ESSEX INSTITUTE. PRESENTED BY - 4 —~— 2 ae SIS Soper f Pi y Cc oy y, fs Kika, To tv ate 4 CAL 4 ibrary Conditions. The Library to be under the control of the Dires- tors, who mz'y withhold such books from circulation, as they may deem expedient. Each Member shall be entitled to take from the Library, one folio, or one quarto, or two of any lesser fold, with the plates belonging to the same, © upon signing a receipt for the samie, and promising to make good any damage which may be sustained when in their possession, or to replace the same, if lost. ° No person shalllend any book belonging to the Institute, except to a member, under a penalty of one dollar for every offence. The Direetors may permit other persons than mem- bers to use the Library. No member shall detain any book longer than four weeks, after being duly notified that the same is wanted by another member, under a penalty of twenty-five cents per week. On or before the first Wednesday in May, all books shall be returned, and the committee of the Directors appointed for that purpose shall examine the Libra- ry, and make a report of the condition at the Annual Meeting. he HAs THE CANADIAN Aaturalist and Geologist, AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF MONTREAL. CONDUCTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOOIETY. VOLUME VIII. aMontrent : PUBLISHED BY DAWSON BROTHERS, 23 GREAT ST, JAMES STREET, CANADIAN “sNATURALIST. This Magazine is published bi-monthly, and is conducted by a Com- mittee of the Natural History Society of: Montreal. EDITORS. J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S., Principal of Mc Gill College. T. Srerry Hunt, A.M., F.R.S., Chemist to Geological Survey of Canada, E. Biturnes, F.G.S., Paleontologist. oe ue Be er Pror. 8. P. Ropsins. Rey. A. F. Kemp. 4 General Editor.—Davip A. Por Wart. EX OFFICIO. The Corresponding and Recording Secretaries of the Nat. Hist. Society. o Entered, according to the Act of the Provincial Parliament, in the year One Thousand Hight Hundred and Sixty-three, by Dawson Brotugrs, In the Office of the Registrar of the Province of Canada. CONTENTS. PAGE Arricte I.—The Air-Breathers of the Coal Period of Nova Scotia; by J..W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S.; Part L..+..escece 1 II.—On the Gold Mines of Canada, and the manner of ~ working them; by T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S......... 13 I1I.—On the Parallelism of the Quebec Group with the ‘ Llandeilo of England and Australia, and with the Chazy and Calciferous formations; by HE. Billings, IH Gr Sicpatsrsycheyeteneraisne sigiaveieiere colors emrsishoreerentetsteloiatle 19 TV.—On a new method of preparing Chlorine, Carbonate of Soda, Sulphuric Acid and Hydrochloric Acid; by Thomas Marctarlanelie crtesictsleleictey shelcha) ioieaseleleielel tetete 39 V.—Onthe Land and Fresh-water Mollusca of Lower Can- ada; by J. F. Whiteaves, F.G.S., Part I... sreharstey 50 VI.—The Air-Breathers of the Coal Period i in Nova Scotia ; by J. W. Dawson, LL.D. F.R.S. Part I......... 81, 159 VII.—Notes on Diatomacee from St. John River; by Prof. - L. W. Bailey, of the University of New Brunswick. 92 VIlI.—Description of a new Trilobite from the Quebec group ; by DsDevine; HR Gass selsa wot are oe alee caters sonal 95 TX.—On the Land and Fresh-water Mollusca of Lower Canada; by J. F. Whiteaves, F.G.S. Part II....... 98 X.—On the Antiquity of Man; a Review of ‘Lyell’ and HAVES Oe OGiiddinid oonbdotnin oddmlouteDbaobuudbr 113 XI.—On the remains of the Fossil Elephant found in Canada ; bys He Billings! TG Si wees cece cos eerie se 135 XII.—Remarks on the genus Lutra, and on the Species in- habiting North America ; by Geo. Barnston, Esq... 147 XIII.—The Air-Breathers of the Coal Period in Nova Scotia - ; by J..W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S., Part IIl..0....... 161 XIV.—On the Superficial Geology of the Gaspé Peninsula; by: Robert Bell; -@:Be otiivs os. SAMAR S ee, 175 XV—On the Rocks of the Quebec Group at Point Lévis ; by Sir William Logan, F.R.S.; Director of the Geo- logical Survey of Canada; in a letter addressed to M. "Barrande cLepeusdearhsuensorilonues la7ees Ureheke ect sk otetel aoe eg tfatre 183 XVI.—On the Chemical and Mineralogical Relations of Metamorphic Rocks; by T. Sterry Hunt, M.A., F.R.S.; of the Geological Survey of Canada.. 195 XVI.—Description of a new species of Phillipsia, from ‘the lower Carboniferous rocks of Nova Scotia; by E. Billings) W.GSs sepsis vais ile O ots eeaPaeets sioteraeeeiate 209 XV III.—Description of a new Trilobite from the Quebec Group ; by T. Devine, F.R.G.S, C. L. Department, Quebec.. 210 XIX.—Observations on the Geology of St. John County, New Brunswick by) G. EF. Masthew, Msq.-. 2.2 soce se. 241 XX.—On Ailanthine. The silk yielded by the Saturnia or Bombyx Cynthia, with Remarks on the Ailanthus glandulosa ov False Varn‘sh Tree of China; by Robert Paters omy MaDe sti scee aie 5 sre saista) bets etavel st stale 260 XXI.—The Air-Breathers of the Coal Period in Nova Scotia ; by J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S., Part IV......... 268 CONTENTS. IV PAGE XXII, —On the Origin of Eruptive and Primary Rocks; by Thomas Macfarlane, Part I.....-scneccccscsrcees 295 XXIII.—On the Earth’s Climate in Paleozoic Times; by T. . Sterry Hunt, M.A., PR.S....eccceecceeccccees -- 323 XXIV.—On the Origin of Eruptive and Primary “Rocks : by Thomas Macfarlane, Part Il.......+sseeeeees weeee Bao XXV.—Roofing Slate as a Source of Wealth to Canada A visit to the Walton Slate Quarry; by Robert Bell, (Cribdannoonooogconenuaandocadoudd0 [0 omee oeveccs, ODS ~XXVI. —On. the genus Stricklandia: ; proposed alteration of the name; by EH. Billings...... «ss... Soc ononds ail) XXVII.—On some Mineral Waters of Nova Scotia; by Prof. eM D.C.L., University of King’s College, Wind- Os INGSooobioGagoo sod sons coud ueb099000000000 -. 370 XXVIIL—A ist of Animals dredged near Caribou Island, South- ern Labrador ,during July and August, 1860 ; : by A.S. Packard, Ta MeN UN es Mee soeee, 401 XXIX—Note on the F Foot-prints of a Reptile from ‘the Coal Formation of Cape Breton; by J. W. Dawson, LL.D., HERES OG hit wn orc nae ce eae ee ae aga a0 XXX.—Synopsis of the Flora of the Carboniferous Period of Nova Scotia; by J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S., 431 XXXI.—On the Origin of Eruptive and Primary Rocks ; by Thomas Macfarlane, Part III...0....sseeessesnee 457 Naturat History Socisry. Hirst Annual (Conversazione seniaitelictecigeecetie Shee Sooon (an Principal Dawson’s Addregs........ AdoosaoGoduuccecascocoo 6s} Rey. A. F. Kemp’s GO Sd dveooaadauud sfsfaleteistckste poou00ds ~OS Dr. DeSola’s Op states e[nlsieys\(oie/iatefefe, oka (ere latep slatavoneneieremmmelL Ordinary Meetings.............. sieeve slelsjewisleldp sie epierendemecilio Annual Meeting..........: aiahe) slofeln} elejeforsials{avers aiein\s]e ieee ateteteremee LO) IPRESICENTS AG OLESS sic cleicieyole elevate cvalciticrete [oie lalelelete ete ele Report of the Council........ 6 16)8)0{sjsi0/ols » e[eleisie s[eleisialeie. seis eieie ALG do Curators. eos. cccenescecsccerecerecerss 229, 393 OfficersHfoEd S6BH4 xj croceisd 0/6 sho ud Sai wore oes ee ee Canadian Naturalist J.) sels ctetwlecomactiiecke te ooo ees Donations to Museum........ccescoses Treasurer’s accounts........ eeeresceosee eeceeorveaeone®@ 236 MISCELLANEOUS. Ties Gentabed: Monohammuss.ic.2 Joe selec uel, oe neeenoam New Species. of. Dendrerpetoie. siererwiete-socic unico Hace soe ucnene Bas Death of Prof. Emmons..... wiblel sla letelslalaleteteveleaaeinaneite slelewee SOD do Mitgeherlichyst .s nateliis kc fiaivae RUN | eS OES The American Tea Plant......... nisiesniele: alle ei) felatels setesule ie tereoereeo Ole Ottawa Nat. Hist:Soeciety ii... tee e cee veostdecusceecens 397 Prof. Winchell or Elephantine Molsrs:.-. 02). ee ofercretniepare 398 Botanical Society of Kingston.....csccsccecceccecccces 76, 211 Entomological Society of Canada.......cccecececccecccccee 212 Meeting of British Association..........2.. 0.0. c eee e ele, 375 Index. 3038 wiolatels Wi ovsiel ofe/aisjole! afafelv’e/vidiv/ dive eral a Sica caiantcre ne AO ERRATA, For “about half,” read “two fifths,” line 23.......ccecccscceecce 153 For “ two- fifths,” read “ one-half,” line 26......... seeeereeseeee 153 For “ base,” read “ case,” line 26. Siena olelaje saints skersigiis sible overs tierkele LG hy) 45h) / 1 Lf, ae ey M, yy ¥ compressa, Linn. (= N. Grenlandica, Chemn.) Tellina proxima, Brown. Admete viridula, Fabr. Tellina Greenlandica, Beck. Trichotropis borealis, Brod. & Sow. - T. fusca, Say, T. Balthica, Lov.) Tectura testudinalis, Mull. Lepeta ceca, Mull. from the Gulf of the St. Lawrence, are not only typical boreal forms, but have been dredged by Messrs. McAndrew and Barrett on the coasts of Norway and Finmark. The proximity’ of one of the cold currents of the gulf stream, and the extremely low southern limit of floating ice on this side of the Atlantic, might indeed lead us to suspect the sub-arctic nature of the marine invertebrata of the estuary of the St. Lawrence. It appears to me that the boreal or sub-arctic character of the fauna and flora of part of Canada is tolerably well established. The animals and plants of Canada, geographically speaking, ave yet other affinities, What has been termed by Mr. 54 ON THE LAND AND FRESH-WATER Woodward, the Atlantic region, includes the New England states, and all of the more southern states east of the Allegha- nies. These mountains appear to divide two well marked groups of land and fresh water-shells. Corresponding perhaps with this zoological province, is the region of Asters and Solidagos, of Prof.Schouw. The difficulty is to separate the flora of the region east of the Alleghanies from that to the westward of those mountains. For although the fresh-water shells, of Pennsyl- vania, for instance, have a distinct general aspect from those of the state of Ohio, yet the plants of the two states are puzz- lingly alike. That is to say, if we try to instance any group of plants, (neither mountainous and probably sub-arctic species, on the one hand, or species naturalized from Europe on the other,) we shall find it very difficult to give a list of species that do not inhabit both sides of the Alleghanies. Yet such plants as Magnolia glauca, Spirzea tomentosa, Tilloea simplex, Gnaphalium decurrens, Kalmia latifolia, Azalea viscosa, with sev- eral species of Aster, Solidago, Nabalus (?), and Vaccinium, may be considered perhaps as constituting a fair example of the Atlan- tic flora. Prof. Schouw’s region is described as being character- ized by the paucity of Cruciferze, and Umbelliferee, by an almost total absence of true heaths, which are represented by Vaccinium, and Gaylussacia ; and by the abundance of Asters and Solidagos. This province has not. been well defined froma geographical point of view. On the supposition that the Atlantic region, as defined geographically by Mr. Woodward, corresponds with Prof. Schouw’s botanical province, I think we may see that in its fauna and flora, part of the Canadian area has affinities with this general natural- history region. Almost all our Lower Canadian land and fresh-water shells are found in the Atlantic states, north of Cape Hatteras. The same is the case in Upper Canada, so far as we know, with the exception of the southwestern peninsula of that province, as previously defined. It is true, that some smali fresh-water bivalves, of the family Cycla- didze, have been described from the neighborhood of Lake Superior, which have not yet been found anywhere else; but these most likely came from the south shore of the lake, in the state of Michigan, and probably belong to the western natural-history region. In Lower Canada, again, many species of Solidago and Aster abound 5 the genus Erica appears to be wholly absent, severai species of Vaccinium and a Gaylussacia (G. resinosa) appearing instead, MOLLUSCA OF LOWER CANADA. 55 while the paucity of species of the large families of Umbelliferze and Cruciferz is quite noticeable in Lower Canada. The line of demarcation between the Canadian part of Dr. Hooker’s sub-arctic region, and the outlier, so to speak, of the Atlantic region, in Canada, cannot be accurately defined, No isothermal line will suffice, for the simple reason that since the creation of the still existing fauna and flora, such physical changes have been effected, that the isothermals during the newer tertiary period must have been constantly varying. Tosum up this part of our subject,—we have, as it seems to me, in this vast province, fragments, so to speak, of three natural-history regions. Canada, on tbe whole, as defined on the map, has not a race of animals, or a group of plants which are so special and peculiar to it as to constitute a good natural-history province. As I have endeavoured to shew, the southwest peninsula of Upper Canada is an outlier of the western region; and tlie remainder of Canada is partly of a sub-arctic type, and partly, so far as its zoology and botany are concerned, has affinities with the northern Atlantic states. With one remark I shall close this part of our subject. Prof, Asa Gray has shown us that the plants of eastern North America bear a greater resemblance to those of Japan, than those inhabiting the tract of land between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific. Ata meeting of the Natural History Society of Boston, Dr. Gould exhibited a marine bivalve shell (a species of Leda) also from Japan, which he considered identical with a living Massachusetts species. It would be interesting to the naturalist to know ifthe same similarity obtains between the mollusca, &c., of the two countries, as the relations of their flora would seem to warrant. But in order to be enabled to speculate with any degree of ac- curacy on the rationale of the present geographical distribution of animais and plants, we must also carefully glean what little evid- ence we may from the geologic record. Since the creation of at least some of the animals and plants which still people Europe and North America, mighty physical changes on the earth’s surface have been apparently effected, to the consideration of which, as bearing direct- ly on my subject, I would call some attention. Dr. Dawson has carefully catalogued the drift fossils from Beauport, the neigh- borhood of Montreal, Green’s Creek on the Ottawa, and part of Maine. To match these we want complete and accurate lists of the marine invertebrata of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence, and carefully 56 ON inn LAND AND FRESH-WATER prepared catalogues illustrative of the zoology and botany of the interior of Canada. From Mr. Bell, and from other observers we learn that many of our common fresh-water shells occur in post- pliocene beds of much higher antiquity than our lacustrine marls, while one, if not two, of our Lower Canadian land snails, is of as high an antiquity as the Upper Eocene formation. The Helix labyrinthica of Say, a little snail not uncommon in a living state in Canada, has been found fossil in the Upper Eocene lime- stones of Headon Hill in the Isle of Wight, and also in the Paris basin. It has been suggested too, that the Helix omphalos, of Searles Wood, another of the Headon Hill fossils, is identical _with a living Canadian snail, the Helix striatella of Anthony. The late lamented Edward Forbes bas shown us the importance of studying the fossils of the newer tertiaries in connection with the distribution of living animals and plants. It appears to me to be well, in order clearly to understand our subject, briefly to epito- mize, as on a former occasion, his brilliant and most profoundly philosophical generalizations. On the tops of the mountains near the lakes of Killarney, in Ireland, occur a few plants, entirely different from those of the mountains of North Wales and Scotland, but nearly agreeing with those of the Asturian mountains in the north of Spain. According to Forbes, the southern character of these few plants, and their extreme isolation, (together with col- lateral facts respecting the peculiar distribution of the marine in- vertebrata of that region) point to a period when a great moun- tain barrier extended across part of the Atlantic, uniting Ireland with Spain. Soon after this, arguing from similar data, he infers that another barrier of high land connected the west of France with the southwest of England, and thence with Ireland: while a little later England and France were connected by dry land towards the eastern end of the English Channel. As tending to prove this latter view, we may cite the fact, well known to European geolo- gists, that one fresh-water and one land snail, (Bithinia marginata, and Helix incarnata) abundant as post-pliocene fossils in the valley of the Thames, are still living in France, though extinct in Great Britain. At the time of the glacial drift, what are now the summits of the Scotch and Welsh mountains, were then, Forbes argues, low islands, or members of chains of islands, extending to the area of Norway, through a glacial sea, and clothed with an Arctic vegetation, which in the gradual upheaval of those moun- tains, and consequent change of climate, became limited to the 7 MOLLUSCA OF LOWER CANADA. 5T summits of the new formed and still existing mountains. Few botanists who have climbed the Scotch Highlands, will fail to recol- lect the little isolated patches of Arctic plants onthe highest mountain summits, which never occur ata less altitude than from 3000 to 3500 feet above the sea level. Well do I remember standing one fine August morning on the apex of Ben Luwers, the clouds at my feet obscuring everything below, the warm sun shining in the deep blue sky above, and admiring the glorious hue of the Alpine forget-me-not (Myosotis alpestris) the two rare mountain Saxifrages, (S. nivalis and 8. cernua,) and a whole array of characteristic ferns, mosses, &c. But I am digressing. After the gradual re-upheavals subsequent to this state of things, it is be- lieved that Ireland was connected with England, and England with Germany, by vast plains, fragments of which still exist as submarine elevations of the land on the west coast of Iveland, charged with the familiar fossils of the period. Upon these lived numerous animals, some of which, as the musk ox, red deer, and horse, yet live. Others, again, as the Arctic elephaut (Euelephas primigenius), the two-horned Rhinoceri (Rhinoceros tichorinus, and R. leptorhinus), cave bear (Ursa speleea), hyena, etc., though now extinct in Great Britain, have left behind their bones, teeth etc., as post-pliocene fossils in the gravels and clays of our English drifts. According to D’Archiag, the separation of the British Islands from France took place after the deposition of the gravels of the valley of the Somme, in which flint implements have been found. And hence it has been inferred “That the primitive people, to whom we attribute the hatchets and other worked fiints of Amiens and Abbeville, might have communicated with the existing country of Evgland by dry land, inasmuch as the separation did not take place until after the deposit of the rolled diluvial pebbles, from among which the hatchets and other objects, have been collected.” * The discovery of the fossil remains of an elephantin Sicily, near Syracuse, and at Palermo, identical with the living African species (vide Dr. Falconer,) renders it also probable that man lived in Europe at a time when what is now the Mediterranean was a mighty fresh water river. But to come nearer home. It has been held by many of the most eminent geologists that the great depression and subsequent gradual re-upheaval of the land during the post-pliocene age, in Northern Europe and Asia, also took place in temperate north America. Sir Charles Lyell, after care- ful study of the drift fossils of the United States and Canada, 58 ON THE LAND AND FRESH-WATER first propounded this theory, which has since been so ably advo- cated by Dr. Dawson. Throughout all Canada, at any rate east of the Niagara escarpment, we find, often at considerable heights above the level of the sea, stratified deposits of sand and clay, full of marine shells etc, generally of species which still inhabit the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. These have beenso carefully and ably described by Dr. Dawson, that I need here do little more than refer to his papers on this subject. It seems pretty clearly proved that, at the time when these deposits were formed, the whole of Lower Canada was submerged beneath the ocean, with only the very highest points of the land left high and dry. To explain the great cold which is supposed to have obtained over temperate Europe during the post-pliocene period, it has been ably and ingeniously suggested that at the time of the general depres- sion of the land, the isthmus of Darien, or part of it at least, was submerged and the direction of one of the great currents of the gulf stream consequently changed.~ Thus the warm current which now washes the Western shores of Great Britain, then, it is urged, ran up the west coast of north America; while the cold current now washing the mainland of Labrador, then flowed around the small area of Kurope left unmerged. When the re-upheaval of the land took place, the isthmus of Darien would form an impassable bar- rier against ocean currents, and would tend to produce the pre- sent state of things. Of later years we have obtained a few more facts bearing directly on this theory. Mr. Woodward, quoting the views of Prof. C.B. Adams, states in his Manual, in 1856, that only one marine shell (Purpura patula) is common to both sides of the isthmus. But on referring to Mr. Carpenter’s able report on the mollusea of the west coast of North America, (Reports of the Brit- ish Association for the Advancement of Sience, 1857,) we find very different views entertained. Thus he gives a list of thirty-five species which unquestionably live both on the Atlantic and Pacific shores- To these he adds twenty-four species which are probably common to both sides, and forty-one species inhabiting the same area, which he considers “ really separated but by slight differences.” It is to be remarked that our knowledge on these points is so limited, that when large series have been procured, many species now separated, may be corsidered identical. And from later sources, we learn that some species, not included in this Report yet inhabit both oceans, (A series of marine shells collected at Mazatlan by Mr. Moores of Columbus, Ohio, was exhibited to support this view.) Further MOLLUSCA OF LOWER CANADA. 59 to the north it is noticeable that several shells, mostly littoral species, occur on both the Pacific and Atlantic shores. Modiola modiolus, Crenella discrepans, Trichotropis borealis, and Bela tnr- ricula, inhabit Oregon, north-eastern America, and northern Europe. Referring again to Mr. Carpenter’s Report we see that sixteen species of Arctic mollusca inhabit both the Atlantic and Pacific. These are :— Rhynchonella psittacea, Gmel. Trichotropis borealis, Brod. & Sow. Mya arenaria, Linn. Admete viridula, Fabr. Macheera costata, Say. Scalaria Groeenlandica, Chemn. Tellina solidula. (T. fusca, mele Natica clausa, Brod. & Sow. Mactra ovalis, Gould. Purpura lapillus, Linn. Mytilus edulis, Linn. Fusus Islandicus, Linn. Anomia patellifornis, Linn. ‘¢ antiquus, Linn. Margarita arctica, Leach. Trophon clathratus, Linn. te helicina, Mole. The majority of these are species of considerable geographical distribution ; all but two (Machcera costata and Mactra ovalis) also inhabit northern Europe. The Tellina nasuta of Conrad, from Ore- gon, may be a geographical variety of the Tellina proxima of the ‘eastern coast. In lke manner Turritella Eschrichtii may be Scalaria borealis, and Littorina Sitchana of Philippi (also from Oregon) may be only a variety of Littorina patula. We have seen that eleven of the Lower Canadian fresh-water shells also inhabit the west coast of North America, Yet the grand chain of the Rocky Mountains intervenes, presenting, according to the views of most naturalists, an impassable barrier to migration. How then can we account for this apparent anomaly? Admitting that during the post-pliocene period, a great, but gradual depress- ion of the land took place on this continent, do we not begin to see our way a little more clearly? When the mountain tops alone were left uncovered by the ocean, these snails, for instance, could only remain on, or near, the dry land, and when the land re-assumed its present shape and general physical condition, the whole area would be peopled, in part, from these sources. For supposing these creatures confined by the above mentioned causes to what are now the peaks of the Rocky Mountains, it is not difficult to conceive, that on the gradual re-elevation of the land, these molluscs could extend in both an easterly and westerly direction, Whether the theory I have advanced be true, or whether it is more likely that such sluggish creatures as fresh- 60 ON THE LAND AND FRESH-WATER water snails should have travelled the entire breadth of this great continent, and have surmounted such obstacles as a mountain ehain, the highest peaks of which are from 15,000 to 18,000 feet above the level of the sea, and clothed with Bidet: ice and suow, I leave for naturalists te determine. The large proportion of marine invertebrata common to: the coasts of eastera North America and northern Europe has been thought to imply the existence of a pathway across the Atlantic since the creation of the existing flora and fauna. We have seen that eight at least (and probably double that number) of the inland mollusca of Canada also inhabit northern Europe. Some such theory as the one I have alluded to, would seem neces- sary to explain this rather+ peculiar geographical distribution. Dr. Hooker’s theory of the south westward migration of the Scandinavian flora, and of its subsequent. return under altered physical circumstances, would seem to be doubtful on geological grounds, also from the Darwinian reasoning called in to support the latter half oft his hypothesis. Dr. Dawson has cited the case of two species of Solidago living on Mount Washington, one of which (S. thyrsoidea,) has a limited range in northeastern Americas while the other (S. virgaurea,) has a widely extended distribution, * living as far north in Arctic America as from 55° to 65°, occur- ring also in the Rocky Mountains, in Great Britain, Norway, and many places in temperate Europe. He suggests that the plants: which extend over so large an area, may belong to the older Are- tic flora, and that the other species, of very local distribution, may belong to a newer flora. (The two species cited are not perhaps the best examples that might have been chosen to support this view, as they have been considered identical by some botanists. I would suggest the two cranberries, Vaccinium oxycoccus, and V. macrocarpon, as unquestionably distinct species, illustrating the same point.) If this theory be correct, it may be that those Lower Canadian shells which have a wide geographical distribution may be members of an older fauna than that which is more especially characteristic of a limited area in northeastern America. Judging from our present knowledge of the older post-pliocene deposits of Canaia, it is quite remarkable that the species found in the marine beds are almost universally of very wide distribution. The science of archzo-geology, or in other words, the connection between geology on the one hand and archeology on the other, may receive benefit from a much more rigorous comparison be- MOLLUSCA OF LOWER CANADA. 61 tween tertiary fossils and their living analogues. -Archologists tell us there are three epochs in man’s history; the first, and oldest, of stone, the second of bronze, the third of iron. The discovery of flint implements in European drifts, together with the evidences afforded by the Pfahlbauten (pile-works) or lake habitations, in Switzerland, have taught us that man was contem- porary with many extinct mammals, that were once thought to date back beyond the historic period. As yet we have no definite proof that man existed prior to the deposition of the older marine deposits of the post-pliocene period, represented in this country by the Leda clay and the Saxicava sand. In the stone period we have evidence of two races of mankind, which in all probability were separated from each other by a considerable space of time. Of the primitive race who made the so-called flint hatchets, spear heads, ete., which have been collected in such numbers in the valley of the Somme, we know but little positively. Contemporary with them were Huelephas primigenius, Bison priscus, Hippopotamus major, Rhinoceros leptorhinus, and R. tichorinus (?), the cave bear—a spe- cies said by Owen to exceed in size the grizzly bear of the Rocky Mountains—and the fossil hyzena. The fresh-water shells asso- ciated with these, with one exception, are of species still living in France. The solitary exception is the well known Corbicula flu- minalis, which now inhabits the Alexandrian canal. Whether the implements of this race were made for warlike or for agricultural purposes is not positively known. But respecting the men of the second period in the stone age, the Celts, we have much fuller knowledge. So many of their settlements have been discovered in Switzerland that it would be tedious to particularize all of them. For instance, on the lake of Geneva, twenty-four such colonies have been found; on lake Neufchatel twenty-six, and on lake Bienne eleven. The dwellers in these lake habitations belonged however to the bronze epoch, as well as to the later of the two stone periods. Some of these colonies must have been large, judging from the size of the piles and the numbers of the huts. Thus in one of the settlements on lake Neufchatel, remains of 311 cabins of large size have been found, and allowing four inha- bitants to each hut, we should have an aggregate of 1244 indivi- duals. From similar data it has been calculated that in Switzer- land alone, sixty-eight villages of the bronze period contained nearly 43,000 persons; and in the older or stone period the settlements discovered would accommodate nearly 32,000. 62 ON THE LAND AND FRESH-WATER Their dwellings appear to have been circular or square huts, grouped on wooden platforms elevated a few feet above the level of and the water, supported above it by huge piles. Each cabin had a trap-door opening on to the lake, and the whole settlement communicated with dry land by means of a bridge. The huts of the pileworks were built of wood, lined with mud, and on the ex- terior, boughs of wood interlacing each other. We have been enabled to trace the way they felled the trees for their piles, They would burn a circle round the bottom of a tree, chop the charred part away with their stone hatchets, then alternately burn and chop until the tree fell. We see in the stumps the mark of the fire, and the rude cuts of their stone axes. The piles of the habitations of the men of the bronze period were much more elaborate, being made with metal axes. The lake dwellings were apparently first made by the men of the later stone period, to defend themselves against formidable wild beasts; afterwards, in the bronze age, they were found to be useful in protecting the inhabitants from the incursions of hostile tribes. It has been suggested that bronze was introduced into Europe by the Pheeni- cians about the time of the founding of Carthage, somewhere about the year 800 before Christ The animals most formidable to the men of the stone period in Switzerland (according to Mr, Lubbock) were the brown bear, (Ursus arctos); the wolf, (Canis lupus); the marsh boar, (Scrofa palustris); the common wild boar, (Scrofa ferus) ; the Urus or wild bull, (Bos primigenius) ; and the European bison, (Bos bison).’ The abundance of bones of of the elk and red deer in these settlements would seem to shew how densely wooded was the surrounding country at this times Twenty-eight species of quadrupeds, seventeen kinds of birds) three of reptiles, and ten of fishes have been found, in fragmentary condition in the pile works. At the village of Concise, on lake Neufchatel, as many as 20,000 objects have been discovered The stone implements seem to be principally axes, knives, saws, lance and arrow-heads, corn-crushers, d&c. These have been ela- borately deseribed by Mr. Lubbock in the number of the Natural History Review for January, 1862,—this article is copied entire in Silliman’s American Journal for September, 1862. Their arrow-heads the Celts often made out of the bones of animals which they had slain in the chase. Specimens of their food have even been obtained in the shape of unleavened cakes, and as carbonized apples and pears. It is stated that our “rude fore * MOLLUSCA OF LOWER CANADA. 63 fathers” were sometimes so reduced by hurger that they condes. cended to eat foxes. Their pottery seems to have been ornamented in the rudest way with their finger-ends and their nails. The men of the bronze age in Switzerland appear to have lived as late as the ear- ly Roman period. Remains indicative of a battle-field have been found in one of the Swiss Pfahlbauten of the bronze period, in the shape of swords, pieces of chariots, and Gauliot coins. In Ireland, lake habitations have been observed, but these are probably of more recent origin, and are mentioned in early Irish history. They were mere artificial islands on lakes ; but sometimes the Irish like the Swiss, built their settlements on piles running pier-like into the water. Both of these customs appear tobe common to savage nations in the historic period. Thus Venezuela obtained its name, in early times, from its supposed resemblance to Venice. From Herodotus we learn that in Poeonian villages the first plat- form was made at the public expense, but afterwards, at every marriage (polygamy being allowed) the bridegroom was expected to add a certain number of piles to the common support. Thus it seems that at any rate during the earlier part of the post- pliocene period, two races of mankind have appeared and disappear- ed from the face of the earth, and with them have disappeared some of the larger and more powerful mammals of the period. Yet the general aspect of the animal and vegetable kingdoms seems to have changed but little from that time. Some of the leaders in comparative ethnography have indulged in speculations concerning the geological date of the creation of man, in which they assign to the human race a far higher antiqui- ty than the post-pliocene period. Speaking of the flint-imple- | ment-making men, Mr. Lubbock observes: ‘“ Whether the drift race of men were realiy the aboriginal inhabitants of Europe, still remained to be ascertained. M. Rutimeyer hints that our geographical distribution indicates a still greater antiquity for the human race.” One of our ablest British naturalists goes much further and thus sums up this question. “There was a lapse of prodigious ages since man had appeared on the earth, and through which the savage habits had continued without change. And, immeasurably far back as is the age of the flint implement- making men, as far, or farther back still from them must we go to trace the primitive abode of the human species. The great battle to prove the existence of man among the mam- moths, like many other first battles, has turned out in the 64 ON THE LAND AND FRESH-WATER _end, a mere affair of outposts; and for the real origin of man we must.¢o immeasurably farther back from that remarkable time, into the great pliocene or miocene age. To this period succeeded another, of which we are as ignorant as of that which preceded it. For as the mammoth, Irish elk and cave bear have disappeared from the face of the earth, so did this early race vanish away, leaving their weapons, their bones and their dwellings as the only traces of their existence. Afterwards, at an enormous interval, came another race, the Celts, in many points resembling their pre- decessors, living in similar habitations, and unacquainted with the use of metals, but more highly civilized and possessed of more highly finished weapons, and, as the Pfahlbauten of the Swiss lakes shew, cultivating cereals, and to a certain degree, a pastoral people.” Pointing in the same direction, are Prof. Muller’s the- ories on the origin of language, and the well known speculations of the Chevalier Bunsen. With the philological argument however the naturalist has nothing to do. In an enquiry of,so much interest and consequence, it be hoves us to be very cautions. Those naturalists who have read Dr. Falconer’s able papers on tertiary mammals will see that, according to that careful observer, each subdivision of the tertiary period is characterized by a group of mammals special and peculiar to it. And, as a whole, we find that the higher animals have a much more limited range in time than the lower forms of life. It would seem that the higher the organism, the less likely would it be to hold its own under trying physical vicis- situdes, and altered conditions of whatever kind. Thus foramini- ferze, identical with living species, occur in mesozoic strata; and, as we have seen, one at least of our Canadian land snails lived through nearly the whole of the great tertiary period. The gravels which furnished the worked flints of Amiens and Abbeville are fresh-water deposits, not older, if as old, as the post-pliocene deposits in Canada, known locally as the Leda clay and the Saxicava sand. It is much to be wished that in the accounts both of the flint-implement-making men of the valley of the Somme, and of the inhabitants of the Swiss Phfahlbauten, we had more careful lists of the larger mammals of the two periods. As to the geological date of man’s appearance on the earth, as far as I can see, we have no positive evidence which would date man farther back, at any rate, than the older part of the post-pliocene. Thus I have endeavoured to jot down, in rather a cursory manner, MOLLUSCA OF LOWER GANADA. 65 some general thoughts which a very short study of Canadian land and fresh-water shells, etc., has suggested tomy own mind. It has appeared to me that in order to speculate rationally on the geo- graphical range of the mollusca in Lower Canada, we must take into consideration all the physical changes which have occurred ‘since these creatures were first created. In other words, we should study the post-pliocene fossils of the district in question, and insti- tute a carefu! comparison between them and the recent shells of the country. Knowing the difficulty of access to scientifi¢ works in Canada, I have made a short summary of Edward Forbes’s famous essay, and have shortly epitomized Mr. Lubbock’s paper on the Swiss Pfahlbauten, hoping that attention drawn to the subject, may possibly result in the discovery of works of human art in our Canadian tertiary or post-tertiary deposits, NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF MONTREAL. First ANNUAL CONVERSAZIONE. The society having determined to hold an annual conversazione, as a literary, scientific and social reunion of its friends, a com: mittee, consisting of Mr. Stanley Bagg, Mr. Becket, Mr. Robb, and Mr. Rose, with Mr. Leeming, the recording secretary, was appointed to make arrangements, and the meeting was accord- ingly held in the Society’s Rooms on the evening of Tuesday, February 3rd. The following addresses were delivered on the occasion, after which the company enjoyed themselves in examining the Museum and a large collection of works of art, microscopes, etc., furnished for the occasion by friends of the Society, Principal Dawson, in opening the proceedings of the evening, said:—I have much pleasure this evening in inaugurating a new feature in the progress of this Society—our Annual Conversazione—an occasion on which the members of this As- sociation, with all its beasts, birds and creeping things, an- nounce themselves “at home,” and invite their friends to a scien- tific and intellectual feast, which we hope will continue to grow in interest in each succeeding year, and will remain as one of the permanent institutions of the society and of the city. The last occasion on which we thus entertained our friends was that of the opening of this building, an event of the utmost importance in the history of the society, and which has more than realized the most sanguine anticipations of those who promoted the remo- Can. Nar. 5 . Vou.. VIII. 66 NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF MONTREAL. val of the Society’s collections, and the erection of our new and commodious apartments. Since that time, our collections have been largely augmented ; many new members have been added to our list; and our monthly meetings have been amply supplied with interesting communications, many of them marking impor- tant steps of progress in the natural history of Canada. We have now connected with this Society, as members and corres- “pondents, nearly all the working naturalists and geologists of Bri- _ tish America; and our proceedings, published in the Canadian Naturalist, have extended the reputation of the Society through- out the world, and added an immense mass of valuable facts to the natural history of this country. The seven large volumes of our Waturalist, and the numbers constantly appearing, now form an indispensable part of the library of every one who studies the natural history of North America. Our labours have also been appreciated at home. The circulation of the Waturalist in Ca- nada, and the fact that it is self-supporting, the large attendance - at our monthly meetings and public lectures, and the recognition of the Society by the government of the country, as a recipient of a portion of the sums which Canada, in emulation of the wise liberality of older countries, annually grants for scientific and liter- ary purposes, all testify to this. We ali wish, however, that the advantages which we offer were still more largely used., Our > philosophy is not:of that) kind which shuts. itself up in pedantic exclusiveness. We regard the study of nature as the common heritage of all, and desire to open up to-every, one, from, the little child upward, its beauties and its uses. Placed as I am.at the head of an educational institution in which all branches of, learn- jpg’ are represented, it|doés not become me, on ordinary occasions, ‘toemagnify my ownospecial office as a teacher of natural, science, or to insist:onthe reasons which have induced me to prefer in my own case the study of nature to other. means of improving my mental powers and:rendering myself useful to my fellow, men. But here, as anoofficer of this Society, I may be permitted, with- out disparagement. to. other, kinds) of useful, knowledge, to. state 9 some special claims of the study.of nature. And, first I would say on this subject, that:the study of nature is eminently fitted to » develop ‘all our higher: powers.., Reasoning, on first. principles, othis is absolutely undeniable, and might be stated. still, more strongly. _ Man is the only creature on our globe fitted to com- prehend nature, and in his primitive state of innocence it was his “o NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF MONTREAL. 67 only book; and as among lower creatures, every one is specially adapted to its condition of life, so there is a special adaptation of ‘the powers of man, created in the image of his Maker, to that system of things proceeding in all its parts from the same Al- mighty mind. Practical experience confirms this inference. What more fitted than natural objects to call forth the exercise of the powers of observation, what to develope a more nice power of discrimination, what to train to all the intricacies of contingent reasoning. The man who has disciplined his mind by the thor- ough study of any department of nature, who has gathered to- gether and scrutinized its minute facts, who has by careful induc- tion learned from them general truths, who has mastered, as far as our limited intellects may, the plans of the Creator in any portion of his works, has thereby aquired a mental training more godlike -in its character than any that. can be gained from art or human literature, because he has been following in the footsteps, not of man, but of God. Farther, natural science grasps within itself the essence of many other departments of culture. All the higher literature and more especially the literature of the sacred books and of the more ancient nations, is imbued with nature. All true art has its foundation in the higher art of creation. The princi- ples of mathematical and physical science have some of their highest. applications in the mineral, the plant and the ani- mal; and geology presses into its service the results of almost ‘every kind of inquiry as to material things. For this reason, while nothing can be more simple than the mere elements - of the knowledge of nature, nothing can be more intricate or abstruse than its higher questions ; nothing is more suited to. convince a man of his own ignorance, or to prevent him from resting in a limited range of acquirement, or from remaining sat- ' isfied with the rude attempts of man to imitate the perfect beauty and adaptation of natural things. Again, the modes of investiga- tion in natural history bear a cirect relation to those modes of thought which are most necessary in the ordinary work of life. Observation, comparison, reasoning from cause to effect,—and these '. am relation to the means by which the Author of nature carries on his vast operations,—are the leading pursuits of the naturalist ; and their effect in producing an acute, yet comprehensive style of thought, is conspicuous in the lives and works of all eminent stu- dents of nature. Noriis there anything in natural history calcu- lated to engender pedantry or conceit. The naturalist works in 68 NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF MONTREAL. the presence of mysteries of life and structure which he cannot . fathom, and which, therefore, teach him humility. He is only the interpreter of that which he cannot imitate; and he is willing, in collecting his facts, to sit at the feet of any one who can inform him in respect to the thousands of ordinary phenomena open to the investigation of every person who observes. Lastly, the reve- lation of God in nature, like that in his word, is thrown around us in such a way that while a little child may learn much of it, the powers of the highest intellect are tasked in reaching its higher truths, and in correcting the errors in which carelessness. and igno- rance envelop it. These two great revelations are twin products of the Divine mind: the one the study of man in innocence; the other the safety of man fallen :—and it is true that he who loves God most, will appreciate nature most ; he who knows nature best, must best understand its Author. To disparage the study of nature as inferior to any other means of culture, is to evince the littleness of a mind dwarfec’by the study of man’s doings and blind to those of God, or the impiety of a sou! that has no wish to magnify the works which men behold, as the external manifestation of the spi- ritual Creator. But I must not follow such thoughts further, and now close by earnestly inviting all who are present this evening, to unite with us in exploring the wonders that are spread everywhere around us in nature, and assuring them that in this matter a little knowledge is not a dangerous, but on the contrary, a plea- sant and profitable thing ; and that while in Canada, there is scope for many more workers than we now haye, there is still more ample scope for all who may desire to understand and enjoy the results of their labors. f Rey. A. F. Kemp next addressed the audience. He said it af- forded him great pleasure to be there. Yet he had come there un- expectedly to himself, after rather severe labours during the pre- ceding week ; but being a great lover of natural science, he could not shrink from the invitation, and from saying such words as he might be enabled to offer on a subject so deeply interesting to him. Natural science was a most interesting part of human learn- tng: most people liked it: it had a greater charm than most other departments. Amongst children there was a great taste for natural objects. They liked to touch things, and were curious in their inquiries about them. Curiosity was the faculty which in natural science was brought to bear upon nature. Some people, NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 9F MONTREAL. 69 as they grew old, seemed to lose this; and their inquiry as to anything new, was merely as to its utility, and whether it would pay. But those who retain the freshness and vigour of their youth have highér conceptions of the wonderful things with which they are surrounded. I have a great admiration too for what I may call the scientific method of thinking and reasoning. This method could not be satisfied without seeing, knowing, and _thor- oughly understanding, if possible, all about the objects of nature that lay within the compass of human apprehension. It was close and searching. It can be satisfied only with facts carefully observed and defined as the basis of its conclusions. If anything . were omitted in the inquiry, the conclusions would be all wrong: the induction would fall to the ground, like a house of cards. But when it had got all the facts and their relations to one an- other it could then by the inductive process reach conclusions which might be regarded as reliable and certain. There was an infinite variety in the departments of natural science. Every taste could thus be gratified. Some. loved entomology ; but, for him- self, he did not like to stick pins into butterflies and other insects. The study of animal life was certainly full of interest, but to him there always appeared to be something rather painful, if not cruel, about it. He preferred that department of natural science which had to do with what they might term, insentient life, or that of the vegetable. It was very easy to undertake, and exceedingly delightful. To its student the mighty forests were open, whose trees lifted their heads to heaven, and if he choose he could turn to the more lowly flowers of the field. Wooing them upon the river’s banks, hé would be repaid with unalloyed healthy pleasure. I profess to have turned my attention a little in this direction. Dr. Dawson had said, the study of natural science made men ~ humble. Then he (Mr. Kemp) must be so, for his part was to study the humblest forms of nature, namely, marine and fresh- water plants, many of which could only be observed by means of the microscope ; and he would say, that he had felt true exhilara- tion of mind, and pure pleasure, when he had been in the field engaged in such pursuits. In that employment, he had roamed amongst the cliffs of Bermuda, and been charmed with the sight of that climate’s most brilliant marine flora. “I have some- times had amusing adventures there. One day I remember, when looking round in the hope of discovering some new species, T saw as I conceived oneof the more brilliant red plants gleaming 70 -- NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF MONTREAL. bright, at a considerable depth in the water; it moved grace- fully. with every motion of the waves. I feasted my eyes’on its beauty, and thought if only I could secure it without injury how glad I would be. To dive so deep and bring it up was not pos- sible for me, so I got a long branch of a neighbouring tree, and up to the knees in water, on a rock near by, I worked till at last { caught it, and with joy pulled up my prize, But what do you think it was? Why, nothing but a bit of a soldier’s red coat! (Laughter.) I was very much disgusted you may be sure. But yet it was so amusing that I enjoyed “the sell” amazingly. “IT do not need to go far for the objects of my study. They are everywhere—on the damp soil, the water spout, the pool, the high-way,—in the streamlet, the river, and the ocean. Pools of stagnant water, covered with a green mantle, were no contempt- ible fields for investigation. They were not unhealthful, and they were filled with objects, than which few were of greater interest: When upon a large scale, they emitted carbonic acid gas, or miasma the little things which covered them fed upon that gas, and absorbed it, leaving globules of pure and healthy oxygen. Some of these plants were exceedingly complicated and curious, and, to his mind, the most beautiful in the vegetable kingdom. Mr. Kemp here exhibited drawings of Spyrogyre and Rivularie, and explained the structure and growth of these minute plants, which were constantly to be found growing in stagnant pools or on the banks of streams, and were objects of great interest to naturalists. They were exceedingly prolific, and he considered their peculiar manner of propagation as a proof of the permanency of species, in opposition to the Darwinian theory. Little and lowly they were, yet on examining their structure, and studying their econ- omy, we were led into regions of life most wonderful and myste- rious exhibiting the wisdom, goodness, and power of the Creator. Whence life came we could not tell; what it was the microscope could not discover. God concealed himself amidst his works, even while he revealed his power and skill in the outward aspects which they presented. In observing even these minute forms of life one could not but feel the truth of the saying: “ Canst thou by searching find out God, canst thou find out the Almighty unto perfection?” For the speaker’s part, though his special study was, from choice and profession the Bible, yet he felt bound, at the same time, to unfold and read the wondrous pages of creation. He did not believe it possible for a man to be an infidel, whilst NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY ‘OF MONTREAL. 71 he paid scientific attention to nature. He was glad to see his audience there. The society had left its former humble rooms; and with the occupation of better ones, seemed to have improved in spirit. Let those who were not already members, become so, and begin and prosecute the ‘study of the works of their beneficent Creator. : . The Cuarrman then rose and thanked Mr. Kemp for his excel- lent address, saying, that the poet had said, there were “ tongues in trees; books in the running brooks, and sermons in stones,” but Mr. Kemp had found sermons, in stagnant pools. ae Selections of music, from Verdi and Donizetti, were then per- formed by the Band.’ When these were over, the Chairman in- troduced the Rev. Dr. De Sola, who said :— I believe that no member of the Natural History Society will regret that it was decided to hold this pleasant social meeting here, when he looks around and sees how readily and numerous- ly the friends of the Society have come forward this evening, to show their interest in us. And I am sanguine enough to believe that all who have come to-night are friends of the Society, and wish us God-speed in our efforts to promote its objects. And I am also sanguine enough to believe as a consequence, that those days in which the Natural History Society only vegetated, and in which even this vegetative existence was scarcely known to the public, are past, for ever past, without recall. At the same time, I do not forget that though the claims of natural science are be. coming better understood, still much misconception as to its ends still exists, and some branches which this institution favors, are even now regarded with suspicion, if not with positive dislike, by many worthy persons whounaccountably fancy that the cause of revealed truth may be injured by them. This is no occasion fully to examine such an objection. We can only say to such timid persons, “ Become members of this Society, and judge for your- selves, what powerful support science has given revelation.” With reference to this misconception, I may go further and say that had carpers at holy writ been better naturalists, and possess- ed greater knewledge of physical science, they had not advanced half the fallacies they have. Thus, if the writer of a recent most crude and unfortunate publication, entitled “ A critical examin- ation of the Pentateuch and Book of Joshua,’—called critical, 12 NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF MONTREAL. perhaps, because there is no evidence of fair criticismin it, on the same principle that a worthy son of Erin called himself rich, be- cause his money could not be counted,—if this writer, I say, had only been a working member of the Natural History Society of Montreal, I am sure that at least some of his objections would not have been started, but he would have recoiled at their absurdity. As an example, when he puzzles himself with one of his favorite arithmetical propositions,—“ If 600,000 men in London require so much fuel, how much did 600,000 Israelites require in the desert, where trees are few,’ a member might remind him that the genus homo amidst the fogs, damp and cold of London, requires -a little more caloric than the genus homo travelling under the burning sun of Arabia—that to cook the bread and beef of old England requires a little more fuel than did the manna, the food of the Israelites, which was melted by the mere heat of the sun. We could also whisper to him a few secrets about animal fuel, such as the Arab even now prepares in the desert, and the prophet Hzekiel refers to. We might say something too of the changes taking place on the face of the physical world,— of Lebanon, now barren and once covered with trees—of the present sterility of parts of Palestine, formerly most productive and prosperous, and show that even the wood-fuel they had was not absolutely required; nay, we might give him a rule-of-three sum in return, and say, if 600,000 persons required so much fuel in Arabia, and so much in London, how is it that the same num- ber of persons in these northern regions of Canada, can find cord-wood enough for their supply, when so vast a proportion of these are needy persons, and have not wherewith to supply their wants from day to day? We will volunteer the reply also. The reply is one which all the researches of this Society into the Eternal’s works of the natural order, as well as the holy book gives us, and it is that the hand of God never waxeth short, but every thing, and every one, bears incontrovertible testimony to the infinite power, wisdom and benevolence of the Creator of nature. I trust my reference may be excused. But I desired to employ this opportunity to state my humble opinion that if biblical students and religionists will not avail themselves of the advantages conferred by the study of natural science, there is a certain personage who well knows how to use them, as he has ever used them, for the attainment of his own ends. And I desired to illustrate the needlessness of the alarm of some timid NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF MONTREAL. 15 ones, and to demonstrate the truth that science is the true friend and supporter of religion, and that therefore, this and kindred institutions should enjoy the unbounded confidence of the community. In inviting an accession of numbers to our ranks, we think that this Society, as pioneer in the development of natural history in this country, as originator of the present Geological Survey of Ca- nada—for this Natural History Society was certainly first to move here—we believe it has some claims on every Canadian. A cer- _ tain amount of progress has followed on its efforts, an accession of scientific talent has been made; and when I mention the name of a Dawson, a Logan, a Hunt, and a Billings, I think you will con- clude with me that we number among us those of whom any Society even in Europe might be proud. We know that ina young community like ours, where nearly all are engaged in those pursuits which leave little time for scientific researches, we need not hope for a very large number able to take an active part in the primary objects of this Society. But this will not always be the state of things, and we should therefore do something for pos- terity.. We can atleast lay up materials for instruction, ready for use when they shall be wanted; and if we only do this, we shall be doing an important work, for which coming generations will thank us. But we are in-fact doing more than this. The efforts of the members as they are becoming progressively greater, are also becoming better appreciated. The Society is becoming so favor- ably known that we may hope to see it yet bearing the same relation to all the British American Provinces as the British Mu- seum bears to the mother country. We therefore ask all who can, to come and aid us in realizing our aspirations, which are chiefly those of the original founders of the Society—that of extend- ing the knowledge of Natural History in particular, and of the physical sciences in general around us, so that our labors may redound to the credit not only of this growing city, but of this colony ; and above all, that these labors may be additional testi- mony to the truth that “the hand that made us is Divine,” even the hand of Him whose power, wisdom and benevolence are clearly revealed to us in all that is around. 74 NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF MONTREAL. Orpinary Meretine, Oct. 24, 1862. ier routine busiuess the following SCENE Ts were eee read and discussed :— 1. A letter from Prof. Hall on the limits of the Catskill aioe of New York, showing that a large proportion of the area, more especially in Delaware county, hitherto supposed to be occupied bythe Catskill Group, really consists of rocks of the Portage and Chemung Groups. 2. A letter from Dr. Van Courtlandt, on the occurrence of Gas- terosteous gymnetes, and of a supposed New Leuciscus in a lake tributary to the Ottawa. 3. A paper by C. Robb, Esq., C.E., on the distribution of the Superficial Deposits in C.W., and on some phenomena connected with the Mineral Springs of that region; more especially on the fresh-water drift of Upper Canada, and on the local subsidences and peculiar deposits on organic matters produced by some of the Springs. . 4, Rey. A. F. Kemp’made some remarks on the proposed use of the Zostera marina as a substitute for cotton, and on the occur- rence of this plant in Eastern America. Several papers we announced for next and subsequent meet- ings; and recommendations of the Council in relation to the bet- ter, arrangement and labelling of certain departments of the col- lection, were reported by the Secretary, Mr. Leeming, and ad- opted. A number of new members were proposed, and the meeting adjourned. Orpinary Mretine, Noy, 24, 1862. Principal Dawson, vice-President in the chair. L. H. Parkes, Esq., of Birmingham, England, Microscopist, was unanimously elected a corresponding member ; and Col. Dun- lop, R.A., Messrs. J. E. Pell, J. S. Millar, Alex. Cowan, and H. G. Vennor were elected ordinary members. After the general business, the following papers were read ; 1. Onthe habits of the pine-boring Beetles of the genus Monohammus; by E. Billings, Esq.. F.G.S.—After some general remarks on the commercial value of our timber trees, and on the numerous insects which attack them, the author noticed the spe- cies of Monohammus known in North America, and gave a patr- ticular account of the habits of Mf. Confusor, with especial refe- NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF MONTREAL. 75: rence to its ravages on the timber of the white and yellow pine ; and mentioned some very remarkable illustrations of the number of the insects, and the rapidity with which timber is destroyed by them. 2. On a New Crustacean from the Potsdam Sandstone; in a letter from Prof. Hall to Dr. Dawson—Prof. Hall referred to the paper on the footprints of Limulus recently read before the Society, and stated his belief that a new crustacean recently des- cribed by him before the Albany institute, but not yet published, answered to the conditions implied in the formation of Protich- nites as illustrated by the modern Limulus. 8. On the Acton Copper Mines; by T. McFarlane, Esq.—In the absence of the author this paper was read by Mr. Robb. It contained an elaborate account of the mine and of the bed con- taining the ore, with its various disturbances; and entered into the probable origin of the deposit, and the modes of extracting and dressing the ores; being altogether the most complete and detailed account of this remarkable deposit which has yet appea- red. The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. McFariane. The following donations were presented to the Society :— From P. McFarlane, Esq.—Specimens of minerals from the Giants’ Causeway. From James Ferrier, Junr. Esq.—A pair of Fuligula albida ; and fishes for the aquarium. From Mr. Gavin.—Two specimens of Coluber s¢rtalis (alive). From Mr. Miller.—Specimens of Copper Ore from the Bruce Mine. The Dublin Nat. Hist. Review, 6 Nos,; Proceedings of the Dublin University Zoological Association, 2 Nos; Journal of the Franklin Institute ; Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia, 6 Nos.; and several other periodicals and pamphlets were presented by the editors and publishers. Orpinary Mezrine, Feb. 2, 1868. Principal Dawson, the vice-President in the Chair. The fol- lowing papers were read : 1. On the Land and Fresh-water Mollusca of Lower Canada, with thoughts on their connections with the Post-pliocene fossils of the St. Lawrence Valley, and on the general geograpical dis- tribution of Animals and Plants in Canada; by J. F. Whiteaves Esq. F.G.S. 76 KINGSTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY. -2. On the parellelism of the Quebec group with the Lower Llatideilo of England and Australia; and on some new or little known species of Paleozoic Fossils. By EH. Billings, Esq. F.G.S. 3. On the gold deposits of Canada and the manner of work- ing them. By Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S. The following donations were received : From L. Thomson, Esq.—Specimen of the Trumpeter Swan. From G. Barnston, Esq.—Specimens of Fishes and Reptiles. From Mr. E. C. David—Specimen of Wild Rice from the Prai- ries. From Bb. Gibb, Esq—Horn of African Rhinoceros. From Mr. J. O’Brien—Specimen of the great horned Owl. From Mr. Hunter—Thirty-two specimens of the sternum or breast-bone of Canadian birds. From 8. Bagg, Esq.—Bye-laws of the Numismatic Society of Montreal, and a paper read before the Society. From T. Roy, Hsq.—Pictorial description of the Victoria re- gina. / 3 From J. Ferrier jun., Esq.— Japanese work on fishes, with col- oured drawings. . From Various Societies, &c.—Proceedings and publications. BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. The first meeting of the third session was held in tie Univer- sity Hall, Kingston, on Monday evening, 26th January, Prof. J. R. Dickson, M.D., Vice-President, in the chair. The Society then proceeded to the election of office-bearers for the ensuing year, when the following were elected :— Patron—His Excellency Viscount Monck, Governor General. Presipent—Very Rev. Principal Leitch, D.D. Vice-Presipents—Prof. Litchfield, M.D.; Thos. Briggs, Jr., Esq. ; Prof. Dickson, M.D.; Rev. Prof. Williamson, LL.D. Councit—John Carruthers, Esq.; Rev. W. Bleasdell, A.M., Rector of Trenton; Professor Kennedy, M.D.; B. Billings, Jr.” Esq., Prescott; Prof. Fowler, M.D.; M. Flanagan, Esq., City Clerk; Mr. J. Macoun, Belleville; Prof. Hincks, F.L.S., Toronto ; Prof. . Yates, M.D.; Hon. W. Sheppard, D.C.L., Drummond- ville, L.C.; W. Ferguson, Esq.; J. Duff, Esq.; M. Sullivan, M.D.; Rev. H. Mulkins ; Professor Octavius Yates, M.D.; Prof. Lavell, M.D.; Judge Logie, Hamilton; Augustus Thibodo, Esq.; Rev. KINGSTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY. Neh Prof. Weir, A.M.; John Watkins, Esq. ; J. Creighton, Esq., Mayor ; Rev. Prof. Mowat, M.A. Sroretary—Professor Lawson, LL.D. Avpitor—Andrew Drummond, Esq. TreasunER—Professor Murray. Laprarran—Mr. R. V. Rogers, B.A. Hersarium Commitrer—Mr. A. T. Drummond, B.A.; Mr. W. B. Ferguson, Jr. B.A.; Mr. John Bell, B.A.; Mr. Robt. Jardine, B.A.; Mr. John McMorine; Mr. James B. Ferguson, B.A.; Mr. Josiah Jones Bell. Professor Lawson stated that through the kindness of Professor Caruel, formerly of Florence, now at Pisa, an ample supply had been obtained of living cocoons of the new Chinese silk moth, Sa- turnia Cynthia, which yields the Ailanthine silk, now so success- fully raised in France and Italy. The eggs, which may be obtained from the moths in May next, it is proposed to distribute to such members of the Botanical Society as may desire to aid in the ex- - periment of rearing them in Canada. This silk worm teeds on the Ailanthus glandulosa, a tree that is quite hardy in Canada. Members desirous of obtaining eggs were invited to send in their names to Professor Lawson, who stated that although there had hitherto been experienced great trouble in unwinding the cocoons, the process of soaking in caustic potash which Mrs. Lawson had found to answer so well with the Canadian Cecropia cocoons, was no doubt equally applicable to the new Ailanthine silk. Pro- fessor Lawson likewise exhibited samples of cloth made in the Indian prisons from the floss of the Indian silk weed or mudar plant, a material precisely similar to the floss contained in the pods of Canadian silkweeds. Mr. Rogers, the Librarian, presented the following donations to the Society’s Library :— 1, From the Montreal Natural History Society —The Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, from February 1862, to January, 1863. 2. From the American Philosophical Society—Nos. 66 and 67 of their proceedings. 3. From the Boston Society of Natural. History—Their pro- ceedings, Vol. 8, pages 1 to 128. 4, Proceeding of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, Vols. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5,—from the Academy. 5. Annals ot the Lyceum and Natural History of New York, Vol. 8. Nos. 10 and 12,—from the Society. 78 KINGSTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY. 6. Treasures of the Deep or Scottish Sea-weeds,—from Mr. Hub- bert, Knox’s College, Toronto. 7. Observations on North American and other Lichens, ae ma Tuckerman,—from the author. 8. Physical features of central part of British North ae, by James Hector, M. D.,—from the author. — 9. Alpine and Arctic plants, by Principal PENTO el the author. 10. John E. LeConte, a necrology, by Wn. Sharswood ioe the author. 11. From Robert J. Drummond,—Botanical sketches of the 24 orders of Linneus; Sir J. Banks and the Royal Society ; : Linnzus and Jussieu, or the Rise and Progress of Syste- _ matic Botany ; annual Report of the Natural History Society of Montreal, for 1862 ; Constitution and By-Laws of Natural His- tory. Society of Montreal. _ 12. From the Geological Survey—Descriptive Outaleene of Economic Minerals, &e., of Canada, sent to che Toner Tater- national Exhibition, 1862. 0 . Donations of dried specimens were announced from Mr. John Bell, B. A., Mr. Josiah J. Bell, Mr. C. I. Cameron, Mr. John Ma- | coun, Mr. fo McMorine, Mr. Donald Ross, M. A. f The following communications were read: 1. On plants collected in Canada, by Philip W. Maclagay, M. D; Berwick upon Tweed. Relerne to the recent establishment of the Botanical Society, Dr. Maclagan observed :—Entertaining, as I always must do, a warm affection for Canada, and my fang kind friends: there, I was delighted to see that Botany was taking its right place among them. I wish that there had been any movement in this direct- ion during my residence, for I often had to regret the want of some companion to share the pleasure of botanical researches. __ Pondering in what way I could best show my sense of the compli- ment, paid to me by your Society, I resolved to send you'a com- plete list of the plants I had myself collected, and of which I have specimens, during a residence in Canada extending over twelve years, in the course of which I had been stationed in va- rious parts, of the country. Dr. Maclagan’ 3 detailed observations, which were contained in _ two M.S, volumes, and embraced original information respecting nearly 900 species of Canadian plants will be ee in the KINGSTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY. 79 Society’s annals. A cordial vote of thanks was accorded to the author. ) ' 2. On the Physical Character of the East Riding of Northum- berland, with a list of the plants of Mr. John Macoun, Belleville. Read by the Rev. Prof. Mowat, M. A. This was likewise a very valuable paper and will appear in the Annals. Mr. Macoun’s list embraced about 800 species. The ac- count of the physical character of the country, and the indica- tions of its former condition, shown by ancient lake-terraces, &c., _ excited much interest, and the Society’s thanks were voted to Mr. Macoun. 3. Account of an Exploration of Gaspé during the past sum- mer, by John Bell, B.A. Mr. Bell, as one of a party of the Geological Survey, spent the summer in exploring the wild spruce woods of Gaspé, and gave a vary interesting account of the vegetation. Mr. Bell has added greatly to our knowledge of Gaspé plants, and ob- tained some species that had not previously been observed. The Society accorded him warm thanks. Mr. Bell is preparing a complete list of his collections, which were very extensive, and - the list will be printed in the Society’s Annals. 4, On Ailanthine, the silk yielded by the Saturnia, or Bombyx Cynthia, with remarks on the Ailanthus glandulosa, or false Var- nish Tree, of China, upon which the Worm feeds, by Robt. Pat- -terson, M.D., | Read by the Rev. Prof. Murray. In illustration of this elaborate and valuable paper which will be published, the author sent a very interesting series of speci- mens, which were exhibited to the meeting, showing the eggs, the larvae in various stages, the cocoon, and the perfect moths, male and female. The Society’s best thanks were voted to Dr. Paterson for his communication. 5. List of plants collected in Ramsay and adjoining localities, during 1861-62, by John K. McMorine. 6. List’ of plants collected chiefly at Fort Garry, Red River Settlement, by John C. Schultze, M.D. 7. List of Plants of Beckwith and Ramsay, C.W., by Josiah Jones Bell. 8. List of Plants collected at Wellington, during the summer of 1862, by John A. Kemp, M.D. The above lists were laid on the table and authorized to be 80 KINGSTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY. printed. The reading of several papers was delayed till next mecting, to be held on the evening of Friday, 13th of February. The second meeting of the third session, was held on Friday evening, 13th Feby., the Very Rev. Principal Leitch, D.D., Pres- ident, in the chair, There was a full attendance of members. Professor Lawson, the secretary, called attention to the propo- sal of the Home Government, to publish under the direction of Sir William Hooker, the Queen’s Botanist, Floras of the colonies of the British Empire, and a communication was read from Judge Logie of Hamilton, on the subject. Application having been made by the Colonial Secretary for the approval and concurrence of the Canadian Government, with a view tothe early publication of the Canadian Flora, several of the members expressed strongly their opinion of the importance of the scheme, both in a scientific and commercial point of view, and as affording a most. effectual means of making known to Canadians, as well as to the inhab- itants of European countries, the nature of the products of our rich Canadian forests, which would stimulate to new branches of industry, and to the development of commercial enterprise. Dr. Dickson, V. P., moved the appointment of a committee to bring before the Legislature, by petition and otherwise, the impor- tance of Sir William Hooker’s proposed publication, and expressed a belief that, if the Government declined to grant the small sum required, persons would be found in Canada ready to raise the ‘amount, in a very short time, by private subscription. Committee : Principal Leitch, Prof. Dickson, Rev. Mr. Mulkins, A. Drum- mond, Esq., Judge Logie, and Professor Lawson. The following papers were read :— 1. On the Selandria Hthiops and its destructive effects on Pear Trees. By the Very Rev. Principal Leitch, D.D., President. 2. Additional remarks on Dr. Patterson’s paper on Ailanthine, by the Very Rev. Principal Leitch, who gave a very interesting detail of the rearing of the Ailanthine Silk Worm in Dr. Pater- son’s garden at Leith. 3. Poem.—The Pines. By Charles Mair, Lanark,C. W. Read by Joshua Fraser, B. A. 4. A chapter on Fungi. By James Hubbert, Knox’s College, Toronto. The Society then adjourned until Friday, March 13. Wy ft a iS, : 5 fae a Canin F “2 ae ga Me f ie i ; Le ANY Sala) (unt eabamiarwalval X74 Mine vie oa 9 | i \\ id vill a Ss aK \ SS WI WAS \ itt { Nit : AL; MTVANK \) Wh by nA if WW Ah r ckast> DENDRERPETON ACADIANUM. Owen. THE CANADIAN NATURALIST AND GEOLOGIST. Vou. VIII. APRIL, 18638. No. 2. Art. VI.— The Air-Breathers of the Coal Period in Nova Scotia ; by J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.B.S., &e. (Continued from page 12.) IV.—DenprerPeton ACADIANUM. Plate III. The geology of Nova Scotia is largely indebted to Sir Charles Lyell. Though much had previously been done by others, his personal explorations in 1842, and his paper on the gypsife- rous formation, published in the following year, first gave form and shape to some of the more difficult features of the geo- logy of the country, and brought it into relation with that of other parts of the world. In geological investigation, as in many other things, patient plodding may accumulate large stores of fact, but the magic wand of genius is required to bring out the true value and significance of these stores of knowledge. It is scarcely too much to say that the explorations of a few weeks, and subsequent study of the subject by Sir Charles, with the impulse and guidance given to the labors of others, did as much for Nova Scotia, as might have been effected by years of laborious work under less competent heads. Sir Charles naturally continued to take an interest in the geolo- gy of Nova Scotia, and to entertain a desire to explore more fully some of those magnificent coast sectiens which he had but hastily examined; and when, in 1851, he had occasion to revisit the United States, he made an appointment with the writer of these pages to Cay. Nar. 6 Vou. VIII. 82 AIR-BREATHERS OF THE COAL PERIOD. ‘spend a few days in renewed explorations of the cliffs of the South Joggins. The object specially in view was the thorough examina- tion of the beds of the true coal measures, with reference to their contained fossils, and the conditions of accumulation of the coal ; and the results were given to the world in a joint paper on “ The re- mains of a reptile and a land-shell discovered in the interior of an erect tree in the coal measures of Nova Scotia,” and in the writer’s paper on the ‘‘ Coal Measures of the South Joggins ;”* while other important investigations grew out of the following up of these researches, and much matter in relation to the vegetable fossils still remains to be worked up. It is with the more striking fact of the discovery of the remains of a reptile in the coal measures that. we have now to do. The South Joggins Section is, among other things, remarkable for the number of beds which contain remains of erect trees imbedded in situ: these trees are for the most part Sigillariz, varying in diameter from six inches to five feet. They have grown - in underclays and wei soils, similar to those in which the coal was accumulated ; and these having been submerged or buried by mud carried down by inundations, the trees, killed by the accu- mulations around their stems, have decayed, and their tops being broken off at the level of the mud or sand, the cylindrical cavi- ties, left open by the disappearance of the wood, and preserved in their form by the greater durability of the bark, have been filled with sand and clay. This, now hardened into stone, constitutes. pillar-like casts of the trees, which may often be seen exposed in the cliffs, and which, as these waste away, fall upon the beach. The sandstones enveloping these pillared trunks of the ancient Sigillarize of the coal, are laminated or bedded, and the laminz, when exposed, split apart with the weather, so that the trees themselves become split across; this being often aided by the arrangement of the matter within the trunks, in layers more or less corresponding to those without. Thus one of these fossil trees usually falls to the beach in a series of discs, somewhat resembling the grindstones which are extensively manufactured on the coast. The surfaces of these fragments often exhibit remains of plants which have been washed into the hollow trunks and have been imbedded there; and in our explorations of the shore, we always carefully scrutinized such specimens, both with the view of obsery- * Journal of the Geological Society of London; Vols. ix and x; and Acadian Geology. pg Sy AIR-BREATHERS OF THE COAL PERIOD. 83 ing whether they retained the superficial markings of Sigillarize, and with reference to the fossils contained in them. It was while examining a pile of these “ fossil grindstones,” that we were sur- prised by finding on one of them what seemed to be fragments of bone. On careful search other bones appeared, and they had the aspect, not of remains of fishes, of which many species are found fossil in these coal measures, but rather of limb-bones of a quadru- ped. The fallen pieces of the tree were carefully taken up, and other bones disengaged, and at length a jaw with teeth made its appearance. We felt quite confident, from the first, that these bones were reptilian ; and the whole, being carefully packed and labelled, were taken by Sir Charles to the United States, and sub- mitted to Prof. J. Wyman of Cambridge ; who recognized their rep- tilian character, and prepared descriptive notes of the principal bones, which appeared to have belonged to two species. He also observed among the fragments an object of different character, apparently a shell ; which was recognized by Dr. Gould of Boston, and subsequently by Mr. Deshayes, as probably a land-snail, and has since been named Pupa vetusta. The specimens were subsequently taken to London and re-exa- mined by Prof. Owen, who confirmed Wyman’s inferences, added other characters to the description, and named the larger and better preserved species Dendrerpeton Acadianum, in allusion to- its discovery in the interior of a tree, and to its native country of Acadia or Nova Scotia. With the aid of Plate III, I shall now endeavour to describe this species as fully as the materials at my command will allow, and shall then make some remarks on its. affinities, habitat, and mode of life. It is necessary to state in explanation of the fragmentary character of the remains repre- sented in the plate, that in the decay of the animals imbedded ir the erect trees at the Joggins, their skeletons have become disar- ticulated, and the portions scattered, either by falling into the in- terstices of the vegetable fragments in the bottom of the hollow trunks, or by the water, with which these may have sometimes been partly filled. We thus can obtain only separate bones; and though all of these are no doubt present in each case, it is impossible in break- ing up the hard matrix to recover more than a small proportion of them. Forthis reason Ihave been obliged tohave recourse, not merely to the original specimen whose discovery is noticed above, but to three others subsequently obtained by me; all however belone- ing, on the evidence of the teeth and more important bones, to one 84 AIR-BREATHERS OF THE COAL PERIOD. species, and all being nearly, though not absolutely, of the same size. It is also proper to state that in the case of the original specimen, and another still more perfect one, both of which are now in Londun, I have been able to refer only to the published plates, and to add to these from parts of two additional individuals still in my own collection. 5 In form, Dendrerpeton Acadianum was probably lizard-like ; with a broad flat head, short stout limbs and an elongated tail ; and having its skin, and more particularly that of the belly, pro- tected by small bony plates closely overlapping each other. It may have attained the length of two feet. The form of the head is not unlike that of Baphetes, but longer in proportion ; and much resembles that of the labyrinthodont reptiles of the Trias (Fig. 1). The bones of the skull are sculptured as in Baphetes, but in a smaller pattern (Figs. 8, 9). The nostrils are small, and near the muzzle: the orbits are circular, and separated by a space of more than their own diameter. In the upper jaw there is a series of con- ical teeth on the maxillary and intermaxillary bones (Figs. 5, 15). Those on the intermaxillaries are much larger than the others, and have the aspect of tusks or canines (Figs. 3, 13). Within this outer series of teeth, and implanted apparently in palatal bones, as in Archegosaurus Decheni, there is a second series of teeth, closely placed, or with intervals equal to the diameter of one tooth. These inner teeth are longer than the others, implanted in shallow sockets, to which they are anchylosed, and have the dentine plicated, except toward the point (Figs. 2, 4, 6, 7,17). A third group of teeth, blunt at the points, largely hollow in the in- terior, and with the dentine quite simple, appears in detached bones, which may represent the vomer (Fig. 12). Only a part of this formidable armature of teeth appears in the skull represented in Fig. 1, as the bones of the roof of the mouth have been removed, adhering to the opposite side of the matrix; but the fact of the occurrence of two sets of teeth was ascertained by Prof Wyman, from the original specimens, and is manifest in the fragment represented in Fig. 17; while the other teeth, supposed to be vomerine, appear in fragments which must, from their size and collocation, have belonged to Dendrerpeton. It will be observed that all these teeth are anchylosed to the bone ; and while those of the vomer are thinly walled and simple, those on the maxillaries and intermaxillaries are plicated toward the base only, while the inner series of palatal teeth are plicated more than half way up. In “s AIR-BREATHERS OF THE COAL PERIOD. 85 the lower jaw there was a uniform series of conical teeth, not per- ceptibly enlarged toward the front; at least this is the case in the only specimen at present in my collection (Fig. 16); which is however merely an imperfect cast in hard sandstone. The scapular and sternal bones seem to have been well devel- oped and strong, but only portions of them are known (Fig. 25.) The fore limb of the adult animal, including the toes, must have been four or five inches in length, and is of massive proportions. The bones were hollow, and in the case of the phalanges the bony walls were thin, so that they are often found crushed flat. The humerus however was a strong bone, with thick walls and a can- cellated structure toward its extremities; still even these have sometimes yielded to the great pressure to which they have been subjected. Fig. 26 shows the humerus of the original specimen of the species, and Fig. 10 exhibits a series of sections of a similar bone, probably the humerus of a smaller individual. The cavity of the interior of the limb-bones is usually filled with cale-spar stained with organic matter, but showing no structure; and the inner side of the bony wall is smooth, without any indication of cartilaginous matter lining it. The vertebree, in the external aspect of their bodies, remind one of those of fishes, expanding toward the extremities, and being deeply hollowed by conical cavities, which appear even to meet in the centre. There is however a large and flattened neural spine. The vertebrze are usually much crushed, and it is almost impos- sible to disengage them from the stone. Fig. 21 exhibits the usual form, and Fig. 22 another; which, in its long neural and hemal spines, reminds us of the caudal vertebre of those batrachians and reptiles which have tails flattened for swimming, and probably in- dicates that this was the case with Dendrerpeton. Fig. 23 isa transverse section of a somewhat crushed vertebra, showing its os- sified centrum and neural spine, and also the microscopic struc- ture of the bone. The ribs are long and curved, with an expanded head, near to which they are solid, but become hollow towards the middle; and the distal extremities are flattened and thin walled. The posterior limb seems to have been not larger than the ante- rior, perhaps smaller. The bones represented in Fig. 27, which I refer to this member, probably belonged to a somewhat smaller individual than that to which the humerus in Fig. 26 belonged. The tibia is much flattenea at the extremity, as in some labyrin- thodonts, and the foot must have been broad, and probably suited for 86 AIR-BREATHERS OF THE COAL PERIOD. swimming or walking on soft mud, or both. That the hind limb was adapted for walking is shown, not merely by the form of the bones, but also by that of the pelvis, the best preserved specimen of which is represented in Fig. 28 ; but an iliac limb of still larger size is figured in the Journal of the Geological Society, Vol. IX. The external scales are thin, oblique-rhomboidal or elongated- oval, marked with slight concentric lines, but otherwise smooth, and haying a thickened ridge or margin; in which they resemble those of Archegosaurus, and also those of Pholidogaster pisciformis, recently described by Huxley from the Edinburgh coal-field,—an animal which indeed appears in most respects to havea close afli- nity with Dendrerpeton. The microscopic structure of the scales is quite similar to that of the other bones, and different from that of the scales of ganoid fishes, the shape of the cells being batra- chian as in Fig. 11. Figs. 18 and 19 exhibit different forms of the scales. With respect to the affinities of the creature, I think it is ob- vious that it presents some points of resemblance, on the one hand to Archegosaurus, and on the other, to Labyrinthodon ; and that it has the same singular mixture of ichthyic, batrachian, and reptilian characters which distinguish these ancient animals, and which give them the appearance of prototypes of the reptilian class. Professor Owen regards Archegosaurus as the type of the order Ganocephala, which he characterizes as having the head protected by sculptured and polished ganoid plates, no occipital con- dyles, teeth with converging folds of cement at their basal half, the notochord persistent, the ribs short and straight, the limbs natato- ry and small; and holds that Dendrerpeton approaches more nearly to this order than to the Labyrinthodonts. But at the time when this opinion was expressed, he was not fully aware of the develop- ment of the limbs and ribs, and of the ossified condition of the vertebre ; characters which, with the form of the skull, the ar- rangement of the teeth, and the probable possession of occipital condyles, appear to determine the scale in favour of the Labyrin- thodonts. At the same time it must be admitted that Dendrerpe- ton is far removed from the typical genus Labyrinthodon, and that in the characters in which it differs, it leans toward Arche- gosaurus; closely resembling in thisits contemporary Pholedogaster pisciformis already referred to. This ancient inhabitant of the coal swamps of Nova Scotia, was, in short, as we often find to be the case with the earliest AIR-BREATHERS OF THE COAL PERIOD. 87 forms of life, the possessor of powers and structures not usually, in the modern world, combined in a single species. It was cer- tainly not a fish, yet its bony scales, and the form of its vertebrz, and of its teeth, might, in the absence of other evidence, cause it to be mistaken for one. We call it a batrachian, yet its dentition, the sculpturing of the bones of its skull, which were certainly no more external plates than the similar bones of a crocodile, its ribs, and the structure of its limbs, remind us of the higher reptiles; and we do not know that it ever possessed gills, or passed through a Jarval or fish-like condition. Still, in a great many important char- acters, its structures are undoubtedly batrachian. It stands, in short, in the same position with the Lepidodendra and Sigillarie under whose shade it crept, which though placed by palzo-bota- nists In alliance with certain modern groups of plants, manifestly differed from these in many of their characters, and occupied a dif- ferent position in nature. In the coal period, the distinctions of physical and vital conditions were not well defined—dry land and water, terrestrial and aquatic plants and animals, and lower and higher forms of animal and vegetable life, are consequently not easily separated from each other. This is no doubt a state of things characteristic of the earlier stages of the earth’s history, yet not necessarily so; for there are some reasons, derived from fos- sil plants, for believing that in the preceding Devonian period there was less of this, and consequently that there may then have been a higher and more varied animal life than in the coal period.* Even in the modern world also, we still find local cases of this early union of dissimilar conditions. It is in the swamps of Africa, at one time dry, at another inundated, that such interme- diate forms as Lepidosiren occur, to baffle the classificatory pow- ers of naturalists ; and it is in the stagnant unaerated waiers, half swamp, half lake or river, and unfit for ordinary fishes, that the semi-reptilian Amia and Lepidosteus still keep up the characters of their paleeozoic predecessors. The dentition of Dendrerpeton shows it to have been carnivo- rous ina high degree. It may have captured fishes and smaller reptiles, either on land or in water, and very probably fed on dead carcases as well. If, as seems likely, the footprints referred to in a previous section belong to Dendrerpeton, it must have fre- quented the shores, either in search of garbage, or on its way to * See the author's paper on Devonian plants, Journal ofthe Geological Society, Vol. xviii, p. 328. 88 AIR-BREATHERS OF THE COAL PERIOD. and from the waters. The occurrence of its remains in the stumps of Sigillaria, with land-snails and millipedes, shows also that it crept in the shade of the woods in search of food; and under the head of coprolitic matter, in a subsequent section, I shall show that remains of excrementitious substances, probably of this species, contain fragments, attributable to smaller reptiles, and other animals of the land. All the bones of Dendrerpeton hitherto found, as well as those of the smaller reptilian species hereafter described, have been ob- tained from the interior of erect Sigillarize, and all of these in one of the many beds, which, at the Joggins, contain such remains. The thick cellular inner bark of Sigillaria was very perishable ; the slender woody axis was somewhat more durable; but near the surface of the stem, in large trunks, there was a layer of elon- gated cells, or bast tissue, of considerable durability, and the outer bark was exceedingly dense and indestructible. ** Hence an erect tree, partly imbedded in sediment, and subjected to the in- fluence of the weather, became a hollow shell of bark ; in the bot- tom of which lay the decaying remains of the woody axis, and shreds of the fibrous bark. In ordinary circumstances such hol-~ low stems would be almost immediately filled with silt and sand, deposited in the numerous inundations and subsidences of the coal swamps. Where however they remained open for a consi- derable time, they would constitute a series of pitfalls, into which animals walking on the surface might be precipitated ; and being probably often partly covered by remains of prostrate trunks, or by vegetation growing around their mouths, they would be places of retreat and abode for land-snails and such creatures. When the surface was again inundated or submerged, all such animals, with the remains of those which had fallen into the deeper pits, would be imbedded in the sediment which would then fill up the holes. These seem to have been the precise conditions of the bed which has afforded all these remains. I may add that I be- lieve all the trees, four or five in number, which have become exposed in this bed since its discovery, have been ransacked for such remains; and that while all have afforde| some reward for the labour, some have been far more rich than others in their contents. It is also to be observed that owing to the mode of accumulation of the mass filling the trees, the bones are usually * See a paper by the author, on the structures of coal; Journal of the Geological Society, Vol. xv ; also supplement to Acadian Geology. AIR-BREATHERS OF THE COAL PERIOD. 89 found scattered in every position, and those of different species intermingled ; and that being often much more friable than the matrix, much labour is required for their development; while after all has been done, the result isa congeries of fragments like that presented by Plate III. The two specimens which displayed the largest number of bones in juxtaposition, are one of Dendrerpeton Acadianum, and one of Hylonomus Lyelli, both presented by me to the geological Society of London, and now in its collection ; but of which I shall endeavour to obtain accurate representations for this memoir. In order more fully to illustrate the mode of occurence of these remains, I quote the following notice of my last explorations in the bed containing them, from the Journal of the Geological So- ciety of London, for 1861: ** In the bed which has hitherto alone afforded reptilian re- mains in its erect trees, two additional examples of these were exposed. One was on the beach, and in part removed by the sea. The other was in the cliff, but so far disengaged that a miner succeeded in bringing it down for me. In the first, comparatively little was found. It afforded only a few shells of Pupa vetusia, and scattered bones of a full-grown individual of Dendrerpeton Acadianum. “The second tree was more richly stored ; and, being in svtu, was very instructive as to the mode of occurence of the remains. Like all the other trees in which reptilian bones have been found, it sprang immediately from the surface of the six-inch coal in Group XV. of my section* ; which is also Coal No. 15 of Sir W. E. Logan’s section. Its diameter at the base was two feet, and its height six feet, above which, however, an appearance of additional height was given by the usual funnel-shaped sinking of the over- lying beds toward the cavity of the trunk. The bark is well pre- served in the state of bituminous coal, and presents externally a longitudinally wrinkled surface, without ribs or leaf-scars; but within, on the ‘ ligneous’ surface, or that of the inner bark, there are broad flat ribs, and transversely elongated scars. The ap- pearances are precisely those which might be expected on an old trunk of my Sigillaria Brownii ; to which species this tree may have very well belonged.{ * Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Vol. ix. p: 58, and Vol. x. p. 20. { Reports of Geol. Survey of Canada, 1845. ft Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Vol. xvii. p. 523. 90 AIR-BREATHERS OF THE COAL PERIOD. “ The contents of the trunk correspond with those of others pre- viously found. At the bottom is the usual layer of mineral char- coal, consisting of the fallen wood and bark of the tree itself. Above this, about two feet of its height are filled with a confused mass of ve- getable fragments, consisting of Cordaztes, Lepidodendron, Uloden- dron, Lepidostrobus, Calamites, Trigonocarpum, stipes and fronds of ferns, and mineral charcoal; the whole imbedded in a sandy paste blackened by coaly matter. In, and at the top of this mass occur the animal remains. The remainder of the trunk is oc- cupied with grey and buff sandstone, containing a few fragments of plants, but no remains of animals. “ Portions of six reptilian skeletons were obtained from this trunk. The most important of these is a large and nearly complete skele- ton of Dendrerpeton Acadianum.< Another specimen found in this trunk is a jaw of an animal about the size of Dendrerpeton Acadianum, but with fewer and larger teeth. The remaining skeletons were imperfect, and belonged to a small individual of Dendrerpeton Acadianum, two of Hulonomus Lyelli, and one of Hylonomus Wymani. The dislocated condition of these and other skeletons is probably due to the circumstance that, when they were introduced, the matter filling the trunk was a loose mass of fragments, into the crevices of which the bones dropped, on decay of the soft parts. Most of the skeletons lie at the sides of the trunk, as if the animals had before death crept close to the walls of their prison, At the time when the reptiles were intro- duced, the hollow trunk must have been a pit four feet in depth. A number of specimens of Pupavetusta and Xylobius Sigillarre were found, but nothing throwing further light on these species. ‘‘ The beds on a level with the top of this erect tree are arena- ceous sandstones, with numerous erect Calamites. I searched the surfaces of these beds in vain for bones or footprints of the rep- tiles which must have traversed them, and which, but for the hol- low erect trees, would apparently have left no trace of their exis- tence. On asurface of similar character, sixty feet higher, and separated by three coals, with their accompaniments, and a very thick compact sandstone, I observed a series of footprints, which may be those of Dendrerpeton or Hylonomus.” * Now in the collection of the Geological Society of London. Fig. 1, represents the skull of this specimen. + Since named and described by Prof. Owen as Hylerpeton Dawsoni. AIR-BREATHERS OF THE COAL PERIOD. 91 EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. Footprints of Reptiles, &c. Fig. 1.—Footprints discovered by Sir W. E. Logan, in the Lower Car- boniferous beds of Horton Bluff, in 1841 ; reduced to one- fourth of the natural size. (la) one of the impressions, natu- ral size. ‘¢ 2,—Footprints discovered by Dr. Harding, in the Lower Carbonife- rous beds of Parrsboro’; one-fourth of the naturalsize. (2a) Prints of fore and hind foot, natural size. This figure is from a rubbing kindly taken for me by Prof. How, of Wind- sor. ‘¢ 3.—Footprints from the Coal Measures of the South Joggins ; one-fourth natural size. (3a) One of the impressions, natu- ral size. 4,—Smaller footprints from the South Joggins; one-fourth of natu- ral size. 5,—Skin of a reptile, found with remains of a small Dendrerpeton, in an erect tree at the Joggins. (a) Scaly portions; (b) Traces of hind leg? and small scales. (c) (d) Portions magnified, showing scales. EXPLANATION OF PLATE III. Dendrerpeton Acadianum. Fig. 1.—Skull seen from below. 2.—Inner tooth, magnified; from the jaw, Fig. 17. 3.—Tooth of intermaxillary, magnified ; from the bone in Fig. 13. 4.—Series of inner teeth, less ey 5.—Series of outer teeth of maxillary bone, Fig. 15, magnified. 6, 7.—Sections of inner teeth. 8.—Portion of bone of skull, outer surface, twice the natural size. 9.—Super-temporal bone, twice the natural size. 10.—Cross section of humerus; (a) natural size; (b) magnified ; (c) portion more highly magnified, showing canals and bone cells. 11.—Bone cells, highly magnified. ' 12.—Vomer ? with teeth; (a) tooth magnified. 13.—Intermaxillary with teeth. 14.—Section of teeth of intermaxillary; (b) magnified ; (a) portion highly magnified. ‘¢ 15,—Maxillary bone with teeth. 16.—Mandible with teeth. “ 17.—Fragment of skull, with (a) outer teeth of maxillary ; (b) in- ner palatal teeth. 18.—Cross section of a scale, magnified. em ~ 92 NOTES ON DIATOMACEA, Fig. 19.—Outlines of scales, natural size. “ 20.—Scale, twice natural size. “ 21.—Vertebra. ‘¢ 22.—Caudal vertebra. ‘¢ 23.—Vertebra broken across, showing neural and central cavities ; (a) natural size; (b) section of a portion magnified, showing canals and bone cells. j “ 24,—Fragments of ribs. “ 25.—Scapular bone. ‘¢ 26.—Humerus, crushed at the proximal end, with fragments of the radius. “ 27.—Fragments of femur, tibia, and fibula. 6 28.—Remains of pelvis. ‘¢ 29.—Bones of the foot. “ 30.—Group of bones of the foot, in situ. All the above are of the natural size, unless otherwise stated. Art, VII.—Wotes on Diatomaceee from the St. John River; by Pror. L. W. Batzey, of the University of New Brunswick. (Communicated by the Natural History Society of New Brunswick.) For the benefit of those especially interested in such pursuits, I have prepared the following lists of the species which I have, so far, observed as occurring in the waters of this Province. Further study will no doubt add greatly to the number of species. The first list which I have to present is that of a number of forms obtained from a very interesting gathering, kindly sent me by Mr. G. F. Matthew, a member of the Society, with the request, that I would report any results which might occur tome. The examination has been to me one of much pleasure, and has developed facts of importance in regard to the distribution of the species it contains. Although I give the list so far as now completed, I hope to be able, at some future period, to dwell at more length upon the subject, and at the same time to present a variety of other interesting matter from various parts of the pro- vince. List of Diatomacee from Harris’ Cove, Kennebeckasis R., N. B. Doryphora Boeckii. Navicula pusilla ? cc amphiceros. uB permagna, Navicula maculata, Bail. firma. cc ovalis, Pinularia major. a viridis. cc Coupert ? af rhynchocephala, UW mesolepta, NOTES ON DIATOMACES. 93 Pleurosigma strigilis. Coscinodiscus eccentricus. at intermedium. ee _—- gs Spencerit Eupodiscus radiatus ? Nitzschia scalaris. Biddulphia turgida. “dubia. Cocconema lanceolata. “¢ sigmoidea. Gomphonema geminatum. Tryblionella gracilis. ae acuminatum. ee scutell, Striatella unipunctata. ae punctata. Orthosira orichalcea, Epithemia turgida, Melosira Borrerit. fe musculus. Podosira hormoides. Ee granulata, Achnanthes. ue gibba. Synedra undulata. Campylodiscus Argus. “radians. Surirella biseriata. Cymbella cuspidata. ‘¢ circumsuta. Mastogloia. sc splendida. Podosphenia. “¢ dinearis, Stauroneis gracilis. “ovata. uf salina, “ limosa. Triciratium. Amphiprora alata. Coscinodiscus minor. WG cingulatus ? 26 radiatus. Amphora ovalis. Eunotia Arcus. Cyclotella Kitzingiana, Himantidium. From this one locality therefore may be procured as many as thirty distinct genera, and not less than sixty species. Long be- fore receiving the above gathering, I had considered it probable that an examination of the aquatic flora in the lower portion of the St. John River would yield interesting results, from the very unusual connexion between that stream and the ocean. As will be seen by an examination of the above list, this conjecture has been verified, the gathering containing a curious mixture of fresh-water, marine, and brackish-water species. It will be an in- teresting point to determine how far up this influence of the salt water, may extend ; marine species being in many crses found many miles above the faintest suspicion of salt-water. If, as is generally supposed, the three great parallel sheets of water, which cross the southern central portion of the Province, viz, the Kennebecasis, Long Reach, and Grand Lake, are really the remains of three or more great central lakes left by the rising of the land above the ocean, and connected with each other and the sea by the breaking away of the rocky barriers at their south- west extremities, we would expect to find some remains of marine vegetation among the marls and alluvial clays which line their 94 NOTES ON DIATOMACEA. banks. The subject is one of much interest, and one to which I shall continue to devote myself as opportunities offer. As far as I am aware the above list is the only one yet publish- ed concerning the microscopic organisms of this Province: in- deed I think it doubtful whether any one has hitherto even examined our microscopic flora. The list is at present an imper- fect one, and will be undoubtedly increased by farther observation. It may, however be taken as a very fair list of the characteris- tic diatomaceous forms from the lower St. John. I have not yet had the opportunity to make examinations of gatherings from other portions of the stream. A few forms however, collected, from the surface of stranded ice during the opening of the river last Spring, may be interesting, and are given below. The number of all of these were very great ; comparatively few different species were detected. They were as follows : Organisms observed in melting ice of St. John River. Fragilaria capucina, ~ Cocconema lanceolatum. Tabellaria flocculosa. Nilzschia Amphioxys. Cymbella Helvetica. Surirella Odontidium mesodon. Gomphonema geminatum. ub accuminatum. Eunotia monodon. Synedra Ulna. COAT EUS. Pinnularia mesolepta. The following forms, including Desmids, Diatoms, and Infusoria, were found in a small we upon the summit of the hill back of the University buildings, at Fredericton. Euastrum, Didymocladon. Micrasterias crenata, Closterium. “ denticulata. Meridion circulare. = Rota. Volvox globater. I had hoped in the present article to bring before the Society the economic importance of these microscopic organisms, and more especially the assistance they will eventually afford in the determination of the age of many geological deposits from which all traces of organic life have disappeared. This is a particularly interesting subject, and one on which I hope to bring forward some new facts. As the discussion however is necessarily a length- ened one, and as the time at my disposal is now too limited to do the subject full justice, 1 must beg leave to postpone the remain- der to some future period. I shall then attempt to discuss this DESCRIPTION OF A NEW TRILOBITE. 95 important question, and at the same time to report the examina- mination of other localities from various parts of the Province. In conclusion, I will only say, that specimens of algze, especially of lighter kinds from the shores of the Bay of Fundy, or Gulf of St. Lawrence, would be highly prized by me, if any members have the means of obtaining them, and could not fail to furnish much that would be new and interesting in the study of our Microscopic Flora. Note.—Harris’ Cove is about thirteen miles from the outlet of Ken- nebeckasis Bay, and three miles from its head. As the streams which enter this arm of the lake at the mouth of the Saint John River, are all of small size, the salt water which flows inward at flood-tide over the Falls, or rapids connecting it with the harbour, has free aecess to the locality where those organisms were obtained. The water is not so brackish however, as to prevent the growth of Potamogeton perfoliatus, Potamogeton pectinatus, Nuphar lutea, con- fervee and other aquatic plants; which by their luxuriant growth choke the shallow waters of this and other coves in Kennebeckasis Bay, and are frequently uncovered during the low stage of the river, at midsum- mer. During the freshets of early spring the salt water is for a time completely excluded by the floods poured into this lake-like expan- sion of the river, by the main St. John. Arr. VIIl—Description of a new Trilobite from the Quebec group ; by T. Devins, F.R.G.S., C. L. Dept. Quebec.** Oxenus ? Loeant. (N. sp.) Fig. I—0O. Logani. The anterior point of glabella in this figure is slightly too narrow. Fig. Il—An imperfect specimen shewing the hypostoma in place. The general form is oval. * Notr.—By EH. Billings. Mr. Devine having lately discovered seve- ral nearly perfect trilobites in the limestone at Point Lévis, has kindly 96 DESCRIPTION OF A NEW TRILOBITE. Hrav—exclusive of spines, semi-circular, more than twice as wide aslong; truncate in front, and prominently convex in the middle, with a narrow equal border one half a line in width, extended at the posterior angles with the free cheeks into mode- rate diverging spines ; posterior margin marked by a sha!low furrow, reaching from the glabella outward to the free cheeks ; eyes not large, smooth, and equi-distant from the front and pos- terior margins, and about one line from the glabella; the ocular ridge prominent, extending from the eye obliquely forward to the glabella, meeting the latter at about one line from the front thereof; facial ‘suture running obliquely from the eye, and cutting the front and posterior margins far outward. The free cheeks are not quite so smooth as the central lobe of head, but no radiation or other marking is visible. GLABELLA—bell-shaped ; width less than one third of the entire head ; broadly rounded in front, reaching nearly to the consented to allow me 40 publish a note on them in this place. The spe- cies is unquestionably congeneric with those which I have called Dike- locephalus Belli and D.Owent from the same locality. My references were founded on fragments of the head, consisting of detached glabellz, but the aspect presented by these new specimens, (which exhibit all the parts) is that of the genus Olenus. As the structure of the underside of the head is unknown, it cannot yet be positively decided that this spe- cies truly belongs to that genus, but it is the best reference that can at present be made, and was Mr. Devine’s first conclusion. There are two points of difference that are worthy of notice. In Olenus (at least in all the 21 species figured by Angelin), the facial sutures run from the eyes either nearly straightforwards, or turn a little inwards. In this spe- cies they curve outwards. This is their course in Dikelocephalus. The eyes also in Olenus are, in general much more distant from the sides of the glabella than they are in this species. Should the underside of the head of the Swedish species of Olenus and of O. Logani turn out to be the same in structure, then no one would hesitate to place them all in the same genus. In Dikelocephalus Oweni the head is composed of three pieces only : 1.—The glabella with the fixed cheeks. 2.—The hypostoma. 3.—The two movable cheeks which are united together by a band ex- tending aeross the front margin on the underside of the head. I think it will turn out that O. Logani is of the same structure. Angelin has described the Swedish species of Olenus under eight sub- genera and Mr. Devine’s species might form the type of a ninth, differ- ing as much from them, as they do from each other. His discovery is an important addition to our knowledge, as we now know (from entire spe- cimens) that the genus Dikelocephalus, so characteristic of the base of the paleozoic rocks of America, is closely allied to the genus Olenus. ) DESCRIPTION OF A NEW TRILOBITE. 97 front margin ; straight sides converging a little anteriorly, convex towards the front ; depressed convex at the neck lobe ; neck fur- row well defined, extending across, and directed obliquely for- ward at each side—two oblique glabellar furrows at each side in front of the latter, making an angle anteriorly of about 45° with the axis ; the furrows are well marked interiorly but very obscure at the sides, and are separated by about one half the width of the glabella, forming three lateral lobes of nearly equal size, each larger than the neck lobe. In some specimens there are three glabellar furrows on each side, the front one making a greater angle anteriorly with the axis than either of the others. Pieur&—twelve ; moderately convex outward from the axal furrow, each marked by an equal deep groove to the tips, which are of a horny aspect, recurved and extended into long spines ; sides parallel as far back as the eighth segment, then gradually converging to the pygidium. Axis—convex, gradually tapering to the extremity of the tail, about two thirds of the width of the pleure anteriorly—less at the pygidium ; twelve body rings, and five or six caudal joints; the body rings notched above posteriorly and slightly swelled at the axal furrows. : Pyeiprum—entire ; semi-circular ; truncate behind ; lateral lobes depressed convex, on a level with the pleura ; four broad ribs on each side of the middle lobe recurved towards the extremi- ties; margin smooth, and entire anterior angles moderately rounded. Dimensions of largest specimen. Hntire length...... Botretelotcharciorelcrsieferskelelcisieyehcvoters 16 lines. Wenothvotwheadanrccie’ clots cies civis elaters Hoods, wo HM OLS CHOLEXs sleeisietelere sllelatatetetereacietarats Boiss ISG OE ve esos sousodoucdoo aoa; obs ya WWhidthiatibase of head: «(2 sjclsc/ecics'e ele cc sl eleccise or alii 66 at eighth segment..... eislelalsielolershslel clef’: TOME at front of pygidium....... So dozodooodds Smee pon POL AXIS ati SAME PLACE selec) >-,ceccsscseres vt undescribed 1. ...eseeees Ws up 2. cocccceee ss tf Bo o000 00000 if ts Ab soos d0d0000 ot i Bs odooodadgode oe Ut 6. . e e eee Pyptocenas Metellus...... pocKn0b0000 DiiGiaododoogb000 CopDuo OS ob Alethes...e..cccccesscees 3 Mercurius.....seece oen00 6 We Syphax......sseccseceeeee a0 undescribed.... vote Nautilus i Goboos O00 CKD G00 Agnostus AMECTICANUS.+ee.sseeeeeeeee os Orwasoiacooddoo6 blob od cn dod Agnostus Canadensis...... siclelsiels\e\i=ie Amphion Cayleyi......... Sd0000000 Ampyx, undescribed.....s.see.ee eratelle Arionellus cylindricus........seeseses ub subclavatugs.....cc.ccoeee aie Asaphus Illenoides..... clolchels! sole lstafels ce QONIULUS.....0- “RO Co Od0nGS Bathyurus capax....... Rietepolecioleteneltateltel ce dubius: -.))0.5.. gs600 60000 GS bituberculatus...-...ese.e- re ALMALUS wo scccoserccsccane cc Sattondisleleie sceleletsie WOdo000 ; ODIONGUS...cecsecesercees as Clordaitntetais dood so do000d at Quadratus..cesssssceee Gdon Cheirurus Apollo. .....cceesecccecees ee HryX. cee ee eeeeees q9.0900000 Conocephalites Zenkeri saGaddonS oddoor Dikelocephalus MAGNIAICUS..cereseccee planifrons ...0++seceoes a Oweni...... mleleneieveratetete tf Belli .....sseee 900 G3 MeEGALOPS.coccessecoce ce CriStatUS ..ce.serees 5.0.0 ce undescribed....ceseoes “ (Olenus) Logani ee Endymion Meeki.......-- boooddouoK0D Holometopus Angelini.sccsscsceesers Illenus, undescribed.....eeees Leperditia........ : Menocephalus globosus...... ot Sedewicki. tf Salteri (Devine)......... Nileus, undescribed.....-eeeceees Shumardia granulosa..ccccccccscsccces eee Feet eee eee ® ON THE ROCKS OF THE QUEBEC GROUP. D/ GAl1)/2/3/4/5/6/7/8 a * Ke Ke * e OF * KK RK KH KR HK * a ee ee ee ee WK % He K * * * * & * * * * ON THE CHEMISTRY OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS. 195 Arr. XVI—On the Chemical and Mineralogical Relations of Metamorphic Rocks ;* by T. Srmrry Hunt, M.A, BRS. ; of the Geological Survey of Canada. Av a time not very remote in the history of geology, when all crystalline stratified rocks were included under the common designation of primitive, and were supposed to belong to a period. anterior to the fossiliferous formations, the lithologist confined his studies to descriptions of the various species of rocks, without reference to their stratigraphical or geological distribution. But with the progress of geological science, a new problem is present- ed to his investigation. While palzeontology has shown that the fossils of each formation furnish a guide toits age and stratigraph- ical position, it has been found that sedimentary strata of all ages, up to the tertiary inclusive, may undergo such changes as to obliterate the direct evidences of organic life; and to give to the sediments the mineralogical characters once assigned to primitive rocks. The question here arises, whether in the absence of organic remains, or of stratigraphical evidence, there exists any means of determining, even approximately, the geological age of a given series of crystalline stratified rocks ;—in other words, whether the chemical conditions which have presided over the formation of sedimentary rocks, have so far varied in the course of ages, as to impress upon these rocks marked chemical and mineralogical differences. In the case of unaltered sediments it would be difficult to arrive at any solution of this question without greatly multiplied analyses; but in the same rocks, when altered, the crystalline minerals which are formed, being definite in their composition, and varying with the chemical constitution of the sediments, may perhaps to a certain extent, become to the geologist what organic remains are in the unaltered rocks, a guide to the geological age and succession. It was while engaged in the investigation of metamorphic rocks of various ages in North America, that this problem suggested itself; and I have endeavoured from chemical considerations, con- joined with multiplied observations, to attempt its solution. In the American Journal of Science for 1858, and in the Quarierly Journal of the Geological Society of London for 1859 (p. 488), will be found the germs of the ideas on this subject, which I shall endeavour to explain in the present paper. It cannot be doubted * Read before the Dublin Geological Society April 10, and reprinted from advance sheets of the Dublin Quarterly Journal for July 1863. 196 ON THE CHEMISTRY OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS. that in the earlier periods of the world’s history, chemical forces of certain kinds were much more active than at the present day. Thus the decomposition of earthy and alkaline silicates under the combined influences of water and carbonic acid, would be greater when this acid was more abundant in the atmosphere, and when the temperature was probably higher. The larger amourts cf alkaline and earthy carbonates then carried to the sea from the decomposition of these silicates, would furnish a greater amount of calcareous matter to the sediments ; and the chemical effects of vegetation, both on the soil and on the other atmosphere, must have been greater during the Carboniferous period, for example, than at present. In the spontaneous decomposition of feldspars, which may be described as silicates of alumina combined with silicates of potash, soda and lime, these latter bases are removed, together with a portion of silica; and there remains as the final result of the process, a hydrous silicate of alumina, which consti- tutes kaolin or clay. This change is favoured by mechanical division ; and Daubrée has shown that by the prolonged attrition of fragments of granite under water, the softer and readily cleay- able feldspar is in great part reduced to an impalpable powder, while the uncleavable grains of quartz are only rounded, and form a readily subsiding sand; the water at the same time dissolving from the feldspar a certain portion of silica, and of alkali. It has been repeatedly observed, where potash and soda-feldspars are associated, that the latter is much the more readily decomposed, becoming friable, and finally being reduced to clay, while the or- thoclase is unaltered. The result of combined chemical and mechanical agencies acting upon rocks which contain quartz, wi h orthoclase, and a soda-feldspar such as albite or oligoclase, would thus be a sand, made up chiefly of quartz and potash-feld- _ spar, and a finely divided and suspended clay, consisting for the most part of kaolin, and of partially decomposed soda-feldspar, mingled with some of the smaller particles of orthoclase and of quartz. With this sediment will also be included the oxide of iron, and the earthy carbonates set free by the sub-aérial decomposition of silicates like pyroxene and the anorthic feldspars, or formed by the action of the carbonate of soda derived from the latter upon the lime salts and magnesia salts of sea-water. The debris of horn- blende and pyroxene will also be found in this finer sediment. This process is evidently the one which must go on in the wearing away of rocks by aqueous agency, and explains the fact that ON THE CHEMISTRY OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS. 197 while quartz, or an excess of combined silica, is for the most part wanting in rocks which contain a large proportion of alumina, it is generally abundant in those rocks in which potash-feldspar predominates. So long as this decomposition of alkaliferous silicates is sub-aérial, the silica and alkali are both removed in a soluble form. The process is often however submarine, or subterranean, taking place in buried sediments, which are mingled with carbonates of lime and magnesia. In such cases the silicate of soda set free, re-acts either with these earthy carbonates, or with the corresponding chlorids of sea-water, and forms in either event a soluble soda-salt, and insoluble silicates of lime and magnesia, which take the place of the removed silicate of soda. The evidence of such a continued reaction between alkaliferous silicates and earthy carbonates is seen in the large amounts of carbonate of soda, with but little silica, which infiltrating waters constantly remove from argillaceous strata; thus giving rise to alkaline springs, and to natron lakes. In these waters it will be found that soda greatly predominates, sometimes almost to the exclusion of potash. This is due not only to the fact that soda-feldspars are more readily decom- posed than orthoclase, but to the well-known power of argillaceous sediments to abstract from water the potash salts which it already holds in solution. Thus when a solution of silicate, carbonate, sulphate, or chlorid of potassiam is filtered through common earth, the potash is taken up, and replaced by lime, magnesia, or soda, by a double decomposition between the soluble potash salt and the insoluble silicates or carbonates of the latter bases. Soils in like manner remove from infiltrating waters, ammonia, and phos- phorie and silicic acids, the bases which were in combination with these being converted into carbonates. The drainage-water of soils, like that of most mineral springs, contains only carbonates, chlorids, and sulphates of lime, magnesia, and soda; the ammonia, potash, phosphoric and silicic acids being retained by the soil. The elements which the earth retains or extracts from waters are precisely those which are removed from it by growing plants. These, by their decomposition under ordinary conditions, yield their mineral matters again to the soil; but when decay takes place in water, these elernents become dissolved, and hence the waters from peat bogs and marshes contain large amounts of potash and silica in solution, which are carried to the sea, there to be separated—the silica by protophytes, and the potash by alge, 198 ON THE CHEMISTRY OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS. which latter, decaying on the shore, or in the ooze at the bottom, restore the alkali to the earth. The conditions under which the vegetation of the coal formation grew, and was preserved, being similar to those of peat, the soils became exhausted of potash, and are seen in the fire-clays of that period. Another effect of vegetation on sediments is due to the reducing or de-oxidizing agency of the organic matters from its decay. These, as is well known, reduce the peroxide of iron to a soluble protoxide, and remove it from the soil, to be afterwards deposited in the forms of iron ochre and iron ores, which by subsequent alteration become hard, crystalline and insoluble. Thus, through the agency of vegetation, is the iron oxide of the sediments with- drawn from the terrestrial circulation; and it is evident that the proportion of this element diffused in the more recent sediments must be much less than in those of ancient times. The reducing power of organic matter is farther shown in the formation of metallic sulphurets ; the reduction of sulphates having precipitated in this insoluble form the heavy metals, copper, lead, and zinc ; which, with iron, appear-to have been in solution in the waters of early times, but are now by this means also abstracted from the circulation, and accumulated in beds and fahlbands, or by a sub- sequent process have been redissolved and deposited in veins. All analogies lead us to the conclusion that the primeval condition of the metals, and of sulphur, was, like that of carbon, one of oxidation, and that vegetable life has been the sole medium of their reduction. The source of the carbonates of lime and magnesia in sediment- ary strata is two-fold :—first, the decomposition of silicates con- taining these bases, such as anorthic feldspars and pyroxene; and second, the action of the alkaline carbonates formed by the decom- position of feldspars, upon the chlorids of calcium and magnesium, originally present in sea-water; which have thus, im the course of ages, been in great part replaced by chlorid of sodium. The clay, or aluminous silicate which has been deprived of its alkali, is thus ameasure of the carbonic acid removed from the air, of the carbonates of lime and magnesia precipitated, and of the amount of chlorid of sodium added to the waters of the primeval ocean. The coarser sediments, in which quartz and orthoclase prevail, are readily permeable to infiltrating waters, which gradually remove from them the soda, lime, and magnesia, which they con- tain; and if organic matters intervene, the oxide of iron ; leaving ON THE CHEMISTRY OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS. 199 at last little more than silica, alumina, and potash—the elements of granite, trachyte, gneiss, and mica-schist. On the other hand the finer marls and clays, resisting the penetration of water, will retain all their soda, lime, magnesia, and oxide of iron; and con- taining an excess of alumina, with a small amount of silica, will by their metamorphism, give rise to basic lime and soda-feldspars, and to pyroxene and hornblende—the elements of diorites and dolerites. In this way, the operation of the chemical and mechan- ical causes which we have traced, naturally divides all the crystalline silico-aluminous rocks of the earth’s crust into two types. These correspond to the two classes of igneous rocks, distin- guished first by Professor Phillips, and subsequently by Durocher, and by Bunsen, as derived from two distinct magmas; which these geologists imagine to exist beneath the solid crust, and which the latter denominates the trachytic and pyroxenic types. I have however elsewhere endeavoured to show that all intrusive or exotic rocks are probably nothing more than altered and displaced sediments, and have thus their source within the lower portions of the stratified crust, and not beneath it. Tt may be well in this place to make a few observations on the chemical conditions of rock-metamorphism. I accept in its widest sense the view of Hutton and Boué, that all the crystalline stratified rocks have been produced by the alteration of mechanical and chemical sediments. The conversion of these into definite mineral species has been effected intwo ways: first by molecular changes ; that isto say, by erystallization, and a re-arrangement of particles; and, secondly by chemical reactions between the elements of the sediments. Pseudomorphism, which is the change of one mineral species into another, by the introduction, or the elimination of some element or elements, presupposes metamorphism ; since only definite mineral species can be the subjects of this process. To confound metamorphism with pseudomorphism, as Bischoff, and others after him, have done, is therefore an error. It may be farther remarked, that although certain pseudomorphic changes may take in some mineral species, in veins, and near to the surface, the alteration of great masses of silicated rocks by such a process is as yet an unproved hypothesis. The cases of local metamorphism in proximity to intrusive rocks go far to show, in opposition to the views of certain geologists, that heat has been one of the necessary conditions of the change. The source of this has been generally supposed to be from below; 200 ON THE CHEMISTRY OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS. but to the hypothesis of alteration by ascending heat, Naumann has objected that the inferior strata in some cases escape change, and that in descending, a certain plane limits the metamorphism, separating the altered strata above, from the unaltered ones beneath; there being no apparent transition between the two. This, taken in connexion with the well-known fact that in many ceases the intrusion of igneons rocks causes no apparent ebange in the adjacent unaltered sediments, shows that heat and moisture are not the only conditions of metamorphism. In 1857, I showed by experiments, that in addition to these conditions, certain chem- ieal reagents might be necessary; and that water impregnated with alkaline carbonates and silicates, would, at a temperature not above that of 212° F., produce chemical reactions among the elements of many sedimentary rocks, dissolving silica, and gene- rating various silicates (1). Some months subsequently, Daubrée found that in the presence of solutions of alkaline solutions, at tem- peratures above 700° F., various silicious minerals, such as quartz, feldspar, and pyroxene, could be made to assume a crystalline form; aud that alkaline silicates in solution at this temperature would combine with clay to form feldspar and mica (2). These observations were the complement of my own, and both together showed the agency of heated alkaline waters to be sufficient to effect the metamorphism of sediments by the two modes already mentioned,—namely, by molecular changes, and by chemical reac- tions. Following upon this, Daubrée observed that the thermal alkaline spring of Plombieres, with a temperature of 160° F., had in the course of centuries, given rise to the formation of zeolites, and other crystalline silicated minerals, among the bricks and cement of the old Roman baths. From this he was led to sup- pose that the metamorphism of great regions migit have been effected by hot springs; which, rising along certain lines of dislo- eation, and thence spreading laterally, might produce alteration in strata near to the surface, while those beneath would in some cases escape change (3). This ingenious hypothesis may serve in 1. Proc. Royal Soc. of London, May 7, 1857; and Philos. Mag. (4) xy., 68; also Amer. Jour. Science (2), xxii., and xxv., 435. 2. Comptes Rendus de l’Acad., Nov. 16,1857; also Bull. Soc. Geol. de France (2), xv., 103. 3. It should be remembered that normal or regional metamorphism is in no way dependent upon the proximity of unstratified or igneous rocks, which are rarely present in metamorphic districts. The ophiolites, ON THE CHEMISTRY OF METAMORPHIC RocKS. 201 some cases to meet the difficulty pointed out by Naumann ; but while it is undoubtedly true in certain instances of local metamorphism, it seems to be utterly inadequate to explain the complete and uni- versal alteration of areas of sedimentary rocks, embracing many hundred thousands of square miles. On the other hand, the study of the origin and distribution of mineral springs, shows that alka- line waters (whose action in metamorphism [ first pointed ou and whose efficient agency Daubrée has since so well shown), are confined to certain sedimentary deposits, and to definite strati- graphical horizons; above and below which saline waters wholly different in character are found impregnating the strata. This fact seems to offer a simple solution of the difficulty advanced by Nau- mann, and a complete explanation of the theory of metamorphism of deeply buried strata by the agency of ascending heat; which is operative in producing chemical changes only in those strata in which soluble alkaline salts are present. (4). When the sedimentary strata have been rendered crystalline by metamorphism, their permeability to water, and their altera- bility, become greatly diminished; and it is only when again broken down by mechanical agencies to the condition of soils and sediments, that they once more become subject to the chemical changes which have just been described. Hence, the mean com- position of the argillaceous sediments of any geological epoch, or amphibolites, euphotides, diorites, and granites of such regions, which it has been customary to regard as exotic or intrusive rocks, are in most cases indigenous, and are altered sediments. I have elsewhere shown that the great outbursts of intrusive dolerites, diorites, and trachytes in south-eastern Canada are found, not among the metamorphic rocks, but among the unaltered strata along their margin, or at some distance removed ; and I have endeavoured to explain this by the consideration that the great volume of overlying sediments, which, by retaining the central heat, aided in the alteration of the strata now exposed by denuda- tion, produced a depression of the earth’s surface, and forced out the still lower and softened strata along the, lines of fracture which took place in the regions beyond. See my paper ‘‘On some Points in American Geology,” Amer. Jour. Science (2), xxxi. 414., and Can. Nat. vi. 81. 4. See Report of the Geological Survey of Canada, 1853-6, pp. 479, 480; also Canadian Naturalist, vol. vii., p. 262. For a consideration of the relations of mineral waters to geological formations, see ‘‘ Gene- ral Report on the Geology of Canada,” p.561; also chap. xix. on “ Sedi= mentary and Metamorphic Rocks ;” where most of the points touched in the present paper are discussed at greater length. 202 ON THE CHEMISTRY OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS. in other words, the proportion between the alkalies and the alu- mina, will depend not only upon the age of the formation, but upon the number of times which its materials have been brokea up, and the periods during which they have remained unmetamor- phosed, and exposed to the action of infiltrating waters. Thus for example, that portion of the Lower Silurian rocks in Canada which became metamorphosed before the close of the palaozoic period, will have lost jess of its soluble bases than the portion of the same age which still remains in the form of unaltered shales and sandstones. Of these again, such parts as remain undisturbed by folds and dislocations, will retain a larger portion of bases than those strata in which such disturbances have favored the forma- tion of mineral springs ; which even now are active in removing soluble matters from these rocks. The crystalline Lower Silurian rocks in Canada may be compared with those of the older Lau- rentian series on the one hand, and with the Upper Silurian or Devonian on the other; but when these are to be compared with the crystalline strata of secondary or tertiary age in the Alps, it cannot be determined whether the sediments of which these were formed, (and which may be supposed, for illustration, to have been directly derived from palzeozoic strata), existed up to the time of their translation, in a condition similar to that of the altered, or of the unaltered Lower Silurian rocks of Canada. The proportion between the alkalies and the alumina in the argillaceous sedi- ments of any given formation is not therefore in direct relation to its age; but indicates the extent to which these sediments have been subjected to the influences of water, carbonic acid, and vegetation. If however it may be assumed that this action, other things being equal, has on the whole, been proportionate to the newness of the formation, it is evident that the chemical and min- eralogical composition of different systems of rocks must vary with their antiquity; and it now remains to find in their comparative study a guide to their respective ages. It will be evident that silicious deposits, and chemical precip- itates, like the carbonates and silicates of lime and magnesia, may exist with similar characters in the geological formations of any age; not only forming beds apart, but mingled with the im- permeable silico-aluminous sediments of mechanical origin. Inas- much as the chemical agencies giving rise to these compounds were then most active, they may be expected in greatest abund- ance in the rocks of the earlier periods. In the case of the per- ON THE CHEMISTRY OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS. 203 meable and more highly silicious class of sediments already noticed, whose chief elements are silica, alumina, and alkalies, the deposits of different ages will be marked chiefly by a pro- gressive diminution in the amount of potash, and the disappearance of the soda which they contain. In the oldest rocks the propor- tion of alkali will be nearly or quite sufficient to form orthoclase and albite with the whole of the alumina present; but as the alkali diminishes, a portion of the alumina will crystallize, on the metamorphism of the sediments, in the form of a potash-mica, such as muscovite or margarodite. While the oxygen ratio be- tween the alumina and the alkali in the feldspars just named is 3:1, it becomes6: 1 in margarodite, and 12: 1in muscovite. The appearance of these micas in a rock denotes then a diminution in the amount of alkali, until in some strata the feldspar almost entirely disappears, and the rock becomes a quartzose mica-schist In sediments still farther deprived of alkali, metamorphism gives rise to schists filled with crystals of kyanite, or of andalusite ; which are simple silicates of alumina, into whose composition alkalies do not enter; or in case the sediment still retains oxide of iron, staurotide and iron-alumina garnet take their place. The matrix of all these minerals is generally a quartzose mica-schist. The last term in this exhaustive process appears to be represented by the disthene and pyrophyllite rocks, which occur in some regions of crystalline schists. In the second class of sediments we have alumina in excess, with a small proportion of silica, and a deficiency of alkalies, be- sides a variable proportion of silicates or carbonates of lime, magne- sia, and oxide of iron, The result of the processes already de- scribed will produce a gradual diminution inthe amount of alkali, which is chiefly soda. So long as this predominates, the meta- morphism of these sediments will give rise to feldspars like oligo- clase, labradorite, or scapolite (a dimetric feldspar); but in sedi- ments where lime replaces a great proportion of the soda, there appears a tendency to the production of denser silicates, like lime- alumina garnet, and epidote, or zoisite, which replace the soda- lime feldspars. Minerals like the chlorites, and chloritoid, are formed when magnesia and iron replace lime. In all these cases the excess of the silicates of earthy protoxides over the silicate of alumina is represented in the altered strata by hornblende, pyrox- ene, ol.vine, and similar species; which give rise by their admix- ture with the double aluminous silicates, to diorite, diabase, euphotide, eklogite, and similar compound rocks. 904 oN THE CHEMISTRY OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS. In eastern North America, the crystalline strata, so far as yet studied, may be conveniently classed in five groups, corresponding to as many different geological series, four of which will be con- sidered in the present paper. I. The Laurentian system represents the oldest known rocks of the globe, and is supposed to be the equivalent of the Primitive Gneiss formation of Scandinavia, and that of the Western Islands of Scotland, to which also the name of Laurentian is now applied. It has been investigated in Canada along a continuous outcrop from the coast of Labrador to Lake Superior, and also over a consider- able area in northern New York. II. Associated with this system is a series of strata characterized by a great development of anorthosites,of which the hypersthenite, or opalescent feldspar-rock of Labrador, may be taken as a type. These strata overlie the Laurentian gneiss, and are regarded as constituting a second and more recent group of crystalline rocks, to which the name of the Labrador series may be provisionally given. From evidence recently obtained, Sir William Logan con- ceives it probable that this series is unconformable with the older Laurentian system, and is separated from it by a long interval of time. III. In the third place is a great series of crystalline schists, which are in Canada referred to the Quebec group, an inferior part of the Lower Silurian system. They appear to correspond both hthologically and stratigraphically with the Schistose group of the Primitive Slate formation of Norway, as recognized by Naumann and Keilhau, and to be there represented by the strata in the vicinity of Drontheim, and those of the Dofrefeld. ‘The Huronian series of Canada in like manner appears to correspond to the Quartzose group of the same Primitive Slate formation (5). It consists of sandstones, imperfect varieties of gneiss, diorites, silicious and feldspathic schists passing into argillites, with lime- stones, and great beds of hematite. Though more recent than the Laurentian and Labrador series, these strata are older than the Quebec group; yet from their position to the westward of the greatest accumulation of sediments, they have been subjected to a less complete metamorphism than the paleozoic strata of the Kast. The Huronian series is as yet but imperfectly studied, and for the present will not be further considered. (5) See Macfarlane—Primitive Formations of Norway and Canada compared—Canadian Naturalist, vii., 113, 162. ON THE CHEMISTRY OF METAMORPHIC rocks. 205 IV. In the fourth place are to be noticed the metamorphosed strata of Upper Silurian and Devonian age, with which may also be included those of the Carboniferous system in eastern New England, This group has as yet been imperfectly studied, but presents inter- esting’ peculiarities. In the oldest of these, the Laurentian system, the first class of aluminous rocks takes the form of granitoid gneiss, which is often coarse grained and porphyritic. Its feldspar is frequently a nearly pure potash orthoclase, but sometimes contains a considerable pro- portion of soda. Mica is often almost entirely wanting, and is never abundant in any large mass of this gneiss, although small bands of mica-schist are occasionally met with. Argillites, which from their general predominance of potash and of silica, are related to the first class of sediments, are, so far as known, wanting through- out the Laurentian series; nor is any rock here met with, which can be regarded as derived from the metamorphism of sediments like the argillites of more modern series. Chloritic and chiastolite schists, and kyanite are, if not altogether wanting, extremely rare inthe Laurentian system. The aluminous sediments of the second class are however represented in this system by a diabase made up of dark green pyroxene and bluish labradorite, often associated with a red alumino-ferrous garnet. This latter mineral also some- times constitutes small beds, often with quartz, and occasionally with a little pyroxene. These basic aluminous minerals form how- ever but an insignificant part of the mass of strata. This system is farther remarkable by the small amount of ferruginous matter diffused through the strata; from which the greater part of the iron seems to have been removed, and accumulated in the form of immense beds of hematite and magnetic iron. Beds of pure crystalline plumbago also characterize this series, and are generally found with the limestones. These are here developed to an extent unknown in more recent formations; and are associated with beds of crystalline apatite, which sometimes attain a thickness of several feet. The serpentines of this series, so far as yet studied in Canada, are generally pale colored, and contain an unusual amount of water, a small proportion of oxide of iron, and neither chrome nor nickel ; both of which are almost always present in the serpentines of the third series. The second or Labrador series is characterized, as already re- marked, by the predominance of great beds of anorthosite, com- posed chiefly of triclinic feldspars, which vary in composition from anorthite to andesine. These feldspars sometimes form mountain 206 ON THE CHEMISTRY OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS. masses, almost without any admixture, but at other times include portions of pyroxene, which passes into hypersthene. Beds of nearly pure pyroxenite are met with in this series, and others which would be called hyperite and diabase. These anorthosite rocks are frequently compact, but are more often granitoid in structure. They are generally greyish, greenish, or bluish in colour, and be- come white on the weathered surfaces. The opalescent jabradorite- rock of Labrador is a characteristic variety of these anorthosites ; which often contain small portions of red garnet and brown mica, and more rarely, epidote, and a little quartz. They are sometimes slightly calcareous. Magnetic iron and ilmenite are often dissem- inated in these rocks, and occasionally form masses or beds of considerable size. These anorthosites constitute the predom- inant part of the Labrador series, so far as yet examined, They are however associated with beds of quartzose orthoclase gneiss, which represent the first class of aluminous sediments, and with crystalline limestones ; and they will probably be found, when further studied, to offer aeomplete lithological series. These rocks have been observed in several areas among the Laurentide Moun- tains, from the coast of Labrador to Lake Huron, and are also met with among the Laurentian rocks of the Adirondack Mountains ; of which according to Emmons, they form the highest summits. In the third series, which we have referred to the Lower Silurian age, the gneiss is sometimes granitoid, but less markedly so than in the first; and it is much more frequently micaceous, often pass- ing into micaceous schist, a common variety of which contains disseminated a large quantity of chloritoid. Argillites abound, and under the influence of metamorphism sometimes develop crystalline orthoclase. At other times they are converted into a soft micaceous mineral, and form a kind of mica-schist. Chias- tolite and staurotide are never met with in the schists of this series, at least in its northern portions, throughout Canada and New England. The anorthosites of the Labrador series are repre- sented by fine grained diorites, in which the feldspar varies from albite to very basic varieties, which are sometimes associated with an aluminous mineral allied to chlorite in composition. Chloritic schists, freqently accompanied by epidote, abound in this series. The great predominance of magnesia in the forms of dolomite, magnesite, steatite and serpentine, is also characteristic of portions of this series. The latter, which forms great beds (ophiolites), is marked by the almost constant presence of small portions of the oxides of chrome and nickel. These metals are also common in ON THE CHEMISTRY OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS. 207 the other magnesian rocks of the series ; green chrome-garnets, and chrome-mica occur; and bedsof chrome iron ore are found in the ophiolites of the series. It is also the gold-bearing formation of eastern North America, and contains large quantities of copper ores in interstratified beds resembling those of the Permian schists of Mansfeld and Hesse. In some parts of this series pure limestones occur, which contain various crystalline minerals common also to the Laurentian limestones, and to those of thefourth series. The only graphite which has been found in the third series, is in the form of impure plumbaginous shales. The metamorphic rocks of the fourth series, as seen in south- eastern Canada, are for the greater part quartzose and mica- ceous schists, more or less feldspathic; which in the neighboring States become remarkable for a great development of crystals of staurotide and of red garnet. A large amount of argillite occurs in this series; and when altered, whether locally by the proximity of intrusive rock, or by normal metamorphism, exhibits a micaceous mineral, and crystals of andalusite; so that it becomes known as chiastolite slate in its southern extension. Granituid gneiss is still associated with these crystalline schists. Gold is not confined to the third series, but is also met with in veins cutting the argilites of Upper Silurian age. The crystalline limestones and ophiolites of eastern Massachusetts, which are probably of this series, resemble those of the Laurentian system ; and the coal beds in that region are in some parts, changed into graphite. It is to be remarked that the metamorphic strata of the third and fourth series are contiguous throughout their extent, so far as examined, but are everywhere separated from the Laurentian and Labrador series by a zone of unaltered palzezoic rocks. Large masses of intrusive granite occur among the crystalline strata of the fourth series, but are rare or unknown among the older metamorphic rocks in Canada. The so-called granites of the Laurentian and Lower Silurian appear to be in every case indigen- ous rocks; that is to say, strata altered zn s¢tw, and still retaining evidences of stratification. The same thing is true with regard to the ophiolites and the anorthosites of both series; in all of which the general absence of great masses of unstratified rock is especially noticeable. No evidences of the hypothetical granitic substratum are met with in the Laurentian system, although thisis in one district penetrated by great masses of syenite, orthophyre, and dolerite. Granitic veins, with minerals containing the rarer elements, such as 208 ON THE CHEMISTRY OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS. boron, fluorine, lithium, zirconium, and glucinum, are met with alike in the oldest and the newest gneiss in North America. These however, I regard as having been formed, like metalliferous veius, by aqueous deposition in fissures in the strata. The above observations upon the metamorphic strata of a wide region seem to be in conformity with the chemical princiciples already laid down in this paper; which it remains for geologists to apply to the rocks of other regions, and thus determine whether they are susceptible of a general application. I have found that the blue crystalline labradorite of the Labrador series of Canada is exactly represented by specimens from Scarvig, in Skye; and the ophiolites of Iona resemble those of the Laurentian series in Canada. Many of the rocks of Donegal appear to me lithologi- cally identical with those of the Laurentian period ; while the ser- pentines of Aghadoey, containing chrome and nickel, and the andalusite and kyanite-schists of other parts of Donegal, cannot be distinguished from those which characterize the altered palzo- zoic strata of Canada. It is to be remarked that chrome and nickel-bearing serpentines are met with in the same geological horizon in Canada and Norway; and that those of the Scottish Highlands, which contain the same elements, belong t» the newer gneiss formation; which, according to Sir Roderick Murchison, would be of similarage. The serpentines of Cornwall, the Vosges, Mount Rosa, and many other regions, agree in contain- ing chrome and nickel ; which on the other hand, seem to be absent from the serpentines of the Primitive Gneiss formation of Scandina- via. It remains to be determined how far chemical and mineral- ogical differences, such as those which have been here indicated, are geological constants. Meanwhile it is greatly to be desired that future chemical and mineralogical investigations of crystalline rocks should be made with this question in view; and that the meta- morphic strata of the British Isles, and the more modern ones of Southern and Central Europe, be studied with reference to the important problem which it has been my endeavour, in the present paper, to lay before the Society. Monrreat, January, 25, 1863. WEW SPECIES OF FOSSILS. 209 ARTY. XVIL—Description of a new species of Puiviresia, from the lower Carboniferous rocks of Nova Scotia; by E. Bin.ines, EGS, Pariuresia Howr. (N. sp.) . How: Pygidium. The tubercles on the side lokes were over leoked in the drawing, the specimen being nearly smeoth. Description.—Pygidium semi-elliptical, strongly convex, width at the anterior margin a little less than the ength, seventeen or eighteen articulations in the axis, side lobes with ten er twelve wibs and a smooth border. The axis is very prominent, about ‘one-third the width, gradually and uniformly tapering and ter- minating abruptly at five-sixths of the whole length in an obtuse- iy rounded apex. The ribs on the axis are depressed convex, becoming smalier and more crowded towards the apex, each with eight or nine small tubercles, which are confined to the middle third of the width of the axis, and are situated near the posterior margin of the ribs. The side lobes have ten or twelve depressed convex ribs, the last three indistinct, the first three or four with a very obscure fine groove near the posterior edge, in the outer third of the length. The smoeth berder is about one-fourth the width of the side lobes at the anterior angles, bué a little wider behind; all the space behind the apex of the axis is smooth. ach rib has nine or ten small tubercles near its posterior margin. On the posterior third of the pygidium there is an obscure shal- low groove along the inner edge ef the smooth border. Length of the specimen six lines; width at the anterior eet neatly the same, about one-sixth of a line Jess. This species resembles P. Meramecensis (Shumard), but has a greater number of ribs in the axis of the pygidium. P. insigens (Winchell) is a very closely allied species. The pygidium is thus described by Prof. Winchell in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phi. January 1863, p. 24. “‘Pygidium very convex, semi-elliptic, the axis very prominent and forming about one third the width at the anterior margin; consisting of Awelve to fourteen rings each bearing six small tubercles, the whole of which are arranged in six longitudinal rows; the tubercles often worn Can. Nat. 14 Von. Vit 210 NEW SPECIES OF FOSSILS. down on the exterior of the test, but always well defined in the cast< Tateral lobes bent rather abruptly downwards, having ten ribs, which become indistinct and disappear toward the margin, and are entirely wanting over the narrow space behind the axis; the anterior ribs shew— ing a faint median groove toward their vanishing extremities, and afew of the posterior ones bearing feeble tuberculations toward. their axial’ extremities”. ' : The only difference of any importance between the two species: appears to be the greater number of rings in the axis of our species. This however will most probably turn out to be corre- lated with differences in the glabella. Dedicated to Prof. H. How, King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia.. Locality and Formation—Kennetcook, Nova Scotia; lower earboniferous. Art. XVUll.—Description of anew Trilobite from the Quebec Group. By T. Devine, F. R. G. §., ©; L. Department, Quebec. Muxoczruatus Satrert, (N. s.r.) (Enlarged two diameters.) Dxscription.—form oblong—oval.—Entire length three lines and width at posterior margin of the head one and one fifth line—front of head and posterior margin of the tail broadly rounded—-sides parallel. Hzap—Semicircular, two fifths of the entire length, strongly convex, posterior margin marked by a well defined furrow which curves round the lateral angles anteriorly. G@LaBELLA—Ovate, narrow at the base, and broadly rounded in front, extending anteriorly beyond the fixed. cheeks, promin- ently convex with a very narrow flat rim forming an arch round the front. {uoractc SEemenrs—Six or seven, flat lying close to each other with a broad, deep groove extending outwards to the tips which are bent down. KINGSTON BOTANICAL SOOIHTY. 211 Axis—Tapering regularly from the front of the head to the pos- terior margin of the tail, convex, as wide as the pleurz in front and less posteriorily, the rings of the axis run into the groves of the pleurseea—marked by a deep grove. Tart—Semicircular, the lateral lobes marked by two or three ribs with a deep grove as in the pleurze, owing to which and the smallness of the specimen, it is difficult to perceive the ling of separation between the body and tail. The eyes and free cheeks are absent in all the specimens. Arrinirres—In form and number of pleuree it resembles Cyphon- iscus Socialis (Salter) but differs from it in details of structure —the pleura are of a different type, having the groove run- ning along the middle, straight outwards, and not obliquely outwards and downwards, as in Salter’s figure. The pygidium is entire but is as deep grooved as the pleure, the whole form is not so convex, and the pleure are not facetted. It appears from the outward edge of the fixed cheeks that the facial suture cuts the margin in front and posterior margin far out- ward, The head of Menocephalus Salieri resembles closely that of Bathyurus Saffordi in the flat arched border in frcnt of the Glabella, and in the three convex lobes into which the head is divided. Dedicated to J. W. Salter, Esq, Paleontologist of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. This beautiful little crustacean was found at Point Levis in the Quebec Group of Rocks, in the same band of Limestone as Olenus Logant. BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. The usual monthly meeting was held in the University Hall, Kingston C. W. on Friday evening, March 13, Rev. Prof. Wil- liamson, LL.D., presiding. The following papers were read ;— 1. Remarks on the Flora of Brockville, C.W., and vicinity. By Robert Jardine, B.A. 2. Communication from Dr. Francis W. Bird, with fresh spe- cimens of broad-leaved evergreens from the woods of Virginia, in- eluding “Live Oak,” from within the walls of Fortress Munroe, Hollies, &c. Read by Prof. Dickson, M.D. 3. List of ferns collected in the neighbourhood of Hamilton? C.W. By Judge Logie. aa} KINGSTON BOTANICAL SOCIETY. 4. On the Flora of Beckwith, with remarks on the physical geo- graphy and industrial products of the locality. By Josiah Jones Bell. 5. Remarks on the cultivation of flax in Canada. By. Rev. Prof. Williamson. The following were exhibited :— A Fairy Rose in bloom, from Mrs. Prof. Lawson ; specimens of an |... Natural History Society,.........+0.-- Newcastle upon Tyne. Bodleiangaibrarye.nsroisiel-l sete! +/+ o\ee ei Oxford. University Library,... 06250... sso 's's . Cambridge. Whnliversiby Maral sa. eielenteleieieeicrei- .. Edinburgh, Scotland.’ | University Library,..............+%++Glasgow, Scotland. ~ University Library,....... weeeeeee ee St, Andrew's Scotland. College Library,........%:. ‘Sod0dae bo SpoLibypasobs. Ireland. Queen’s College,.........06. Weode es oe Conk, sare kniteaas Queen’s College,. 2... ee ee es Ree HT, Ireland: CONTINENT OF EUROPE. Société Géologique de ae Kaeo nee aes France. Académie des Sciences, . sos ceatonmee aris, Meru. Academia, Gar Iedpae.cs:.:235-2388 Jena, Saxe, Weimar. Imper. Geological Institute,........0. . Vienna, Austria. Deutsches Geolog. Gesellschafft,.. .. Berlin, Prussia. Société Hollandaise des on EAN wie tatete Haarlem, Holland. Konig]. Sachs. Gesellschaft: der Wissen- BHA COsersiee clererel es Tod odoowod Leipzig, Saxony. Société Impériale des Naturalistes,...... Moscow, Russia. Konigl. Bayerischen Akademie der Wis- senschaften,....... pekoteteiotcheleiets Munich, Bavaria. Stockholm Biksbiblioleket,..........% Stockholm! Sweden. (WpsalaWiniverstty, 022 cit clclcvsicicucae ince Upsala, Sweden. Academy of Sciences,....::.......2.+.-Stockholm, Sweden. Christiania University,...000000..00 000. Christiania, Norway. rovial Wiibratyirs sae cir povete) thet epeastevete Gopenfiubien! Denmark. St. Petersburg, Bibliotheque Paper. St. Petersburg, Russia. Dorpat University,........ Moores ...Dorpat, Russia. Kasan University,.......°. sonata ete teteteSe .«Kasan, Russia. Helsingfors University, . a. sen. einen. »- Helsingfors, Russia. Amsterdam Stadsch Bibliotheck, . ...e. Amsterdam, Holland. Leyden Batavian Academy,......... a . Leyden, Holland. Groningen University,........ 20.0% ..-Grdningen, Holland. BonngWmiversitye. << os csccye este ck . -» Bonn, Prussia. BreslausUmiversity, 3... shbs core cieislete love een Prussia, Freiberg Royal Acad.,.......0.0. ...- Freiberg, Saxony. NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 235 And to the following Periodicals :— CANADA, Journal of the Board of Arts,......... Toronto. UNITED STATES, Sibltmnan’s-SOUrn a) s-oececececacamerececececeeases New Haven. GREAT BRITAIN. Annals and Magazine of Natural History,..London. PUM ONGCOLOOISE oer kerala atv eel oie! eletelel ofel el ef ab London. The Phytologist, :.. \ , ¥ 43 j // / a ay Y San ‘Episcopal Church shylerian+ Church _ GEOLOGICAL SURVEY or CANADA SirWE LoganFRS Directer. \ | PLAN \ | Showing the distribution LIMESTONE CONGLOMERATES QUEBEC GROUP POINT LEVIS agp Church of Netre Dame de la Victoere OF IN THE AT 1862. Scale 40 Chains SHWE LoganFRS Virecter. PLAN Shewing the distribution. oy LIMESTONE CONGLOMERATES: INTHE QUEBEC GROUP POINT LEVIS 1862. eae eeiG aL HYLONOMUS ACIEDENTATUS, D® H WYMANT,D?. THE CANADIAN NATURALIST AND GEOLOGIST. Wo, Aone AUGUST, 1863. No. 4. Arr. XIX.— Observations on the Geology of St. John County, New Brunswick. By G. F. Marruzw, Esq. As some interest in the geology of this vicinity has been excited by the articles of Professor Dawson on the Upper Devonian Flora of eastern America, in the ‘Canadian Naturalist’ and ‘Journal of the Geological Society,’ afew remarks on the lithology, strati- graphy, and distribution of the older deposits of this neighbour- hood may not be unacceptable. In presenting them, however, I would claim a considerate cri- ticism of the errors of one who is only an amateur of the science. I have confined my observations to a limited district, because it seemed to me that more permanent additions would thus be made to our knowledge of the geology of this part of the province than would be obtained by rambling over a larger field. If I have given more prominence to details than may seem ne- cessary, it is because I anticipate that the structure of the district which I propose to describe will explain that of the broken and hilly region east and northeast of St. John; and in a minor degree that to the westward. The Devonian age of certain deposits in Gaspé, Nova Scotia, and Maine, had been recognized before the existence of strata of this age in New Brunswick was ascertained. In various parts of the Bay of Fundy, red sandstones had been observed. Some were referred to the carboniferous period while others were fourd to be of still later origin. - The deposits to Can. Nar. 16 Vou, VIIL. 9492 ON THE GEOLOGY OF ST. JOHN. which these remarks more particularly relate were all classed as. Silurian. In June, 1861, Dr. Dawson asserted the Devonian age of the sandstones of Perry in Eastern Maine, and, in consequence, those of St. Andrews, N. B., from certain fossil plants submitted to him for examination. Ce, Jackson had previously suggested this as the probable age of these rocks. The additional proofs accumu- lated by Prof. C. H. Hitchcock, have thrown much further light on their history, and their Devonian age is now clearly recog- nized. Sandstones and conglomerates similar to these are known to occur at different points between Passamaquoddy Bay and the mouth of the river St. John, “but their stratigraphy and position have not been determined. _On the eastern side of the harbour of St. John, and extending many miles along the coast, are extensive sedimentary deposits of great thickness, consisting almost entirely of fragmentary rocks, usually of coarse materials, varied by the addition of numerous. beds of volcanic origin. The lower members of this formation pass beneath the harbour and extend a few miles along the coast to the westward. It is in this direction that vegetable remains of the period when these rocks were formed, have been found in the greatest abundance and best state of preservation. The examination of these fossils has enabled Dr. Dawson to refer the strata in connection with them to the Chemung and Portage group of New York geolo- gists.* The sediments which underlie this formation are of equal or greater thickness ; but few well-preserved fossils have been found in them, and these have not been studied; their age is)therefore uncertain. The resemblance of some of these beds to the middle Devonian of New York has already been pointed out by the same observer. To the eastward of St. John, Dr. Gesner (3rd Report, pp. 5-11) recognized two series of rocks, both of which he refers to the Silu- rian age, namely, an upper group of limestones, slates, and sand- stones, containing remains of plants, mollusca, &c., and described * The late Dr. Robb suggested this view of their age some years ago, although he had previously classed them as Lower Silurian (Johnston’s Report on agricultural capabilities of N. B. ). Iam not aware that he published anything on the subject. ON THE GEOLOGY OF ST. JOHN. Q45; as shelving from the southern side of a ridge of syenite; and an older group, in which he includes the conglomerates, clay slates, sandstones, talcose slaies and trap beds of Mispeck and Black River. | It will be one of my objects in the following remarks to show that the latter group is partly contemporaneous with, but for the most part less ancient than those to which Prof. Dawson’s papers relate, and that Dr. Gesner’s lower group is really to a great ex- tent younger than his “ upper series.” In the map and section accompanying these observations, I have endeavoured to show the distribution of the various groups: of strata and the manner in which they have been tilted and folded. Three principal folds in the strata are observable. The outer folds are anticlinal. Of these the northwestern skirts the south side of Kennebeckasis Bay, a lake-like expansion of the lower part of that river. The southeastern runs parallel to the Bay of Fundy, and at a short distance from it. Its axis has a considerable inclination to the southwest, for the strata are found to bend over it (in ascend- ing order) in that direction. This peculiarity causes the deposit in the intermediate syncli- nal fold to expand to the westward and assume the appearance of a basin opening to the sea. On examining the section it will be seen that of the two anti- clinal folds there shown, the northern brings up beds of an age much greater than any which are seen in the southern, Mecle the section crosses it. Principal Dawson in his article on the Devonian Flora of North- eastern America,* published in the November number, 1862, of the Journal of the Geological Society, divides these pre-carboni- ferous beds into several groups, which with some modifications are given below. I have attached names to these groups (indicating the localities where the best and most typical exposures have been observed), which may serve the convenience of local cbeervers, * I was favoured with an opportunity to peruse the rough draft of & part of this article, and have in consequence to a great extent avoided details relative to the rocks in the city and its immediate vicinity. Had I seen it in print before the following remarks were written, I would have omitted more, and thus have made them’ more concise and less re- petitious. 944 ON THE GEOLOGY OF ST. JOHN. till the strata shall have been co-ordinated with deposits in regions better known. Portianp Series (Nos. 7 and 8 of Dawson), thickness un- known. Granite and syenite, mica, schist and gneiss, limes- tones, clay slate, and sandstone. fossils, fragments of plants in the upper beds. CotpBrooKx Group (No. 6 of Daw. in part), thickness 3,000 feet or more. a. Greenish grey slate, stratification very obscure. b. Bright red slaty conglomerate and dark red sandy shale. c. Reddish conglomerate and grit, hard grey sandstone. Sr. Joun Group (Nos. 5 and 6 in part of Daw.), thickness 3,000 feet or more; several zones of soft black and dark grey finely laminated shales alternating with zones of coarser grey slates containing numerous thin beds of fine grained sand- stone. Fossils, lingula, a conchifer, annelides, coprolites. Bioomspury Group (No. 4 of Daw.), thickness 2500 feet.* a. Basalt, amygdaloid, trap-ash, trap-ash slate; some beds of conglomerate. Thickness 2000 feet. b. Fine grained red clay slate f Tee OM eee Reddish grey conglomerate LirtLE River Group (Nos. 2 and 3 of Daw.), thickness 5200 feet. a. “ Dadoxylon sandstone,” grey sandstone and grit with beds of dark grey shale, sometimes graphitic. Thickness 2800 ft. Fossils. Numerous plants, several crustaceans, wings of insects. (C. F. Hartt.) b. “Cordaite shales,” grey, greenish, and red shales; reddish and grey sandstones, grits, and conglomerates, alternating with the shales. Thickness 2400 feet. Fossils. Cordaites, Calamites, Stigmaria, Ferns, &c., for the most part identical with those of the preceding section. (?) Granulite or granitic sandstone, micaceous slate, trap-ash. * Where groups appear on both sides of the synclinal fold the average thickness has been given. The measurements are to be regarded as merely approximate, ON THE GEOLOGY OF ST. JOHN. 245 Misreck Group (No. 1 of Daw.), thickness 1800 feet. a. Coarse subangular conglomerate. b. Fine-grained purple clay slate and grits surmounted by slate conglomerate. (?) Red and green slate, basalt (stratified ?). Topography.—The indentations in the coast line of the Bay of Fundy at Port Simonds and St. John harbour, cut directly across all the groups of rocks mentioned above, except those of the Port- land series, which are crossed by the outlet of the St. John river. In the peninsula thus formed between Kennebeckasis Bay and the Bay of Fundy, two hilly ridges, one skirting the former and the other the latter Bay, with an intermediate valley, are the most prominent topographical features, The valley in its upper part forms the basins of several lakes: (Loch Lomond, &c.), and forks as it approaches the sea. One branch through which the Mispeck flows, ends at Port Simonds ; the other extends to the harbour of St. John, and is drained by Little River. An intermediate ridge of land, which extends a short distance into the Bay between the two ports, consists princi- pally of the highest group of Devonian rocks, (see Section). The uneven and hilly tract on the northwestern side of the pe- ninsula is underlaid by the Portland series and Coldbrook group, and its surface is diversified by numerous lakelets and ponds. The shales of the St. John group, being much softer than the deposit on either side, have suffered more from denuding agencies. They lie at the bottom of that branch of the central valley which ends at the harbour. Advantage has been taken of this depres- sion to supply the city with water from lakes in the vicinity of Loch Lomond. The volcanic and sedimentary beds of the succeeding group stand out boldly above the general level of the country wherever they attain a considerable thickness, and usually bear a generous forest growth. In passing from the wooded slopes underlaid by rocks of this _group to the arenaceous beds which succeed them, a notable change is apparent in the vegetation. Barren wastes and bare ledges of sandstone take the place of thick woods wherever the influence of the subjacent rock is not modified by the presence of a foreign soil. 246 ON THE GEOLOGY OF ST. JOHN. These open moorland tracts are known as “ Barrens,” and are ‘covered with a profusion of heath-like plants.* ‘In the upper part of the Little River group, some improvement in the character of the soil is manifest, more especially where vol- canic sediments prevail. But the agricultural capabilities of the land underlaid by these beds, as well as those of the highest Devonian group, depends very much upon the presence or absence of diluvial accumula- ‘tions. The soils of the peninsula are indeed not remarkable for fertility, except where sea or river allavium has been formed, or carboniferous deposits prevail. Large tracts are entirely barren and unproductive. Porttanp Sreries—The intricate structure and exiensive me- ‘tamorphism of these older beds renders their examination difficult cand perplexing. They are introduced here principally on account of their connection with later deposits. Their general appearance has been so well described by Dr. Dawson, that it is only neces- sary to mention some’ peculiarities which did not come beneath his notice. Beside the syenitic gneiss observed by him, there are masses of syenite and granite in which no traces of stratification are discernible; also beds of mica schist and gneiss conglomerate. ‘The upper part of the series is mostly calcareous, consisting of limestone strata separated by deposits of pyritous slates. Several of these are graphitic and contain small fragments of plants. CotpBroox Group.—To these calcareous beds succeeds a group of rocks which does not hold a prominent place at St. John, but is largely developed to the eastward of that place. They are well exposed in the valley of Coldbrook, and further east where the following succession may be seen : 1. Hard greenish grey slate, stratification very obscure. 2. Conglomerate with bright red slaty paste. 3. Grey conglomerate. 4 . Coarse reddish grit and conglomerate with purple sandstone. Apparent thickness of the whole, 5000 feet. * Gaylussacia resinosa, Vaccinium Pennsylvanicum, V. Vitis-Idcea, Cassandra calyculata, Epigoea repens, Gaultberia procumbens, Kalmia angustifolia, Rho@ora Canadensis, Corema Conradii, &c., are common on the ridges; while Sedum latifolium, Kalmia glauca, Andromeda po- lifolia, Myrica Gale, and a variety of other species occur in the hollows, which frequently expand into sphagnous bogs. ON THE GEOLOGY OF ST. JOHN. 247 To the westward of St. John this group thins out rapidly. At the “falls” of the river it does not exceed 150 feet. No organic remains have been detected in it. St. Joun Grovur.—No division of these slates has been at- tempted, as there is a repetition of similar sediments; the strata are much plicated, and the only well preserved fossil—a lingula— which occurs in cousiderable number, is common to the coarser beds throughout the group. | The great mass of the deposit consists of a grey clay slate often sandy, the layers of which present glistening surfaces owing to the abundance of minute spangles of mica. This rock frequently becomes very fine in lamination and texture, and dark in colour. Four thick bands of this kind occur, the uppermost of which has been denominated by Dr. Dawson papyraceous shale. They have as yet yielded no fossils.* The three bands of coarser shale which alternate with them include numerous layers of a fine com- pact grey sandstone, from a few inches to ten feet or more in thickness ; a few are so highly calcarerous as to become almost limestones, The surfaces of the layers in the coarser bands are frequently covered with worm burrows, ripple marks, shrinkage cracks, scratches—apparently made by creatures gliding through the shallow waters in which they were deposited—and other evi- dences indicating that the slates are in great part of littoral origin. Fragments and complete shells of a Lingula are scattered over the surfaces of the sandy layers, and thin seams composed entirely of these shells packed closely together are occasionally met with. These shales maintain a comparatively uniform breadth between Loch Lomond and St. John, but to the westward of the city their thickness rapidly diminishes. No proof that they are unconform- able to the deposits contiguous to their base and summit has been observed. * Since writing the above, I visited, in company with my brother, Mr. C. R. Matthew, a locality on CGoldbrook where he had previously met with loose pieces of fossiliferous slate. We found this rock in place near the base of the St.John group, and obtained from it, beside some obscure remains, a small* orthoceratite, and numerous trilobites of two or three species, the latter so excessively distorted that not even the genera can be made out. These and the species discovered in the Da- doxylon sandstone by Mr. Payne, are, I believe, the only salons found 4m situ in the province. ON THE GEOLOGY OF ST. JOHN. 248 oe — eee > re. MOIMSNOYG MUN ‘NHOL “LS 4O ALINIOLA FHL JO dvVW “nol punpilod *6 “2° “N04 4001QP10D ‘8 SU) iS RSs Z, ss rdno.uy 8uyor IS‘) > 2 os ae SSQ{QV odnowy Aungsuonng “9 7 § N-HEO © is Dp ce ss eg fe en ——— —-_— - -— ** dnoigy 4900 973907 °¢ yee: dnoty yoodsipy ‘F ‘Op hanoT ‘gE occ ces oe snosafiuog.ing S **QUOJEPUDY PAY NAAT ‘T ‘OAT “HONTUHALL ON THE GEOLOGY OF ST. JOHN. ‘249, Long Island in Kennebeckasis R. is princi- pally composed of conglomerate and sand- stone of lower carkoniferous age, which rise in a bold and picturesque cliff from the. water’s edge at the eastern end. At the foot of this cliff and extending thence along the southeastern side of the island, strata of much greater age are exposed to view. They consist. in ascending order of—1st. Granite and granitic gneiss; 2nd. Crystal- line limestone and altered slate; 3. Thinly laminated grey shales with thin layers of fine sandstone much contorted. The whole dip to the northwest at an angle of 600 to 70°. In the shales, fragments of a lingula occur similar to that found in the St. John beds and probably identical with it. There are also numbers of worm burrows and other markings like those in the shales at St. John. The texture and position of this deposit as well as the obscure fossils which it holds, seem to show that it is identical with that which underlies the city. A small exposure of slates, evidently a con- tinuation of those on Long Island, may be seen at Sand Point on the south side of the river, six miles southwest. These limited exposures of slate seem to me to point out the occurrence of a belt of fine sediments on the northwest of the Portland series of rocks similar to that which is more clearly seen on the south- eastern side of St. John, &c.; and further to indicate that the valiey of the Kennebec- _ Kasis, now mostly filled with carboniferous deposits, was originally scooped out of the soft beds of the St. John group. Broomssury Grourp—a. Volcanic beds. At the centre of the parish of Simonds, St. John County, rises a high hill called Blooms- bury mountain, the western termination of ay) u UO payout aur ay} Uo ‘yInog 07 YZLOAT WOLf WOYIEG S ‘dp West Head. lll Bay of Fundy. 250 .ON_THE GEOLOGY OF ST. JOHN. a ridge of land extending in a northeast direction through the middle of the county. The hill and ridge are on the southern anticlinal fold already alluded to. In the rear of Quaco the ridge is composed in part of syenitic and granitic rocks, but between the hill and the harbour of St. John no rocks of greater age than the trap beds of this group appear. The elevation consists of basaltic trap, and is flanked on each side by beds of amygdaloid, trap-ash, and other products of vol- canic origin, which also cover the crest of the anticlinal fold for two or three miles west of the hill. ‘The succession of strata is best displayed on the south side of the hill where they succeed each other in the following order :—Basaltic trap, unstratified, of - great thickness; bedded basalt, amygdaloidal porphyry, bedded basalt, hornblendic trap-ash, micaceous quartzite, vesicular trap-ash slate; thickness of the stratified deposits about 3000 feet. Tuere is also on this slope a volcanic conglomerate, viz., fragments of trap rocks imbedded in trap-ash slate. The quartzite resembles some of the finer beds at West Beach and Black River, and the porphyry is that alluded to in Gesner’s 3rd Report, p. 15. The trap-ash slate is in-many places full of irregular vesicles, the sides of which are coated with minute crystals of quartz, calcite, and specular iron. The great increase in bulk of the stratified traps, &c., at this place, and the nucleus of basalt over which they are spread, seem to indicate that it is one of those vents from which during the Devonian period, Java, ashes, and fragments of rock were poured forth and carried many miles to the westward. The outcrop of the lava beds can be traced trending away to the north and west, till they cross the harbour at. the southern end of the city, and disappear in the post-pliocene gravels west of St. John. On the north side Kennebeckasis valley is bordered by a range of abrupt hills from 250 to 600 feet high, consisting of altered clay slate and sandstone, with numerous beds of greenstone interstra- tified, the whole series being much disturbed and usually vertical. They may be the equivalents of the volcanic sediments described above; but their outcrop is so straight for a distance of thirty miles, that they may prove to be part of an older series brought up by a fault. b. Sedimentary beds. On each side of Bloomsbury mountain, and separated from it ON THE GEOLOGY OF ST. JOHN. DAES by the forks of Black River, there are subordinate ridges of ‘a dark red slate, capped by heavy beds of reddish conglomerate having a thickness of 2000 feet. This thickness decreases so rapidly to the westward, that at Courtney Bay oa the east side of the harbour it does not exceed 150 feet. These sediments constitute a passage from the volcanic beds to the sandstones of the gronp above. No fossils have yet been ob- tained from them, and as they are thickest where the former are most prominent, they have been grouped as above. Lirrtt River Grourp—a. Dadoxylon Sandstone.—This depo- sit in its lithologolical characters and fossils is the most constant and unchanging of the strata which have been shown to be un- questionably of Devonian age, and has been a valuable guide in tracing out the relations of the rocks eastward of St. Jobn. A fine exposure of the whole of this sandstone and the greater part of the upper division of the group may be seen north of Mount Prospect (about four miles east of the city) where they rise from beneath the post pliocene gravel of Little River valley. The first consists of hard grey sandstone, with beds of grit and layers of dark grey shale at intervals, the whole having a thickness of 2000 feet. The fossils are Calamites transitionis, and fragments yielding discigerous and other porous tissues. The lower layers can be traced four miles east (to Latimore Lake), where they sink beneath gravel beds in the valley of the Mispeck River. On the south side of the valley the sandstones again reappear with a westerly dip. Further down the river the strata incline to northwest and westnorthwest as they approach Port Simonds. At the bridge over the Mispeck on Black River road the sand- stone contains fragments of carbonized wood, Calamites transi- tzonis, and C.sp.? A bed of dark shale at the same place holds Cordaites Robbii, C. angustifolia, and a calamite (C. cannaefor- mis ?), numerous stems of ferns and leaflets and broken fronds of two species (one is probably Neuropteris polymorpha, Daw.) A few beds of grey pebble conglomerate occur in the sandstones of this valley, and the thickness of the deposit is much greater than at Liitle River; and further west (being about 3600 feet) an out- crop of grey sandstones, which I have, no doubt belong to this series, was traced for several miles along the southeastern side of Bloomsbury axis. They rest conformably on the lower divi- sion of the Bloomsbury group, being separated from it by a thin 252 ON THE GEOLOGY OF ST. JOHN. band of dark red slates, probably representing the upper division. Beds of dark shale, which are intercalated with the sandstones, hold stems and other fragments of plants. The upturned edges of these rocks, so remarkable for the abun- dance and perfection of the flora which they contain, have thus been traced around a double curve from Manawagonis to Black River, a distance of more than thirty miles and therefore spread over an area of sixteen miles in breadth. On a grey slate, just above the most prolific plant-bed at Duck Cove, distinct rain marks like those obtained from the red sand- stones of Connecticut were observed. It will be observed that from the base of the Bloomsbury group to the top of this sandstone there is a series of deposits sim- ilar to those of the Coldbrook group, viz., volcanic sediments, red slates and conglomerates, grey sandstones. b. Cordaite shales ——At the locality north of Mount Prospect, there is an excellent exposure of this as well as the lower division of the Little River group. By increase in the bulk and frequency of the finer beds, the sandstones gradually pass into arenaceous shales of greenish, grey and red colours, which frequently alternate with reddish and grey sandstone and grit,* the latter predomina- ting east of this place, while the shales are more prevalent in the western extension of the deposit. Near its upper limit it ap- proximates in the increase of coarser sediments to the lower beds of the Mispeck group; from these, however, the older con- glomerates are easily distinguished by the small size, great num- ber, and roundness of the quartz pebbles. Cordaites Robbit has been found to characteriza these shales throughout nearly their whole thickness of 2300 feet. They cover an extensive area in the valley of Mispeck River, owing principally to a secondary fold in the strata (see section). A thick series of micaceous slates and imperfectly formed gra- nites and granulites or granitic sandstones with beds of trap-ash, conglomerate grit and limestone occur on the Bay shore at West Beach and Black River; and with their contained minerals are described in 8rd Report on Geology of New Brunswick. At the * In two-thirds of the thickness of these shales there are thirty-seven distinct alternations of these coarser beds with the shales, varying from two to forty feet in thickness. In the upper third the sandstones he- come redder, and some thick beds of a coarser conglomerate appear. ON THE GEOLOGY OF ST. JOHN. 253 point where they are crossed by the section they present the fol- lowing succession : 1st. Red clay slate, and grit, and coarse reddish micaceous slate, resting upon the Dadoxylon sandstone. 2nd. A thick mass of granulite and imperfectly formed granite, with beds of trap-ash. 3rd. Grey micaceous slate. Ath. Reddish sandstone and grit, overlaid by coarse conglomerate holding beds of hematite. 5th. Dark grey micaceous slate, and basalt (stratified ?). A short distance to the eastward, the quasi-granite passes into schist abounding with volcanic ash beds, and overlaid by similar strata containing several large beds of iron one. Further east in the same metamorphic belt are a number of thick belts of impure limestone much altered, and hard clay slate with copper pyrites. The highest beds exposed at Black River are red and green clay slates, beds of trap-ash and basalt, resem- bling the voleanic sediments of the Bloomsbury group. The po- sition of these metamorphic beds will be discussed further on. - Mispeck Grovup.—Filling the centre of the basin of Devonian rocks intervening between Little River and Mispeck River, and having a breadth of about two miles, is a group of sediments in which no organic remains have been found, and which there is reason to suppose should be separated from the fossiliferous strata below, although resembling the latter in appearance and equally metamorphosed. West and north of Mount Prospect where the cordaite shales disappear beneath the stratified gravel which covers the top of that hill, the dip of the beds at the base of this group rapidly diminish’s from 30° to 15°, and the strike at the same herizon varies 10°. The lowest member is a coarse reddish conglomerate having a red slaty paste filled with large subangu- lar fragments of a grey altered rock, like the lower slate of the Coldbrook group. It also contains fragments of reddish sand- stone and a few pieces of impure slaty limestone. The conglo- merate is overlaid by thick beds of purple clay slate, which by the accession of coarser materials becomes a slaty sandstone and grit filled with white particles. The highest member on the line of section is a slaty conglomerate Lolding fragments of slate and sandstone. The strata of this group are much thicker on the north than on the south side of the basin. An isolated deposit 254 ON THE GEOLOGY OF ST. JOHN. of red slate resembling the finer beds of this group, rests against a mass of altered rock which seems to be a continuation of the Bloomsbury volcanic beds, at Taylor’s Island, west of the harbour of St. John. AssociaTED Devosirs.—These consist of sediments mostly arenaceous, referable to the carboniferous and new red sandstone formations. Lower carboniferous.—The upper part of the valley of the Ken- nebeckasis river is filled with deposits of carboniferous age ; in the lower part of the valley these rocks have been to a great extent removed by denuding agencies, and only detached masses remain. They seem divisible into two principal sections, viz. : A lower—consisting of coarse red conglomerates, red sand- stones, and red shales. Fossils—Algeze and stems of land plants. An upper—comprising grey sandstones and grey and brown shales. The lower beds were at first referred by Dr. Gesner to the new red sandstone, but subsequently on account of their resemblance to sandstones, gypsums, &c., of Minas Basin, to the lower carbo- niferous formation. The discovery of certain plants in the shales of the upper divi- sion at Norton station and Darling’s Island in King’s County, enables me to confirm the latter view of their age. At the latter place gray shales intercalated with grey sandstones hold the fol- lowing species : Lepidodendron elegans, L. corrugatum, and a species resembling L Sternbergii, also abundance of spore-cases of Lepidodendra. Cyclopteris Acadica, Daw. (or a species closely allied,) a carpo- lite (2). The beds near Norton Station, which were cursorily examined by Mr. C. R. Matthew last summer, are described as a thick undu- lating series of grey and black shales and shaly sandstones. Many of the layers are ripple marked and dotted with small bilo- bate impressions, and contain small fragments of land plants. Broken specimens of Lepidodendron corrugatum, Daw., and Le- pidodendron ‘elegans were obtained here. At Apohaqui, in beds belonging to the same series, a cordaite (or stem of a large fern) was found in the beds of bituminous shale, and seams of Albertite in sandstone were also observed. Further ON THE GEOLOGY OF ST. JOHN. » 955 up the valley are thick deposits of bituminous shale and limestone, but their relation to the beds of Norton, &c., is not known. The resemblance of these shales and sandstones to those of Horton Bluff and Gaspereaux river in Nova Scotia, is remarkable, both as regards fossils, and the condition under which the strata were deposited; and there is every probability that they are of cotemporaneous origin. The conglomerates of the lower division are unconformable to the Portland series and St. John group, and have usually the fol- lowing composition : Paste—dark red clay or sand derived from granite, rarely a grey calcareous mud. Pebbles—imperfectly rounded fragments, one foot or less in diameter, of 1st Granite or syenite. 9nd Metamorphic limestone. 3rd Mica slate. 4th Soft brown sandstone. These rocks, except the last named, are derived from beds of the Portland series. -* se We have here a series of temperatures, from the warmest yet observed in artesian wells to that of boiling water, and it would seem not unreasonable to suppose that the differences in their temperatures correspond to differences in the depths of their sources. It is true that the neighborhood of volcanoes or of igneous rocks may heighten the temperature of springs rising from comparatively shallow depths, but it is also the case that many very hot springs occur in districts far distant from volcanic regions. Thus it is with the hot spring of Hammam-mes-Kutin, betwixt Bone and Constantine, the temperature of which is stated at from 60° to 95° Cent.; and also with the warm springs in Cape Colony, which, according to Kraus, break forth from sandstone, far from any plutonic rock.f It is clearly impos- sible to account for the differences in the temperatures of thermal springs in any other way than by supposing that the springs possess very nearly the temperatures of the depths from which they rise, and that the higher the temperature of the water the deeper is the source from which it springs. We are therefore justified in regarding it as fully proved that the tem- erature of the earth increases with the depth, until a point is * Muller's Kosmische Physik, p. 340, { Naumann’s Geognosie, I, 306. ORIGIN OF ERUPTIVE AND PRIMARY ROCKS. B06 reached at which water boils, It is a matter of much difficulty however to determine, with any degree of precision, the depth at which this heat is attained. If we assume that the same increase of 1° Centigrade for every 100 feet depth, which takes place at the surface, continues to greater depths, the calculation is very simple. The temperature of the Mondorff artesian well was 34 9° Cent., at a depth of 2066 feet. If we add 100 feet for each of the remaining 66° C, we have a temperature of 100° C, at adepth of 8666 feet. It will however be shewn in a subsequent part of this paper, that we are not justified in assuming that the increase of temperature follows such a regular progression, that the rapidity with which the temperature increases, diminishes with the depth, and that consequently the depth at which a constant temperature of 100° C. reigns, is much more considerable than that above stated ; that itis at least 10,000 feet, and probably even as much as 20,000 feet.* It is.quite possible that under the great pressure which must exist at this latter depth the boiling point of water may be higher than 100° C., but then however, this might be it could not retain this higher temperature until it reached the surface. Because however rapidly it might ascend, its temperature would on the way decrease with the removal of the pressure, steam being at the same time generated. It is not improbable that the waters of the Geyser and the Strokkr have at-their sources a much higher temperature than 100° C., and that the eruptions observable at these springs are caused by the generation of steain in the canal of egress, owmg to the removal of the pressure. This view is supported by the observations made on the temperature of these springs. The water.of the Geyser at the surface has a temperature of 76° to 89° C., but at a depth of twenty-two. meters it-is from 122° to127°.C. The water of the Strokkr is continually boiling at the surface, and has, at a depth of forty-one feet, a temperature of 114 °°C.t' But although it is possible for water to exist at a much higher heat than 100° OC, at such great depths, it is nevertheless also evident that at still greater depths, and increased temperatures, it can only exist in the form of steam. We can moreover readily conceive a depth and temperature to which it would be impossible for water to penetrate. If the temperature of the earth’s crust continues to “—-*"Naumann, Geognosie, I, 66. } Krug von Nidda, in Karsten’s Archiv fiir Mineralogie, &c., ix, 241. Can Nat. 20 Vou. VIII. 306 ORIGIN OF ERUPTIVE AND PRIMARY ROCKS. increase with the depth, there must exist at some depth, sufficient- ly great, a point beyond which the rocks are heated to such an extent that before water can penetrate to them it is resolved into steam and expelled. Beyond this point there is a long interval, regarding the in- crease of temperature in which, we have no direct evidence until we arrive at that furnished by the fused rock which in the form of lava is poured forth by voleanoes, which are even more widely and generally distributed over the earth’s surface than thermal springs. This however supplies indirect evidence sufficient to prove that during this great interval the heat must in- crease with the depth, until the temperature of fused lava is reached, at which point we must suppose everything to be in a fluid state, and consequently the temperature from that point to much greater depths to continue about the same. The lavas which have been emitted by volcanoes in historic times, have been both of a trachytic and a basaltic nature, but those of the latter character seem to have predominated. Many of these doleritic or augitic lavas from very recent lava-streams have been described and analysed. They are of a comparatively basic composition, seldom contain more than 50 per cent of silica, and are much richer than other volcanic rocks in iron-oxide. The lava which constituted the stream from Etna, that destroyed a great part of Catania in 1669, had the following composition :— Silicatprelavcisieioreisinveleleiriercioleterelalarsieleicicicleielelele e000 00 48.83 VAIN AS eictacs rele picieiac ole cinieisisielecscleleletelnic oleusiera mee LOR) Protoxide Of ir0n...eceaessccssccceserecessse 16.32 | Protoxide of manganese..... dot dAdEouGhoos cddods me Lime.... eeeceo@Geeseoete st @eeeeerpO2Gesevesoeetesoe Pelee sO con Ma ONEIDA. cJoiela/e boi «ole aloie elelnlaleicielsleicialsiefoiislels ae ie Bia ak come Pola sess ses ennsoesnevsvess Se Potash... He OG AE A Ny NMI os oF | 99.95.* This analysis bears a general resemblance to those of other augitic lavas. It also bears a resemblance to that of the slag produced in smelting the copper schists of Mansfeldt. According to Hoffman, the composition of the slag produced at Kupfer Kammerhiitte in the first or raw smelting, is as follows. ———————— nee a ree * Dischof; Chemical and Physical Geology, ii, 235. ORIGIN OF ERUPTIVE AND PRIMARY ROCKS. 307 SiLTCAlr ey 1>th of the radius of its circumference. When we reflect on this result, it would appear that this thickness is altogether insufficient to lend to the earth’s crust that stability which it now possesses. Moreover, there are other estimates than those above quoted, which give to the carth’s * Kerl. Handbuch der Huttenknude, I, 296. tIbid; I, p. 282. }{ Kosmos; English edition, I, 26. § Ibid V, 169° 808 oRIGIN OF ERUPTIVE AND PRIMARY ROCKS. erust a much more considerable thickness. Cordier assuming 100° - Wedgewood as the’ melting point of lava, determined the depth at, which everything is in a fluid state, from his observations :— At Canneauz, to be 148 English geographical miles.. At Littry 84 do. At Decise 64: do. And he finally draws the conclusion that the average thickness of the solid crust of the earth cannot well exceed 56 English geo- graphical miles.* Sartorius von Waltershausen’s estimate will be referred to when we come to take into consideration the density of the earth. Naumann remarks as follows on the subject : “ the “ temperature of the fused lava may certainly in the depths of “ the earth be estimated as at least 2000° C. If theincrease of “ temperature follows the law of an arithmetical progression, them “ such a temperature would be reached at a depth of 200,000 feet, “ or nine German,(—36 English) geographical miles. But since “itis more probable that the distance corresponding to an in- “ crease of 1° Centigrade augments with the depth, we are jus- “ tified in assuming a much greater depth, and in supposing it not “ at all impossible that the seat of the fluid lava is to be found at “ a depth of twenty and perhaps even upwards of thirty geogra- “ phical miles (80 or 120 English geographical miles,)’t There are not wanting observations to prove that the temperature of the earth’s crust increases less rapidly towards the interior. Thus from a comparison of several observations, Fox deduced the result that within the first 600 feet, the temperature increases more quickly than in the following 600 feet. Henwood obtained, similar results within the first 950 feet, and Rogers found in Vir-, ginia a notable enlargment with the depth, of the space corres- ponding to 1° increase. In the artesian well at Grenelle the temperature observed at 700 feet depth was... ve wleeieelsie sjtyeieeesleets 20.00 ome 1555 & eoeeereo reeewws cecsccccree 26.439 C, The thermometer in the cellar of the Paris observatory shews a constant temperature of 11.7° C. Calculating from this depth of 86 feet, the distance corresponding to one degree’s increase of tem- perature within the first 677 feet is 81.6 feet; and within the 7 Naumann, Geognosie, I. 74, {| Naumann, Geognosie, I, 67. ORIGIN OF ERUPTIVE AND PRIMARY ROCKS, 309 mext 792 feet, 123 feet; which figures plainly shew an increase with the depth of the distance corresponding to 19°C, Bis- chof’s experiments on the cooling of large masses of melted ba- salt also furnish a very convincing proof that the increase of temperature takes place less rapidly at greater depths, 48 hours after casting a globe of melted basalt, having a diameter of 274 inches, he found it to possess the following temperatures :-— dinkthe; Centres. seroe neo ee es veeles celseesel os Dieu Re 45 inches from d0.....ceccesee tele delalleleverersiay MoO. O/ Sis Kise 6M15) 04h, 0 4 LOWEN Laie elstalcelebs: cvelelcieieleleieeslerey Lads9 & ee 9, es sf LUE Ne) pater robe laiolabsione siteleloieieies eel d O Oe Shera vikcs These observations also shew with increasing depth a diminution of the rapidity with which the increase of temperature takes . place. They by no means furnish us however with secure data upon which to found a ealculation as to the thickness of the earth’s crust. Like the careful experiments in the mines of Prussia and Saxony, “a general law with regard to the increase of tempera- * ture cannot be deduced from them.” They are useful in so far as they prove the inaccuraey of a!l estimates of the earth’s thick- mess founded u»en the arithmetical pregression of the increase of temperature, and justify the supposition of Naumann, that the éerust of the earth may have a thickness ef upwards of 120 English geographical miles. There is however yet another estimate of the igo nlexe of the earth’s crust, the censideration of which will lead us to refer to the various views entertained as to the constitution of the interior of the earth. This estimate is thus referred to by Naumann: “ W. “Hopkins has adepted a peculiar method for the solution of * this problem. By very acute observation and reasoning on the “nutation of the earth’s axis, and the preeession of the equinoxes, “he finds that these two phenomena must come out with different “values according as the earth is solid throughout, or fluid “ throughout, or solid externally and fluid internally ; in which “ latter ease different thicknesses of the solid crust will produce “¢ different results. It is certainly the case that in order to a cor- “ rect estimate, the values ef two important.elements are necessary, “ which are as yet unknown, viz., the condensing action of pres- “sure, and the expanding action of such high temperatures. “« Nevertheless, Hopkins has attempted to answer the question ap- oe _* Naumann, Geognosie, I, 63. 310 ORIGIN OF ERUPTIVE AND PRIMARY ROCKS. “ proximately, and gained the result, that according to the known “ values of the nutation and precession, the thickness of the solid “* crust cannot be less than one fourth or one fifth of the radius “of the earth and must at least amount to 172 to 215 “German geographical miles (688 to 860 English geogra- “ phical miles.)- Such a thickness of the earth’s crust seems indeed “¢ to stand in the necessary relations to the stability of the exterior “ surface of the earth, but also almost completely to exclude the “* possibility of a communication with the interior of the earth, “‘ which is really so decidedly shewn to exist by varied volcanic “ phenomena. Hopkins:also adopts the view that with such a “ thick crust a direct. communication is impossible between the “interior of the earth and the surface. In order: therefore ta “ explain the phenomena of volcanoes, he supposes. the existence “ of very large cavities here and there within the solid crust, “which are filled with easily fusible materials, still in a liquid “* state, and which resemble colossal bubbles, enclosing whole seas “ of fused substance.** Elie de Beaumont and others, on the other hand, entertain the view that spaces were formed between the solid erust, and the fluid centre which, at least in earlier geolo- gical periods, caused partial depressions of the earth’s crust, and. which are:still to be considered as the real laboratories of volcanic activity. Somewhat allied to. Hopkins’s supposition is Bunsen’s theory, which rests upon certain ascertained facts with regard to the com- position of igneous. rocks generally, but more especially to that of lavas. Bunsen supposes the existence in the interior of the earth of two enormous reservoirs of fused matter having eacha differ- ent composition, and from the amalgamation. of which all the known varieties. of trachytic and doleritic rocks result. This theory is based upon two series of analyses of Icelandic lavas, the one comprising, according to Bunsen, those richestin silica (trachytes), the other those containing the largest amount of bases, (trap rocks, basalts and basaltic lavas). The first series of analysis com- prised those of the following rocks :— 1. Trachyte from Baula. 2. Do from Kalmanstunga. . 8. Do from Langarfjall near the Geyser. 4. Trachyte from Arnar Knipa on the Laxa. 5. Do from Falklaklettur near Kalmanstunga. j eee SEE * Naumaun, Geognosie, f, 75. ORIGIN OF ERUPTIVE AND PRIMARY ROCKS. 6. Trachyte from Krabla. 7. Obsidian from Krabla. 1 2. 3, 4. 5. 6. Silica ......ce00200075-91 77.92 15.29 78.95 76.42 16.38 Alumina..........011.49 12.01 12.94 10.22 9.57 11.53 Ferrous oxide....... 2.13 1.32 2.60 2.91 5.10 . 3.59 Mimemeree acces. 1.56, 6.76 1.0L 1.84 153. 1.76 Mapnesiags...+>+... 0.76 0.13 0.03 0.14 0.20 0,40 Sodas sac. sae... D51I 459) 27D) aig. 6.24" 4.46 Potash. socveslec.e. 5.64 3.27 5.42 1.76 1.94 1.88 Ce el 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 The mean of these analyses is : MSILTC Ay fatere, alo ja'es clotlelejelelelseve selereicle| deietale erarelelcielsisrereL OSG PAILTAIN Aieieie «lei eielatalsieleyeraterelsieleisiolecciere cyetetelslelalerersieetl Le DO PHETLOUS) OXI eral tlelcle ciel: ove aloierolalevle sisleielerleeen a OGL GTI Slay ah static oie oratetalelcriel sisisuieievelel