Cook 1968, p. 437), but the Attila specimen is the first one collected from this area. 82 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST All amphibians observed in the water were either in ponds or in small bays; none were found in larger, more open bodies of water. This creates some difficulty in collection as the most accessible locations are the larger lakes. This study was funded by the Service d’Envi- ronnement, SEBJ. We thank Messrs J.-L. Fré- chette, R. Ilsley, and T. Ramsay of SEBJ-Envi- nement for assistance in capturing specimens. Francis R. Cook of the National Museum of Canada confirmed identifications, provided dis- tributional data, counted Thamnophis embryos, and reviewed the manuscript. Literature Cited Bider, J. R. 1968. Animal activity in uncontrolled terrestrial communities as determined by a sand transect technique. Ecological Monographs 38: 269-308. Bleakney, J. 1958. A zoological study of the amphib- ians and reptiles of eastern Canada. National Museum of Canada Bulletin 155: 1-119. Vol. 89 Cook, F. R. 1968. Reptiles and amphibians. In Sci- ence, History and Hudson Bay. Edited by C. S. Beals. Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Ottawa. pp. 436-442. Logier, E. B. S. and G. C. Toner. 1961. Check list of the amphibians and reptiles of Canada and Alaska. Royal Ontario Museum, Life Sciences, Contribu- tion 53: 1-92. McCoy, C. J. and D. J. Durden. 1965. New distribu- tion records of amphibians and reptiles in eastern Canada. Canadian Field-Naturalist 79(2): 156—157. Ross D. MAcCCULLOCH J. ROGER BIDER Department of Renewable Resources Macdonald Campus, McGill University Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Québec HOA 1C0 - Received 24 September 1974 Accepted 22 November 1974 News and Comment SI A modernized metric system, the Systeme In- ternational d’Unités (SI), provides unique un- ambiguous symbols for units of measure and these symbols are standard in all languages. This makes for greater clarity and reduces the chances of mistakes. The Editor encourages the use of SI including the -re spelling for metre, litre, etc., in The Canadian Field-Naturalist. There are some basic rules for writing symbols. 1. The symbols are always printed in roman (upright type). 2. Symbols are never pluralized: 45 km (not 45 kms). 3. A full stop is not used after a symbol, except when the symbol occurs at the end of a sentence. 4. When symbols consist of letters, there is al- ways a full space between the quantity and the symbols: e.g., 45 m (not 45m). When the first character of a symbol is not a letter, no space is left: e.g., 42°C (not 42° C); or 42°12’45” (not 42° 12’ 45”). 5. All symbols are written in lower case, except when the unit is derived from a proper name: e.g., m for metre but W for watt. 6. Symbols, not abbreviations, for SI units should always be used and unit names should not be written out (except for litre which is written out to avoid confusion with the number 1): e.g., 16 mm? and not 16 square millimetres. 7. Where a decimal fraction of a unit is used, a zero should always be placed before the decimal marker: e.g., 0.45 km (not .45 km). 8. Spaces must be used instead of commas to separate long lines of digits into easily-readable blocks of three digits with respect to the decimal marker: eg., 32 453.2460725. A space is optional with a four-digit number: e.g., 1234 or 1234. Common SI units and other recognized units associated with SI that are sometimes used in The Canadian Field-Naturalist are millimetre (mm), centimetre (cm), metre (m), kilometre (km), milli- gram (mg), gram (g), kilogram (kg), second (s), minute (min), hour (h), day (d), and degree Celsius (°C). (After How to write and type SI: a style guide. 1974. Published by Metric Commission, Box 4000, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5G8) The International Council for Bird Preservation At the XVI World Conference of the Inter- national Council for Bird Preservation held in Canberra, Australia, 19-25 August 1974, 33 resolutions were unanimously adopted. The reso- lutions pertaining to Canada and the subjects with which they are concerned are: 1, 2, and 3 —responsible collecting by museums. 8 — habitat preservation for birds. 10 — ratification of the Convention on Interna- tional Trade in Endangered Species. (Canada has signed but has not yet ratified the treaty.), 15 — research on toxic chemicals, 16 and 17 — oil developments in the arctic, 18 — seabirds and salmon nets, 33 —the desirability that the World Wildlife Fund (Canada) support ICBP (Canada). 83 Resolutions The XVI World Conference of the International Council for Bird Preservation: 1. In furtherance of Resolution 10 of the ICBP Conference at Taxel in 1970 for the compil- ation of a register of material of endangered species held in various museums, and in view of the importance of such a register as a factor that could reduce or eliminate un- necessary collecting; Recommends that all efforts should be made by governments and institutions to aid the organisation and financing necessary for the compilation of such a register. 84 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST 2. In furtherance of Resolution 10 of the ICBP Conference at Texel in 1970; Urges scientists to consider alternative ways of obtaining information before resorting to the collecting of specimens; and that if col- lecting is justified, to ensure that all possible scientific information will be recorded from each specimen for permanent public record; Urges museums around the world to establish self-regulating policies that require justifica- tion by their employees of each collecting project involving wild birds; Urges the International Council of Museums (ICOM) to consider the possible preparation of policies and guidelines and to provide leadership in maintaining ethical standards in collecting wild birds, taking into account the long-term conservation of wild popula- tions; Urges governments to issue permits only to accredited museums and scientific institu- tions or their agents. Endorses the resolution of the International Ornithological Committee of the XVI Inter- national Ornithological Congress on collecting by scientific institutions; Emphasises that governments, before issuing permits to scientific institutions to collect specimens for scientific purposes, should satisfy themselves that the collection of such material is justified for the purpose of the research in question and will not endanger the population of the species. Recognising that the continued survival of birds depends especially upon the main- tenance of suitable habitat (or biotope) in large enough units and in proper geograph- ical patterns; Recognising that many populations of birds have become endangered partly because of the destruction of their habitat and that continuing pressures for the destruction of habitat will put additional populations and species in jeopardy; Recognising that effective land-use planning is necessary for the conservation of habitat; Urges that governments adopt land-use plan- ning at all levels (local, national, and where possible international); (a) incorporating ecological principles including comprehensive inventories of natural resources; (b) acknowl- edging that wildlife populations and their habitat are important components with high social values; (c) giving special attention to 10. 5) 16. Vol. 89 protection of endangered wildlife and plants and their habitat but also recognising that most species cannot be maintained simply in isolated reserves but depend for survival primarily on the habitat quality of the or- dinary countryside. Concerned about massive and widespread abuses to wild birds and their populations for trade on a world-wide scale; (a) Sign, ratify and implement the Conven- tion on International Trade in Endan- gered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and cooperate with other governments by not permitting trade in species (1) which are protected in most of their range or (ii) taken in contravention of the law in their country of origin; List the species which they will allow to be exported or imported; ; (c) Amend such lists on the basis of inves- tigations of: (i) recruitment rate of the popula- tions in the wild; (ii) the preservation of stocks; and (iii) the potential for harm of exotic birds whether as pests, through effects on native populations and ecosystems, or as vectors of dis- eases. (b) indigenous Recognises the concern shown by many governments for the safe use of toxic chemicals; Recognising that the preservation of biomes, habitats and species are fundamental to the existence of natural ecosystems; Recommends that governments (a) continue to monitor residues and their effects, publish residue data and phase out production, distribution and use of persistent toxic chemicals; and that governments investigate and mon- itor the effects of short-lived chemicals on the environment. (b) Recognising there is likelihood of rapid development of resources, especially oil, in the arctic areas of the northern hemisphere; Recognising such development threatens marine life as a result of factors related to the cold temperatures and oceanic circulation of the northern seas; Recognising seabirds are indicators of the quality of the oceanic environment; 1975 Recognizing an assessment of numbers and distribution of a species is a first step both in gathering basic data on the ecology of the species and in formulating conservation policy; Urges that the countries bordering the arctic seas undertake steps to map and census the populations of seabirds breeding in the arctic. 17. Recognising that many regions of the world are underlain by sedimentary rocks which may contain oil; Recognising that many of these regions also support valuable living resources; Recognising that the release of oil has occurred as a result of accidents or negli- gence, that almost all the oil spills examined have resulted from human failure or error; Recognising that oil exploitation causes con- siderable environmental disturbances; Urges governments to consider the previous performance of a company and its contrac- tors, including the frequency of accidents or spills, in awarding contracts for exploration, exploitation and shipment of oil, especially at sea, and to survey and designate coastal shorelines where onshore oil facilities will Directory of IBP Areas The Canadian National Directory of IBP areas is now in press and will be available in late 1974. The Directory is a condensed compilation of the ecological checksheet surveys of National and Provincial Parks, ecological reserves, natural areas, wildlife refuges and unprotected wildland areas, completed under the auspices of the Con- servation Subcommittee for the International Biological Programme, during the. period 1968-— 1973. It consists of individual summary sheets containing outline information of value to po- tential users in research or educational fields. The directory is published in an unbound note- book format, divided into ten regions. It can be purchased in its entirety for $35.00 or as regional separates as follows: NEWS AND COMMENT 18. 33) 85 be prohibited because of unacceptable risk of pollution and disturbance. Recognising the enormous mortality of sea- birds associated with the salmon gillnet fisheries of northern oceans; Recognising the inadequacy of present knowl- edge of seabird populations against which to gauge the impact of present and future mortality; Urges governments of countries conducting commercial fishing operations to investigate all means of minimising or avoiding the killing of seabirds, and further recommends that governments consider hazards to sea- birds when planning future operations at sea. Recalling that financial assistance to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources and the Inter- national Council for Bird Preservation was one of the main motives for the establishment of the World Wildlife Fund; Recommends that National Sections of ICBP urge that the National Appeals of the World Wildlife Fund in their respective countries earmark funds for ICBP projects and activ- ities in various parts of the world. No. of summaries Price $ 7.00 7.50 5.00 3.00 13.50 1.50 British Columbia Alberta Saskatchewan Manitoba Ontario Quebec 17 Maritimes: Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick Newfoundland Arctic and Subarctic: Yukon and Northwest Territories 6.00 3.50 116 67 S52 3.00 86 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Accession lists of the checksheeted IBP areas can be obtained for $2.00 for Canada or $0.50 per region. Individual summaries can be obtained for $0.25 each. (Price includes handling and mail- ing by parcel post in Canada.) It should be noted that precise locations and boundaries of the areas have been purposely omitted from the summaries. Individuals interest- ed in a particular site can obtain this information Vol. 89 from the appropriate institution listed at the end of a summary. Enquiries should be addressed to Dr. G. H. La Roi or Mr. T. A. Babb, Department of Botany, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Al- berta T6G 2E1. Please make cheques or money orders payable to “Canadian IBP Areas Di- rectory.” Book Reviews ZOOLOGY The Moths of America North of Mexico By D. C. Ferguson in R. B. Dominick et al. 1971-72. E. W. Classey Ltd., Hampton, Middlesex, England. 277 pp. 22 pl. Although the author says in his preface that he had no serious intention of working on saturniid moths prior to 1969, the first fascicle was published in 1971. One can only show admiration for the overall job done with these two fascicles, which certainly fill a serious gap. Incredible as it may sound, the North American saturniids have never previously been the subject of an adequate revision or monograph. Despite the enormous amount of literature consulted for this publication, there remain, as the author says, some unresolved problems in the taxonomy and nomenclature of the species, leaving ample room for further research, hopefully to be carried out with the same commendable care demonstrated by the author in the present fascicle; to mention one example (from p. 43), the larvae of the Sphingicampa species. The impression one has when using this mono- graph is that it is almost all thoroughly done and contains much rare and useful information, both general and specific, on distributions, life histories, and nomenclature. Probably all of us will wel- come Ferguson’s treatment of genera. Perhaps the species and their distribution pattern would have been clearer had the author followed the format of species treatment found in previous fascicles of MONA, especially as he admits him- self that, for instance, the subspeciation in Automeris io is based partly on guesswork. Limiting myself now to the Canadian saturniid species, I find the author has put considerable effort into two entities that have always presented many problems: Eacles imperialis and Dryocampa rubicunda. The final work on the two species is still to be done, as Ferguson says himself. Whether there are one or two species of Eacles is a problem still more complicated by a fact which Ferguson missed —the “strikingly aberrant color forms” (p. 28) are not restricted “only” to the few specimens Ferguson mentions and figures but occur normally, and in numbers, over a broad area around Georgian Bay (R.O.M. has a whole series of them). Dryocampa, which Ferguson 87 treats rather thoroughly and with much aptitude, still keeps its secrets but now looks more under- standable than previously. Only a few remarks: (a) the Dryocampa larva is easily distinguished from Anisota larvae by the anal plate, a character useful in separating species in both genera; (b) the Dryocampa larva in its first instar does not show the well-developed thoracic horns, but only little stumps (like Anisota finlaysoni); (c) the name semialba “Rolle” is really a nomen nudum, as Rolle never published any “papers” at all, only sales-catalogues. Because of the longstanding uncertainty about the Rolle “paper,” this re- viewer sought the information directly from the Deutsches Entomologisches Institut, Eberswalde, German Democratic Republic, near Berlin where Rolle had his establishment “Kosmos.” The treatment of the difficult Hemileucinae is satisfying. More research is needed on the pop- ulation of Hemileucina maia in Michigan (see p., 117, paragraph 3) where we find an oak and an aspen feeding population together in the same area. The larvae of each show different characters, but the aspen feeders are definitely not dH. nevadensis. The coverage of our large silkmoths is excellent, with many interesting remarks for both the gen- eral collector and rearer. Finally the nomencla- ture of Samia cynthia is straightened out! As to the promethea X cynthia hybrids (figured plate 16, Figure 7), the reading of the paper by L. H. Joutel (Journal of New York Entomo- logical Society XV: 101, 1907), not quoted by Ferguson, is a must. It makes it probable that the cynthia was mated a second time with a cynthia to bring her to ovipositing. This then would somehow explain the likeness of the off- spring. It may be added that the colony of S. cynthia which lived years ago (about 1936— 1958) in Toronto was found on ash trees. Actias luna has its northern limits in Ontario surpris- ingly far north (Favourable Lake, 52°N). Also welcome is the synonymy of the Saturnia names (p. 176); that Agapema was preserved on grounds of larval characters is much appreciated by the modern taxonomist. The difficult genus Hyalo- phora is now much clearer although there are still problems in interpreting populations at the 88 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Manitoba-Ontario border where it seems that nokomis genes may be present to some extent in columbia populations. Callosamia angulifera is now known all along the north shore of Lake Erie where Liriodendron is still preserved. Despite a uniformly competent treatment of the other genera, the section on Anisota is thoroughly unsatisfactory. To go into details would be too much for a review, especially since a monograph of the entire genus (including the Mexican species) is in preparation. The following should be pointed out, however. (a) There are substantial series of A. assimilis (both males and females) available in different institutional col- lections and not only a “unique male type.” All the Dampf specimens (destroyed through war action) were certainly assimilis as the figure in Seitz, plate 142, line f, in volume VI (misiden- tified as 1 and 2 of A. leucostygma clearly shows. (b) The two females of A. consularis from Cassadega, Florida, figured as numbers 24 and 25 on plate III by Kimball, are consularis, caught together with the accompanying male. It would have been easy to check on this as the specimens are clearly marked as such in the Florida State Collection of Arthropods. (c) The statements about eye size (p. 9) which play an important role in the genus Anisota should be read with G. A. Mazokhin-Preshnyakov’s Insect Vision, Ple- num Press, N. Y., 1969, for comparison. (d) Anisota stigma is known in southern Ontario from a few specimens only from localities on the north shore of Lake Erie; from North Bay only mis- Vol. 89 identified larvae found their way in the literature as stigma, and this mistake should not have been repeated here. Finally, how long must we continue to correct mistakes in Canadian geography? The Niagara Peninsula, mentioned several times, comprises only the small area between Lakes Erie and Ontario but never includes Toronto or the north shore of Lake Erie (p. 235). The other sore point is “Southern Canada”: on p. 55, places like Rainy River, Dryden, Sudbury, and Kirkland Lake are included there, yet on p. 8, the Cither- oniinae and Hemileucinae are said to go as far as southern Canada, while the former go even to northern Canada (Sudbury, Kirkland Lake, Dry- den). Again, on p. 101 it is said that Hemileuca species reach southern Canada in the western provinces; the western provinces, however, are not considered southern; and the worst of it all on p. 68: “in southern Ontario north to North Bay.” The locality on plate 2, Figure 1, should read: Point-au-Barril. The colored plates are, of course, of the now already renowned high quality, as are the draw- ings, of which one would have liked decidedly many more (costs notwithstanding). J. C. E. RIOTTE Department of Entomology and Invertebrate Zoology Royal Ontario Museum Toronto, Ontario M5S 2C6 Illustrated Keys to the Fresh-water Fishes of Alaska By James E. Morrow. 1974. Alaska Northwest Pub- lishing Company, Anchorage. 78 pp., 65 figures. $2.95 + .50 mailing. A little booklet on freshwater fishes of a region is always a good idea, especially when there isn’t one already available. To that extent, this illus- trated booklet on what you might catch in Alaska lakes and streams is commendable. Unfortunately, the idea hasn’t been well executed. Compared to many similar efforts for various parts of North America, this one has poor line-drawings, far less in the way of natural history notes than could have been printed on the pages, and it provides little to stimulate the reader to further interest in freshwater fishes. It would have been preferable to do a good job on either the illustrations or the text. As it is, neither have much substance. Undoubtedly, the book will be useful for a few years until something better comes along (and this perhaps is sufficient reason for its publication now). At $2.95 it would be a handy thing to have in the glove compartment if you were going fishing in Alaska. P. A. LARKIN Institute of Animal Resource Ecology University of British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1W5 1975 Animals of Manitoba Edited by Robert E. Wrigley et al. Illustrated by James A. Carson. 1974. Manitoba Museum of Man and Nature, Winnipeg. 158 pp. $2.50. The authors state that “this book is not meant to be a key to identify the great diversity of wild- life that one may encounter.” Rather, “the pur- pose . . . is to help people become more aware of the multitude of living things all around them, but so often missed; an invitation to stop, observe, and possibly then learn to appreciate the complex relationship that exists between them and their surroundings.” The authors further state that the “accounts supply information on identification, habitat and life history of selected Manitoba animals representing some of the major groups.” “Particular animals,” they state, “were chosen on the basis of their illustrating the diversity present in each group, and/or their general occurrence in city yards, provincial and national parks, and along country roads — areas within easy reach of everyone.” The book is organized into seven major sections within which brief accounts of selected species of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects, and miscellaneous invertebrates are presented. A bibliography of readily available reference books on each of the groups of animals is included as is a Manitoba checklist for each group of verte- brates. Each of the species discussed is illustrated by an attractive black-and-white sketch by James Carson. A map showing the broad life zones of the province, major park areas, and selected towns precedes the text. Unfortunately, the species selected for discussion in the book do not cover Book REVIEWS 89 all of the province’s life zones. This book might better have been titled “Animals of Central and Southern Manitoba.” The marine, tundra, and sub-arctic transition zones are poorly represented in this book. The whale, seal, caribou, polar bear, snow goose, eider, gyrfalcon, ptarmigan, grayling, and sculpin, for example, find no place in the species accounts. Admittedly, these animals are not readily accessible to most Manitobans. With- out some representation of the far northern species among the selected accounts, however, one cannot really purport to illustrate the great diversity of “Manitoba” animals. After perusing this book, one cannot help but wonder whether a much more effective presenta- tion might have been achieved had the authors organized their accounts by life zones. There are annoying shortcomings in some of the brief accounts. At times, descriptions or ranges are poorly defined. In the brief account of the white admiral butterfly, for example, the author simply states, “A species related to the viceroy, and similar in size but quite different in colour is the white admiral (Limentis arthemis).” The black-and-white sketch accompanying the account does little to enlighten one regarding the noteworthy difference in color. It is difficult to perceive the gap this book is intended to fill. It offers little in the way of new or generally unavailable information. R. E. ENGLAND RPC Ltd. Resource Planning and Management Consultant Winnipeg, Manitoba Butterflies of Saskatchewan By Ronald R. Hooper. 1973. Saskatchewan Depart- ment of Natural Resources, Saskatoon, Saskatch- ewan. 216 pp., iliustrations, map. $3.00. Available from Museum of Natural History, P. O. Box 1121, Regina. The Reverend Ronald Hooper has recently produced a most welcome field guide to the skip- pers and butterflies of Saskatchewan. It is par- ticularly welcome as it is the first such book to appear on any area in western Canada. Prior to its publication the only regional sources available were a number of annotated provincial checklists and articles dealing with smaller areas. The first 19 pages present details on the history of butterfly collecting in the province, what butter- flies are, their life history and habits, life zones in the province, where and how to collect, and how to mount, label, and identify specimens. These comments are quite useful for the beginner and provide many helpful hints for more advanced workers. The remaining pages are devoted to the 135 species that have been found in the province. The 90 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST arrangement is according to families, each starting with a simple description and an easy-to-use di- agram key to the individual species. All of the species are illustrated with black-and-white or, occasionally, color photographs. The latter are of excellent quality, but some of the former, espe- cially those of the blues, could have come out better. It is to be regretted that color photography was not used more extensively. A particularly nice feature is the way in which the text for each species is on the page facing the illustration. This text includes the key characters used in identifica- tion, stressing ways by which related species may be distinguished. There is also a description of range, time of flight, ecology, and food plants. The book ends with a list of hypothetical and ex- pected species, a bibliography of helpful refer- ences, and a checklist of the Saskatchewan species. The book has been carefully proofread but a number of spelling mistakes have unfortunately crept in, such as Atrylone for Atrytone (p. 31), immaculosis for immaculosus (p. 95), shunk for skunk (p. 97), scuderii for scudderii (pp. 111, 206), icaroides for icarioides (pp. 113, 206), 433c for 443c (p. 206), and acquilo for aquilo (p. 206). Omissions occur on p. 206 where the subspecies siva was left off for Callophrys siva, and the subspecies sirius was left off for Lycaena rubidus. The author has seriously attempted to follow the nomenclature of C. F. dos Passos’ “A synonymic list of the nearctic Rhopalocera” and subsequent revisions of the Melitaeinae and Lycaenidae but has differed, without explanation, where he gives Polites mystic dacotah instead of sonora dacotah, Chrysophanus titus instead of Harkenclenus titus, and Nymphalis j-album in- stead of N. vau-album j-album. Vol. 89 The author is to be commended for sorting out the appropriate subspecific status of most species. It is puzzling, however, that Hesperia uncas was not called H. uncas uncas, Hesperia pahaska was not called H. pahaska pakaska, Erynnis brizo was not called E. brizo brizo, Danaus plexippus was not called D. plexippus plexippus, and Erebia discoidalis was not called E. discoidalis macdun- noughi. Subspecies could have been listed, or at least discussed, for Atrytonopsis hianna, Euchloe ausonides, Lycaena mariposa, Plebejus acmon, Nymphalis californica, N. milberti, Polygonia satyrus, Euphydryas anicia, and E. editha. A deeper discussion of the Colias eurytheme and alexandra groups would have helped. One wonders, for. example, how to differentiate the yellow specimens which he refers to as C. eury- theme eriphyle from C. philodice, and why only the subspecies christina is given for Colias alexandra. Hooper points out that further work is needed in the Phyciodes tharos and Papilio machaon groups. He was justified in not naming sub- species at this time as detailed studies must be made of the complexes. The above criticisms are minor and do not markedly detract from the great value of the book. In the writer’s opinion, it is the best single source on the Rhopalocera of this region. It certainly fills a long-felt need and will be used extensively by naturalists in the prairie provinces and adjoining states. It would be a bargain at three times the cost. CHARLES D. BIRD Department of Biology University of Calgary Calgary, Alberta Calf Mortality on the Calving Ground of Kaminuriak Caribou during 1970 By F. L. Miller and E. Broughton. 1974. Canadian Wildlife Service Report Series, No. 26, Ottawa. 26 pp. $1. This report is one of several publications re- sulting from a 24-year study by the Canadian Wildlife Service of the Kaminuriak caribou populations. The Kaminuriak herd inhabits the area west of Hudson Bay in northern Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and the Northwest Territories. The authors provide us with a detailed picture of caribou calf mortality during the first month of life, based primarily on autopsy of 57 calves and a small number of adults in June and July 1970. Eighteen of these calves were killed by wolves (determined by evidence of hemorrhagic conditions), 12 were abandoned, 6 were still- births, 12 died from various physiological or pathological causes, 3 from injuries and 5 un- determined. The most striking feature of the wolf-killed calves was the low level of utilization. Six of the 18 were not utilized at all, and seven had only visceral parts eaten. It is concluded that an estimated 25 non- breeding wolves on the calving grounds of the Kaminuriak population could take from 20 to 30% of the new-born calves. The authors state no7S that the most questionable part of their evaluation of the total impact of wolf predation is the estimation of the number of calves totally con- sumed by wolves and thus not detectible in surveys by helicopters. An equally important question is what proportion of the calves killed by wolves were already abandoned or suffering from various disorders or abnormalities. This is a crucial question since these latter two categories accounted for 10% and 30%, respectively, of the observed calf mortalities in which wolves were not involved. The low level of utilization of killed calves and the lack of carrion utilization suggest a superabundance of. easy prey. The authors’ contention that the 30% figure for physiological and pathological abnormalities, mal- nutrition, and injuries is “well within acceptable limits for healthy cervid populations” is debatable. No mention is made of the possible role of brucellosis in the mortality pattern of the Kami- nuriak population. A 1970 publication (Canadian Journal of Zoology 48: 1023-1027) reported a very low incidence (4.37% of 320 tested animals) in the period 1966-1968. Nevertheless, the Book REVIEWS 91 frequency of observations of placental retention, stillbirths, metritis, etc. in the 1970 data suggest that the incidence of this condition may have increased. It is stated that, “wolves remain the most readily manageable of mortality factors in the life equa- tion of the Kaminuriak caribou and possibly the least understood in their impact on the caribou population.” Certainly a better understanding, especially of possible compensatory mechanisms, is necessary to verify the authors’ conclusion that “Pressures of wolf predation . . . may be a prin- cipal factor limiting the population’s growth.” We must also be ready to resist the tendency that will come from advocates of wolf control to extrapolate these findings to other caribou popula- tions without sufficient evidence. PETER C. LENT Alaska Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit University of Alaska Fairbanks, Alaska 99701 Shallow-water Gammaridean Amphipoda of New England By E. L. Bousfield. 1973. Comstock Publishing As- sociates, Cornell University Press, Ithaca. 312 pp. $17.50. The purpose of this book is to provide a com- prehensive guide to the gammaridean amphipods occurring at depths of less than 100 feet along the New England coast. The gammaridea are one of four suborders of the amphipods, making up the bulk of this order, and are the most abundant crustaceans along the New England coast. Thirty families, including nearly 200 species, are covered in this volume. In addition to the introduction, sections on the general biology of the amphipoda, how to collect and prepare amphipods for study, how to use this guide book, a list of gammaridean amphipods recorded or probably occurring in the New En- gland shelf region, a guide to pronunciation and root meanings of scientific names, a glossary of scientific terms, selected references, and an index to common and scientific names are included. The greater part of the book consists of dichto- mous keys to families, genera and species, with descriptions, distribution, ecology, and life cycle of each species given. Many of the keys are not restricted to New England species but cover those of the American Atlantic region in general. Al- though there was no opportunity to test the keys, several that I read through suggested no difficulty in their use. Illustrations include a colored photograph of Gammarus oceanicus as a frontispiece, 13 figures illustrating terminology used in the text and keys, and 69 plates consisting of excellent line drawings of gammaridean amphipods and parts thereof. One hundred and fifteen species are illustrated in their entirety. As stated in the foreword this book has been written for the informed layman, student biologist, and fisheries biologist, as well as the professional carcinologist. I suspect, however, that the price, although considering today’s book prices is not at all inconsistent with the caliber of this book, will tend to limit its purchase to those in the last two categories. WILLIAM B. PRESTON Manitoba Museum of Man and Nature 190 Rupert Avenue Winnipeg, Manitoba R3B 0ON2 92 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia Edited by B. Grzimek. 1972. Mammals. Volumes X to XIII. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. ca. 600 pp. per volume. $25 per volume. Grzimek’s Animal Life Encyclopedia has been called the definitive reference work on animals, and this judgment may be correct. It has been a tremendous undertaking, comprising 13 volumes, each of about 600 pages. The mammals alone, which I am reviewing here, are discussed in four volumes. They are treated in the more or less accepted evolutionary sequence: primitive terres- trial mammals plus primates up to gorillas; chimpanzees, man, bats, rodents, whales; lago- morphs, carnivores, pinnipeds, subungulates and horses; and the remaining ungulates. It is as impossible to generalize about the con- tents of an encyclopedia as it is about those of an anthology. I shall therefore consider in detail, as a representative entry, the information given in the 95 pages of Volume 13 on the deer family, a family of particular interest to many Canadians. A five-page description of the Pecora introduces this section, followed by three and a half pages of general comment on the Cervidae. This part contains a detailed discussion of the relationship between hormones and antler growth in male deer, the use of antlers as aphrodisiacs in Old World cultures, and a few remarks on the evolution in Asia of both living and extinct species. Following these general remarks are paragraphs describing each species with brief comments on their races, if any. In the eight pages devoted to the wapiti, or elk (considered here to be con- specific with the European red deer, Cervus elaphus), the life history of this species, antler growth and form, rutting behavior, and hunting by man are considered. The emphasis in this encyclopedia is on Euro- Atlas of Animal Migration By Cathy Jarman. 1972. John Day, New York. 124 pp. $10.95. This small book is written strictly for the interested layman and not for a scientific audi- ence. It discusses in a non-technical manner the major aspects of animal migration and there are many excellent drawings, maps, and diagrams. The book is visually pleasant and for a general reader I suspect there would be a considerable Vol. 89 pean animals, which is not surprising since 125 of the contributors, well over half, are from Ger- many. Thus while six pages are needed to discuss the roe deer, the white-tailed and mule deer are dealt with in three. This may seem disadvan- tageous to some, but I found it refreshing to un- cover new anecdotes and information drawn from the countryside and zoos of Europe. Too often wildlife articles from continental Europe are ignored by North American monolingual biol- ogists. Each volume is handsomely illustrated. There are seven full-page color photographs of cervids, over 100 colored drawings which distinguish the young, males, and females of various races and species, and many marginal line drawings of antler shape, distinctive postures, and range distribution. This encyclopedia first appeared in German in 1968, but for this attractive 1972 edition many new data have been added. The clear translation is only rarely awkward (i.e., “The head size is from short to long,” p. 154), and there are few typographical errors. Each volume concludes with conversion tables for metric and English systems; a systematic clas- sification of the species; the English, German, French, and Russian names of the species; a brief list of source articles; and an extensive index. This encyclopedia would be an excellent acquisi- tion for any public library, as well as for that of either the zoologist or the layman who can afford to buy it. ANNE INNIS DAGG Otter Press Box 747 Waterloo, Ontario amount of useful information. From the non- technical point of view, my only objection to the book is the long captions under many of the illustrations which essentially repeat much that is said in the text. I suspect the author realizes that many people will look at the pictures and the captions without reading the text, and if this is true, then there is an excuse for the lengthy captions. 1975 From the scientific point of view, the state- ments in the book are completely undocumented: e.g., ON page 27 at the beginning of the first com- plete paragraph, there is a statement “some bi- ologists think.” My immediate reaction to this type of statement is, why are the biologists not named, and a reference cited. If some particular fact interests a person, there are no leads given to other literature and the only possible references that one might check are those mentioned under the acknowledgments on page 124. I find this complete lack of reference to other literature a decided fault, since any interested reader might like to check other references. Otherwise there is little to criticize. There are some vague state- ments and a few mistakes: i.e., the number of surviving bison differs on pages 57 and 59 although the statements supposedly refer to the same statistic. Pacific Fishes of Canada By J. L. Hart. 1973. Fisheries Research Board of Canada Bulletin 180. 740 pp., numerous illustra- tions, eight color plates. Information Canada, Ottawa K1A 0S9. $8. This volume is not a mere updating of the well-known Fishes of the Pacific Coast of Canada by Clemens and Wilby. It is, in essence, a com- pletely new book well illustrated with new drawings as well as sketches of diagnostic features. The 325 species of marine fishes known to occur in British Columbia are described and figured. Superb color photos of live fishes, taken by F. T. Pletcher, embellish the volume. Several additional species were recorded from B.C. after the manu- script was well advanced, and are mentioned in various keys but not in the species accounts (e.g., Xenomystax atrarius, Acantholiparis opercularis, Xeneretmus leiops). The brief introductory section includes a con- cise history of pertinent Pacific ichthyology which is complemented by a succinct summary of North Pacific oceanography. Sections on “Scope of Coverage,” and explanations of “Species Ac- counts,” “Keys,” and ‘Classification’ complete the introduction. The species accounts begin with a key to classes or subclasses; subsequent keys in these major sections lead either to species (Elasmobran- chii) or to families (Osteichthyes). The familial Book REVIEWS 93 The format of the book in many ways reflects the author’s background. She has a B.Sc. in Zool- ogy from Nottingham University and has subse- quently lectured to children and students and served as an editor of an encyclopedia of animal life. Generally, statements in encyclopedias are often not documented, and in many ways the cur- rent book is written along encyclopedic lines but is more lavishly illustrated. It can be recommended as a general compendium on the subject but is somewhat lacking in depth so that it would not be of particular interest to a person knowledgeable on the subject of animal migration. H. F. HowDEN Department of Biology Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6 key in Osteichthyes is quite workable and not excessively long (e.g., only 20 steps to Sciaenidae at couplet 84). Only occasionally is the key vague (e.g., couplet 64, “Fishes with one spine” would better read “Fishes with one dorsal spine”). Keys to species within familial groups (which we have tried) are clear and workable. Each species account includes the derivation of the scientific name, a description (diagnosis, meristics, color, size), recognition (features for rapid recognition, which would be better placed at the beginning), and where known or pertinent, sections on life history and utilization. In some species (salmonids, clupeids, osmerids) these latter sections are extensive. Both world (unlike previous editions) and British Columbian dis- tributions are given. An unusual but efficient combination of “numbering and authoring” is used for references. It is noteworthy that more than 1100 references (through 1970) are cited, attesting the exhaustive literature review. Species accounts are thorough, and with some notable exceptions, the illustrations are very good. The drawings of Notolepis rissoi and Bathylagus milleri give the misleading impression that scales are wanting, while that of Argyropelecus lychnus lacks the precise definition and high quality of Macropinna microstoma. The dawings of Pacific bonito and dusky rockfish are somewhat tipsy in their orientation. 94 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Two inclusions that should be, but seldom are, standard for works of this nature are a gazeteer of the area under consideration and a list of the specimens used for illustration. A short but generally adequate glossary of relevant ichthyological and anatomical terms is included. “Trifid’” should be a separate entry and not placed under “bifid” and the definitions for shoulder girdle and placoid are poor. The Fisheries Research Board of Canada deserves congratulations for having produced a most useful reference and guide to the richest of Vol. 89 Canada’s fish faunas. This book, which was Dr. Hart’s last major project, stands as a tribute to the memory of a man who had spent a distin- guished career in biology. The first printing of 4100 copies is now almost sold out and a second printing is underway. C. G. GRUCHY D. E. MCALLISTER Ichthyology Unit National Museum of Natural Sciences Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0M8 BoTany Research Experiences in Plant Physiology. A laboratory manual By Thomas C. Moore. 1974. Springer-Verlag, New York. 462 pp. $9.50. Thomas Moore’s Research Experiences in Plant Physiology is a well-tested laboratory manual developed over a 12-year period by a teacher of plant physiology. As with many laboratory man- uals, this one reflects a specific course and the author’s personal approach to the subject. Moore presents 25 exercises, half of which emphasize plant growth and development, with the others devoted to photosynthesis, mineral nutrition, pro- tein chemistry, and membranes. Although the manual is aimed at upper division undergraduate and graduate students, about half of the exercises could well be executed by sophomores, even in large classes; the remainder, which include protein electrophoresis and incorporation of radioisotopes, are definitely suited to small groups of advanced students. Since courses in plant physiology often differ widely between and within universities in terms of the types of students to be taught, duration, topics, and personal style, this worthwhile manual may have restricted application. Recognizing this situation, Moore has purposefully set forth his manual in a rarely seen format which allows the ready utilization of any set of specific exercises and expeditious revision of the manual itself. Specifically, each exercise is complete in itself and is written in five sections. The “Introduction” gives the intended purpose and a rationale, context and perspective for the prescribed experiment or procedure. The “Materials and Methods” section gives the actual prescribed procedure in detail, alerts the student to critical points and instructs on the handling of the data. The third section is a list of references which is rather extensive and thus beneficial to students who happen to be particularly interested in that area of investigation. Next is a section on the required special reagents, supplies and equipment, and notes on scheduling. Moore has very helpfully included the sources (with complete addresses) for many of the special items. He also notes very realistically the labora- tory time which a student must devote to the exercise. The concluding section is a set of report forms containing directive tables and graphs, as well as summarizing questions. Moore intends the exercises to be research experiences for the students. The sometimes com- plex procedures and the analyses and interpreta- tions required certainly tend toward this goal. I would suggest that the exercises are, however, just that, well-tested exercises with infrequent failures guaranteed when appropriate care and preparation are ensured. WILFRIED E. RAUSER Associate Professor Department of Botany and Genetics University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario oS Woody Plants of the North Central Plains By H. A. Stephens. 1973. The University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, Manhattan, Wichita. 530 pp. $20. The states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas lie directly south of the western two-thirds and the eastern third of the provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan. These four states are mainly prairie: tall grass in the east, mixed tall and short grass in the central parts, and short grass in the west. Trees and shrubs are restricted almost entirely to the river valleys and hill country such as the Black Hills, Turtle Moun- tains and Pembina Mountains. Woody elements from the Eastern Deciduous Forest, Cordilleran Forest, and the Northern Conifer Zone extend into parts of the region. The author devotes two pages to each of 255 woody or partly woody taxa. One page consists of a very detailed description, notes on habitat, range, a distribution map for the four states, synonomy, and occasionally a brief paragraph on how plants in this region differ from those in other parts of the range. The other page is com- E\NVIRONMENT The Algal Bowl: Lakes and Man By J. R. Vallentyne. 1974. Fisheries Research Board of Canada Miscellaneous Special Publication 22. 186 pp. $3. The stated intent of this little book is to produce an account of lakes and eutrophication that would bring out the fundamental principles and factors involved in the interactions between man, nutrients, and water. The book is aimed at the environmentally aware public who are put off by scientific treatises yet who find ecology picture- books too trivial. The title is derived from an analogy drawn between the American dust bowls of the 1930s resulting from misuse of the land, and the present problem of the vast growths of algae in many lakes, “algal bowls,” resulting from misuse of water. The book may have been sub- titled “The damnation of phosphorus” for, in what amounts to a collection of nine essays, the major linking concept is a restatement of Dr. Vallentyne’s well known thesis that the control of phosphorus alone will result in a drastic improve- ment in our polluted lakes. Book REVIEWS 95 prised of a series of excellent line drawings of twigs, leaves, flowers, and fruits, made by the author, in most cases from fresh material. A key is given for the 255 taxa. A total of 98 taxa which have been reported for the region by several authors are excluded for various reasons. The volume is rounded out with a short de- scription of the region, a list of selected references, a glossary, and an index to common and scientific names. This useful book will be a most welcome addition to the libraries of students, teachers, naturalists, and professional botanists alike, both in the four states and in the surrounding region. It is too heavy for the hiker to want to carry in his pack, but the traveller could readily carry it in his car for easy reference. WILLIAM J. Copy Biosystematics Research Institute Central Experimental Farm Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0C6 The first four chapters are devoted to a brief account of limnology and in particular the pro- cesses of eutrophication which I am sure will be intelligible to any moderately well-informed lay- man. The examples of eutrophication are well chosen and give in simple language the funda- mental causes and consequences. The specialist may be irritated in one or two sections where current or conflicting theories have been over- simplified. For example, not many paleolimnol- ogists today hold to the theory of “a slow natural process of eutrophication accompanying the aging of lakes” (p. 14). The concept of a trophic equilibrium over long periods of time in most lakes is more widely accepted. On the other hand, the distinction drawn between natural and man- made eutrophication is very succinct and not a few professional limnologists would benefit from reading it. Four chapters, or nearly half the book, are largely devoted to phosphorus. The accounts of phosphorus in the biosphere and the control of 96 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST man-made eutrophication, complete with case histories, are concise and informative, but one wishes the author had stopped there. The two whole chapters on detergents and NTA are boring and little more than a rehash of the 1970 debate on organic matter versus phosphorus as the real culprit in eutrophication. Undoubtedly the smoke- screen of organic matter thrown up by the de- tergent manufacturers deserves some mention but there is really no justification in detailing the whole story in this book. In the final chapter man-made eutrophication is interpreted as a symptom or sign that man’s innate biological drive for survival is impairing his ability to survive; the only solution is for man to recognize fully his responsibility as part of the biosphere. Support is given to Barry Commoner’s thesis that new technological products have con- tributed more to pollution than either increased population or affluence. Schoolyard and Beyond By David Coburn. 1974. Collier-Macmillan Canada, Don Mills, Ontario. 64 pp. $2.75. Schoolyard and Beyond introduces a variety of science studies for the senior elementary and junior secondary grades by encouraging students and teachers to carry their investigations beyond the classroom to the schoolyard and other outdoor areas. It illustrates how the environment surround- ing the school can become a resource area for effective learning by students. The book contains three chapters related to the seasons of fall, win- ter, and spring. Each chapter had several topics. Studies suggested for the fall include insects (emphasis is on the honey bee), trees, seeds, and physical science investigations of sound, vibra- tions, incline planes, and levers. Those for winter deal with snow, ice, toboggan experiments, and further study of trees. Spring topics focus on sap and maple syrup, gardens, soil, plant succession, and stream community studies. This seasonal ap- proach encourages students to conduct science investigations in the outdoors throughout the school year. Each topic is introduced by some interesting facts, poems, and statistics. Measurements are given in metric units. Questions are raised for the students to investigate or to provoke further thought on the topic. Activities are outlined and many of these are designed to encourage field studies. The book would be of little value if Vol. 89 The book reads well and is sometimes quite witty. Dr. Vallentyne’s erudition and fine sense of history is evident throughout. My only disappoint- ment, apart from the undue emphasis on deter- gents, is that we learn nothing of the fate of the millions of taxpayers’ dollars being spent on eutrophication research at Dr. Vallentyne’s Fresh- water Institute in Winnipeg and at other institutes. One cannot help pondering that if the solution, as claimed by Dr. Vallentyne, is simply to eliminate phosphorus, why is so much effort being put into research? Perhaps after all there is something more to eutrophication than just phosphorus. H. C. DUTHIE Biotogy Department University of Waterloo Waterloo, Ontario students did not have the opportunity to do the activities and conduct follow-up investigations. It is difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of this book as the objectives are not stated for it, and the author’s intentions are not clear. It is a collection of topics organized to relate to the three seasons and there does not appear to be any in- tention of one topic relating to the next. Certain sections such as the ones on the honey bee and the stream community are well developed and provide a good basis for a unit of study by students. It is unfortunate that the section on plant succession was not integrated with the topics on trees and seeds to provide a more meaningful unit similar to the community study of the stream. Some of the topics are merely starting points and will require broader study and investigations by students if effective learning is to occur. The value of the book is that it will capture student interest through interesting facts, poems, and pictures and then present the challenge of further questions and activities. The book will prove useful to teachers who wish to motivate students to extend their learning to the schoolyard and beyond. Don MorRRISON Blair Outdoor Education Centre R.R. 3 Cambridge (Preston), Ontario N3H 4R8 1975 Book REVIEWS 97 Natural Regions of the United States and Canada By Charles B. Hunt. 1974. W. H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco. 725 pp. $14.95. This book will help you to enjoy your travels in North America. The first 206 pages contain a series of topical overall views of the United States and Canada. The second part, entitled “The Provinces,’ comprises 480 more pages of detailed description and lucid explanation of the continent’s natural regions except for the Canadian arctic islands. It is a large book but it contains more interesting material than an equal weight of paperback natural science books. Charles Hunt served with the United States Geological Survey for 30 years and is now Professor of Geology and Geography at The Johns Hopkins University. His aim here has been to write a guide book or text book for the intelligent layman; he has succeeded admirably. The first nine chapters assume no prior specialized knowledge, as he explains each new term when he comes to it. The clarity of these capsule definitions makes this book especially valuable. In the first chapter, for example, he not only outlines regional boundaries with the help of good physiographic maps but goes to the trouble of explaining briefly how maps are made and why no map on flat paper can accurately portray a spherical earth. Every chapter has a bibliog- raphy: Appendix A tells how to obtain and use Canadian and American topographic sheets of the area you want to visit, though the addresses to write to are on page 23. In Chapters 2 through 8 inclusive, he skillfully uses physiographic, topographic, photographic, and graphic means to supplement the text of excellent essays on the geologic structure of the continent, the shaping of landforms, climate, soil, plant, and animal geography. Chapter 9 discusses conflicts of interest with regard to resource use. One’s respect for his fair treatment is so great that when he says leaching of mine wastes is not as great a polluter of streams as most people think, one remembers that he is a geologist, and one also remembers that he is an honest man, so one tends to believe him. His discussion of the North American Water and Power Alliance is brief but will interest Canadians; he feels that Canada has a lot of water it can’t use so Canada would benefit from selling such water to the United States for irrigation and cities in dry, warm, western regions. The regional chapters, 10 through 20, average almost 59 pages a piece. He deals with the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, the Appalachians, Cana- dian Shield, Great Plains, Rocky Mountains, Colorado and Columbia Plateaux, Basin and Range Province, Pacific Mountains, Alaska, the Yukon, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. For each natural province he deals meticulously with geologic structure and with the land forms they help to cause. He thinks that the names of the 12 geologic periods should be part of the equipment of every educated person. Description and explanation of special regional landforms, such as volcanoes, kettle holes, pingo hills, sand dunes, and deltas, is also painstaking and informative. Then, having given the reader a rich intellectual feast, he tops off each chapter by showing how climate, vegetation, water, minerals, and agricul- ture are related to structure, landforms, and to each other. In each chapter the text is supple- mented by topographic maps, physiographic diagrams, cross sections, photographs, graphs, tables, and there is a Teacher’s Manual. A reviewer hesitates to find fault with a book that is generally so excellent, but Canadian readers will occasionally have the impression that Canada is included as a bit of an afterthought. The method of numbering western U.S. town- ships is illustrated, but Canada’s own boustre- phedon pattern is not mentioned. There is no Canadian map to match the U.S. map showing dates of territorial acquisitions. Most serious is the almost complete omission of the Canadian arctic islands. Both American and Canadian readers may wish for better soil diagrams and for some mention of plate tectonics. The ground blizzard map omits the incredible winter storms that occur in the lee of the Great Lakes. All in all this is an excellent book. Charles Hunt is not just a scientist but also a humanist. He indicates how unwise or uninformed human action can lead to increased salinization of dry areas, how dam-building can lead to loss of more water by evaporation than is made available for irrigation, and how deforestation leads to higher soil temperatures, increased evaporation, and less stream run-off. Judicious use of humor makes this a pleasant book to read. His fluid descriptions of flooding and water table problems complement his dry remarks on farmers’ reaction to years of drought. DONALD Q. INNIS Department of Geography Geneseo State College Geneseo, New York 98 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 Bird Damage to Fruit Crops in the Niagara Peninsula By R. G. B. Brown. 1974. Canadian Wildlife Service, Report Series Number 27. 56 pp. $1.50. The format of this publication is very appeal- ing, which is characteristic of the reports in. this series. The contents, however, may not provide enjoyable reading to the general public because of the tedious scientific treatment of the subject. The author is well versed in the field of bird behavior and the experience gained during the 4 years of this study provides a wealth of material on which he expounds in a knowledgeable fashion. But the detailed results from his many experiments and the statistical treatment of the data may appeal only to a specialist in this field. The many graphs are a help in understanding the results but the inconsistent use of symbols in adjacent figures is confusing. The theme appears to be that “. . . bird damage is an inescapable side-effect of fruit growing.” The vulnerability of various cherry and grape cultivars (presumably an acceptable term for cultivated varieties) was compared. The general conclusion was that the darker the fruit, the more readily it was selected by birds. Robins and starlings were the main bird species involved. Their populations, movements, diets and feeding behaviors were assessed. The results showed that local birds were responsible for inflicting most of the damage. Methods for reducing damage were tested and discussed but the practical and economic factors involved were discouraging to the fruit grower. The emphasis was placed on protecting the fruit or reducing the bird population directly. Little consideration was given to reducing the local populations by modifying habitat conditions which would affect factors other than food. This scientific publication should be of interest to students of bird behavior and fruit growers but the latter may be better served by a concise version of the problem and how to combat it. A. B. STEPHENSON Ministry of Natural Resources Fish and Wildlife Research Branch Box 50 Maple, Ontario Terrain, Vegetation and Permafrost Relationships, Northern Mackenzie Valley and Yukon By S. C. Zoltai and W. W. Pettapiece. 1973. En- vironmental-Social Committee Northern Pipelines, Task Force on Northern Oil Development Report No. 73-4. 105 pp. $2. This document and the accompanying series of 1:250,000 maps present a valuable summarization of the results of much of the research and many of the potential problems involved in development of the Canadian Arctic. These maps should be one of the first sources of data consulted before any future planning of work in the Arctic. The main purpose of the maps is to present, in a concise manner, an estimation of the prob- lems encountered during construction in perma- frost regions. Much research and many mistakes have proven that damage to terrain or vegetation in the Arctic can result in the melting of under- lying permafrost layers followed by severe slumping, ponding, and erosion from which it can take decades to recover. It is thus a feat of major importance to map zones of sensitivity and present tables so that problem areas within these zones can be located. The authors correlate sur- face susceptibility to damage with vegetation type, presence of near-surface permafrost, depth of active layer, soil materials and moisture content, landform, and slope patterns. Maps prepared from this study are scaled 1:250,000 and cannot identify localized conditions for specific areas in the vast Canadian Arctic. For each mapping zone, charts are provided with readily discernible characteristics to enable the identification of exact localized terrain sensitivity. This study presents a scientifically sound and technically feasible approach to the prevention of environmental damage in the Arctic. As such it has taken a great step forward beyond research “after the fact” which is often predominant in this region. WILSON EEDY Beak Consultants Limited 306 Rexdale Blvd. Rexdale, Ontario M9W 1R6 1975 The Unknown Island By Ian Smith. 1973. J. J. Douglas Ltd., Vancouver. 174 pp. $17.50. The unknown island is Vancouver Island, and Ian Smith is a wildlife biologist with a knack for writing — an excellent combination. Rarely can one find a book where the author is so adept in both what he is writing about and how he writes. The Unknown Island is divided into four sections: the forests, the mountains, the under- ground, and the oceans. In each section Smith describes parts of the island unknown to most tourists — from the top, Mount Golden Hinde at 7,217 feet to the tide pools, from the elk to the navigator shrew, from huge Douglas fir to lichens. Smith’s knowledge of the island is vast because he was the regional wildlife biologist for a few years. He took the 90 color photographs which illustrate the book. Unfortunately some are over- enlarged and the result is sometimes fuzzy. Robert Keziere contributed the excellent black-and-white photographs. Carl Chaplin’s sketches are more decorative than accurate. Environment and Man By Richard H. Wagner. Second Edition. 1974. W. W. Norton, New York. 528 pp. $7.95. The purpose of this book, according to the author, is “to provide an introduction to man- environment problems that pre-supposes no back- ground in the sciences, one that any college stu- dent or other interested reader could read with understanding and profit.” This is a difficult task, but I believe the author has largely succeeded. The book consists of 23 chapters, in six sec- tions. A list of the section headings will provide a general idea of the contents and arrangement. 1. Man in the landscape; 2. Natural traumas be- come pollutants; 3. Man makes new traumas; 4. The biotic world and man; 5. Man’s urban envi- ronment; 6. The people problem. Within this gen- eral framework the author deals with a very wide range of subjects and almost anyone who reads the book should learn something new and inter- esting and valuable. I found particularly interest- ing the discussion on the ecological effects of fire, in Chapter 4, and all of Section 5. Chapter 17, describing the ecological effects of the war in Indochina, deals with a topic that I have not seen discussed before in a book of this kind, and deserves careful attention. Book REVIEWS 99 The most annoying deficiency in the book is the lack of an index. Here is an encyclopedia of detail on the natural history of Vancouver Island, but one would have to scan the whole book to discover what is written on the deer mouse. Where does one begin to find out about the presence of peregrine falcons on the island? Most people would not have time to read the whole book to find such information, so that the book is far less useful as a reference source than it might have been. Obviously the book has filled an important gap in the literature. The first edition of 7,000 copies is sold out and a second edition is in the press. Some of the deficiencies of the first edition are being rectified. J. B. Foster Ecological Reserve Program Department of Lands Victoria, British Columbia V8V 1X5 The general tone of the book is reasonable and humane. Anyone who reads it with care should gain a well-balanced understanding of the con- flicting demands of man and nature that must be resolved if the human race is to continue to exist, and to be human. The book is naturally concerned primarily with the United States but it should be useful to Cana- dians as well. Canadian readers should perhaps be told that snowmobiles (p. 439) have made life much easier, if less picturesque, for the people of the far north, whatever their effects may have been further south. They would also probably like to know more about Triticale (p. 481). If the book goes into a third edition, as I hope it will. the author might perhaps elaborate a little on topics like these to increase its international appeal. I must now, unfortunately, become more crit- ical. The book has a weakness which seems to be almost universal among books attempting to explain ecological concepts to a wide audience: it contains a number of speculations stated as facts, misleading simplifications, and outright errors. These are almost all in areas peripheral to the main theme of the book, and probably do not seriously impair its usefulness. Nevertheless I 100 found them very irritating. I think it is worth- while to list some of these, not for the sake of finding fault, but so that they may be corrected in the next edition. It is not “without question” that the deepening of the Welland Canal allowed lampreys to enter Lake Erie (p. 29). It has been suggested that they may have been introduced as ammocoetes brought in as bait by anglers and released. The view that the building of the Aswan Dam (p. 32) was a complete ecological disaster seems to be widespread among western ecologists. It would be fair to point out that Egyptian ecologists do not share this opinion. The photolysis of water in photosynthesis does not produce a hydrogen ion and an oxide ion, as shows on p. 40. The process can be regarded as giving rise to a free hydrogen atom and a free hydroxyl radical. ° The definition of pH on p. 42 is wrong and confusing. It is a common practice among ecologists, but it is still wrong, to omit the charges on the formulas of nitrate, nitrite, and ammonium ions, as on p. 52. To state, as the author does on p. 54, that “most nitrogen is in the configuration Nj,” implies that nitrogen molecules consist of 14 atoms. The correct way of designating the isotopes of nitrogen is as 14N and 15N. There seems to be some confusion on p. 56 between essential trace elements and accessory THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 food factors. The latter were indeed first postu- lated by Hopkins, but the substances he was con- cerned with were organic compounds, now usually referred to as vitamins. The oxygen atom has six valence electrons, not two as shown on p. 181. I do not understand the statement (p. 241) that “near-empty tooth-paste tubes have been found to contain enough lead to deliver a dose of 1800 ppm to a child . . .” Does this mean 1800 mg per kg body weight? In a 20 kg child this would amount to 36 grams, which I assume would be almost immediately fatal. The author is perhaps a little rash in his use of the word “probably” in discussing the possible role of lead poisoning in the fall of the Roman Empire (pp. 242-243). It is probably inevitable that flaws like these will be present in any book dealing with a variety of topics so wide that nobody can be expert in them all. For this very reason the author and publishers of such a book have a particular responsibility to subject the manuscript to the widest possible range of criticism so that they may be eliminated before the book is published. R. M. BAXTER 715 Dynes Road Burlington, Ontario L7N 2V7 Wilderness Survival: a complete handbook and guide for survival in the North American wilds By Berndt Berglund. 1972. Scribners, New York. 175 pp. $6.95. Wilderness Survival can be thoroughly recom- mended for the novice and be of considerable use to the expert. In many ways it can be seen as a companion to The Edible Wild (Pagurian, Toronto, 1971) which the author and his wife Clare Bolsby previously published. Together they serve as a monument to the efforts of Berglund to increase our awareness of the rudiments of wilderness living. The Berglunds run National Wilderness Survival’s School of Survival at Campbellford near Peterborough, Ontario. Wilderness Survival is a straightforward book, without much poetry or adornment apart from many attractive and accurate sketches and a few asides by the author hinting at many great northern wilderness adventures involving himself “and an old Indian guide” in years gone by. The book discusses the whole range of topics involving survival more or less off the land, from survival psychology through North American physiographic diversity, the building of different kinds of fires for different. purposes, the con- struction and use of signals, shelters, and traps the hunting, butchering, dressing, preserving, and cooking of wild game, to elementary first aid, Knots, and the use of maps and compass. Throughout Berglund’s treatment of his subject one problem frequently surfaces, that of level. Dealing, for example, with topographical maps, knots, and first aid, the approach is extremely elementary. Yet when considering the construction of birch-bark coolers, igloos, smoke houses, and clay baking ovens, considerable sophistication and skilled use of tools are assumed. One would have 1975 hoped that anyone able to dress and preserve wild game for long periods of time in the hot summer bush during an emergency survival experience would know how to read a map, use a compass, and tie a clove hitch. There is detailed information on elementary use of a silva-type compass, yet merely the statement concerning the leg glands of deer, that to avoid tainting the meat they should be cut out “before you start to do the skinning and dressing.” Berglund is no extreme purist, but he is obviously a fastidious wilderness gourmet expert. He uses a vast amount of wood (especially birch bark) for shelter, heat, and comfort; he would seem to depend heavily on “meat” for sustenance, from grasshoppers and ants through mice, snakes, and porcupines to bear and moose. “The large black and red ants are especially delightful in making a stew. Of course, you don’t pick indi- vidual ants from the forest floor, you locate them either in rotten logs or in the centre of an anthill, where they can be gathered by the thousands. I usually prepare them in the same manner as The Arctic Coast By D. Wilkinson. 1970. N.S.L. Natural Science of . Canada Ltd., Toronto. 160 pp. $8.95. The Arctic Coast is one of a nine-volume series entitled The Illustrated Natural History of Can- ada. In presenting the Arctic region, Wilkinson sticks closely to the format used in discussing each of the other regions of Canada. Each volume discusses natural processes and systems according to five categories. Photographs and diagrams are used extensively, and at the end of each publica- tion there is a list of plants, animals, and rocks present in that region. For easier written presentation, the first section, the Arctic “Region” is sub-divided into three separate units: the Lowland Arctic, the Mountain Arctic, and the non-land of the Arctic coast. “|, . the thick ice cover on sea, lake, and river is the non-land of the Arctic coast region. (The ice is landlike; it is a major landform during most of the year, in many areas for all of it.)” Each unit is discussed seperately and in such a way that the reader is aware of the diverse phys- iographic situations within the Canadian Arctic. As for the “Region” section, the “Geology” section has also been sub-divided into three units: In the beginning, The Birth of the Arctic Coast, Book REVIEWS 101 I do white grubs, with wild onion, dandelion and arrowhead tubers. This stew has a sweet and sour taste which the ants give to it.” On the other hand his earlier book, The Edible Wild, was all about the vegetable kingdom. He wisely points out that survival off the land in the wild is almost a full-time job, and that, therefore, travel should normally only be under- taken when survival in the initial location “might prove to be difficult or dangerous” and then only to reach a better site and only if you have some idea of where you are. Berglund is not talking about the romantic but impractical idea of a “survival” canoe trip or a long “living-off-the- land” hike. This is a good book by a wise man, and he is to be congratulated. BrucE W. HobDGINs Department of History Trent University Peterborough, Ontario and The Tundra Biome — the soil. In this section the author attempts to give us an understanding of the changes occurring through time and of the substrate as it presently exists. He writes, “Much of the Arctic surface is covered with glacial till, messes of unsorted rock, sand, and gravel that have been deposited on the land in a haphazard fashion as the ice melted away.” Fundamental to the productivity of any region is the soil. “Arctic soils are relatively infertile especially deficient in nitrogen mainly as a result of low temperatures in the soil.” Soils to a large extent dictate plant development. “Plant Life” is dealt with in the third section of The Arctic Coast. Although the plant life of the Arctic is far too sparse and too dwarfed to be considered as a food supply for man, all Arctic plants are edible and contain varying amounts of vitamins, proteins, sugars, and starches. Wilkin- son describes “Plant Life” in two separate sections, one dealing with the flora and the other with floral adaptations to the cold. The “Animal Life” of The Arctic Coast in- cludes avifauna and terrestrial mammals, as well as aquatic and marine invertebrates. This fourth section reviews methods of adaptation to the cold, 102 some life histories, use made of sea ice, and inter- dependence of predators and prey. Although migration may be considered a form of adapta- tion, “. . . most of the large Arctic mammals have the ability and the opportunity to move south during the winter”; however, “only certain of the mainland herds of caribou turn to migra- tion as a means of escaping the bitter cold of the tundra biome.” The fifth and final section of the text considers man on the Arctic coast. It appears as a warning that, although the Eskimo could and did live in harmony with his environment, modern man’s technology is not capable of doing so. The author concludes his text with these boding words. “Here in Canada we have gone from a stage of not thinking about our Arctic at all to a situation in which we think about it quite a bit, but Nature West Coast Discovery Press, Box 6295, Postal Station Vancouver. 1973. 283 pp. $7.95. “G” C) Nature West Coast— As Seen in Lighthouse Park, to give this book its full title, is a cooper- ative production of the members of the Vancouver Natural History Society. Under the editorial coordination of Kathleen Smith, Nancy Anderson, and Katherine Beamish, Nature West Coast represents the results of more than 8 years of observations by members of the Society in Light- house Park and the work of nearly 60 artists, writers, advisers, cartographers, and library re- searchers. Dedicated to the memory of Professor John Davidson, founder and first president of the Society, the book describes the history, geology, ecology, fauna and flora of a 185-acre park on the north shore of Burrard Inlet, 6 miles west of the Lions Gate. The park occupies part of Point Atkinson, site of the Point Atkinson lighthouse which marks the northern gateway to Vancouver Harbour, thus the name Lighthouse Park. It is a highly diverse area where differences in topography and rainfall — which are surpris- ingly variable even for such a small area — produce a microcosm of the natural spectrum found along British Columbia’s coast. There are examples of Douglas fir forest, hemlock forest, rocky headland, cliffs, cool moist valleys, dry rock outcrops, wave-washed rocks, and open sea in the THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 usually in the romantic sense — the land of the Eskimo, of Eskimo art, the true north strong and ieee There are only two minor criticisms of the text. Firstly, too much attention is often given to the more unusual or spectacular life forms, plants and animals, while the less spectacular life forms are quickly brushed over. Secondly, the heavy use of schematic diagrams throughout the text often gives the reader the illusion of reading a textbook and this may at times distract from his pleasure. Generally speaking however, The Arctic Coast is well written and attractively presented. PETER CROSKERY Ministry of Natural Resources Chapleau, Ontario park, all of which justify its reputation as a window on the natural history of the west coast. Leading off with chapters on the complex geology and ecology of the area, Nature West Coast nicely sets the stage for the descriptions and illustrations of nearly 400 species of plants and animals which follow. Illustrations are black line-drawings and while their quality varies, they generally add to the attractiveness of this book. Plants are grouped by general habitat — rocky headlands and outcrops, coniferous forest, trails and roadsides — and an excellent chart is provided showing the periods when each species of bird can be expected in the park, all of which assists naturalists exploring Lighthouse Park for the first time. There are also chapters on insects, reptiles, amphibians, marine life, and land invertebrates, aspects of natural history which are often over- looked in such guides or, at best, handled rather superficially. Nature West Coast is a naturalist’s guide to the natural history of one of Canada’s most stimulat- ing environments and as such can be commended to anyone interested in the fauna and flora of our Pacific Coast. HAROLD HOSFORD 303 Daniel Place Victoria, British Columbia 1975 OTHER Books Canadian Wildlife and Man By Anne Innis Dagg. 1974. McClelland and Stewart, Toronto. 192 pp. $10. During the past 10 years I have taught animal ecology and mammalogy at universities in two Canadian provinces. I well remember the fruitless annual search for a text that might contain even a little information on Canadian wildlife, a few Canadian examples for classes in a Canadian university. By spending many extra hours in the library I did manage to give my students some Canadian material. When Anne Dagg was asked to teach a course in wildlife at Guelph she was equally frustrated. She must have worked as hard as I did to avoid using the American examples so readily available in the texts and journals that crossed our desks. Why were we forced to do this? As Dagg remarks in the introduction to her book: “Canada has disasters, near disasters and success stories too, but they are not well known. It seemed to me that the problem of the Wildlife of Canada had not been adequately considered.” Dagg saw the problem and did something about it. “This book is an attempt to remedy this im- balance by discussing Canadian solutions to Ca- nadian problems relating to Wildlife.” The book is organized into a number of sec- tions: Historical (chapters 1, 2, and 3), deals with wildlife in Canada from immediately after the Ice Age to the coming of Europeans. Pleistocene overkill of large herbivores, role of early fire in the ecological history of Canada, relationship of early native peoples to wildlife, early exploitation (mainly bison and beaver) by Europeans are all discussed. _ Geographical (chapters 4, 5, and 6), discusses “the relationship of Wildlife with the three main geographical entities of Canada,” forests, agri- cultural land, and urban areas. There is comment on fire, lumbering practices, spraying of insecti- cides, wildlife damage to forests and to agri- cultural lands. Management is covered in chapters 7, 8, and 9. There is a chapter on big game, one on water- fowl, and one on other wildlife species (furbearers, non-game, etc.). Aims and techniques of manage- ment of these groups, as well as federal and provincial jurisdiction within each group, are discussed. Book REVIEWS 103 Following this there are single chapters on extinction, introduction, diseases, and pollution. The final two chapters offer timely comment on wildlife and man-made structures, and wildlife habitat conservation in Canada. This is an important book. It is the first book to provide a comprehensive overview of Canadian wildlife. For the most part Dagg has the Canadian wildlife scene in good perspective. She deals with most of the major problems of the day in a competent manner. And she documents her com- ments with an impressive number of references from every region in the country. Fifty-seven percent of the approximately 400 references are post-1965, 31% are 1970 or later. This large volume of literature is handled very well. There are many positive aspects to the book. The large number of Canadian references repre- sents a valuable compilation for everyone interest- ed in wildlife. Throughout the book the author identifies many problem areas requiring inten- sified, continuing, or new research programs. She is current in her thinking and recognizes the legitimate place that non-consumptive use of wildlife, and non-game wildlife, has in our time. There are many more problems. But there are some areas where criticism could be leveled; mainly by way of omissions. For example, I think that the 1971 Science Council of Canada’s Special Study Number 15 by Pimlott, Kerswill, and Bider, “Scientific Activities in Fisheries and Wildlife Resources,’ would have warranted mention. If Dagg had brought some of the findings of this report into her own book it would have strengthened her comments on aims and goals of wildlife management in Canada; goals with respect to the north, for example. This is our largest single land type and the biota there faces ever increasing hazards from human activ- ity. And while the author recognizes its signif- icance she only gives it two pages (plus other occasional brief mention) in her book. Another omission is related to hydroelectric developments and wildlife. The large-scale en- gineering works (reservoirs, long distance trans- mission lines) associated with such developments are not at all pleasant to contemplate. This could have been included in the chapter “Wildlife and Man-made Structures.” Perhaps the Quebec and Labrador developments were announced too late for inclusion in the book. 104 There are omissions in other areas. But there had to be. It must have been very difficult to select what went into this first book of Canadian wildlife. What is my overall impression of the book? First rate. In clear and uncomplicated prose, Dagg has produced an indispensable reference source for students, teachers, anyone interested in Canadian wildlife. In gathering and presenting this material she has done us all a service. She is not only a scientist, but an integrator and inter- Children of the Ark By Barbara M. Solandt. Photography by Norman R. Hatton. 1973. University of Toronto Press, To- ronto. 95 pp. $7.95. In the foreword to this marvellous book, Dr. D. A. Chant, zoologist, points out that the modern zoo is much more than a collection of wild animals on public display; the science and art of breeding zoo animals successfully have made it possible for children, old and young, to see animals in circum- stances so well suited to them that they will breed and rear their young in captivity. The author underscores the paramount importance of animal breeding in zoos for species conservation alone, when natural habitats are rapidly diminishing throughout the world by reason of human en- croachment and exploitation. The stated purpose of the book is “to show through words and pic- tures examples of the work in progress and the achievements to date in the effort to breed animals in captivity.” Certainly the informative and _ stimulating accounts regarding the young of selected zoo-bred species are greatly enhanced by the captivating photographs which accompany these accounts on facing pages. The author has skillfully informed the reader regarding the native haunts of each species, something of its habits and way of life, and has included various intimate happenings during the preparation of this volume. Each text unit ends with the complete scientific classifica- tion of the species described. An account of the life habits of bushbabies in nature and the breeding and rearing of their young in captivity under the watchful care of the author forms a delightful introduction to a series of similar short accounts of the breeding and rearing of young in more than thirty species, chiefly under conditions provided in modern zoos. Birds are THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 preter of science for all. Some material in the book is out of date already. Dagg, at present a Research Assistant Professor at the University of Waterloo will, I am sure, produce an equally competent second edition in due course. Tom H. NorTHCOTT Newfoundland Wildlife Service Building 810, Pleasantville St. John’s, Newfoundland represented by the tawny owl and the Gentoo penguin. The latter species breeds freely and rears young in the Edinburgh Zoo under conditions which, but for temperature, simulate those in their native Antarctica. Other exotic species which have adapted well to rearing their young in captivity include a Tas- manian wallaby, the African yellow baboon, Pére David’s deer from China, macaque monkeys of Asia, lechwe antelopes of Central Africa, and the chimpanzee. Various members of the cat family, lions, tigers, and leopards, are being bred and reared in captivity, and the puma of the western hemisphere has raised young at Chester Zoo in northern England. The American peccary also breeds freely when provided with a suitable environment. Species which are now being bred in zoos with some success include the Malayan tapir, the gorilla, the ring-tailed lemur, and the sea lion. Included in the book are ‘interviews’ with the young of such domesticated or semi-domes- ticated species as the llama, the camel, the elephant, the chinchilla, the bison, highland cattle, and the yak. Certainly here is a book which presents fresh aspects of the animal world, which is pleasantly informative for all ages, which illustrates the achievements in the breeding of wild animal species in captivity, and which stimulates the con- cern of the thoughtful reader for the preservation of animal species, at least in captivity, when the natural wilderness areas of the earth are rapidly disappearing. A. A. WELLWOOD Department of Biology Wilfrid Laurier University Waterloo, Ontario 1975 Alaska Fishing Guide By Editors of Alaska Magazine. 1974. Alaska North- west Publishing, Anchorage. 176 pp. $3.95 + .50 mailing. If you are going fishing in Alaska, here is a handy guide to the action. Forty-six pages gives you some idea about what kind of countryside to expect, what rates you will pay for accom- modation, how to charter aircraft and boats, and where to write for information. There is also the standard advice about the climate, the bears, and seasons, limits, and fees for angling. Then come 54 pages describing Alaska’s game fish, with some natural history notes, tips to anglers about tackle, a good assortment of photographs and some line- drawings of fishes (reprinted from the I/lustrated Keys to the Fresh-water Fishes of Alaska). The Book REVIEWS 105 last 70 pages gives the prospective angler the trophy-fish contest rules, the major fishing regions of Alaska, and a list of 557 fishing spots in Alaska, accompanied by 33 maps to help locate them. This is a good production of the usual stereo- type of fishing guide and provides full value for the $3.95 asking price. If I were going on a fishing trip to Alaska, I'd buy a copy. As a matter of fact, having read the guide, I’m tempted to make the trip. P. A. LARKIN Institute of Animal Resource Ecology University of British Columbia Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1W5 Human Behavior Aspects of Fish and Wildlife Conservation. An annotated bibliography By D. R. Potter, K. M. Sharpe, and J. C. Hendee. 1973. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-—4. Obtainable from Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Box 3141, Portland, Oregon. 288 pp. No charge. This bibliography will prove invaluable to anyone working with both fish and wildlife and with human beings simultaneously, as most wild- life managers today are trying to do. In all, 995 articles are considered by alphabetical order of the author, with the information in each described in a short paragraph. Following each paragraph are several descriptive key phrases or key words, including “falconry,” “fire,” and “France” for example, which are indexed to these and other extracts at the end of the book. As might be expected in such a compilation, the journals and sources from which the articles were taken are various — theses, state wildlife bulletins, government publications on fish, pop- ular magazines for outdoor people. The Journal of Wildlife Management is best represented, with 72 entries abstracted. A survey of the index gives a good idea of current areas of interest in wildlife and fish con- servation. The key word with the most entries is “Management,” closely followed by headings such as “Harvest statistics,” “Economics,” “Prefer- ences,” “Historical value,’ and “Fishing.” Many naturalists will be pleased to note that “Anti- hunting” appears as a key word, as well as the phrase ““Non-consumptive use” with 86 entries. Most of this book deals with American prob- lems and situations, but 26 articles deal specific- ally with Canada and most of the others are pertinent to Canadians and their wildlife. A number of Canadians are listed in the Author Index, but few authors of any nationality have more than one or two entries each. Anyone working with fish and wildlife or desiring an overview of current research in prob- lems related to such matters should obtain this worthwhile volume. ANNE INNIS DAGG Otter Press Box 747 Waterloo, Ontario 106 New TITrLes Zoology Animal agriculture. The biology of domestic animals and their use by man. 1974. Edited by H. H. Cole and M. Ronning. Freeman, San Francisco. 788 pp. $15. Animals and their colors. Camouflage, warning col- oration, courtship and territorial display, mimicry. 1974. By M. and P. Fogden. Crown, New York. 172 pp. $9.95. Biology of the Reptilia. Vol. 4, Morphology. 1974. Edited by D. C. Gans and T. S. Parsons. Academic Press, New York. 540 pp. $39.50. *Birds of the Oshawa—Lake Scugog Region, Ontario. 1974. By R. G. Tozer and M. Richards. Private printing, Box 28, Whitney, Ontario. 384 pp. $7.50. Birds of the world. A check list. 1974. By J. F. Clements. Two Continents Publishing Group, New York. 524 pp. $15. Canaries on the clothesline. 1974. By B. McKeever. Gray’s Publishing, Sidney, B.C. 104 pp. $6.50. The co-operative breeding bird survey in Canada, 1973. 1974. By A. J. Erskine. Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa. 15 pp. Free. “The countryman bird book. 1974. Edited by B. and M. Campbell. Douglas, David and Charles, Newton Abbot, England. 194 pp. $10.50. The crayfish. An introduction to the study of zoology. 1974. By T. H. Huxley. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. 373 pp. $12.50. Reprint of the 1880 edition. *Ecology of pomarine, parasitic, and long-tailed jaegers in northern Alaska. 1974. By W. J. Maher. Cooper Ornithological Society, Los Angeles, Calif. 148 pp. $3.75. A field guide to Pacific Coast shells. Including shells of Hawaii and the Gulf of California. 1974. By P. A. Morris. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 2nd edition. 298 pp. $3.95. A field guide to the insects of America north of Mexico. 1974. By D. J. Borror and R. E. White. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 404 pp. $4.95. Reprint of the 1970 edition. Fisheries of the north Pacific. History, species, gear and processes. 1974. By R. J. Browning. Alaska Northwest Publishing Co., Anchorage, Alaska. 408 pp. $24.95. Fishes of the Red River drainage. Eastern Kentucky. 1974, By B. A. Branson and D. L. Batch. University Press of Kentucky, Lexington. 68 pp. $4. THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 Fish-watching and photography. 1974. By K. Mc- Donald and six others. Scribner, New York. 270 pp. $10. *A guide to Alberta vertebrate fossils from the age of dinosaurs. 1974. By H. Johnson and J. E. Storer. Provincial Museum of Alberta, Edmonton. Publica- tion 4. 127 pp. $5.70. ‘Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. To- gether with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. Vol. 9, Robins to wagtails. 1974. S. Ali and S. D. Ripley. Oxford University Press, New York. 306 pp. $17.25. Insects. Instructions for collectors. No. 4a. 1974. British Museum of Natural History, London. 5th edition. 170 pp. Paper £1.50. Insects and other arthropods of medical importance. 1973. Edited by K. G. V. Smith. British Museum of Natural History, London. 562 pp. £6.50. Living clocks in the animal world. 1974. By M. F. Bennett. Thomas, Springfield, Ill. 222 pp. $11.75. The mammals of Louisiana and its adjacent waters. 1974. By G. H. Lowery, Jr. Louisiana State Uni- versity Press, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. 566 pp. $15. Marine molluscan genera of western North America. An illustrated key. 1974. By A. M. Keen and E. Coan. Stanford University Press, Stanford, Calif. 2nd edition. 208 pp. $8.75. Marine zoogeography. 1974. By J. C. Briggs. McGraw- Hill, New York. 476 pp. $25. Master builders of the animal world. 1974. By D. Hancocks. Harper and Row, New York. 144 pp. $8.95. Northern fishes. With special reference to the upper Mississippi Valley. 1974. By S. Eddy and J. C. Under- hill. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis. 3rd edition. 414 pp. $17.50. — Notes on the animals of North America (1793). 1974. By B. S. Barton. Edited by K. B. Sterling. Arno Press, New York. $8. Our wildlife legacy. 1974. By D. L. Allen. Funk and Wagnalls, New York. 2nd edition. 422 pp. $3.95. Owls. 1974. By T. Angell. University of Washington. Press, Seattle. 80 pp. $12.95. The porpoise watcher. 1974. By K. S. Norris. Norton, New York. 250 pp. $7.95. Les proies des rapates. Petits mammiféres et leur en- vironnement. 1974. By J. Chaline, H. Baudvin, D. Jammot, and M.-C. Saint Girons. Doin, Paris. 142 pp. Paper, 45F. 1975 The shell makers. Introducing mollusks. 1974. By A. Solem. Wiley-Interscience, New York. 290 pp. $9.95. The social behavior of the bees. A comparative study. 1974. By C. D. Michener. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 402 pp. $25. The social primates. 1974. By P. E. Simonds. Harper and Row, New York. 258 pp. Paper, $7.95. *Song of the north wind. A story of the snow goose. 1974. By. P. A. Johnsard. Anchor Press/Doubleday, New York. 150 pp. $5.95. A voice for wildlife. 1974. By V. B. Scheffer. Scrib- ner, New York. 246 pp. $8.95. The world’s cats. Vol. 2. Biology, behavior and man- agement of reproduction. 1974. Proceedings of a symposium, Winston, Oregon, May 1973. Edited by R. L. Eaton. Feline Research Group, Woodland Park Zoo, Seattle, Wash. 260 pp. Paper, $12.50. Botany *The Alaska-Yukon wild flowers guide. 1974. Edited by H. A. White. Alaska Northwest Publishing Co., Anchorage. 218 pp. Paper, $7.95. *The algal bowl. Lakes and man. 1974. By J. R. Vallentyne. Environment Canada, Fisheries and Marine Service, Ottawa. 186 pp. $3. Aquatic plants of Australia. 1973. By H. I. Aston. Melbourne University Press, Carlton, Victoria. 368 pp. $34.65. Biology of plant decomposition. 1974. Edited by C. H. Dickinson and G. J. F. Pugh. Academic Press, London and New York. Vol. 1, 332 pp. $18. Vol. 2, 622 pp. $27.25. The biology of the algae. 1974. By F. E. Round. St. Martin, New York. 2nd edition. 278 pp. Cloth, $19.95; paper, $8.95. Canada — a forest nation. 1973. Environment Can- ada. Enquiry Centre, Ottawa. Pamphlet. *Carnivorous plants. 1974. By R. Schwartz. Praeger Publishers, New York and Washington. 128 pp. $8. Death Valley wildflowers. 1974. By R. S. Ferris. Death Valley Natural History Assoc., Death Valley, Calif. 2nd edition. 150 pp. $2.45. A dictionary of plants used by man. 1974. By G. Usher. Constable, London. 619 pp. *A dictionary of useful and everyday plants and their common names. 1974, By F. N. Howes. Cambridge University Press, New York. 290 pp. $12.50. Evolution and design in the plant kingdom. 1974. By C. L. Duddington. Apollo Editions (Crowell), New York. 260 pp. $2.95. Book REVIEWS 107 A field guide to Rocky Mountain wildflowers from northern Arizona and New Mexico to British Co- lumbia. 1974. By J. J. Craighead. F. C. Craighead, and R. J. Davis. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 278 pp. $3.95. Reprint of the 1963 edition. A field guide to wildflowers of northeastern and north-central North America. 1974. By R. T. Peter- son and M. McKenny. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. 420 pp. $3.95. Reprint of the 1968 edition. The figwort family (Scrophulariaceae) of British Columbia. 1974. By T. M. C. Taylor. British Co- lumbia Provincial Museum, Victoria. Handbook No. 33. 238 pp. $1. 500 plants of south Florida. 1974. By J. F. Morton. Seemann, Miami, Florida. 164 pp. $9.95. *Forestry in Newfoundland. 1974. By G. Page, W. C. Wilton, and T. Thomas. Environment Canada, Newfoundland Forest Research Centre, P.O. Box 6028, St. John’s, Newfoundland. 118 pp. The geography of the flowering plants. 1974. By R. Good. Longman, London. 4th edition. 558 pp. £9. Handbook of vegetation science. Part 8, Vegetation dynamics. 1974. Edited by R. Knapp. Junk, The Hague. 364 pp. Dfl. 80. How to know the non-gilled fleshy fungi. 1973. By H. V. Smith and A. H. Smith. Wm. C. Brown, Dubuque, Iowa. 394 pp. Leaf prints of American trees and shrubs. 1974. By D. S. Marx and C. B. Dugdale. Littlefield, Adams, Totowa, New Jersey. 290 pp. $4.95. The lichenologist. 1974. Edited by P. W. James and D. L. Hawksworth. Academic Press, London. $16 plus $1 postage. Mycolegist’s handbook. 1974. By D. L. Hawksworth. Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew, Surrey, England. £5.50. Nebraska wild flowers. 1973. By R. C. Lommasson. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska. 175 pp. The orchids. 1974. Edited by C. L. Withner. Wiley- Interscience, New York. 604 pp. $22.50. The pea family (Leguminoseae) of British Columbia. 1974. By T. M. C. Taylor. British Columbia Provin- cial Museum, Victoria, Handbook No. 32. 252 pp. $1. *Rocky Mountain wild flowers. 1974. By A. E. Porsild. National Museums of Canada and Parks Canada, Ottawa. 454 pp. In French and English. The rose family (Rosaceae) of British Columbia. 1973. By T. M. C. Taylor. British Columbia Provincial Museum, Victoria, Handbook No. 30. 223 pp. $1. 108 Should trees have standing? Toward legal rights for natural objects. 1974. By C. D. Stone. Kaufman, Los Altos, California. 102 pp. Cloth, $6.95; paper, $2.95. The trees and shrubs of British Columbia. 1973. By E. H. Garman. British Columbia Provincial Museum, Victoria, Handbook No. 31. 5th revised edition. 131 pp. $1. *Wild flowers of field and slope in the Pacific north- west; Wild flowers of forest and woodland in the Pacific northwest. 1974. By L. J. Clark. Gray’s Pub- lishing, Sidney, B.C. 80 pp. each. $2.95 each. *Woody plants of the north central plains. 1974. By H. A. Stephens. University Press of Kansas, Law- rence, Kansas. 530 pp. $20. Environment Arctic and alpine environments. 1974. Edited by J. D. Ives and R. G. Barry. Methuen, London. 980 pp. £28. *The changing flora and fauna of Britain. 1974. Edited by D. L. Hawksworth. Academic Press, New York. 462 pp. $23.75. Coastal ecosystems. Ecological considerations for man- agement of the coastal zone. 1974. By J. Clark. The Conservation Foundation, Washington, D. C. 178 pp. Cloth $7.95; paper, $4. Environment Information Referral Centre. 1974. In- terpretive materials on the environment and renew- able resources. Includes 699 items, all indexed and cross-referenced. Environment Canada, Ottawa. 67 Pp. *Fragile ecosystems. A report of the Institute of Ecology. Evaluation of research and applications in the neotropics. 1974. Springer-Verlag, New York. 258 pp. $7.80. Freshwater ecology. 1974. By T. T. Macan. Longman Group, London and Halsted (Wiley), New York. 2nd edition. 344 pp. $10.95. *Freshwater pollution, Canadian style. 1974. By P. A. Larkin. McGill-Queen’s University Press, Montreal. 132 pp. $2.50. The great barrier reef. 1974. By I. Bennett. Scribner, New York. 184 pp. $17.50. Reprint of the 1971 edition. *TLand use and resource development in the eastern slopes. Report and recommendations. 1974. Environ- ment Conservation Authority, Edmonton, Alberta. 224 pp. Man’s mark on the land. The changing environment. 1974. By A. S. Gregor. Scribner, New York. 120 pp. $5.95. THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST Vol. 89 Man’s responsibility for nature. Ecological problems — and western traditions. 1974. By J. Passmore. Scrib- ner, New York. 214 pp. $7.95. *Natural history in the National Capital Region. A bibliography. 1974. By A. F. Muhammad and E. Jorgensen. Department of the Environment, Cana- dian Forestry Service, Ottawa. 97 pp. The outer lands. A natural history guide to Cape Cod, Martha’s Vineyard, Nantucket, Block Island and Long Island. 1974. By D. Sterling. Anchor/ Doubleday, New York. 192 pp. $3.50. *Polar deserts and modern man. 1974. Edited by T. L. Smiley and J. H. Zumberge. University of Ar- izona Press, Tucson. 173 pp. $11.50. Power lines and the environment. 1973. Proceedings of a meeting, Amherst, Mass. Edited by R. Good- land. Cary Arboretum of the New York Botanical Gardens, Millbrook, N.Y. 172 pp. $5. The singing land. 22 natural environments of Aus- tralia from surging ocean to arid desert. 1974. By V. Serventy. Scribner, New York. 96 pp. $6.95. A tourist guide to Mount McKinley. 1974. By B. Washburn. Alaska Northwest Publishing Co., An- chorage. $3.95. Also Topographic map of Mount McKinley, $4.50. *Vegetation and environment in the Central Research Forest, Ottawa Greenbelt. 1974. By J. K. Jeglum, M. J. J. Bik, and J. Salm. Department of the En- vironment, Canadian Forestry Service, Great Lakes Forest Research Centre, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. 70 pp. Water and landscape — an aesthetic overview of the role of water in the landscape. 1974. By R. B. Litton, Jr., R. J. Tetlow, J. Sorensen, and R. A. Beatty. Water Information Center, Dept. R, 44 Sintsink Dr. E., Port Washington, New York. 314 pp. $11.50. Water policies for the future. Final report to the Pres- ident and to the Congress of the United States by the National Water Commission. 1973. Water In- formation Center, Port Washington, New York. 580 pp. $17.50. Water pollution. 1974. By J. McCaull and J. Cross- land. Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, New York. 206 pp. $3.95. Miscellaneous Canada. A geographical perspective. 1974. By L.-E. Hamelin. Translated from the French edition (Paris, 1969). Wiley, New York. 234 pp. $7.95. *Canadian public land use in perspective. Proceed- ings of a symposium, Oct. 1973, Ottawa. 1974. Edited by J. G. Nelson, R. C. Scace, and R. Kouri. Social Science Research Council of Canada, Ottawa. 579 pp. 1975 The comedy of survival. Studies in literary ecology. 1974. By J. W. Meeker. Scribner, New York. 218 pp. $8.95. Conservation activities. 1973. Environment Canada, Enquiry Centre, Ottawa, Ontario. 28 pp. Field trips and projects involving trees. *Conservation by the people. The history of the con- servation movement in Ontario to 1970. 1974. By A. H. Richardson. University of Toronto Press, Toronto. 154 pp. $8.50. The ethics of genetic control. Ending reproduction roulette. 1974. By J. Fletcher. Anchor/Doubleday, New York. 218 pp. $1.95. The food and people dilemma. By G. Borgstrom. 1973. Duxbury Press, North Scituate, Mass. 140 pp. $3.95. In the human interest. A strategy to stabilize world population. 1974. By L. R. Brown. Norton, New York. 190 pp. $6.95. Last of the naturalists. The career of C. Hart Mer- riam. 1974. By K. B. Sterling. Arno Press, New York. $23. Book REVIEWS 109 *Low man on a gill-netter. 1974. By J. P. Tracy. Alaska Northwest Publishing Co., Anchorage. 147 pp. $3.95. Much is taken, much remains. 1973. By R. Bryan. Duxbury Press, North Scituate, Mass. 325 pp. The next ten thousand years. A vision of man’s future in the universe. 1974. By A. Berry. Saturday Review Press (Dutton), New York. 250 pp. $8.95. The poisons around us. Toxic metals in food, air, and water. 1974. By H. A. Schroeder. Indiana Uni- versity Press, Bloomington, Indiana. 144 pp. $6.95. Superspill. An account of the 1978 grounding at Bird Rocks. 1974. By M. K. Becker and P. Coburn. Madrona Press, Seattle, Washington. 162 pp. $3.95. *To the arctic by canoe, 1819-1821. The journal and paintings of Robert Hood, midshipman with Frank- lin. 1974. Edited by C. S. Houston. McGill-Queen’s University Press, Montreal. 217 pp. $17.50. *Assigned for review. Instructions to Contributors Manuscripts Authors should submit three complete manu- scripts with two copies of figures (in addition to the originals) for use by referees. Manuscripts are accepted in either English or French. They should be typewritten on paper measuring 82 X 11 inches, and if possible, the paper should have numbered lines. Margins should be 1 to 14 inches wide to allow for copy marking. All text matter, including quotations, footnotes, tables, literature citations and captions for figures should be double-spaced. Only words meant to appear in italics should be underlined. Every sheet of the manuscript should be numbered. In no case should words be abbre- viated; this includes references to tables and fig- ures as well as literature citations. Authors are requested, however, to use SI symbols for units of measure. It is strongly recommended that, before sub- mitting a paper, authors ask qualified persons to appraise it. An abstract is required for all Articles but is optional for Notes. Authors are requested to use at least one given name. Literature cited should be listed alphabetically according to author and should be placed immediately after the main body of the text, except in Letters to the Editor. If only one or two references are cited, they should be inserted in the text. The tables should be titled and numbered consecutively in arabic numerals, and each should be placed on a separate page after the Literature Cited. Captions for figures should be typed together on one page. The places in the text for tables and figures should be marked in the margin. Extensive tabular or other supplementary ma- terial not essential to the text should be submitted on letter size paper (83” xX 11”) for the Editor to place in the Depository of Unpublished Data, National Science Library, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Canada K1A 082. A notation in the published text should state that the material is available, at a nominal charge, from the Depository. Two copies are required for the Depository. The CBE Style Manual, third edition (1972), published for the Council of Biology Editors, Committee on Form and Style, by the American Institute of Biological Sciences, is recommended as a guide to contributors. Webster’s New International Dictionary is the authority for spelling. In a case, however, of dif- ference in the spelling of a common name, and in the use of a variant name, a decision of a learned society is preferred. The order in which papers are published will be determined by the Editor. Illustrations All illustrations should be numbered consec- utively in arabic numerals. The author’s name, title of the paper, and figure number should be written in the lower left corner of the sheet on which each illustration appears. The caption should not appear on the illustration. Line drawings should be made with India ink on white, good quality drawing paper, blue tracing linen, or good quality blue-lined co-ordinate paper. Co-ordinate lines that are to appear on the repro- duction should be ruled in black ink. Descriptive matter should be lettered, not typewritten, and all parts of the drawing should permit easy legibility even if a reduction is made. Photographic repro- ductions of line drawings are acceptable in lieu of large originals. Photographs should have a glossy finish and show sharp contrasts. For reproduction as a com- plete plate they should be mounted with minimal space between prints. For large drawings and mounted photographs the ratio of height to width should conform to that of the printed journal page (ratio of 45 up to 35 across) or roughly 73 X 5% inches, but the height should be adjusted to allow for the cap- tion if the caption is to go on the same page. Special Charges Authors must share in the cost of publication by paying $40.00 for each page in excess of six journal pages. Page charges are separate from charges for illustrations and tables. Authors will also be charged for excessive changes in proofs. Illustrations cost $5.00 each for any size (up to a full page). Tables. cost up to $40.00 per page, depending upon size. The special charges for il- lustrations and tables are in addition to all charges that are levied for pages in excess of six. Repro- duction of color photos is extremely expensive and the full cost must be borne by authors. Price quo- tations may be obtained from the Business Manager. Limited journal funds are available to help off- set publication charges to authors with minimal financial resources. Requests for financial assis- tance should be made to the Editor when the manuscript is submitted. Reprints An order form for the purchase of reprints will accompany the galley proofs sent to authors. TABLE OF CONTENTS (concluded) Notes (continued) Sight record of a western skink on Vancouver Island MarTIN K. MCNICHOLL New records of amphibians and garter snakes in the James Bay area of Quebec Ross D. MacCuLtocn and J. RoGER BIDER News and Comment Book Reviews Zoology: The moths of America north of Mexico — Illustrated keys to the fresh-water fishes of Alaska — Animals of Manitoba — Butterflies of Saskatchewan — Calf mortality on the calving ground of Kaminuriak caribou during 1970—Shallow-water gammaridean Amphipoda of New England — Grzimek’s animal life encyclopedia — Atlas of animal migration — Pacific fishes of Canada Botany: Researches in plant physiology. A laboratory manual—Woody Plants of the north central plains Environment: The algal bowl: lakes and man—Schoolyard and beyond — Natural regions of the United States and Canada—Bird damage to fruit crops in the Niagara Peninsula — Terrain, vegetation and permafrost reiationships, northern Mackenzie Valley and Yukon—The unknown island — Environment and man-— Wilderness survival: a complete handbook and guide for sur- vival in the North American wilds—The Arctic coast — Nature west coast Other Books: Canadian wildlife and man—Children of the ark — Alaska fishing guide -Human be- havior aspects of fish and wildlife conservation. An annotated bibliography New Titles Mailing date of previous issue 17 February 1975 Erratum ie) 80 83 87 94 95 103 106 1973. Canadian Field-Naturalist 87(2): 169. Observation of a Greater Scaup at Ellice River, North- west Territories, by Robert G. Bromley The longitude given in the left hand column tenth line from the bottom as 140°42’ W should read 104°42’ W. TABLE OF CONTENTS Editorial Looking ahead LORRAINE C. SMITH and DONALD A. SMITH Articles Floristic analysis of the Missouri River bottomland forests in North Dakota WARREN R. KEAMMERER, W. CARTER JOHNSON, and ROBERT L. BURGESS Effects of agricultural burning on nesting waterfowl ERIK K. FRITZELL Comments on the distribution and natural history of some mammals in Minnesota LAWRENCE R. HEANEY and ELMER C. BIRNEY Behaviour of a young Bald Eagle at a southern Ontario nest FLORENCE M. WEEKES Comparative concentrations of twelve elements in substrates and leaves of Scirpus validus and other aquatic plants species in a sewage lagoon and in unpolluted habitats ERNEST SMALL and JOHN D. GAYNOR Preliminary study of seasonal moose movements in Laurentides Provincial Park, Quebec YvON E. ROUSSEL, EMILE AUDy and FRANCOIS POTVIN Notes Harmful effects of small mammal populations on a tree plantation in southern Ontario ANDREW RADVANYI Notes on the distribution and habitat of amphibians and turtles in northwestern Quebec FREDERICK W. SCHUELER and ALETA R. KARSTAD Nest site availability as a factor limiting population size of swallows GEOFFREY L. HOLROYD Common Redpolls nesting at Edmonton, Alberta ROBERT LISTER An unusual association of damselfly naiads with fish carcasses MICHAEL D. CLADY The fern genus Woodsia in Manitoba WILLIAM J. Gone and J. DONALD LAFONTAINE Scheuchzeria palustris L. (Scheuchzeriaceae) in northwestern North America WILLIAM J. Copy Possible intra-specific killing by a Great Gray Owl Bos M. FISHER Intergeneric grouse hybrids (Bonasa x Canachites) R. W. TurFtTs The Sandhill Crane in Quebec HENRI OQUELLET and ANDRE BOURGET An additional record of the Fulvous Tree Duck in Quebec HENRI OUELLET Carex illota L. H. Bailey in Alberta GEORGE W. SCOTTER and JOHN J. HUDSON Tree nesting sites and a breeding range extension of Brewer’s Blackbird in the Great Lakes region PuHitiep H. R. STEPNEY Glaucous-winged Gull predation on feral Rock Doves JoRMA A. JYRKKANEN The feral house cat as a predator of varying hares Don GILL 41 47 concluded on inside back cover THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST published by The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club Box 3264, Postal Station C, Ottawa, Canada K1Y 4J5 Second Class Mail Registration No. 0527 — Return postage guaranteed ISSN 0008-3550 The CANADIAN IELD-NATURALIST MUS. C Published by THE OTTAWA FIELD-NATURALIS4® GLUB- Ottawa, Canada JUN 40 1975 HARVARD WNIVERSITY < Volume 89, Number 2 April-June 1975 The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club FOUNDED IN 1879 Patrons Their Excellencies the Governor General and Madame Jules Léger The objectives of this Club shall be to promote the appreciation, preservation, and conservation of Canada’s natural heritage; to encourage investigation and publish the results of research in all fields of natural history and to diffuse information on these fields as widely as possible; to support and co-operate with organizations engaged in preserving, maintaining, or restoring environments of high quality for living things. Members of Council* President: Ewen C. D. Todd W. J. Cody Loren Padelford 3 : J. E. Dafoe Allan H. Reddoch Vice President: Roger A. Foxall cea Sag ay Aer mie A. W. Dugal Joyce M. Reddoch Recording Secretary: A. J. Erskine Erich Haber Arnet Sheppard F J. Donald Lafontaine Roger Taylor C ding Secretary: C.G. Gruch a ae ies teh a Sages H. N. MacKenzie C. G. van Zyll de Jong Treasurer: Pamela J. Sims P. J. Narraway Florence Weekes Past President: Irwin M. Brodo Gerald Oyen H. Williamson *This Council is in office until the Annual Business Meeting in January 1976. Correspondence: Address to The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club, Box 3264, Postal Station C, Ottawa, Canada K1Y 4J5 The Canadian Field-Naturalist The Canadian Field-Naturalist is published quarterly by The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club with the as- sistance of contributions from the National Research Council of Canada and The Canadian National Sports- men’s Show. Opinions and ideas expressed in this journal are private and do not necessarily reflect those of The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club or any other agency. Editor: Lorraine C: Smith Assistant to the Editor: Donald A. Smith Book Review Editor: Anne Innis Dagg Associate Editors C. D. Bird W. Earl Godfrey W. O. Pruitt, Jr. E. L. Bousfield Charles Jonkel John S. Rowe Francis R. Cook J. Anthony Keith Stephen M. Smith A. J. Erskine G. Herbert Lawler Robert E. Wrigley Copy Editor: Marilyn D. Dadswell Business Manager: W. J. Cody Production Manager: J. E. Dafoe Box 3264, Postai Station C Chairman, Publications Committee: C.G. van Zyll de Jong Ottawa, Canada K1Y 4J5 Subscriptions and Membership Subscription rates for individuals are $7.00 per calendar year. Libraries and other institutions may subscribe at the rate of $12.00 per year (volume). The annual membership fee of $7.00 includes club publications. Subscriptions, applications for membership, notices of changes of address, and undeliverable copies should be mailed to: The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club, Box 3264, Postal Station C, Ottawa, Canada K1Y 4J5. Back Numbers Most back numbers of this journal and its predecessors, Transactions of The Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club, 1879-1886, and The Ottawa Naturalist, 1887-1919, may be purchased from the Business Manager. All material intended for publication should be addressed to the Editor: Dr. Lorraine C. Smith, Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6 Cover photograph: Gannets at Bonaventure Island, Quebec. Photograph taken 29 July 1974 by Philip S. Taylor. See article on Gannet population decline on page 125. The Canadian Pi Natiralist: VOLUME 89, NUMBER 2 APRIL-JUNE 1975 Migratory and Foraging Behavior of Peregrine Falcons on the Texas Coast W. GRAINGER HUNT, RALPH R. ROGERS, AND DANIEL J. SLOWE Chihuahuan Desert Research Institute, 800 North Bird Street, Alpine, Texas 79830 Hunt, W. G., R. R. Rogers, and D. J. Slowe. 1975. Migratory and foraging behavior of Peregrine Falcons on the Texas coast. Canadian Field-Naturalist 89(2): 111-123. Abstract. Observations of fall migrations of Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) on the Texas coast between 1956 and 1973 (a total of 1477 birds were seen) reveal chronological differences in the occurrence of peak numbers of adults versus immatures and males versus females. Hunting strategies and prey are discussed. The beach environment is noted to be a place where both water-birds and land-birds are especially vulnerable to peregrine attacks and is regarded as similar to conditions in the nesting habitat of F. p. tundrius. Introduction Large numbers of Peregrine Falcons are seen on the Texas coast during the month of October, and are represented by Falco pere- grinus tundrius (White 1968) and other darker forms presumably from the forests of north- ern Canada and Alaska. The occurrence of peregrines on the coast was noted as early as 1890 (Griscom and Crosby 1925), but the discovery in about 1950 of an intense fall migration in Texas, its association with beaches, and its inclusion of peregrines of far northern origin is attributable to the late Colonel R. L. Meredith. Except for two short accounts by Enderson (1965, 1969) based on seven days of observation during October of 1964, no study of the Texas peregrine migration has been published. In this paper we provide information on the details of the chronology of the migration, age and sex ratios, banding data, and predatory activities of peregrines on Texas beaches. Habitat Padre Island is typical of the habitat of migrant peregrines in Texas. It is approximately 115 miles in length, and is less than 1 mile wide in many places. A narrow bay, the Laguna Madre, separates it from the mainland. The island’s geological origin dates back some 4500 years with the establishment of a constant sea-level (Bernard and LeBlanc 1965). The interior of the island is a grassland dominated by seacoast bluestem (Schizachyrium scopa- rium), salt meadow cordgrass (Spartina pa- tens), seashore dropseed (Sporobolus virgini- cus), and gulf-dune paspalum (Paspalum monostachyum) (Woodard et al. 1971). As one moves west across the island from the Gulf to the Laguna Madre, four physiographic features are encountered: (1) beach, (2) gulf- side dune formation, (3) mud-grassland flats, and (4) lagoon-side dune formation. There are a number of large flats devoid of vegetation every few miles along the length of the island where dune formation has been destroyed by storm surges. Observations of peregrines are especially easy to make in these locations be- cause of increased visibility and perhaps be- cause peregrines prefer these vast open areas. Methods Observational and trapping data for our study are derived from numerous visits to the Texas coast in the area between Galveston and Brownsville during the period 1956 — 1973. For comparison (see Figure 1), we have divided our observation area into three parts: (1) the “northern beaches,” from Freeport through Matagorda Peninsula, (2) North Padre Island, from Port Aransas to “Little Shell,” and (3) South Padre Island, from Mansfield Chan- nel to Port Isabel. The numbers of observation HILAL 112 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST VOL. 89 Northern Beaches MATAGORDA ae PENINSULA y Q f PORT ARANSAS sh ae SHELL” | | \ \ \ \ \ \ MANSFIELD CHANNEL Z - \ North Padre Island GULF OF MEXICO pale South Padre Island 4 L MEXICO (Bfownk ville FicureE 1. days during fall migrations for each year in the three areas are summarized in Table 1. During all years (fall only), 310 peregrines were seen on the northern beaches, 321 on North Padre Island, and 829 on South Padre Island. An Map of Texas coast showing the locations of the three observation areas. additional 17 birds were observed elsewhere in Texas during the fall migration period and 36 peregrines were sighted during the winter months. In all, our records contain 1513 pere- grine sightings, of which 1014 were made by 1975 HUNT ET AL.: PEREGRINE FALCONS ON THE TEXAS COAST Sis) TABLE 1—Number of observation days (fall migration only) for three areas of the Texas coast during the period 1956-1973 Area Re ne NG: oi ale NE eR Oe No a en Northern beaches 10 Dy Bure. | North Padre Island South Padre Island 16 25 10 14 15 1 Yearly totals: 16 25 20 14 17 10 7 Grand total the authors, 446 by R. L. Meredith, and 63 by B. Watson and others elsewhere acknowl- edged. Our procedures and experiences in finding and trapping peregrines are similar to those described by Enderson (1965) and by Ward and Berry (1972) except that our observations have been restricted to the morning hours only, from dawn until about 1300 hours. Briefly, our technique has been to drive along the Gulf (East) shores of the various beaches at- tempting to catch each falcon seen. Each day’s observation was made from one vehicle in which there were usually two people. On South Padre Island each day’s sampling involved driving north to Mansfield Channel, and back to the starting point at South Padre Island settlement, adjacent to Port Isabel. On North Padre Island, Slowe would enter the island at Corpus Christi, drive to “Little Shell,” then to the portion adjacent to Aransas Pass, then back (still on the beach) to Corpus Christi. The shorter beaches, in the “northern beach- es” area, were traveled more than once during a morning. Overall numbers of sightings were pooled for the entire morning periods (both to and from the starting points); little attention was paid to the possibility of duplicate sight- ings except for the elimination of the obvious ones. For calculations which compare daily and yearly numbers of sightings we have deleted 22 days on which observations were made from a fixed location or when the observation time did not span the entire morning or did include the afternoon, or when exceptionally high tides or other adverse conditions prevented the observers from traveling the major portion Area Years totals t+ ww \O | ad co On i=) = nN ioe) Be Boge Sek G5 tan 11 5 Dime Sea: SI) IS) AO YG Wy IO 4b BS 121 % il4) 2 1 SOOO 7 138 Dil A) BS WG MO Ws 1172 I 17/—7/ 314 days of the beach. We argue that the remaining days are grossly comparable within each beach area in terms of sampling effort. One source of bias arises from the fact that during the time one spends attempting to trap a bird, observations of others are not being made. Trapping and banding time per bird varies greatly while the likelihood of observing peregrines is not constant through the morning hours. The numbers of other vehicles driving on the beach, which increase on weekends, probably affect the numbers of peregrines seen, as does wind direction and other weather factors discussed later. A complete listing of peregrine banding and recovery data processed through 31 August 1973 was obtained from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Observations of Peregrines Although peregrines may be present on the beach at first light (Enderson 1965), our ex- perience has been that they do not appear in numbers until about an hour after dawn. About 79% of a sample of 249 birds (1968-1972) seen between 0700 hours and 1300 hours were observed after 0800 hours and before 1100 hours. The most productive hour was 0900 to 1000 hours. White (1969) has made similar observations of migrants in Alaska. Individual peregrines are sometimes, though rarely, seen on the beach early in September. W. D. Stine (personal communication) records seeing an adult on 1 September. Slowe took 13 trips over several years on North Padre Island between 11 and 21 September, but saw no peregrines. Our conception of the period of the migra- 114 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST VoL. 89 8 Northern Beaches 6 4 2 0 4 2 0 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 11 2.2 2iGe SIO 4A 8. al 2 eal called Ne 21 25 29 3 1. Sr 23 SEPT. OCT. NOV. FIGURE 2. Average numbers of peregrines seen per day in the three study areas from 11 September through 8 November (data pooled for all years). The numbers of observation days are indicated for each period. 1975 tion is given in Figure 2, which shows the average numbers of peregrines seen per day on each of the three observation areas from 11 September through 8 November for all years. The relatively low numbers of birds seen on North Padre Island is probably a function of the greater amount of human disturbance and development there and because the island is much wider in the north. The large peak during 24-27 October on South Padre Island is un- explainable at present, but 3 of the 4 days of observation are from one year. The timing of the peregrine migration in Texas appears to be about the same as on Assateague Island, Maryland (Ward and Berry 1972) and Hawk Mountain, Pennsylvania (Haugh 1972). In some years, such as 1957, 1965, and 1966, birds have arrived in numbers during the last week in September, but in other years (e.g., 1959, 1962, 1968) no falcons were seen until 4 October despite prior searching. It is of interest to know whether the numbers of peregrines visiting the Texas coast have de- clined during the period for which we have data. Certainly this might be expected in view of the many declines elsewhere during the past 25 years. Rogers and Hunt (1975) compared the average numbers of peregrines seen per day from 1959 through 1965 with a later period, 1969 through 1972. They found, as did Ward and Berry (1972) for the East Coast migration, that no change had occurred, nor was there a change in adult-to-immature ratios. Ward and Berry did report a reduction in cur- rent numbers when compared to other re- searchers’ data from the 1940s, but for the Texas migration there is no information avail- able for such a comparison. For the purpose of evaluating yearly dif- ferences in the abundance of peregrines ob- served, we have compared each year’s average number of sightings (1-15 October) from each observation area with the all-year mean for that area. Our results suggest that 1961, 1968, 1971, and 1973 were good years, while 1964 and 1969 were particularly poor years for peregrines. Haugh (1972) has recently discussed the effects of weather on the movements of migra- ting diurnal raptors in eastern North America. HUNT ET AL.: PEREGRINE FALCONS ON THE TEXAS COAST Jl) To investigate the effects of weather on the Texas peregrine migration, we assembled daily averages in temperature, wind speed, wind direction, and cloud cover from the nearest U.S. weather station to our points of observa- tion. We then compared these variables with the numbers of falcons seen per day. Our results were similar to those of the East Coast studies of Ward and Berry (1972). More falcons were seen on days of heavy cloud cover, low wind speed, and low temperatures. Figure 3 shows the effect of wind direction on daily numbers of October sightings on South Padre Island for all years. The fewest numbers of peregrines were seen when the wind blew from the south and east. On South Padre Island in 1971, Rogers observed a number of pere- grines which seemed to be migrating im- mediately ahead of a squall line (cold front). On the northern beaches, peregrine numbers are highest about two days before the arrival of cold fronts (Hunt 1966). There is the possibility that during certain kinds of weather the numbers of sightings re- corded may not indicate the actual numbers of birds present in the area. The observation of falcons depends on their movement to the east side of the island, and weather conditions which discourage them from doing so must result in erroneously low counts. In 1969, for example, we experienced very strong daily SSE winds which blew sand along the gulf side of the beach. We saw very few falcons during this period, but they might have been present on the bay side of the island, protected from the wind and impossible to observe. Age Classes Peregrines under and over one year of age are easily distinguished. The young-of-the-year are recognized by their vertically streaked, brownish breast plumage and, assuming an Arctic origin (see section Origin of Migrants), they are about 3 months old when they arrive in Texas (see Cade 1960 for hatching dates). Birds about 15 months old, on their second migration, or those which are older, are readily identified at a distance by the familiar horizon- tal black bars on light breasts, and their backs of blue or black. In this paper, the term “adult” will refer to any peregrine in barred plumage, 116 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST VoL. 89 FIGURE 3. and will, as a rule, apply only to adult females, unless otherwise stated, since adult males are only occasionally identified on the Texas beaches and have never, to our knowledge, been trapped there. The transformation in plumage begins 1 year after hatching, and the entire molt takes S The effect of wind direction on peregrine numbers on South Padre Island during October for all years. The lengths of the wind direction lines are proportional to the average numbers of falcons seen per day, and the numbers indicate the numbers of observation days when the wind blew predominantly from each direction. Example: during 8 days of observation when the wind blew from the north, a daily average of about nine peregrines was seen. about 6 months, beginning in June or July for Arctic birds (Cade 1960) and being completed in December or January. The actual stage of the molt is most reliably indicated by the con- dition of each of the fourth through the tenth primaries, the tenth being the outermost. Normally, the fourth primary is the first UOT 5 feather to be molted, and when its substitute is almost fully grown, the fifth primary drops, and so on, until the replacement of the tenth primary marks the end of the yearly molt. The other three pairs of primaries, the third, second, and first, usually fall with the sixth, eighth, and tenth pairs, respectively. This information on the molting sequence is based on records from captive birds of several races of peregrines in- cluding birds trapped on the Texas coast. Con- trary to the findings of Enderson et al. (1973), we have observed no differences in the molting sequence between the sexes except that males normally begin molting later than females. When a falcon is trapped and examined, the new and old feathers stand in contrast; the former are shiny, dark, and resilient, while the old ones are bleached and worn. Since the fall migration occurs roughly halfway through the molt, 15-month-old birds have eclipsed plumage, retaining numerous juvenile feathers, and can thus be distinguished from older indi- viduals. Among the fall migrants, the stage of the molt may indicate, within broad limits, their latitudinal origin, since the onset of the molt in females occurs during incubation (Cade 1960; Stresemann 1967), and laying generally begins later with increases in latitude (Bent 1937). We have not gathered data on molting chronology on the summer ranges, though this information presumably can be obtained by examining museum specimens. As for the migration, we have noted that, of seven eclipsed-plumage females trapped between 21 September and 16 October, six had the three outer (eighth through tenth) primaries remain- ing of the juvenile plumage. The other bird was similar except that the eighth pair had been replaced by adult feathers. An old female trapped on 23 December had the tenth primary remaining from the previous year. A female, approximately 19 months old, trapped on 3 February, had replaced all primaries, but the tenth pair had about 114 inches more to grow. Despite the fact that the molt is incomplete during September and October, very few of the falcons with eclipsed-plumage or those older were actually growing or missing major feathers (primaries or rectrices). Thus, these birds HUNT ET AL.: PEREGRINE FALCONS ON THE TEXAS COAST i). migrate with a full sail, a condition of obvious adaptive value (see Stresemann 1967). A brief interruption of molt in females may also occur during the nesting period when females resume foraging to feed the young (Enderson et al. Ia) Our data (total of 1406 birds seen) for the period 22 September to 8 November (1954 - 1973) contains 733 sightings in which pere- grines were classified as to age, that is whether they had streaked or barred plumage. Of these, there were 149 adults (20.3%) and 584 im- matures (79.7%), or an approximate ratio of one adult to four immatures. The actual ratio is probably larger than our figures indicate since adults, being the minority class and being more conspicuous, are more likely to be noted when seen. Ward and Berry (1972) report a ratio of one adult to about six immatures from their studies on Assateague Island, Maryland, and Berry (1971) suggests that an even higher overall ratio may exist in the migrant sample. Rice (1969) and Enderson (1965) record similar unbalanced ratios of adults and young for peregrine migrations in Virginia and Wis- consin. Actually, the observed age ratios of migra- ting peregrines are far afield of their actual values in the population as a whole. As Hunt (1966) and Shor (1970a) have pointed out, peregrine populations always contain more adults than post-fledgling individuals under 1 year of age. This fact, obtained by viewing average nesting productivity, indicates that there is differential migratory behavior among the age classes. A chronological listing of adult to immature ratios (1954-1972) is given in Table 2 where the migratory season has been divided into seven 4-day periods and one longer period at the end of the migration. It can be seen that adults arrive first and their proportions rapidly dwindle relative to immature numbers. Berry (1971) found a similar trend during the 1969 East Coast migration where 11 of the 13 adults sighted were observed during the early portion of the migratory season. He justifiably main- tains that adults, being stronger and more ex- perienced in foraging, travel more directly to the wintering grounds. It is reasonable that 118 TaBLE 2— Chronological listing of the numbers of adult and immature peregrines classified dur- . ing the fall migration period on the Texas coast. Data from sightings only are pooled for all years (1954-1973) and all beaches. The dif- ference in occurrence through time of the two age classes is highly significant by chi square Adult Period Adults Immatures frequency 22-25 Sept. 23 0 1.00 26—29 Sept. 21 27 0.43 30 Sept.—3 Oct. 15 42 0.26 4-7 Oct. 30 130 0.19 8-11 Oct. 42 154 0.21 12-15 Oct. 12 149 0.07 16—19 Oct. 4 66 0.06 20 Oct.—8 Nov. 2 16 0.14 Totals 149 584 immature falcons should have a tendency to linger on the beach, if indeed they do, since the beach habitat, as discussed later, is ideally suited to a falcon learning to catch prey. We had expected to see the differential temporal occurrence of adults and young re- flected in our trapping data (see Table 3, discussed later). That is not the case, however, and we can offer little explanation other than sampling error, which arises from the fact that only 10 of 250 birds trapped were caught in September when adults reach peak numbers. It is also probable that the majority of the adults, especially early in the migration, are more suspicious, not as hungry, and more dif- ficult to trap. Our experiences trapping adults later in the season, however, have been that they are easily caught. Age ratios in our sample of winter sightings show a greater proportion of adults than in the migrant sample. Of 36 peregrines, there were 14 adults, 14 immatures, and 8 unclassified. The majority of these sightings were made several miles inland from the Laguna Madre by R. L. Meredith. Sex Ratios Although peregrines are highly dimorphic with respect to size, it is our opinion that accurate sex ratios cannot be estimated on the basis of sightings. At a distance we usually speculate as to the sex of each bird we are attempting to trap and often later discover, THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST VoL. 89 when the bird is in hand, that our guesses were incorrect. While we will not deny the possibility of other more astute observers, we have eliminated all data on sex ratios in calculations based merely on sightings. The exception to this argument occurs on occasions when a bird is seen flying with an individual of the opposite Sex. Sex ratios can be estimated from the trap- ping data (Table 3), although there is surely a sex differential in trap-response favoring females. Of 250 birds trapped, 164 were im- mature females, 50 were immature males, and 36 were adult females. Excluding the adults, males made up 23.4% of the immature sample (N = 214). Ward and Berry (1972) found about 30% males (N = 539) in the immature portion of their Maryland trapping data pooled from 1939 to 1971. During this period, eight adult males were trapped in contrast to none trapped on the Texas coast. TaBLE 3— Chronological listing by sex and age class of 250 peregrines trapped on the Texas coast during the period 1954-73 Frequency of males in Adult Immature Immature immature Period females females males sample 22-25 Sept. 0 0 0 — 26-29 Sept. 0 7 3 0.30 30 Sept.—3 Oct. 2 9 10 0.52 4-7 Oct. 15 45 14 0.23 8—11 Oct. 12 45 11 0.20 12-15 Oct. 4 33 6 0.15 16-19 Oct. 3 13 5 0.28 20 Oct.-8 Nov. 0 12 1 0.07 Totals 36 164 50 0.23 There is no reason to believe that tertiary (immature) and quaternary (adult) sex ratios in peregrines are unbalanced. The preponder- ance of females in trapping samples is probably caused by a combination of greater trapping susceptibility of females and perhaps a dif- ferential migratory or foraging behavior of the sexes. To test this latter possibility, a chi- square contingency test was applied to the im- mature segment of the Texas trapping sample (Table 3). The results suggest significant heterogeneity in the distribution through time 1975 of immature females and males (P < 0.05). It appears that the high point in the density of immature males occurs during the first week in October, just after the peak of adult females and before that of immature females. The indicated temporal difference in the occurrence of males on Texas beaches could be a result of their being more capable of exploiting inland small bird populations than are the larger females. It is interesting to note that Assateague Island, Maryland, is partly forested and that greater overall proportions of both young and adult males, as discussed above, occur in the Maryland sample. With this in mind, we thought it relevant to compare the sex ratios of birds trapped on each of the three Texas observations areas, since the inland region of only the northern part of the Texas coast is forested. Our results were not significant. We then pooled the sex-ratio data from North Padre Island and the northern beaches and compared them with those from South Padre Island. At first we had considered the entire migratory period (23 September — 8 Novem- ber) but recognized a bias in the fact that the South Padre Island samples represented a greater span of time than the other two areas (see Figure 2), thereby predictably increasing the sex ratio in favor of females on South Padre Island. We therefore limited the analysis to the period 30 September through 16 Octo- ber. During this period, on North Padre Island and the northern beaches, 26 immature males and 59 immature females were trapped, while the ratio on South Padre Island was 15 males to 71 females. A significant difference in sex ratios of the two samples was suggested by chi-square (P < 0.05). Again, our results sug- gest a difference in migratory and/or habitat preference between the sexes. Origin of Migrants Since there is no known conspicuous migra- tion of peregrines on the Pacific coast, one may speculate that Texas receives its birds from Alaska and northwestern portions of Canada where relatively large breeding popula- tions exist. A migratory path along the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains would channel northwestern peregrines to the Gulf Coast, as is the case in some shorebirds (A. Sprunt, per- HUNT ET AL.: PEREGRINE FALCONS ON THE TEXAS COAST 119 sonal communication). Peregrines banded in Alaska and the Canadian northwest show a net migratory flow toward the Gulf Coast (R. Fyfe, personal communication; Enderson 1965). As for the peregrine migration on the eastern seaboard, a principal source is probably Greenland (Shor 1970b) and _ northeastern Canada (see Enderson 1965). About 200 autumn migrant peregrines have been banded on the Texas or western Louisiana coasts between 1952 and 1973. There have been 17 recoveries, but 14 of these were re- ported near the areas of banding or elsewhere in Texas. Of the remaining three, two were recovered in more southerly locations, one in Panama (November) and another in north- western Brazil (December). The remaining long-distance recovery occurred above the Arctic Circle in the District of Franklin, North- west Territories (69.2°N, 8.4°W). Foraging Behavior We have had the opportunity on many occasions to observe the hunting behavior of migrant peregrines. The strategies they employ seem to be specifically adapted to the beach habitat and to the general types of prey that occur there. The scarcity of protective cover on the beach, especially on the large flats described earlier, is of immense advantage to a hunting peregrine. A bird being pursued by a falcon in these conditions has little chance to escape except by dodging or outflying its attacker. When the prey is downwind of the peregrine, the pursuit covers a large distance very quickly and permits only momentary observa- tion. Upwind chases, especially in a heavy wind, cover ground rather slowly. In a typical flight of this type the peregrine is seen about 10-15 m high flying hard into the wind attempting to catch a small land-bird directly upwind and somewhat lower in altitude. The falcon eventually achieves a position directly above the prey from where it stoops. If the attack fails, the peregrine loses its advantage, and the coursing procedure begins anew. If another passerine or shorebird is encountered during the chase and appears more vulnerable to attack, the falcon will sometimes shift to the new quarry. This flight is especially observable 120 during a strong north wind since the chase then runs parallel to the direction of the beach, and one can follow it by car. We have observed upwind flights of this type which covered a mile of beach. An expanse of water is similar to the open beach in the respect that it provides no refuge for many types of birds being pursued by pere- grines. Waterfowl and certain shorebirds find safety in water by their ability to submerge just as a falcon is about to catch them, but other species (e.g., passerines) flounder on the sur- face when forced into the water (Cade 1960; Herbert and Herbert 1965). Falcons will intentionally and repeatedly miss in their stoops at Rock Doves (Columba livia) which we release for them to chase on the beach. When the pigeon takes to the air, the falcon will guide it toward the ocean and often force it into the surf. A falcon may grab a pigeon, carry it over, drop it into the surf, and stand by the edge of the water for the bedrag- gled prey to wash ashore. Since the wind normally blows from the direction of the sea, the practice of driving prey toward and over the water is simply another way of coursing into the wind, with the added advantage that if the prey falls into the water it is readily caught. If the pigeon, as in the above description, escapes being forced into the water, it will be chased out to sea by the peregrine. After a few minutes the pigeon comes winging back over the beach and is often caught by the falcon in a long, flat, downwind stoop. W. F. Jamison told us of an incident in which he and his wife were standing by the surf’s edge when a “woodpecker,” closely pur- sued by a male peregrine, came flying in from the direction of the sea. Heading straight for Mrs. Jamison, the woodpecker struck her and clung to her jacket as the peregrine shot up overhead. A. L. Wehner (personal communica- tion) witnessed a Blue Jay (Cyanocitta cristata) which was forced into the surf and subse- quently taken by a peregrine. Peregrines often fly along the edge of the surf or tidal puddles at heights of 10 to 25 m, making stoops in passing at small shorebirds. We have never seen a successful flight of this type, but have noted several near misses. We THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST VOL. 89 comment later on the importance of shorelines to foraging peregrines. In many areas of the beach there are dunes a short distance from the edge of the surf. By flying low behind the dunes, peregrines may get quite close to their prey before being seen. Rogers has observed some successful surprise attacks of this kind. The strategy is similar to that employed by gyrfalcons (Falco rusticolus) in Alaska (White and Weeden 1966). Fyfe (personal communication) has observed pere- grines using this method on tundra. There have been a number of observations of peregrines leaving a perch to attack prey. An immature tiercel was observed to fly at some swallows which were flitting about at approxi- mately 40 m above his perch on the beach. He cocked his head and eyed them for a while and then took off, climbing into the wind at about a 30-degree angle. When he reached a point at which he was slightly higher than the prey and several hundred yards upwind, he suddenly reversed his course and stooped downwind at the swallows. Although he was not successful in catching one, he appeared to have touched a swallow with his feet. He then dropped down and landed on the sand close to where he had launched his attack. W. D. Stine and C. E. Hall told us of two similar incidents where Horned Larks (Eremophila alpestris) were taken by immature peregrines of both sexes. We saw an adult male fly from a telephone pole in pursuit of some ducks flying very high and far away. The falcon climbed steadily toward the ducks and repeatedly stooped through the flock. Prey Table 4 lists 89 records of prey species taken by peregrines on Texas beaches. The term “shorebirds” is used in this paper as an ecologi- cal rather than a taxonomic category (see Cade 1960). The sample is incomplete since little is known of the prey in coastal marshes and other areas which the falcons frequent. All of the larger quarry (e.g., gulls) were killed by adult females. Immatures hesitate to take large birds, while adults are recognizably direct in their attacks. C. E. Hall (personal communication) of Galveston, Texas, gives an interesting account of a peregrine specializing on larger shorebirds: 175 HUNT ET AL.: PEREGRINE FALCONS ON THE TEXAS COAST 121 TABLE 4 — Prey of peregrines on the Texas coast. (Here the heading “Shorebirds” is used as an ecological [ie., birds that frequent the shore] rather than a taxonomic category) Species Number Shorebirds Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis) American Coot (Fulica americana) Green Heron (Butorides virescens) Royal Tern (Thalasseus maximus) Snowy Egret (Leucophoyx thula) Laughing Gull (Larus atricilla) Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) Ring-billed Gull (Larus delawarensis) Golden Plover (Pluvialis dominica) Willet (Catoptrophorus semipalmatus) Black-crowned Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax ) 1 King Rail (Rallus elegans) 1 Unidentified Gull (Larus spp.) D) Unidentified small shorebirds 7 Total shorebirds 6 Waterfowl Shoveler (Spatula clypeata) 4 Redhead (Aythya americana) 1 1 1 we PreK NNN Ke Green-winged Teal (Anas carolinensis) Lesser Scaup (Aythya affinis) “We had a resident bird (adult female) on the island several years ago who favored a partic- ular log. Around it were the wings, heads, and. legs of Royal Terns, Laughing Gulls, Ring- billed Gulls, and also Willets.” W. E. Stine, with a group of birders near Rockport, was observing a small flock of Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus) flying about 20 m over the bay. Suddenly, an adult peregrine struck one of the gulls from a terrific stoop. The gull tumbled into the water while the peregrine flew from sight. Passerines and other small land-birds, which make up 60% of our records, are especially vulnerable to peregrine predation both on the beach and over water since their main tactic of escape lies in reaching protective cover. Of this group, Mourning Doves (Zenaidura ma- croura) and sparrows are the most commonly observed prey taken. Shorebirds (ecologically defined) are our second most frequently noted group of prey birds, making up 29% of the sample. Although shorebirds are the most common prey to be Species Number Unidentified duck Total waterfowl Land birds Horned Lark (Eremophila alpestris) Brown-headed Cowbird (Molothrus ater) Great-tailed Grackle (Cassidix mexicanus) Rusty Blackbird (Euphagus carolinus) Meadowlark (Sturnella magna) Mourning Dove (Zenaidura macroura) White-winged Dove (Zenaida asiatica) Rock Dove (Columba livia) American Kestrel (Falco sparverius) Flicker (Colaptes spp.) Gray Catbird (Dumetella carolinensis) oe| — ea NYRe Re ev PRR Hb Sparrows 11 Unidentified small passerines 12 Total land birds TE) Mammals Unidentified mammals 2 Total mammals roy seen on the beach, most are difficult for pere- grines to catch or kill. The small shorebirds are shifty and evasive flyers and are generally able to dodge the peregrine’s stoop as well as to take some advantage of water as cover. Some of the larger species such as Long-billed Cur- lews (Numenius americanus) are fast flyers, while others, like the larger gulls, are probably difficult to kill, at least for immature pere- grines. Egrets and small herons are often com- mon on the beach and are very easily caught by peregrines. The low number of waterfowl (9% ) record- ed as prey of peregrines on the Texas coast may be misleading because of the inaccessibility of waterfowl habitat to the observer. There are vast marshes located slightly inland and many ponds just behind the beach which usually contain a supply of ducks. We believe that ducks are ordinarily caught by surprise when flying high or away from water. Coots (Fulica americana) are probably utilized to a great extent by peregrines since they are common, extremely slow, put up little struggle when 122 caught, and have a habit of foraging away from water. Table 5 compares the percentages oi prey types in Texas with those given by Cade (1960) for peregrines in Alaska and by Meng (1967) for the East Coast migration. The per- centages are quite similar between Texas and Alaska, while the East Coast data show a higher percentage of small land-birds, predom- inately flickers (Colaptes auratus). TABLE 5 — Comparison of the prey of peregrines in Alaska (Cade 1960), the east coast (Meng 1967), and the Texas coast Taiga Tundra zone of zone of East Texas Prey Alaska Alaska coast coast Land birds 53% 43% 91% 60% Waterfowl 11% 5% 1% 9% Shorebirds 30% 32% 6% 29% Upland game birds 1% 16% — — Mammals 6% 4% =— 2% Number of records 119 246 222 89 Discussion A generalization suggested by our observa- tions of peregrines foraging on the beach is that the niche of these northern falcons is based on the existence of environmental discontinuities across which prey becomes vulnerable. Shore- birds, in the shallow water along the edge of the ocean and bays are fairly immune to pere- grine attacks while a few feet inland they are exposed. Just across the beach, beyond the dunes, begins the coastal prairie grassland, an area rich in passerines and other land-birds, but these are quite vulnerable to peregrines either on the beach, or over water. Lastly, there is a patchy distribution of waterfowl habi- tat with intervening spaces affording no pro- tection. To summarize the advantages which the beach environment provides to hunting peregrines, there is water over which land-birds are vulnerable, and there are terrestrial expan- ses with no protective vegetation for any bird being pursued by a falcon to take refuge. THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST VOL. 89 Photographs by Cade (1960, pp. 275, 279, 289) of the nesting habitat along the flood- plains of the Colville and Yukon Rivers in Alaska seem to be quite similar to the environ- ment where peregrines are seen in Texas. Spring runoff and high tides are the factors producing the coverless terrain in the two areas, respectively. We regret to report that our most productive observation area, South Padre Island, has re- cently fallen into the hands of “developers.” A paved road down the middle of the island is under way and will be crisscrossed with streets lined with houses. We doubt that, with such habitat destruction, the peregrines will continue to be seen in anything like their former numbers. Acknowledgments We express our appreciation to Charles Hall, Marianne Meyers, Harry McElroy, Tony Joern, Tom Ray, M. K. Rylander, Robert Selander, Eric Skov, John Smith, Doug Stine, Tony War- nock, and Barry Watson for the use of their unpublished notes or helpful suggestions. We are indebted to D. A. Klebenow, the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for their help with the necessary permits, bands, and banding information. James Enderson generously pro- vided his band recovery data. We thank James Enderson and He.nz Meng for their critical review of the manuscript and Deidre Bird Hunt for its preparation. We are especial- ly grateful to Clayton M. Whyte for his constructive criticisms of this and earlier manuscripts and for his continuing encourage- ment. We dedicate this paper to the late Colonel R. L. Meredith, a falconer, whose memory we hold in highest respect and admiration. Literature Cited Bent, A. C. 1937. Life histories of North American birds of prey. Part II. United States National Mu- seum Bulletin 170. Bernard, H. A. and R. J. LeBlanc. 1965. Résumé of the quaternary geology of the Northwestern Gulf of Mexico Province. Jn The Quaternary of the United States. Edited by M. E. Wright and D. G. Frey. Princeton University Press. pp. 137-185. 1975 Berry, R. B. 1971. Peregrine falcon population survey, Assateague Island, Maryland, fall, 1969. Raptor Research News 5: 31-43. Cade, T. J. 1960. Ecology of the peregrine and gyr- falcon populations in Alaska. University of Cal- ifornia Publications in Zoology 63: 151-290. Enderson, J. H. 1965. A breeding and migration sur- vey of the peregrine falcon. Wilson Bulletin 77: 327-339. Enderson, J. H. 1969. Coastal migration data as pop- ulation indices for the peregrine falcon. /n Pere- grine falcon populations, their biology and decline. Edited by J. J. Hickey. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. pp. 275-278. Endersen, J.H., S.A. Temple, and L.G. Schwartz. 1973. Time-lapse photographic records of nesting peregrine falcons. Living Bird 11: 113-128. Griscom, L. and M. S. Crosby. 1925. Birds of the Brownsville region— southern Texas. Auk 42: $19-537. Haugh, J. R. 1972. A study of hawk migration in eastern North America. Search, Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station 2(16): 1-60. Herbert, R. A. and K. G. S. Herbert. 1965. Behavior of peregrine falcons in New York City region. Auk 82: 62-94. Hunt, W. G. 1966. Observations of peregrines on the Texas coast. M.Sc. thesis, Sul Ross State University, Alpine, Texas. Meng, H. 1967. Notes on food habits of east coast peregrines (Falco peregrinus) during fall migra- tions, 1941-1967. Journal of the North American Falconers Association 6: 41-42. Rice, J. N. 1969. A peregrine population index on the Maryland-Virginia coast. Jn Peregrine falcon pop- ulations, their biology and decline. Edited by J. J. Hickey. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. pp. 279-280. HUNT ET AL.: PEREGRINE FALCONS ON THE TEXAS COAST 123 Rogers, R. R. and W. G. Hunt. 1975. Peregrines on South Padre Island: recent years. Jn Population status of raptors. Edited by J. R. Murphey et al. Raptor Research Report 3: 61-65. Shor, W. 1970a. Peregrine falcon population dynam- ics deduced from band recovery data. Raptor Re- search News 4: 49-59. Shor, W. 1970b. Banding recoveries of arctic migrant peregrines of the Atlantic Coast and Greenland populations. Raptor Research News 4: 125-131. Stresemann, E. 1967. Inheritance and adaptation in moult. /n Proceedings of the XIV International Ornithological Congress, Oxford, 24-30 July, 1966. Edited by D. W. Snow. Blackwell Science Publica- tions. 405 pp. Ward, F. P. and R. B. Berry. 1972. Autumn migra- tions of peregrine falcons on Assateague Island, 1970-71. Journal of Wildlife Management 36: 484— 492. White, C. M. 1968. Diagnosis and relationships of the North American tundra-inhabiting peregrine fal- cons. Auk 85: 179-191. White, C. M. 1969. Breeding Alaskan and arctic mi- grant populations of the peregrine. Jn Peregrine falcon populations, their biology and decline. Edited by J.J. Hickey. University of Wisconsin Press; Madison. pp. 45-51. White, C. M. and R. B. Weeden. 1966. Hunting meth- ods of gyrfalcons and behavior of their prey (Ptar- migan). Condor 68: 517-519. Woodard, D. W., L. C. Otteni, B.E. Dahl, and R. L. Baker. 1971. The use of grasses for dune stabiliza- tion along the gulf coast with initial emphasis on the Texas coast. Gulf Universities Research Con- sortium, Report Number 114: 22-23. Received 19 August 1974 Accepted 11 January 1975 1A Berets Bates: Pern an we sta vit) es * een tats A Recent Decline of Gannets, Morus bassanus, on Bonaventure Island, Quebec! Davip N. NETTLESHIP Canadian Wildlife Service, 2721 Highway 31, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0H3 Nettleship, D. N. 1975. A recent decline of Gannets, Morus bassanus, on Bonaventure Island, Quebec. Cana- dian Field-Naturalist 89: 125-133. Abstract. A comparison of the results of recent surveys of Gannets on Bonaventure Island shows that after increasing greatly over the previous 80 years, the breeding population decreased from 20511 pairs in 1969 to 17 281 pairs in 1973, a 16% decline. Reduced fertility because of contamination by toxic chemicals (chlor- inated hydrocarbons) and disturbance at the colony by tourist boats and visitors on land seem likely to be prime causes. Past population data are reviewed. Abstrait. Une comparaison des résultats de relevés récents des fous de Bassan sur l’ile Bonaventure démontre que cette population qui avait grandement augmentée depuis environ 80 années aurait diminuée de 20511 paires en 1969 a 17 281 paires en 1973, un déclin de 16%. Leur fécondité aurait été réduite par la conta- mination de produits chimiques toxiques (hydrocarbons chlorurés) ainsi que par des dérangements a la colonie causés par les bateaux touristiques et les visiteurs sur l’ile. Des données sur les populations passées sont revues. Introduction The Gannet (Morus bassanus) population of Bonaventure Island, Gaspé Peninsula, Que- bec (48°30’ N, 64°09’ W) has been known to exist since about 1860, and its history has been documented by ornithologists both in the past (e.g., Lucas 1890; Taverner 1918; Wynne- Edwards et al. 1936) and in recent times (e.g., Peakall 1962; Poulin 1968; Poulin, J.-M. and G. Moisan 19687). The numbers of nesting Gannets at Bonaventure Island have increased very greatly during the last hundred years and reached a population high about 1966. Recent detailed studies of Bonaventure Island Gannets by Poulin (1968), however, show that hatch- ing success (38%) and fledging success (78.3% ) are much lower than in colonies elsewhere (e.g., Bass Rock, Scotland (Nelson 1966a, b), hatching success = 82%, fledging 1An investigation associated with the program “Studies on northern seabirds,” Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada (Report Number 28). 2The Gannets (Sula bassana) of Bonaventure Island, Quebec. Paper presented at the 1968 Northeast Fish and Wildlife Conference, Manchester, N.H., 14-17 January 1968. 17 pp. success = 92.3%), and that toxic chemical levels (DDE) in both breeding birds and their summer foods (chiefly mackerel, Scomber scombrus, and herring, Clupea harengus) are significantly higher than those at colonies along the Atlantic coast of Newfoundland (Keith 1969; Pearce et al. 1973). Moreover, egg-shell thinning was detected amongst Bonaventure Island birds in 1969 to an extent, about 17% thinner than pre-1915 eggs) that has been associated with reproductive failure in other birds (Keith and Gruchy 1972; Pearce et al. ISS). These facts, combined with the knowledge that the Bonaventure Island colony represents about 53% of the total North American breed- ing population (Nettleship 1975), that it is situated where contamination is most concen- trated, and that the island has recently been made a provincial park, have prompted the Canadian Wildlife Service to initiate accurate censusing of breeding pairs by standardized procedures to monitor population size, and to begin detailed studies of the species’ repro- ductive ecology. The purpose of this paper is to reassemble and review past population data WS 126 and to report the results of surveys made in 1969 and 1973 in an attempt to provide an insight into current and possible future popula- tion performance and trends. Methods and Procedures Used in 1969 and 1973 Procedures used to cenus Gannets at Bon- aventure Island in the past have varied widely, ranging from simple visual impressions of bird numbers to ground counts of nests. This varia- tion in census reliability and accuracy has made it impossible to make precise comparisons between population estimates made in different years. To avoid similar difficulties in the col- lection and interpretation of data in the future, a standardized census method is required to reduce individual observer bias to a minimum and to provide a permanent and precise record of the distribution and numbers of nesting birds. The technique of population analysis from aerial photography, similar to that pioneered by Acland and Salmon (1924) and used to count Gannets in Great Britain (e.g., Salmon and Lockley 1933; Barret and Harris 1965), provides the most effective solution. The census method used in 1969 and 1973 was basically the same: a series of overlapping aerial photographs was taken on a single visit during the incubation period in early July from a single-engined fixed-wing aircraft. In 1969 a 35-mm camera with a 50-mm lens was used; in 1973 the photographs were taken with a 70-mm camera and 100-mm lens. In both years the film used was Kodak Plus-X black- and-white. The distance from the colony was about 1800 to 2000 feet (549-610 m). The disturbance of nesting birds appeared slight, and no unusual movement from nest territories was detected. Nesting areas on the cliff-face and on flattish ground at the cliff-top were both easily delim- ited on the photographs (7 x 10-inch or 9 13-inch glossy enlargements) by the extremely regular spacing of white dots (see Figure 1). Occupied nests were systematically counted under a hand lens (8X) using a plastic grid overlay (1 & l-cm quadrats), following pro- cedures similar to those outlined by Barrett and Harris (1965). Photo quality not only THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST VOL. 89 allowed individual nests to be counted, but often made it possible to determine whether one or two birds were associated with each nest. The only sources of error in the colony analyses appear to be in the demarcation of nesting areas on the prints and in accurately counting nests back from the cliff-top on flat- tish ground towards the inland edge of the cliff-top nesting groups; both are estimated to be low, probably less than 2%. Since only attended nests were counted, and the status of each nest was unknown, this assessment of breeding population represents the number of ‘nest-site holders’ rather than the number of ‘true breeders’ (i.e., pairs that built a nest and laid one egg). Description of the Colony Bonaventure Island is approximately 1.7 miles (2.7 km) long and 1.6 miles (2.6 km) broad at its widest point and is roughly circular in shape with an area of about 1140 acres (460 hectares). The cliffs, made up of a conglom- erate-red sandstone mixture, reach a height of 300 feet (91 m) on the southeastern coast where the Gannets nest (Figure 1). The nest- ing area can be divided topographically into five parts (Poulin 1968; Lafleur, Y. 1969%), which together occupy some 3600 feet (1097 m) of cliff. Nests are presently located on ledges on the cliff-face (cliff-ledge habitat) and on flattish ground at the top of the cliffs (cliff-top habitat), although this was not always the case (see next section). The east- ern and southern cliffs were made a federal migratory bird sanctuary in 1919. Previous Estimates of Colony Size Estimates of the numbers of Gannets breed- ing at Bonaventure Island since its existence as a colony was established are given in Table 1 and Figure 2. Although it appears that the colony was present in 1860 and consisted of large numbers by 1881, it was not until 1887 that an attempt was made to estimate the num- ber of breeding pairs. The methods of con- ducting the surveys varied considerably between years, making it difficult to identify real changes in the total nesting population. It 3Ile Bonaventure 1968. Canadian Wildlife Service Report, Ottawa. 102 pp. 1975 NETTLESHIP: DECLINE OF GANNETS ON BONAVENTURE ISLAND, QUEBEC 127 FIGURE 1. two principal nesting habitats: ledges on the cliff-face (cliff- ledge) and flattish ground at the top of the cliffs (cliff-top). seems likely, however, that the colony increased substantially in size between 1887 and 1898, remained fairly stable to 1919, and then increased to about 6000 pairs by 1932, increasing only a little further by 1940. The first record of a nest on the flat ground at the tops of the cliff was made in 1934 (Poulin and Moisan 19687); by 1940 the numbers nesting on flat ground were substantial (Fisher and Vevers 1943). Figure 3 shows nesting Gannets on the flat ground. No additional information on the breeding population was collected until 1961, when Peakall (1962) estimated it to be 13 250 pairs, of which 6800 were on cliff-ledges and 6450 were in groups at the top of the cliffs (cliff-top sites). A further increase in numbers occurred between 1961 and 1966, with a total in 1966 (Poulin 1968) of 21215 pairs, comprising Aerial view of a portion of the Gannet colony on Bonaventure Island, 7 July 1973, showing the 8967 on cliff-ledges and 12 248 on the top. Both of these increases can be explained by an annual increment of less than 10%, which falls within the reproductive capacity of the colony during the periods of maximum increase (see Fisher and Venables 1938; Capildeo and Haldane 1954; Nelson 1966a). 1969 and 1973 Counts The procedures and method of analysis used to census the breeding population in 1969 and 1973 were virtually identical. The results given in Table 1 show that the total number of breeding pairs has decreased by roughly 16% since 1969. Much of the decrease seems to have occurred amongst birds breeding on ledges on the cliffs: in 1969, the population com- prised 11 854 cliff-ledge pairs and 8657 cliff- top pairs (total: 20511 pairs), whereas in 128 THE CANADIAN FIELD-NATURALIST VOL. 89 TABLE 1 — Estimates and counts of Gannets nesting at Bonaventure Island Census date Number of pairs! Census method Authority ca.1860 breeding, no count — Fisher and Vevers (1943) 1881 ‘large colony’ == Brewster (1884) 1887 ca. 1500 boat count Lucas (1890) July 1898 3500 boat count F. M. Chapman in Gurney (1913) 1914, 1915 4000 boat count Taverner (1918) 10, 18 July, 3 Aug. 1919 4000 boat count Townsend (1920) 1923-1925 ‘numbersincreasing’ boat count Duval (1925), Bond (1926) 1932 6000 boat and ground count H. F. Lewis in Wynne-Edwards (1935) 1934 ca. 6500 boat and ground count + Wynne-Edwards et al. (1936) Aug. 1938 7000 boat and ground count V.C. Wynne-Edwards in Fisher and Vevers (1940) May, July 1939 6600-7000 boat and ground count W. Duval and L. I. Grinnell in Fisher and Vevers (1943) May 1940 ca. 6680 boat and ground count _—_H. F. Lewis in Fisher and Vevers (1943) 10-13 July 1961 13 250 combined ground count Peakall (1962) and boat photography July 1966 21 215 combined aerial Poulin (1968), Poulin and Moisan photography, boat (1968-) and ground count 13 July 1969 20 511 aerial photography this study 7 July 1973 17 281 aerial photography this study 1 Represents the number of ‘nest-site holders.’ () 25000 ce