RARY OF 


NEWYORK BOTAN 


i GIVEN BY THE AMERIC 
MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 1934 


THE CANADIAN 


= 


RECORD OF SCIENCE, 


INCLUDING THE PROCEEDINGS OF 
THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF MONTREAL, 


AND REPLACING 


Peee VCANADIAN ~ NATURALIST: 


VOL III. (1888-1889.) 


LIBRA # 
NEW YORK 
BOTANICAL 
GARDEN 
MONTREAL: 
PUBLISHED BY THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 


1889. 


| 


EDITING COMMITTEE. 


EDITOR: 


D. P. PenHatiow, F. R.S. C. 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS: 
Dr. B. J. Hagrineton, F.R.S.C. Dr. T. Westey MILts, 


J. F. WHITEAVES, Ottawa. G. F. Marruew, St. John, N.B. 


CONTENTS OF VOL. ITI. 


The Distribution and Physical and Past-Geological 
Relations of British North American Plants. 
CCanchision.)) A. DRUMMOND. cccecsceceiscececse ss 

On a Basal Series of Cambrian Rocks in Menae) 
G. F. Marruew, M.A., F.R.S.C.. 

Proceedings of the ioneseen Ahssoatnuron ce the Ad- 
vancement of Science for 1887 ........ ...scscecsesees 

The Prairies of Manitoba. A. T. Drummonp........... 

Note on a Specimen of Lake Iron Ore from Lac la 
Tortue, P.Q. Dr. B. J. Harrineron, B.A......... 

Proceedings of Natural History Society, Session 
PBEM ORE  eracesnae rio de 7akcideraiacice cess aoce's ie cise tacebe se 

Montreal Microscopical Society, Session 1886-87....... 

Preliminary Note on New Species of Sponges from the 
Quebec Group at Little Métis. Sr J. WiniiaMm 
PERT SON LALIT EERE ecareise se oeisinosle caucus ss Zoeaeass 

Notes on Sponges from the Quebec Group at Métis, 
and from the Utica Shale. Grorae JENNINGS 


OO aL 2] rep DES eo oe eee 
Examination of some Manitoba Waters. A. McGiLn 
RSeRe PES OC eran tae Pal een eur auch nis cpinbeis's adpacdee cade 
On the Classification of the Cambrian Rocks in Acadia. 
et RUA UO MO Asc R AER Os Wa reussecneenedendendeons 


The Climate of the Canadian West. [. Inarrsout... 
Notes on Fossils from the Utica Formation at Point- 
d-Pic, Murray River, Murray Bay (Que ), Canada, 


RTOS PN ARs WL, gy ENC) Ansace'ee < souvesiscvduees 
The Relation of Climate to Vegetation. Prorrssor 
SM MONT viivavebsiser sever sree seaneossbi revs ae 

A 


PAGE 


49 


69 


1V Canadian Record of Science. 


Notes on some of the Birds and Mammals of the 
Hudson Bay Territories and the Arctic Coast. 
JouHN RAE, MOD. (ul Ds PES 2 Eh. R:G.S.7.c2s-e ea: 

On Sporocarps discovered by Prof. Orton in the Hrian 
Shale of Columbus, Ohio. Sir J. Wm. Dawson, 
EIS EAMOn aS ARGath Ain araline san Denar murlnmmRR MESO Unst oc 

Note on Graptolites from Dease River, B.C. Pror. 
CHAR ins HPAP WORTH, JH aS: -cone.c cee cast eee ere 

The Great Lake Basins of Canada. A. 'T. DRummonp 

Proceedings of Royal Society of Canada. With Notes 
by A. T. Drummonp....... nit Re lene vaklesleeameeeee eres 

Proceedings of the Natural History Society, with 
President’s Annual Address. MP AON eee 

JANI OSLTRE GUIS Ss ap ph Ngo SSEOEo A Bae RADA ACR ANSREMGB NER REC uA Lodo coc 

On some Canadian Rocks containing Scapolite, with 
a few Notes on Rocks associated with the Apatite 
Deposits. Frank D. Apams and ANDREW C. 
Lawson, Ph.D....... Soe So tarceleesis nc vo tae REM eee eRe EE 

Eozoon Canadense. Sir. J. WituiAm Dawson, F.R.S. 

“Ringed Trees.” W. L. Goopwin, Queen’s Univer- 
SVU fy al AUIS. Ae Se nah Asan oe ata Hae SORES AEB SdScmmco0%c 

On the Eozoon and Paleozoic Rocks of the Atlantic 


Coast of Canada in comparison with those of 


Western Europe and the Interior of America. 
Siz J. Wittiam Dawson, F.R.S., F.G.S.. 
The St. Lawrence Basin and the Gr oo Lidees? ae W. 
SPENCER.......- DEORE at ane inc een a eae aN a Shor ce obs 
The Study of Mineralogy. T. Srerry sive, LL.D., 
EE SEURS seat cima nmet cn iaaen culate bint case ce stats Saeneeinee acs 
Mineralogical Evolution. T. S1ERRY Hunt, Tt, IDL. 


AE TERE cease ae soe Sc anes Oe RIE SOUR CEG LAA ep rN 
Natural History Society—Autumn Field Day.......... 
The Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. A. T. 

TD BeCMANEGINED ose ac ee ae orate A es i eo crue na 


Note on Balarus Hameri in the Pleistocene at Rivier e 
Beaudette, etc. Sie J. Wittram Dawson, UL.D., 
IRS eee ce eae ic oat Coe cera etree SAN As A URE 


PAGE 


186 
201 


247 


287 


Contents. 


On Modern Concretions from the St. Lawrence. Rev. 
PRO CAVA NAGE LS diecens see eelgeaca! sock cua darts aie 
The Influence of the Nervous Seem on Cell Life. 
T. Westey Minus, M.A., M.D., Professor of 
Physiology, McGill University, Montreal.......... 
On the Classification of the Cambrian Rocks in Acadia, 
Gogh Miami we MAS © ERS © oiss seintetitcutinsc case af 
Notes on the Flora of Montebello, Que., Estate of 
Hon. Mr. Papineau. Henry R. Amt, Cor. Mem. 
Ree eOtep Cl D 7 ccewsarenkictest i Saleen mache atess yeanignes 
Glaciation of Eastern Canada, RoBert CHALMERS.... 
The Food of Plants. Proressor D. P. PENHALLOW.... 
Gypsum Deposits in Northern Manitoba. J, B. Tyr- 
71D Ty CEU ETE GASH ci SLSR 
Notes on Shepherdia Canadensis. Prorgssor D. P. 
ESNED ATI OWinty cra etoiida-tda2% ov iienslemaaauate spices cit + e's 
Forestry for Canada, Hon. H. G. Jory pz Lorsrnitire 
Supplementary Note to ‘“ Classification of Cambrian 
Rocks in Acadia,” G. F. Matruew, M.A., F.R.8.C. 
On Archeocyathus, Billings, and on other genera allied 
thereto, or associated therewith, from the Cam- 
brian Strata of North America, Spain, Sardinia 
and Scotland. Dr. G. J. Hinps, F.G.S............. 
Proceedings of the Natural History Society, Montreal 
MR TEEA TOO ast oooh ve aoe SE vatn'ry duro d heci yen geleneseyns sees 
On the Cambrian Organisms in Acadia, G. F. MarrHEwW 
ROPE UL AES Ui tata its oes eelalsuinsieniatiysesiae a (oa(N ead eiernuine 
Notes ou the Lake St. John Country. EH. T. CoamBers 
On a New Genus of Siliceous Sponges from the Tren- 
ton Formation at Ottawa. G. J. Hinps, Ph.D.... 
On the Acadian and St. Lawrence Water-shed. L. W. 
SOME tee eee D1 0s cedar den chia sshinia sone sin dears neaites 
Some Birds observed at Montreal. F Pit CAULFIELD. 
On a Species of Goniograptus from Tere Formation, 
Henry M, Amt, M.A., F.G.S.....cscrcccstecsersesercees 
On Fossil Sponges at Little Métis. Sir J. W. Dawson 
New Fossil Plants from the North-West. Sir J. W. 
MEME pi vaehs chvytsaistescceascvsisssece socvsseccrsensee 


303 


VI Canadian Record of Science. 


Notes orf Hrian (Devonian) Plants. PrRormssor PEn- 
BUATIUOWE aascgacprbne daconosnneccecbee narod abobmusdasgonocdecac 
J\TOTIE JOTVOIGE IDE fecnosnooodcanscor anoqooeooosnes069es09 oconaH06 
Proceedings of the Natural History Society, Montreal 
Gist of MMleTMbers Veer dee ens lescbee cosets eessmeneceee 
Sugar Producing Plants. WILFRID Seu, B.A.Se.. 
How is the Cambrian divided ?—A Plea for the Glaser 
fication of Salter and Hicks. G. F. Marruew, 
VEE RSC, voce sec cess cp siote elses coeee ie: Memenee ender 
On the Ooomnrcnes of Leptoplastus in the. Acadian 
Cambrian Rocks. G. F. Marruew, M.A., F.R.S.C. 
Ip Abbée Mouis Ovide: Brunet... secs cccscu cece cene eee 
Derivations of Tolidin. R. F. Ruttan, B.A., M.D..... 
An Ancient Blaze. Professor D. P. Penhallow......... 
Additional Notes on Goniograptus Thureani, McCoy, 
from the Levis Formation, By Henry M. Amt... 


Meteorological Abstracts 
Book Notices 


weceeeeetc ease ee ores oe ee eee eneseesee en 
eee ee LOCH eoeseereeececvereesrraeaesesogooeeS EE Seos 8908 


B00 207228 Deve ceGeOOSOHOHAeEOCLECECZOGLEeLOCOE OED 


Index . 


ERRATA. 


Page 403, 19th line, for Oxytropus read Oxytropis. 

Page 403, 20th line, for Shoenoprasum read Schoenoprasum. 
Page 423, Ist line, for Graptotites read Graptolites. 

Page 425, 20th line, for dichosomous read dichotomous. 

Page 427, 29th line, Kjrulfi read Kjirulfi 

Page 431, 3rd line, for Nemaloxyten read Nematoxylon. 

Page 431, 4th line, for tenne read tenue. 

Page 431, 13th line, for museptate read non-septate. 

Page 431, 20th line, for Celluloxyten read Cellutoxylon. 


THE 


Pa ADLAN RECORD 


peta et 


o> 
OF SOIENOCE. {TM eRAR 
“SOF scrEt 10% 


VOL. III. JANUARY, 1888. NOMEN 


THE DISTRIBUTION AND PHYSICAL, AND Past-GKro- 
LOGICAL RELATIONS oF British NortH 
AMERICAN PLANTS. 


By A. T. Drummonp. 
( Conclusion.) 


In illustrating the groups into which the flora-of the 
Dominion may thus be divided, lengthy lists of plants will 


‘be avoided, Sufficient examples will be given under each 


division to show the distinctiveness of the group. It has, 
however, to be borne in mind that new facts in distribution 
are always coming to light. The explorations of the coun- 
try between Lake Superior and the Pacific Coast are, com- 
paratively speaking, recent and limited, and in coming 
years, with fuller knowledge of the range of each species 
there, it will be possible to speak with more confidence of, 
and to group more accurately, the flora of the western half 
of the continent. At present, in the case of too many 
species, we have only general locations given, covering a 
wide stretch of country. 


Se PRs oF 3 


ppnbnhen 
res aah ADEWY > 


« 
v 


2 Canadian Record of Science. 


CANADIAN GROUP. 


There are no temperate plants in Canada of wide range 
from Atlantic to Pacific, which are exclusively Canadian, 
but there are many species of which it may be predicated 
that their maximum distribution is in this country rather 
than in the Uuited States. The species which are common 
to Europe and America, and range to the Pacific, being 
chiefly northern temperate plants, have, as a rule, the mass 
of the individuals of each species in Canada. Exclusive of 
these, however, the following are illustrations of the 


group so 


Viola blanda, Willd. Alnus viridis, D. C. 

Lathyrus ochroleucus, Hook. Vicia Americana, Muhl. 
Potentilla arguta, Pursh. Geum triflorum, Pursh. 
Rubus triflorus, Rich. Rosa blanda, Ait. 

R. strigosus, Mq. Cornus stolonifera, Mx. 
Cornus Canadensis, L. Chiogenes hispidula, T. & G. 
Nardosmia palmata, Hook. Menyanthes trifoliata, L. 
Kalmia glauca, Ait. Shepherdia Canadensis, Nutt. 
Apocynum androszemifolium, L. Betula papyracea, Mx. 
Corylus rostrata, Ait. Smilacina trifolia Desf. 


The question naturally suggests itself—Why are many 
species of wide range, reaching from one side of the con- 
tinent to the other, whilst many others are circumscribed 
in area? It is quite clear that the size and weight of the 
seed, and the appendages which it may have in the shape 
of wings or silky plumes, to aid in its dissemination, the 
high winds, the crops, feathers and feet of birds, the dif- 
ferent relations of land and water and temperature in past 
ages—all have been important factors in the extension of 
the range of plants. But there is another conclusion, the 
drawing of which analogy warrants. Every plant may be 
said to have an area where the number of its species and 
the condition of its growth are at the maximum. Outside 
of this area, the individuals are found in diminishing numbers 
until their progress, varying in different directions, finally 
ceases on every side, The growth, again, of each individual 


British North American Plants. 3 


plant, has its birth in the swelling seed, its maturity when 
it expands its flower, and its death when, after ripening its 
seeds, it withers and decays. amie each species has 
had its beginning, in past ages, in the development and 
permanency of a well defined variety formed from at 
already existing spevies. This new species, thus formed, 
would, in the course of downward geological time, reach its 
highest stage of existence as a species,—its period of most 
active growth and of largest area of distribution, when its 
ability, under further new conditions, to give rise to fur- 
ther new species, is greatest. Finally, such species has, in 
after geological time, its period of decline, when the activity 
of its individuals is gradually lessened and its area of distri- 
bution diminished, until extinction comes, leaving to the 
palzobotanist the duty of revealing its story when he dis- _ 
covers the remains in the clay nodule or the hardened rock. 
Applying this idea, the older existing species, which are at 
their maximum of activity, would, with the greater oppor- 
tunities which in time they had had, have naturally a wider 
range, under the same set of circumstances, than those which 
were of more recent creation. Others, again, of the older 
species, would have passed their maximum of energy and, 
even though wide of range, would, in each passing century, 
become more rare. The species of newer creation would, 
on the other hand, be gradually extending their range . 
wherever circumstances of climate and situation admitted, 


. but, from the shorter lapse of time, would have a more 


limited range than the older species. Thus, for illustration, 
Viola Selkirkii, Pursh, being common to Hurope and 
America, is probably one of the older species, but being 
now rare on this continent, may presently be on the 
decline; Viola blanda, Willd., which is a frequent species 
of wide range, is doubtless about its maximum of energy; 
whilst Vivsla hastata, Mx., which is uncommon, may be 
either a recently formed species, or an older species on the 
decline. 

The same idea can be equally well applied in the case of 
animals. 


+ Canadian Record of Science. 


Forest GRovp. 


The species of this group are, with few exceptions, shrubs 
and herbaceous plants. That in the far west so many of 
these plants avoid the open prairies, is an illustration of 
what might be termed a companionship which nature has 
arranged between many of the smaller forms of plant life 
and their towering congeners, the trees, and which brings 
to light the dependence of the former and the protecting 
influence of the latter. Amidst the great bluffs of trees 
which margin the prairie, the general temperature is modi- 
fied, the play of the sun’s rays on the ground is less con- 
tinuous, the ground itself is more moist, and the high, 
drying winds of the prairies are greatly diminished in force. 
Whilst such smaller representatives of plant life find within 
the line of forests or bluffs such congenial conditions, they 
afford, as they die, some return to the trees by joining with 
the trunks and leaves of the trees in enriching the soil by 
their decay. 

The group is illustrated by the following :-— 


Nuphar luteum, Smith. Viburnum nudum, L. 
Corydalis aurea, Willd. Erigeron bellidifolium, Muhl. 
Claytonia Virginica, L. Diplopappus umbellatus, Hook. 
Acer spicatum, Lam. Gay lussacia resinosa, T. & G. 
Rhamnus alnifolius, L’Her. Vaccinium macrocarpon, Ait. 
Potentilla tridentata, Sol. Epigea repens, L. 

Ribes prostratum, L’ Her. Polygonum cilinode, Mx. 
Cicuta bulbifera, L. Populus tremuloides, Mx. 
Diervilla trifida, Moench. Abies balsamea, Marsh. 
Lonicera ciliata, Muhl. Larix Americana, Mx. 


Maritime GRowp. 


As I, several years ago, endeavoured to explain, the species 
of this group, which are pres :ntly found along the shores 
of the Great Lakes, and of saline ground farther westward, 
are evidently the remnants of a larger maritime flora which 
margined the coast in glacial or post-glacial times when 
the sea made great inroads over Eastern Canada. Their 
existence in their present positions far inland, may be an 
argument for the saltness of the great interior seas of these 


British North American Plants. 5 


times, but this does not necessarily follow in the absence of 
other more direct evidence. Thevery fact of their flourish- 
ing now on the fresh-water lake coasts shows how—n 
doubt after a severe struggle—they have, but in greatly 
diminished numbers, adapted themselves to the new condi- 
tions in which in the one case the saline element, and in 
the other, the moist atmosphere of the sea shore, were 
wanting. We can conceive how, in these distant times, 
when the sea had receded and when the struggle with 
changed circumstances had ended in the survival of some, 
these survivors could, in the usual course, find their way 
from the former sca shore to the inland seas, and spread 
themselves around their borders. Some further evidence is 
needed of the fresh or saline condition of these inland seas 
of glacial and post-glacial times. In the meantime, it is to 
be observed that the largest number of the inland maritime 
plants are found around Lake Ontario and smaller sheets of 
water east and south of it. 

The maritime plunts occurring on the coasts of the Great 
Lakes include the following :— 


Ranunculus cymbalaria, Pursh. Euphorbia polygonifolia, L. 


Cakile Americana, Nutt. Myrica cerifera, L. 

Hudsonia ericoides, L. Naias major, All. 

H. tomentosa, Nutt. Ruppia maritima, L. 
Spergularia media, Presl. Triglochin maritimum, L. 
Hibiscus Moscheutos, L. T. palustre, L. 

Lathyrus maritimus, Bigel. Juncus Gerardi, Lois. 
Atriplex hastata, L. Sciopus maritimus, L. 
Salicornia herbacea, L. Calamagrostis arenaria, Roth. 
Polygonum aviculare, L. Leptochloa fascicularis, Gray. 

Var. littorale, Link. Spartina stricta, Roth. 

P. articulatum, L. Var. alternifolia, Gray. 
Rumex maritimus, L. Hordeum jubatum, L. 


These inland maritime plants can be regarded as one of our 
older floras, dating back to at least the times of the Leda 
clays. 

EASTERN COAST GROUP, 


The following species may be taken as illustrative of this 
group in Canada. Where they occur in the United States, 
they have, with two exceptions, a similar range there :— 


6 Canadian Record of Science. 


Hudsonia ericoides, L. Gnaphalium sylvaticum, L. 
Potentilla nemoralis, Nest. Gaylussacia dumosa, T. & G. 
Rosa nitida, Willd. Calluna vulgaris, Salisb. 
Lythrum salicaria, L. Kalmia latifolia, L., if localities 
Aster radula. Ait. confirmed. 

A. Novi-Belgii, L. Rhodora Canadensis, L. 

A. tardiflorus, L. Betula alba var. populifolia,Spach. 
Dipplopappus linariifolius, Hook. CoremaConradii, Torr. 

Solidago speciosa, Nutt. Solidago puberula, Nutt. 


Some of the special influences which limit the range of 
the species of this group, are not difficult to conjecture. The 
Appalachian chain of mountains has no doubt acted as a 
barrier to the westward progress of many plants, as it has 
to the eastern extension of many others. The more equable 
temperature, the moister atmosphere and the prevailing 
fogs, so pronounced on the immediate coast, especially of 
Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and the St. 
Lawrence estuary, must exercise some influence inland as 
well, thougb this influence necessarily diminishes as tbe 
distance from the coast increases. A marked illustration of 
this influence will be referred to in the case of the British 
Columbia plants. 

The most remarkable feature, however, in the eastern 
coast distribution, is the absence of such a large number of 
the familiar trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants of the 
Upper St. Lawrence valley. It is quite probable that the 
same local causes which favour the distribution of the © 
species of this eastern coast group, may be prejudicial to 
the extension towards the coast, of many of these more 
inland plants now absent. Causes which affect even human 
life differently in different individuals, may equally well, 
even in a greater degree, we can readily suppose, have 
different effects on the plants of different species. It has 
always appeared to me probable that the dense fogs of the 
Nova Scotia coast may have something to do with the 
absence of such a northern and widely ranging tree as the 
white cedar, Thuja occidentalis, L.; and a similar cause, 
and the moister atmosphere generally, may have also some 
influence in limiting the range in both New Brunswick and 


British North American Plants. 7 


Nova Scotia of the white oak and butternut. A more imme- 

diate cause for the absence of Ontario and Eastern Quebec 

plants is, however, the lower temperature arising from the 

Labrador current, which, by a branch through the Strait& 

of Belle Isle, extends its influence up the St. Lawrence om 
both sides towards Quebec, whilst its main stream, after 

washing the eastern coasts of Newfoundland, spreads along’ 
the Nova Scotia and New Brunswick coasts in its course 

south westward. Of the effect of this culd current on plant 

life on the immediate coast, there is no question. 


ERIE GROUP. 


The area in Canada in which this group of plants is dis- 
tributed, is practically limited to that part of Ontario lying 
between Lake Erie and a line drawn from the eastern end 
of Lake Ontario to the mouth of the St. Clair River. This 
area is in the latitude of Southern Michigan and of Central 
and Southern New York State, and forms the most southern 
portion of Canada. It has, further, its climate modified by 
the proximity of the three lakes, Huron, Erie and Ontario. 
These facts sufficiently account for the middle temperate 
nature of the flora which, in its relations to Canada, has 
here been termed the Erie group. 

The south-western peninsula of Ontario is also marked by 
the great variety in species of its trees, and by, in the past, 
their remarkable growth. It is possible to find on a single 
farm of two hundred acres, more than half of the species of 
trees which occur in Ontario. The peninsula is now well 
denuded of its large trees, but fifty or more years ago its 
splendid forests were the admiration of travellers. Near 
where the present city of London stands, were white pines 
six feet in diameter and one hundred and sixty feet in 
height, and magnificent button-woods averaging about 
eighteen feet in girth and sending upwards straight stems 
to a height of even thirty feet before branching. Farther 
north, these button-woods were sometimes found of nearly 
twelve feet in diameter. Oaks in the district watered by 
the River Thames, varied from ten to fifteen feet in circum- 
ference, and had often forty-five to fifty feet of clear, straight 


8 Canadian Record of Science. 


stems. The stately elms were in great abundance and of 
remarkable size, attaining occasionally even twenty-five 
feet in circumference, whilst the tulip trees around Niagara 
were not only of considerable height, but were not unfre- 
quently ten to twelve feet through. 

The following plants are characteristic of this group:— 


Liriodendron tulipifera, L. Aster Shortii, Boot. 


Asimina triloba, Dunal. Solidago Riddellii, Frank. 
Nelumbeum luteum, Willd. Coreopsis tripterus, L. 

Corydalis flavula, Raf. Gerardia flava, L. 

Euonymus Americanus,L. Hydrophyllum appendiculatum, Mx. 
Polygala incarnata, L. Phlox subulata, L. 

Agrimonia parviflora, Ait. Sassafras officinale, Nees. 

Cornus florida, L. Morus rubra, L. 

Nyssa multiflora, Wang. Castanea vesca, L. 


St. LAWRENCE GROUP. 


It is a remarkable fact, pointed out by me some years 
ago, that a considerable number of the forest trees of 
Ontario in their range westward, come to an abrupt termin- 
ation in Canada in the district lying between Lake Supe- 
rior and the Lake of the Woods, whilst others are hardly 
seen west of the Sault St. Marie. In Ontario, there are 
sixty-nine species of forest trees, of which thirty-five are 
known either on the north or the south shores of Lake 
Superior. Of these thirty-five, only fourteen cross into the 
prairie region in central and. southern Manitoba. Similar 
ci.cumstances are apparent in an even greater degree among 
the shrubs and herbacvous plants. In Canada, many of 
these seem to be limited in their westward course by the 
outlet of Lake Superior, though in the United States they 
range more or less along the southern shores of that lake. 
The reason of this limit in Canada is readily understood 
when the rocky, hilly nature of the country around the 
northern coasts of Lake Superior and the boreal character 
of the climate there are considered. 

The rough nature of the country immediately to the 
westward of Lake Superior—being successions for over 
three hundred miles of rocky hills, swamps, and large and 


British North American Plants. 9 


small lakes with their connecting rivers—has had, no doubt, 
its influence in limiting the distribution of many species 
there. As the prairie is approached, the drier atmosphere, 
the lighter rainfall, the more prevalent winds and the lower 
temperature must also have their effect on westward range. — 
It has, however, always appeared to me that the gradual 
widening, by forest and prairie fires, of the prairie area in 
a direction easterly from the Red River, has been a leading 
cause in checking the farther westward extension of the 
eastern trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants presently con- 
fined to the country to the east of the Lake of the Woods- 
There is much reason to believe that the forest area may 
have at one time extended westward beyond its present 
limits in this district, even on what is now treeless prairie, 
but that fires—no doubt almost entirely since the advent of 
man there—have, by their annual depredations, extended 
the prairies gradually eastward, carrying with them the 
destruction not only of the trees, but of the numerous 
smaller plants, which are dependent on or influenced by 
the vicinity of forest areas. Whether the whole prairies 
have been at one time covered with forest, may be open to 
question, but, as I have already shown in this journal, there 
is a strong probability that to forest fires, constantly recur- 
ring, may be attributed the gradual enlargement of the 
prairie area and the formation of new prairies within forest 
areas. Another visit to the Northwest Territories the past 
summer, has only confirmed this opinion. It may be objected 
that were this the case, the stumps and roots of trees should 
be found on the surface of the prairie. That they have not 
been more frequently observed is probably due to the rapid 
decay—one authority gives four years—of the stumps of 
the poplar, the almost universal tree of the prairies and the 
immediately surrounding forests. 

The brief list hereunder given, enumerates species which 
range from the Maritime Provinces or Lower St. Law- 
rence to Lake Superior on either side, or immediately west 
of it. It is merely in its relations in Canada that the name 
St. Lawrence is applied to the group. 


10 Canadian Record of Science. 


Acer Pennsylvanicum. L. Fraxinus sambucifolia, Lam. 
Acer saccharinum, Wang. Quercus rubra, L. 

A. rubrum, L. Q. alba, L. 

Waldsteinia fragrarioides, Tratt. Fagus ferruginea, Ait. 
Dalibarda repens, L. Betula lutea, Mx. 

Rubus villosus, Ait. Pinus strobus, L. 

Aralia racemosa, L. P. resinosa, Ait. 

Viburnum lantanoides, Mx. Abies Canadensis, Mx. 
Cephalanthus occidentalis, L. Ariszema triphyllum, Torr. 


BorEAL GROUP. 


The localities and their surroundings where the species 
of this group are found, sufficiently account for their pre- 
sence now there. In regard to some which occur around 
the Lake Superior coasts, we can attribute their first migra- 
tion thither to the same succession of circumstances which 
gave rise to the small colony of sub-arctic plants more or 
less associated with them there, and to which allusion will 
be made when referring to the sub-arctic group. 

Illustrations of this group are :— 


Anemone parviflora, Mx. . Tanacetum Huronense, Nutt. 
Sagina nodosa, Mey. Artemisia borealis, Pallas. 
Oxytropis campestris, D. C. Arnica Chamissonis, Less. 
Hedysarum boreale, Nutt. Lobelia Dortmanna, L. 
Parnassia palustris, L. Pinguicula vulgaris, L. 
Cornus suecica, L. Rhinanthus Crista-galli, L. 
Viburnum pauciflorum, Py. Polygonum viviparum, L. 
Aster graminifolius, Psh. Pinus Banksiana, L. 


ONTARIO GROUP. 


The species referable to this group, and some of which 
are confined to Ontario, have, in general, in the United 
States, a range from Western New England to Wisconsin— 
a stretch of country in breadth about similar to that of 
Ontario. They occur chiefly west of the Appalachian chain, 
and do not appear to cross from the forest lands of Wis- 
consin into the prairie country of Minnesota and Dakota. 
Their northward and northeastward range in Canada is 
probably limited by the colder climate. 


British North American Plants. ie 


The following species sufficiently indicate the group :— 


Viola rostrata, Pursh. Conopholis Americana, Wall. 
Ceanothus ovalis, Bigel. Pentstemon pubescens, Sol. 
Staphyllea trifolia, L. Lophanthus nepetoides, Benth. 
Desmodium cuspidatum, T. & G. Gentiana alba, Muhi. 

Lespedeza hirta, Ell. Asclepias phytolaccoides, Pursh.. 
Aster ericoides, L. Montelia tamarascina, Gr. 
Lobelia syphilitica, L. Phytolacca decandra, L. 
Vaccinium stamineum, L. Quercus castanea. Muhl. 


A number of representatives of this group, including 
such plants as Coreopsis verticillata, L., C. lanceolata. L., 
Cacalia tuberosa, Nutt., Calamizntha Nuttallia, Benth., and 
Scutelaria versicolor, Nutt., are limited to the vicinity of 
Lakes Huron and Erie, some extending even to Lake 
Superior. In the United States, their range is similarly 
confined to Wisconsin, Illinois, Pennsylvania and south- 
ward, It is difficult to give a reason for this. The sugges- 
tion which I have already made that, in geological time each 
species has had its initial, its maximum and its final stage 
of existence as a species, will, however, I think, explain 
numerous eccentricities in range everywhere, Whilst many 
plants, at the present time, are at their maximum stages of 
activity in individual growth and in reproduction, and have 
now their maximum breadth of distribution, some are merely 
in the early or initial stages of this activity, and at the 
initial points of their ultimate area of range, whilst others 


must be on the decline when activity in reproducing the 


species is lessening and the area of distribution is being 
circumscribed. The range of each species is thus vastly 
affected. When the stage of decline has been reached, 
climatal and other causes which would in the ordinary 
course limit range, would have greater effects on the species 
than upon others which were in the progressive stage of 
activity or had reached the maximum. 

In these modern times, cultivation itself is having a 
limiting effect on the distribution of plants as well as 
animals. The yearly extension of the cultivation of the 
soil, the demands of commerce, the enlargement of towns 
and cities, and forest and prairie fires, all contribute annually 
to this result, 


12 Canadian Record of Science. 


PRAIRIE GROUP. 


The plants peculiar to the prairies are of relatively recent 
creation—perhaps the most modern group of species exist- 
ing in America. The prairies, as I have elsewhere stated 
in this journal, are of comparatively recent origin, and, in 
some sections, are still in process of formation, and only 
since this formation of these prairies can we conceive it 
possible that plants to specially give them an individuality, 
were called into existence. The variation which gave rise 
to them was, no doubt, brought about by the very nature of 
the surroundings—the drier atmosphere, the lighter rain- 
fall, the greater exposure to the sun’s rays, the stronger 
winds, the different and more uniform soil, and the absence 
of any marked physical surroundings. That many of the 
flowers there have a wide range is readily understood from 
the facilities they have for diffusion. The vast expanse of 
generally treeless, level or relatively level plain, exposed to 
the uninterrupted play of winds, und the generally uniform 
soil over great stretches of country, afford an opportunity 
not elsewhere possible for the diffusion and propagation of 
seeds. The large representation of the Compositee—a com- 
paratively modern order—and the vast abundance of the 
individuals of certain species of this order, are noticeable. 

Of the influence of soils on vegetation, both in their 
chemical and mechanical combinations, there is no question, 
but this influence in Ontario and Quebec is chiefly observa- 
ble when considering local floras. Gravel ridges or a 
stretch of sand will be found frequented or deserted, as the 
case may be, by certain plants, but the causes which in dis- 
tant times produced these ridges or this sand operated with 
similar results here and there over vast sections. Other 
causes as well, acting simultaneously, or afterwards, mixed 
and distributed the surface soils everywhere in such a man- 
ner that it is difficult to indicate very broad areas of the 
country from Lake Superior eastward, where special soils, 
uniformily the same, are alone to be found to the exclusion 
of their occurrence elsewhere. Other influences acting 
over greater areas have, therefore, to be songht in study- 


British North American Plants. 13 


ing distribution. There are, however, illustrations of 
special, more or less uniform soils in the great deposits of 
black vegetable mould forming these newer Manitoba 
prairies, and possibly also in the drift deposits of the Mis- . 
- souri Coteau and other such localities, and these may be, in ~ 
connection, however, with associated ,influences, found to 
have some effects on the distribution of species in these 
sections. 

It is unnecessary to individualize this well-known group 
by a list of species. 


WESTERN PRAIRIE GROUP. 


Some species associated in range with true western 
prairie plants, appear to extend to the foothills of the 
Rockies, and even in individual cases climb the Rockies 
themselves. More information is needed with regard to the 
limits of this group. The following, however, in our present 
knowledge of their range, illustrate it :— 


Cleome integrifolia, T. & G. Potentilla fastigiata, Nutt. 

Arenaria congesta, Cham. Heuchera parviflora, Nutt. 

Malvastrum coccineum, Gray. £nothera ceespitosa, Nutt. 

Linum rigidum, Psh. (Enothera triloba, Nutt. 

Paronychia sessiliflora, Nutt. Centunculus minimus, L. 

Rhus trilobata, Nutt. Plantago pusilla, Nutt. | 
Lupinus Kingii, Watson. Heliotropium curassavicum, L. 


Astragalus kentrophyta, Gray. Polygonum imbricatum, Nutt. 


WESTERN CENTRAL GROUP. 


The distribution of the members of this group from the 
Pacific Coast or the interior of British Columbia eastward 
towards or into Manitoba, is peculiar, but will be probably 
found to follow to some extent, the lines of mean tempera- 
ture. The few species which occur in the Northern United 
States east of the Mississippi, have a general northwestward 
range. As more is known of the flora of the Saskatchewan 
and Peace River countries, the northern limits of distribu- 
tion of many of the species of this group will, I think, be 
found to nearly parallel, as some do now, the trends of 


14 Canadian Record of Science. 


mean temperature as they, in a northwestward direction, 
cross the continent. Others again may find the dry prairies 
east of the Rockies and the dry interior plateaus of British 
Columbia equally congenial. Much more information is, 
however, yet needed. 

The plants hereunder, are examples of the group :— 


Myosurus aristatus, Benth. Grindelia squarrosa, Dunal. 
Vesicaria Ludoviciana, D. C. Chrysopsis villosa, Nutt. 
Silene Menziesii, Hook. Helianthus annuus, L. 
Astragalus aboriginum, Rich. Artemisia dracunculoides, Psh. 
.Potentilla Hippiana, Lehm. Troximon glaucum, Nutt. 
Crataegus Douglasii, Lindl. Androsace occidentalis, Pursh. 
(nothera albicaulis, Nutt. Comandra pallida, D. C. 
Sedum stenopetalum, Pursh. Euphorbia serpyllifolia, Pas. 


Rocky Mountain GRovup. 


Further enquiry into the range, as well eastward of the 
mountains, as in British Columbia, of the species presently 
referable to this group, is needed before the group can be 
definitely determined. Some of the plants specially refer- 
able to it can be classed as boreal, and are known, to the 
northward, to fringe outward beyond the mountains into 
the Mackenzie River district, and even towards the coast. 
There are also some alpine plants, entirely confined in 
Canada to the Rocky Mountains, and there are others— 
arctic species—which, whilst they have a considerable range 
along the arctic coasts between Hudson Bay and Alaska, 
seem to use the mountains as a ridge along the higher sum- 
mits of which they extend into latitudes far to the south- 
ward. 

The following plants presently exemplify the group, in 
so far as their range is presently known :— 


Clematis Douglasii, Hook. Cymopterus terebrinthus, T. & G. 
Aquilegia flavescens, Wats. Musenium tenuifolium, Nutt. 
Lychnis elata, Watson. Brickellia grandiflora, Nutt. 
Astragalus glabriuscula, Gr. HKrigeron bellidiastrum, Nutt. 
Oxytropis viscida, Nutt. Cnicus eriocephalus, Gray. 

Rosa Fendleri, Crepin. C. foliosus, Gray. 

Parnassia fimbriata, Koenig. C. Hookerianus, Gray. 


Bupleurum ranunculoides, L. Populus angustifolia, James. 


British North American Plants. ie 


British CoLuMBIA FLORA. 


Excluding the sedges and grasses, there are over four 
hundred species of phenogamous plants in British Colum- 


bia, which are not known east of the Rocky Mountains. = 


* 


This number will be considerably increased along both the — 


northern and southern boundaries. The knowledge, how- 
ever, of this distribution, within the province, of these species 
is as yet limited, and at this stage it seems better not to 
draw conclusions too hastily. It may be said generally, 
that there are species which are well distributed over the 
province, except probably in the most northern sections, 
and these may be termed the Britisa CoLuMBIA GROUP. 
To those confined to the declivities, the valleys and foot- 
hills of the Rocky Mountains, and sometimes crossing to 
the Selkirks, reference has already been made under the 
term Rocky Mountain Group. Towards the Alaska bound- 
ary will yet be found further representatives, not only of 
the Alaska flora, but of the Asiatic flora as well. There 
may thus be, in time, sufficient material for an ALASKAN or 
an Astatic Group. At and towards the southern boundary 
of the province, are numbers of species familiar in Colorado, 
Nevada, California, Oregon, or Washington Territory, and 
whose range across the border into British Columbia is very 
circumscribed. These, as their centre of distribution is 
probably in or near Oregon, may be termed the OREGONIAN 
Group. Perhaps, however, the most remarkable, as well as 
the largest flora in British Columbia, is what may be fitly 
called the Western Coast Group. The greater rainfall, 
and the general proximity to the coast and to the numerous 
very deep inlets which indent the coast, are the influences 
which appear to more or less control the disposition of this 
flora, and to affect its range also in Washington Territory 
and Oregon west of the Sierras. 

Dr. G. M. Dawson has given considerable attention to the 
flora of British Columbia and particularly to the distribu- 
tion of the trees there, and what are here intended by the 
Western Coast and Oregonian Groups coincide in general 
terms with areas of his there. 


16 Canadian Record of Science. 


I purpose at an early day, illustrating these British Colum- 
bia groups more fully. 


SuB-ARCTIC GROUP. 


The Labrador current, which, laden with icebergs, des- 
cends from Baffin’s Bay, and in a broad stream of three 
hundred miles, skirts the Labrador coast, sends an off-shoot 
of its waters through the Straits of Belle Isle, and past 
Anticosti, up the northern side of the estuary of the St. 
Lawrence. Meeting, as it proceeds upward, the warmer 
fresh waters of the river coming from the Great Lakes 
above, this branch current is diverted to the south coast of 
the estuary, where it appears as a stream, cold, but some- 
what warmer than on the north side, and, proceeding on- 
wards, finally leaves the coast at Gaspe. The effect of this 
cold current on the vegetation of the shores, is seen in the 
occurrence of a few arctic and many sub-arctic plants at the 
Straits of Belle Isle and on Anticosti and the Mingan 
Islands, and occasional sub-arctic species as far up on the 
north shore as Tadousac and Murray Bay. Even on the 
Island of Orleans, near Quebec, there are some boreal forms. 
The flora of the south shore of the estuary shows the milder 
character of the current there, whilst that of the Bay of 
Chaleur appears to prove its comparative absence in that 
locality. 

On the jutting headlands of Lake Superior, and along the 
bays of its northern coasts, there are both sub-arctic and 
boreal plants, which appear to form an isolated group there. 
It is not difficult to account for their continuance in these 
localities. Northern species delight in a low, equable tem- 
perature and a moist atmosphere, and whether this is 
obtainable on alpine summits or on sea or ocean coasts, 
there they find a congenial home. The high northern shores 
of Lake Superior supply these conditions. To account, how- 
ever, for their original presence there, it is necessary to go 
back to glacial or post-glacial times, when, with a some- 
what colder climate, and with the area of the Great Lakes 
forming the bed of an inland sea, some sub-arctic and boreal 
plants found a natural highway along the coasts of this 


British North American Plants. 17 


sea. With lofty mountains to the immediate northward 
in glacial times, these plants were probably, then, not 
uncommon. As the waters receded and formed the present 
lakes, and the climate became as it now is, these northern 
plants were driven to localities like the headlands of Lake . 
Superior, where conditions were favourable to their con- 
tinuance. In all other localities they would disappear. 
Even on Lake Superior, the struggle with changed condi- 
tions must have resulted in the extinction there of maay of 
the more northern forms. 

The following are some representatives of this group 
and of the boreal group presently occurring around Lake 
Superior :— 


Draba incana, L. Solidago virga-aurea, L. 
Viola palustris, L. v. alpina, Big. 
Parnassia parviflora, D. C. Arnica mollis, Hook. 
Hedysarum boreale, Nutt. Vaccinium uliginosum, L. 
Dryas Drummondii Hook. Y. cespitosum, Mx. 
Rubus arcticus, L. Castilleia pallida, Hun. 

R. Chamzemorus, L. Euphrasia officinalis, L. 
Erigeron acre, L. Empetrum nigrum, L. 


Solidago thyrsoidea, Mayer. Tofieldia palustris, Huds. 
Arotic GROUP. 


The species of this group include many that are common 
to Scandinavia, Lapland and the higher Alps, and to our 
arctic coasts. Whilst numerous arctic plants find their way 
southward on the higher summits of the Rocky Mountains, 
on the Pacific side of the continent, and along the Labra- 
dor coasts, even up to Anticosti and the Mingan Islands on 
the Atlantic side, the home of this large group is in the 
great stretch of country, continental and insular, from the 
high northern coasts of Labrador, and Greenland to Alaska, 

It is unnecessary to illustrate the group. 


RELATIONS oF THE LARAMIE FLORA. 


Since the last number of this journal was published, [ 
have had an opportunity of seeing, in the publications of 
2 


18 Canadian Record of Science. 


_the Geological Survey of the United States, Lester F. 
Ward’s recent monographs on the flora of the Laramie 
group, and Sir William Dawson has shown me a proof of 
his paper on the same subject in the forthcoming transac- 
tions of the Royal Society of Canada. Whilst Ward still 
remains somewhat credulous about the age of the Laramie 
rocks, Sir William confidently refers them to the Lower 
Eocene, and concludes also that the Greenland flora usually 
referred to the Miocene is of later Cretaceous and early 
Eocene age, though he suggests the question whether this 
early flora of Greenland, and the floras of the Mackenzie 
River and North Western States—localities so far apart— 
may not have been successive within a long epoch in which 
climatic ehanges were gradually progressing. Ward’s tables 
indicating the distribution of the Laramie flora not only 
geographically, but also through geologic time, are interest- 
ing to the student of distribution of existing plant life. 
They show—if the identification be correct—that four, and 
it may be five, of our living species, viz.: Viburnum pubes- 
cens, Pursh, Corylus rostrata, Ait, C. Americana, Watt, 
Onoclea sensibilis, L., and probably Ginkgo biloba, L., now of 
Japan and China, date their origin as far back as at least 
Eocene times, whilst many of the most familiar genera 
among the trees and shrubs of the present day were equally 
well, and in some cases more largely represented in this 
past period, though appearing for the first time then or in 
the middle Cretaceous. The tables also bring to light 
another circumstance of great interest in connection with 
the discussion, in an earlier part of this paper, on the iden- 
tity, at the present day, between so many plants in Europe 
and America. Eleven species—all now extinct—were com- 
mon to the Eocene of Europe and the Laramie of the United 
States, whilst two others—also extinct—were common to 
the European Eocene and to the Greenland beds, considered 
by Sir William Dawson as later Cretaceous and early Hocene. 
There is thus some evidence that in the later Cretaceous and 
Eocene times, not only was the climate in sub-arctic Ame- 
rica sufficiently mild to admit there of genera which are, 
now at least, of a middle or possibly even southern tem- 


British North American Plants. 19 


perate type, but that the relations of land and water were 
such as to allow migration between Europe and America. 
Is it unreasonable to suppose that the land then sufficiently 
elevated above the sea to connect the old world with the 


” 


new, may have been in a similar position in Pliocene or ~ 


Post-Pliocene times, and have afforded the facilities then 
needed for the intermingling of the flora still existing at the 
present day on the two continents ? 


Pre-GuactaL Drirr PLANts. 


It is interesting to find that in the pre-glacial drift which 
is thought to be either Pliocene or Pleistocene, and which 
is spread over a considerable portion of the Middle and 
Southern States, paleobotanists believe they have recog- 
nized three of the existing trees of these States—Magnolia 
_ glauca, L., Liquidambar styracifua, L., and Quercus imbri- 
caria, Mx. These species do not range as far as Canada, 


AGE OF THE CANADIAN Fora. 


The relative ages of the species which comprise the Cana- 
dian flora form matters rather of speculation, and yet, from 
the foregoing pages, it will be seen that there are some data 
on which to found opinions. The conclusions may be thus 
summarized :—The species of whose presence iu the Kocene 
there is fossil evidence, are the oldest known representatives 
_of the existing flora, Next to these in age, as species, are 
the plants common to Europe and America, for they were 
apparently already well distributed at the time of the depo- 
sition of the Leda clays. It is probable that many of the 
Arctic species, which are now limited to America, are 
equally old, but, jast as many plants now have but limited 
ranges, they had not in these older times found their way 
beyond the American continent. The American species, 
not also European in range, but which are denizens of 
Japan, may be contemporaneous with these Americo- 
European species, or even earlier in origin. Two of the 
plants now common to Japan and America date back to 
the Laramie times. The plants confined in range to British 


20 Canadian Record of Science. 


Columbia, form probably, a later flora brought into existence 
after the first upheaval of the great parallel chains of moun- 
tains there. Following on all of these older floras, but 
possibly contemporaneous in age with some of them, are 
the sub-arctic species now on the headlands of Lake Superior 
and the maritime plants presently on the shores of all of 
the Great Lakes. The most recent creations are without 
doubt those species—well represented by compositee— 
which frequent more especially the newer prairies of 
Manitoba. 

It is not difficult to see that the development of life on 
the earth from its dawn to the present, time has been largely 
influenced by the vast changes which have proceeded gra- 
dually but constantly throughout geologic time. In the 
Laramie age, which was a prolonged period, the great 
central plains of North America parallel to and east of the 
Rocky Mountains, and throughout much of the length of 
the continent, formed a vast, perhaps relatively, shallow 
inland fresh water sea; during and after the glacial times, 
whilst an equally great inland, ice-laden sea again prevailed 
over the northern central parts of the same continent, the 
southern portions were dry land. In later cretaceous and 
Kocene times, the climate of the sub-arctic regions was, 
relatively speaking, warm; in glacial times and since, it 
has deen so cold as to give a meaning of its own to the 
name arctic. During the tertiary times, the great dividing 
ridges forming the Rocky Mountains, were finally raised to 
their present elevations; whilst, as glacial times were 
passing away, the then much higher elevations and 
mountain ranges, which gave rise to the eastern glaciers 
of this period, were gradually lowered in elevation to what 
they appear at the present day. And these vast physical 
and climatic changes in tertiary and post-tertiary times are 
but an illustration of what has been going on from age to 
age from the very dawn of life upon the earth. What vast 
destruction of animals and plants each change must have 
occasioned! What a strugyle for existence must have 
taken place among those which were left! What adapta- 
tion to new conditions in which the survivors constantly 


Cambrian Rocks in Acadia. 21 


found themselves, must have resulted! What changes in 
these animals and plants themselves must have been gra- 
dually brought about by altered habits and altered food, and 
by the process of selection which new surroundings would 
result in! It is not difficult to conceive how new varieties 


and species would from time to time follow, and how new — 


genera would be created. 


[Nore.—Amid the great mass of material which it has 
been necessary to bring together in preparing this paper, 
it is difficult to single out special collectors without refer- 
ring to all, but I think it right to acknowledge the assist- 
ance in regard to our far western flora which Dr. G. M. 
Dawson and Mr. Macoun’s publications haven given me, 
particularly by indicating in nearly every case the precise 
localities of occurrence.]—A. T. D. 


On A Basa SERIES OF CAMBRIAN Rocks IN AGCADIA. 
By G. F. Marruew, M.A., F.R.S.C. 


[Read before the Natural History Society of New Brunswick, 1st Nov. 
1887. ] 


In tracing back the palseozoic systems to their base in the 
Cambrian, they are found to terminate in various countries 
at different horizons. Thus in Russia there is no fauna that 
establishes a horizon older than that of the Olenus beds *; in 
eastern North America, except along the Atlantic seaboard, 
the fauna with Olenellus seems to be that which exhibits 
the earliest trace of life in the Palsozoic formations; a high 
antiquity has been claimed for the Kophyton sandstones of 
Sweden, but apparently without sufficient warrant, as I 
shall endeavour to show further on; but in Wales, remains 
of animals of several orders have been found in Cambrian 
slates, equivalent to those of the Longmynd in Shropshire, 
which are as old, or older, apparently than the Kophyton 
sandstones. 


* I have just learned from Dr. I’. Schmidt, of St. Petersburg, 
that an older horizon, that of Paradoxides Kjerulfi, has been found 
at the top of the “ Blue Clay.” 


ay 


22 Canadian Record of Science. 


Norway, Wales, Newfoundland and the eastern provinces 
of Canada (Acadia) are countries where the existence of a 
paleozoic formation older than that holding Paradoxides 
can now be fairly established. It seems better to regard 
these rocks as a lower series of the Cambrian system, for in 
Wales, the corresponding slates and sandstones have long 
been called Cambrian, whether we take the authority of 
Sedgwick, Murchison, Hicks or others; and although no 
physical break has been established in Europe, between the 
Paradoxides beds and these older Cambrian rocks, this is not 
the case in America; but, on the contrary, the red rocks at 
the base of the St. John group (as well as those beneath 
the Paradoxides beds of Newfoundland) are of a different 
series from the measures properly referable to this group. 

The importance of these subjacent rocks was not fairly 
understood until explorations, made during the past summer, 
revealed their great thickness and some evidence of the 
fauna they contain. In the report on the geology of South- 
ern New Brunswick, 1865, p. 24, this mass of sediments 
was spoken of as the upper member of the Coldbrook group, 
and thus distinct from the St. John group; later (Rep. 
Prog. Geol. Sur. Can., 1870-1, p. 59), it was joined to the 
latter formation, because the want of conformity existing 
between the two could not then be established; but it is 
now found that this red series is unconformable, not only to 
the St. John group, but also (as had been previously dis- 
covered) to the underlying Coldbrook group. 

Near the city of St. John, only a few scores of feet in | 
thickness of this formation is to be seen, and even this dis- 
appears in the town of Portland, where the St. John group 
rests directly upon the “upper series” of the Laurentian 
area, But in tracing these red rocks eastward, around the 
margin of the St. John Basin of Cambrian rocks, they are 
found to exhibit a much greater thickness, and at its eastern 
end there are no less than 1,200 feet in thickness of these 
underlying measures. 

In the valley of the Kennebecasis, these underlying red 
rocks are wanting, and there the St. John group rests, in 
some places, on the “upper series,” and at others on the old 


Cambrian Rocks in Acadia. 23 


gneissic rocks of the Laurentian proper. In this valley the 
lowest beds of the St. John group are with difficulty dis- 
tinguished from the underlying gneiss, and by the “‘arkose’”’- 
like composition of some layers and by the wave marks and 


worm trails on others, recall the Eophyton sandstones of 


Sweden. 

In the next valley to the north, that of the Long Reach 
of the St. John R., the red series underlying the St. John 
group is found in full force, but has not received a careful 
examination. 

There can be no doubt that this underlying series is one 
of considerable importance, and as we find it increase in 
thickness in the St. John Basin, the further east we follow 
it, until it is covered up by Carboniferous deposits, it is 
highly probable that the 1,200 feet of measures, at its 
easternmost exposures, does not represent the entire thick- 
néss of the formation. 

Mr. Alex. Murray has described a mass of red, green and 
grey sandstones, with slates of similar color, in his report 
on the geology of Newfoundland (p. 238), which lie at the 
base of the Paradoxides beds on that island. He estimates 
their thickness at 1,500 feet, and states that while they are 
present in the Cambrian basins of Trinity, St. Mary’s and 
Placentia bays, they are absent from those of Conception 
and Fortune bays. Hence we may infer that these lower 
sandstones, etc., form a lower series unconformable to the 
- beds carrying Paradoxides. The only fossils reported from 
these rocks are ‘“‘obscure forms like fucoids, and peculiar 
markings resembling annelid tracks.” The conglomerate 
at Manuel Brook, Conception Bay, and the sandstones else- 
where at a corresponding horizon, appear to mark the break 
between this series and the higher part of the Cambrian 
rocks in Newfoundland. 

Between the beds of this lower formation of the Cambrian 
system in New Brunswick, and those which lie at the same 
horizon in Norway and Wales, there isa strong resemblance 
in mineral character; in these countries, feldspathic sand- 
stones, often of a red color, with some conglomerates and 
more or less of red and green shales or slates, make up the 
greater part of this basal formation, 


= 


24 Canadian Record of Science. 


Prof. Theodore Kjerulf has very carefuily investigated 
this part of the Cambrian in Norway, where it is known as 
the Sparagmite formation. He divides it into two parts, 
viz.:—l. (Upper) Blue quartzite and quartziferous sand- 
stones 310-500 metres (about 1000-1600 feet) thick. 2. 
(Lower) Grey and red sparagmite, also conglomerates and 
sandstones 630-910 metres (2000-2900 feet) thick. 

In this formation, no fossils are known in the lower divi- 
sion, but they are found at the base of the upper division. 
The genera correspond to those of Bands 6 and ¢ of Division 
1 of the St. John group, and therefore the upper division of 
the Sparagmite formation is of Primordeal age, and the 
lower will correspond to the underlying series of red rocks 
of the St. John Basin. 

It seems doubtful if this lower part of the Cambrian 
system is at all represented in Sweden. Here the oldest 
beds were first described as the ‘“‘ Fucoidal Sandstone”; 
but as the greatest thickness of this sandstone at several 
localities where it was measured by Hisinger, Wallin and 
Sidenbladh, did not exceed eighty feet, it seems impossible 
that this sandstone represents the great mass of sediments 
which in Norway, Britain, Newfoundland and Acadia, lie at 
the base of the Cambrian system; it seems rather to cor- 
respond to the grey sandstones and dark grey sandy shales 
of Bands a and 0 of Division 1 of the St. John group, which 
in their eastern exposures have a thickness, the former of 
about 200 and the latter of some 140 feet. 

In Wales is to be found a series of beds, which, perhaps, 
more nearly than any others, correspond in mineral charac- 
ters, and in the evidence which they contain of the presence 
of living forms at this period, to the Lower Cambrian series 
of Acadia. To the zeal and acumen of Dr. Henry Hicks, 
science is indebted for the discovery which made plain the 
existence of a somewhat varied fauna in these very ancient 
rocks, previously known only to have worm burrows. By 
the organic remains which they contain, consisting of 
crustaceans, brachiopods, etc., he was able, on palzeontolo- 
gical grounds, to divide the obscure slates of the Lower 
Cambrian formation at St. David’s into the Solva Group 


eh 


Cambrian Rocks in Acadia. 25 


(upper) and the Caerfai (lower). The upper group has a 
thickness of 1800 feet, and in a former publication I have 
shown that its fauna is essentially equivalent to that of 
Band ¢ of Division 1 of the St. John group; but from the 
thickness of the Solva group, it seems probable that it con- 
tains also the equivalent of the Band b and perhaps of Band 
a. This being the case, we may infer that the Caerfai 
group, which has a thickness of about 1600 feet, corres- 
ponds to the lower series of the Cambrian system in Acadia. 
But the Caerfai group in Wales is not known to be uncon- 
formable to the rest of the Cambrian system, and in this 
appears to differ from the beds in Canada and Newfound- 
land, which we suppose to be of corresponding age. 

The writer is well aware that correspondence in the bulk 
or volume of measures in different countries, supposed to 
be coetaneous, is of uncertain value as a measure of 
time, but when, as in this case, it is checked at the 
upper limits by a well established faunal horizon, and 
at the base by a decided physical break, there being nothing 
in the constitution of the measures, or in the aspect of the 
known fauna, to suggest diversity of age, we are fairly justi- 
fied in considering the measures contemporaneous. 


CANADA. NEWFOUNDLAND.| G. BriTarn. Norway. SWEDEN. 

Limestone of ' 
= [Pana d. Chapel Arm in MenevianGr.| Etage 1 d. Upper eas 
= Trinity Bay. : ; 
4 Shales of M 
SP noo, 2 nel i veda ete gee Part of Upper 
58 Hote ay WH z Solvagroup) |Sparagmite| poop, Paras 
~~ 1 = 
oz parte | [formation =Ht-|aoxides Beds. 
a2 Do. b 9 | age Lb & ec. 
3a 
a Part of Upper | miante , 
‘ Solva group } |Sparagmite Fucoidal & 
n Do. a.. ? ; 2 ear Jophyton 

part ? formation = Ht- | San stone. 
age la. : 
Lower series {| Lower series! } Lower di- 
of Cambrian ||members a to e : vision of 
System in4 of the Lower Si-| ¢ Caerfai Gr. the Sparag- ? 
Acadia. Jurian (i.¢., Cam- mite ae | 
Pann) System. ation. 


26 Canadian Record of Science. 


Norway, Britain, Newfoundland and the eastern provinces 
of Canada afford unusual facilities for the study of these old 
Cambrian formations, and in the above table, an attempt 
has been made to co-relate these rocks from the information 
thus far gathered as to their mineral composition, strati- 
graphy and faunas: 

The double cross line in the above table indicates the 
point at which a break in the succession of beds occurs in 
the Cambrian system in America. 

It may be remarked that the lower series in Acadia, 
though unconformable to the St. John group, is closely 
related to it in its distribution. 


FAUNA OF THE LOWER SERIES. 


Hitherto we have been accustomed to look upon the 
assemblage of organisms found in Division 1. of the St. 
John group as the first link in the chain of paleeozoic faunas 
in America, but investigations made during the last summer 
compel me to modify this view. That there were earlier 
forms of life in the measures at the base of the paleozoic 
systems, seemed probable for various reasons, and it had 
been asserted of the Intermediate system in Newfoundland, 
which Mr. Murray has classed with the Huronian, that in 
it two obscure forms did exist; but neither in Newfound- 
land nor on the continent of America, so far as the writer 
is aware, have any organisms been described from these 
basement beds of the Cambrian system proper. 

Such being the very imperfect condition of our knowledge 
of the pre-Primordeal life of the Cambrian system in 
America, a very small addition to the information on the 
subject may be of value, and the few observations on the 
fauna made in New Brunswick are therefore presented 
here. 

A barren sandstone, Band a of Division I, some two 
hundred feet in thickness, cuts off the fossiliferous horizons 
of the St. John group from all below; but as the Lower 
Cambrian series is now found to contain vestiges of organic 
life, down almost to the base, the fauna marked by Para- 
doxides may no longer be regarded as the oldest paleozoic 
fauna in America. © 


Cambrian Rocks in Acadia. nar 


This lower series is lithologically very different from the 
St. John group, and in the eastern part of St. John county, 
and on the St. John R., exhibits a far more important series 
of beds than can be seen at the section in the city of St. 
John, where the Cambrian rocks were first studied. The 
older series has at its base a conglomerate, which rests in 
some places on the Coldbrook group, and in others on the 
Laurentian rocks. A good section may be observed at 
Hanford Brook, St. Martin’s, where it presents the following 
succession (roughly estimated) :— 


Estimated 
thickness 
in feet. 


Coarse, purplish red conglomerate, resting on an a myg- 

daloidal greenstone (toadstone) of the Coldbrook 

SED) DACA Og COCR ACO pO Mee eed A doco dedsogdocaba0ONO 60 
Grey flags and sandstones with worm casts (Scolites) and 

worm tracks (Helminthites). Alternations of grey 

and purplish red sandstones ....-. se+ese eeeeeevees 70 
Purplish, red sandstones, with greenish layers, remains 

of seaweeds (?) gritty, purplish red sandstones and 

flagstones, animal tracks Psammichnites and Helm- 

inthites, worm burrows (Arenicolites) and worm casts 

DOSE Ce reer eia ees ateyalo) cietecnicinta lets) via wirais,e slate) Slee! eicie. © Abo 240 
Purplish conglomerate (35 feet) soft, purplish red shales, 

with green (glauconite ?) grains, the upper part 

firmer and more sandy; greenish, greylayers in- 

terspersed, especially toward the base. Remains of 


seaweed (?) and a brachiopod ..--..-seeeseeeeeeee 210 

_ 5, Purplish, sandy shales, with a few bands of greenish 
shale. Worm casts (Scolites)....+. cccsccvers vereee 300 
6. Measures concealed, probably of this series....+.-+-++++ 320 
1,200 


In this important series of beds, the very oldest layers, 
which are fine enough to preserve organic markings, abound 
with the trails and casts of marine worms, and within one 
hundred feet of these, in ascending through the measures, 
we meet with branching organisms in fine shale, which 
have left a thin carbonaceous film upon the layers of the 
shale; these impressions appear to have been seaweeds, 
but they may have been organisms allied to the graptolites 
or the sponges. 


=s 


28 Canadian Record of Science. 


About three hundred and fifty feet above the base, where 
the measures are flaggy, tracks of annelids are again abun- 
dant. Beside the smaller trails and burrows, there are fre- 
quent tracks of a marine animal, similar to markings on the 
Fucoidal sandstones which by Prof. O. Torrell have been 
referred to the genus Psammichnites ; and avery similar, if not 
identical track, occurs on the surfaces of the purple-streaked 
sandstones of Band 0 in Division 1. of the St. John group; 
this track is different from Cruziana semiplicata, Salt., 
and C. similis, Bill., which belong to a higher Cambrian 
horizon. 

About fifty feet above this horizon occur fine shales, with 
a recurrence of the seaweed-like organism, and some ninety 
feet higher up, in a loose fragment of sandy shale, a very 
thin dorsal valve of a brachiopodous shell of considerable 
size was found ; this shell is something like Lingula monili- 
fera of the EKophyton sandstone, but is wider, has a less 
prominent beak, and the fine, radiating ridges on the sur- 
face do not exhibit a beaded crest. Some of the layers 
in this part of the series abound in soft, green grains, similar 
to the glauconite grains of the cretaceous and other forma- 
tions, but the paste enveloping them is red. 

A number of beds between this point and the uppermost 
measures exposed, contain worm casts and burrows, so that 
the entire series gives evidence of the existence in America 
of living forms during the whole of this introductory epoch 
of the Cambrian age, and encourages the hope that import- 
ant additions will in time be made to our knowledge of the 
earliest forms of life of the Paleozoic ages. 


ADDITIONAL SPECIES OF THE St. JoHN GROUP. 


Some interesting additions have also been made to the 
faunas of other Cambrian horizons. The measures on the 
St. John R., corresponding to those of Band 6 in Division 1 
of the St. John Basin contain a calcareous organism, which 
may be referred to Oldhamia ; it resembles O. antigua, but 
branches less freely. In the same sandstone occurs an 
elegantly ornamented Lingulella (?) of peculiar form; it 


American Association. 29 


may be compared to Lingula (?) favosa of the Kophyton 
sandstone, but is rounder, and the pitted surface occupies 
less space on the valve. 

Division 2, of the St. John group has remains of several 
genera of seaweeds, among which are two graceful species 
related to Taonurus or Spyrophyton. In the same division 
are layers of fine grained shale, over whose surfaces are 
scattered fragments of the bodies of a small crustacean, with 
a very thin test; this is probably Hymenocaris, as the layers 
have frequent stiletto-like markings, such as the late Mr. J, 
W. Salter has attributed to this genus. 

We now recognize four series of deposits in the Cambrian 
system of North Eastern North America, viz.: Series A, 
The Basal series, the subject of this paper; Series B, The 
St. John Group; Series C, The Georgian (Upper Taconic 
of Emmuns,) Series D, The Potsdam Sandstone. In a 
future article the writer proposes to show the grounds 
which exist for this quadripartite division of the Cambrian 
system in this part of America. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR 
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE FOR 1887. 


By T. Westey Mitts, M.A., M.D., 


Professor of Physiology, McGill University, Montreal. 
(Read before the Montreal Natural History Society, October 31.) 


It is proposed in the present communication to give ab- 
stracts of a few of the papers read at the last meeting of the 
American Association, held in New York, and to make 
brief comments on some of them. 

!n the Geological Section, a communication on the action 
of glaciers gave rise to considerable discussion. Its author, 
Dr Spencer, had studied ice action in Norway, and his con- 
clrsions were, therefore, almost entirely the result of per- 
sonal observations. 


Professor Spencer believes that the eroding power of 


glaciers has been much over-estimated. He lays great 
stress on the plastic and flowing nature of glaciers ; they do 


=t 


30 Canadian Record of Science. 


not, in his opinion, push much material before them, but 
they carry enormous quantities of débris, derived from the 
sides of the ravines through which they pass, on their backs. 
The section did not seem to incline to Dr. Spencer’s views, 
though I understand they have been more favorably re- 
ceived by Canadian geologists. 


Anthropology. * 


As usual, the greater number of the papers read before the 
Section on Anthropology were archeological. Mr. Geo. F. 
Kunz exhibited two objects which attracted unusual attention. 
One of these was a gigantic jadeite votive adze, the other a 
marvelously beautiful crystal skull. The origin of both is 
such a mystery that an almost romantic interest was aroused 
by their exhibition and the two short descriptive papers re- 
lating to them, read by Mr. George F. Kunz. He declared 
the adze to be of Mexican origin, and said it was the 
largest votive adze yet found. It was discovered twenty 
years ago in Oaxaca, Mexico. It is 10 13-16 inches long, 6 
inches wide, and 42 inches thick, tapering off to a blunt 
edge. The color is a light grayish green, with streaks of 
an almost emerald green on its back. Originally almost 
wedge-shaped, out of one side the features of a deity have 
been carved. These are decidedly of Mongolian physiog- 
nomy. ‘The lapidarian work is probably equal to anything 
that has ever been found, and the polish is as fine as any 
produced by modern man. When the exceeding hardness 
of the stone is taken into consideration, resisting as it does 
the action of edged tools, the mystery regarding its pro- 
duction is deepened. The only explanation suggested was 
that the shaping of the stone had been accomplished by 
long-continued, patient scouring with sand. In reply to in- 
quiries regarding any possible legends connected with the 
stone, it was said that the only one which deserved con- 
sideration was that the emerald-hued deity was originally 
of India, where it had been the object of worship, and that 
either away back in the mysterious ages of antiquity, when 
the Asiatic migration to America took place, it had been 


American Association. 31 


carried along by the tribe whose god it was, or else some 
casual refugee from the Orient had found his way with it in 
equally mysterious fashion to the western world. 

After the adze had been exhibited and compared with 
certain uncarved adzes of jade of inferior size and beauty, 
Mr. Kunz produced a curious cabinet, made of the skin of a 
Mexican lizard, which, when opened, revealed a skull of 
nearly natural size and almost transparent. It was carved 
of crystal, without flaw or fissure. It was discovered by a 
Mexican officer just before the Maximilian conquest, and 
sold to Mr. Evans, the English collector, at whose death it 
passed into the hands of a French dealer in curiosities, of 
whom it was purchased by Mr. George H. Sisson, of New 
York. As to its origin, little or nothing more is known. 
Crystal of the same character is found in Calaveras County, 
Cal. Although similar in general appearance to many of 
the Chinese and Japanese crystals, it was clearly not of 
Chinese or Japanese origin, or nature would have been 
more closely copied. And on the other hand, if it were of 
European origin, it would have been more carefully finished 
in certain minor particulars. In the Californian locality, 
large masses of crystal have been found, and from the State 
of Michoacan, Valley of Mexico, small skulls of this same 
material, measuring rarely more than two inches across, 
have often been brought, indicating that the ancient Mexi- 
cans were acquainted with a means of carving and polish- 
_ ing, not inferior in results to the best modern inventions, 
The skull is 8 3-16 inches long, 53 inches wide, and 5 11-16 
inches high. The eyes are conical hollows about 14 inches 
deep. The line separating the upper and lower teeth is 
thought to have been produced by a string or bow. 

Palin Baba, the Japanese, gave some reasons why the re- 
markable skull could not be considered of Japanese or 
Chinese origin, the substance of which was that it was not 
sufficiently true to nature in contour. 

Dr, Charles Porter Hart read a paper on “ The Correla- 
tion of Certain Mental and Bodily Conditions in Man,” 
He said his attention was first called to the subject by a 
patient who possessed such decided pessimistic views as to 


= 


82 Canadian Record of Science. 


interest him. He was suffering from an abdominal disease 
which seemed to produce mental aberration. Upon every 
topic that could be suggested—social, governmental and 
religious—this gentleman was fearfully pessimistic. Dr. 
Hart gave a table showing that diseases above the dia- 
phragm were optimistic in their tendencies, those below the 
diaphragm, pessimistic, and those of a constitutional and 
chronic character, such as rheumatism, malaria and dropsy, 
were equally aaeteai sie and optimistic. Chest diseases 
gave buoyancy to the system, and abdominal diseases were 
very depressing. 

Dr. Hart offered no explanation whatever of these state- 
ments, which in themselves the experience of general 
medical practice will bear out. I would suggest. that the 
large capacity of the blood vessels of the abdominal region ; 
the tendency to stagnation in the veins; the great varia- 
tions in the calibre of the arteries, effected through the 
nervous system; the abundant supply of nerves to the 
organs, and their connection with both spinal cord and 
brain; the partial starvation consequent on disease of cer- 
tain organs below the diaphragm, and many other influences, 
which might be enumerated, will account fairly well for 
the relation of the physical to the bodily conditions noticed. 
And it must be remembered that lung diseases may run 
an almost painless course; but that with most abdominal 
maladies there is more or less of obscure irritation, if 
not actual pain, which must tend to exhaust the nervous 
centres, and, in consequence, to be followed by mental 
depression. 

Dr. Jastrow’s paper on “Modes of Apperception,” 
which presents some aspects of truth of great practical im- 
portance, and with very direct bearings on methods of 
teaching. The author of this communication maintains 
that individuals may be roughly classified as “ visualaires ” 
or “ auditaires,” according as they perceive and remember 
better by the use of the eye or the ear. Certain tests have 
been proposed with a view of affording a means of classi- 
fying persons,—such as reading aloud a paragraph from some 
book and comparing the results, in the case of those ex- 


American Association. 33 


amined, with similar results obtained by asking each 
individual to read the paragraph over silently, Those who 
would, other things being equal, remember the contents 
best when read to them, are natural “ auditaires.” That 
the author’s views are in the main correct, I believe, the 
more so, perhaps, from being myself a pronounced audit- 
aire; and in every instance in which I have unconsciously 
failed to recognize this, have I had reason to regret the over- 
sight. The majority of persons are probably “ visualaires.” 
The modern method of teaching English spelling in our 
schools, seems to be an unconscious recognition of this fact. 
But it will be found that there are children who will learn 
spelling as readily by the old method of repeating the com- 
ponent letters aloud, as by the use of the eye and the hand. 
The latter must not be forgotten in the estimate. The 
subject is one of great interest, and commends itself strongly 
to teachers and parents. 

Perhaps no papers read at the meeting attracted more 
general attention than those bearing on foods, as presented 
before the sections of Chemistry and Kconomic Science. 

Instead of giving a little time to each of many subjects, 
as was the rule with the other sections, the section on 
Economic Science and Statistics devoted the whole of one 
day to two papers by Prof. W. O. Atwater, bearing upon 
the food question. The morning paper was upon “The 
Physiological and Pecuniary Economy of Food ;” that of 
the afternoon upon ‘The Food of Workingmen and its Re- 
lation to Work Done.” Both excited much interest, and 
were received with demonstrations of satisfaction by large 
audiences, many taking part in the discussions which fol- 
lowed. Prof. Atwater, whose papers have been published 
in the Century, illustrated his subject by many elaborate 
charts and diagrams, 

Explaining, first, the elements of the common foods that 
combine to form the structure of the human system, and to 
supply it with potential energy, he indicated the quantity 
of each of the nutrients consumed by people in various 
walks of life in Europe, and compared them with the 
averages of the same entering into the composition of the 


3 


= 


34 Canadian Record of Science. 


American diet. From this it appeared that the American 
consumed considerably above the standard of necessity, and 
wasted a great deal more, while the European rarely ex- 
celled the standard, and frequently fell below it. Among the 
working classes of Europe, the sewing girls of London and 
the factory girls of Leipsic were poorest fed, while the 
brewers were best fed. In America, all classes of working 
people consumed far more than was necessary for the 
maintenance of health and strength. 

Under the term “ Nutrients,’ he classed protein (the 
lean of meat, white of eggs, casein of milk, gluten of wheat, 
ete.,) which supply blood, muscle, tendon, and bones; fats, 
animal and vegetable, which serve as fuel for the body; 
carbo-hydrates, starch, and sugar, which also make fat and 
supply the body with heat. The nutrients of vegetable 
food are much less costly than those of animal foods, but 
the latter have the advantage of containing large propor- 
tions of protein in more digestible forms. At market prices 
current in the Eastern States, the cost of protein, which 
may be taken as a measure of the relative expensiveness, 
ranges from 8 to 34 cents per pound in staple foods, and 
from 18 cents to over $1 a pound in staple animal foods, 
In oystersit is from $2 to over $3 per pound, while in salmon 
it rises to over $5 a pound. In beef, at from 10 to 25 cents 
a pound, the protein ranges from about 40 cents to $1.10. 
In such fish as shad, bluefish, halibut, mackerel, lake trout, 
and whitefish, the nutritive material costs more. The less 
expensive kinds of meat, such as the shoulder and the 
round of beef and ham, contain as much nutriment as the 
costlier kinds, and the difference palatably is more the 
result of the manner of cooking than of any innate 
superiority in the higher priced cuts. So, too, the different 
grades of flour have a much more nearly equal nutritive 
value than is commonly supposed. Wheat flour, cornmeal, 
oatmeal, and other cereal products are in general, cheaper 
and richer in nutrients than potatoes and other roots. 
Taking the world throughout, the mass of mankind 
selects foods which analysis shows to furnish actual 
nutrients at the lowest cost, But the people of the United 


=) ae 


American Association. 35 


States are a marked exception. Many, even among 
those who really desire to ecunomize, use needlessly ex- 
pensive kinds of food. They endeavor to make their diet 
attractive by paying high prices rather than by skillfully 
cooking and tastefully serving. Then, too, they are more 
wasteful than any other nation. An inexplicable sensitive- 
ness upon this point exists among American workmen. The 
best the market affords alone is good enough for them, and 
by their constant demand for what they wrongly consider 
the choice cuts of meat, they maintain the present high 
prices. Improper eating, especially over-eating, is a 
source of disease more than any other one thing; the eating 
habit does more harm to health than even the drinking 
habit. The remedy lies in persuading people that economy 
is respectable, and in teaching them how to economize. 

Prof. William H. Brewer, of New Haven, regretted that 
the lecturer had not recommended the forms of food to be 
substituted for more expensive ones of no more nutritive 
power. He believed that foods rich in protein and carbo- 
hydrates had not only a more beneficial effect upon the 
physical conditions of the people, but exerted beneficial in- 
fluences as well over their morals. 

Prof. Ordway, of New Orleans, thought Americans did 
not really consume so much more than Kuropeans as the 
lecturer inferred. Waste mostly explained the apparent 
difference. 

At the Afternoon Session, the hall was again filled 
with an audience which appreciated the importance 
of the discussion, though some of them did not agree 
with the lecturer’s propositions. “Statistics of dieta- 
ries of considerable numbers of Americans,” said Prof. 
Atwater, “mostly of the working classes, show that their 
food is large in amount, and includes large proportions of 
meat. French-Canadians at home, consume three and a 
half pounds of food per day. On going to Massachusetts 
factories, their quantity of food is increased to five pounds. 
Other American factory operatives, mechanics, and laboring 
people, native and foreign, averaged a little more—in some 
cases seven pounds, Chemical examination of the dietaries, 


a 


—_—— 


36 Canadian Record of Science. 


showed them to be richer in actual nutritive material and 
in potential energy, than even the large quantities would 
imply, on account of large proportions of meat. The quan- 
ties per day, of protein, ranged from 95 grams in the case of 
a Massachusetts glass-blower, to 254 grams in that of team- 
sters, marble workers, and other laborers, in a Boston - 
boarding-house. German standards call for from 118 to 145 
grams in the daily food of a laboring man, according to the 
severity of his labor. The proportions of fat varied from 
109 grams in food of French Canadians at home, to over 360 
grams in that of the Boston boarding-house referred to. 
The German standards include from 50 to 100 grams of fat. 
As the German standard represents the actual quantity 
consumed by well-to-do mechanics, and reliable data imply 
that laborers in France, Italy, and other countries of Hurope, 
consume about the same quantities, it appears that the food 
of the American laboring man is much more nutritious on 
the average than that of his Kuropean competitors. As one 
result, the American workingman turns off much more 
work than the Huropean. The American workman is better 
paid, better housed, better clothed, and better fed than the 
European. He has better opportunities for selfdevelopment, 
more to stimulate his ambition, and more hope of reward if 
his work is efficient. He accomplishes a great deal more. 
These factors are all connected, but the explanation of his 
superior capacity for work is to be found largely in his 
superior nourishment. What ought to be the panurgy of 
the American workingman, with his great opportunities, 
his super ior intelligence, and the 6,776 foot-tons of potential 
energy in his daily food ?” 

Some 12 or 14 members availed themselves of the git 
tunity presented to criticise and comment upon the propo- 
sitions advanced. Mrs. Richards, of Boston, Mass., gave a 
description of the cooking schools in that State. They 
found that such knowledge was best inculcated when the 
girls were from 12 to 14 years of age. These lessons 
frequently resulted in such changes of cooking in the homes 
of the girls, as manifested beneficial results in the manners, 
dispositions, and morals of the family. She advocated 


American’ Association. 37 


industrial cooking schools in connection with the public 


schools. 
Prof. E. J. James, of the University of Pennsylvania, 


thought the question of economy in food supply of funda- 
mental importance to the welfare of the country. It was 


= 


extremely unfortunate, he said, that some writers have © 


accompanied their statements with remarks that have made 
the working classes suspect that cheap food means low 
wages,and that expensive diet means high wages. It does not. 
This is at bottom, a social question, and if it is not wisely 
treated, the result of advance in science may redound to the 
benefit of the few and possible detriment to the many, 
Every new food added to the list of those regularly consumed. 
tends to diminish the demand for the staple article, and, 
consequently, tends to lessen the cost of living. 

Taking all Professor Atwater’s papers together, as pub- 
lished in consecutive numbers of the Century, I gather that 
his views are broader than might seem from the above 
account; viewing the papers, however, as read at the 
Association meeting, they suggest to me a number of con- 
siderations worthy of more attention than I shall be able to 
give them on this occasion. One thing seems clear—that 
the food question, like so many others, is complicated by 
false views as to the meaning and purpose of human 
existence. People spend money for what is not bread, in 
both a literal and a figurative sense. The American work- 
man wishes to appear, according to these witnesses, ‘‘ better 
off” than he is. 

Mrs. Richards’ remarks are full of suggestiveness. Even 
from the discussion before the Association, it becomes very 
plain that the food question has other aspects than the 
economic, the chemical or the physiological. ‘To say, as 
Prof. EB. J. James does, that “this is at bottom a social 
question,” is placing it on far too narrow a basis. Not to 
go beyond the papers and the discussion evoked, it appears 
that the subject has chemical, physiological, economic and 
moral aspects, at least, ‘Tho ill-fed and the over-fed human 
being are alike liable, not only to physical, but to mental 
and moral disturbance. If the relations between mind and 


38 Canadian Record of Science. 


body are constant and absolutely dependent on fixed, though 
but partially known laws, it should be one of the aims of 
science to show more clearly what these laws are; and in 
this all the specialties may combine with a noble end in 
view. 

In estimating the diet that is best, many considerations 
beside the chemical composition of the food, the action of 
the digestive juices, etc., must be taken into account. A 
food that is capable of maintaining one individual at his 
maximum of energy is not such for another; and this may 
depend on subtle influences of race, habit, occupation, and 
countless factors of the past and present, which neither 
chemist nor physiologist can estimate, except in the rough- 
est and most general way. Fortunate it is that our 
instincts are wiser than ourselves—our conscious, scientific 
selves. Such considerations shonld not tend to lessen our 
estimation of the value of such work as the chemist, the 
physiologist, the anthropologist, the psychologist and 
others can do. It all has its place, but we must beware 
of drawing conclusions too hastily or making generalizations 
that are too wide. 

Specialism, with its limited fields, its more elaborate 
methods and its minute details, is necessary to the advance 
of science. But the dangers are great, as the subject under 
consideration well illustrates. One of the questions of the 
day to not a few minds is: How may specialism exist so as 
to subserve the ends of science and not lead to narrow, and 
consequently erroneous, views? It is doubtful whether it is 
not better to have no definite conceptions of a subject than 
highly distorted ones. It is true, the critical spirit of the 
day tends to sift all views and errors are being constantly 
exposed; they may, however, be speedily replaced by 
another crop. The remedies or rather the means of pre- 
venting, at least in part, this state of things, it appears to 
me, are :— 

(1) A sound and broad education on the part of the 
individual who proposes to specialize. 

(2) Joint work—many different specialists attacking the 
problem from different points of view and comparing 


Prairies of Manitoba. 39 


results. In large laboratories this could be done. Such 
treatment of subjects as that given the food question by the 
American Association is highly suggestive. 

(3) Attendance of specialists at societies where diverse 
topics, not of exclusive interest to any one specialty, are 
discussed. I think the occasional delivery of a popular lecture 
helps not a little to correct the specialist’s natural tendencies 
to aberrations of one kind and another. His attention is 
thus turned to substantial results rather than to methods of 
work. 


THE PRAIRIES OF MANITOBA. 
By A. T. DrumMMonD. 


In August of this year, another opportunity occurred to 
me of examining the superficial deposits around Portage la 
Prairie, Birtle and Kinbrae—the last named place about 
thirty miles north-west of Fort Ellice. The resulting facts 
will prove of interest in connection with questions that 
have been discussed about the origin of the north-west 
prairies. 

At Portage la Prairie the country is on all sides flat, and 
bears evidence of two to three periods of growth and decay 
of grasses and reeds in shallow water, alternating with 
periods of subsidence of the land. The genoral surface is 
perhaps twelve feet above the Assiniboine River, and that 
stream is in turn about the same number of feet higher 
than Lake Manitoba, which lies only fourteen miles to the 
northward. The banks of the river, in a height of twelve 
feet, show three layers of black loam, each from six to 
twelve inches or more in thickness, alternating with a 
creamy gray clay, and the whole underlaid near the water's 
edge by a reddish clay. Boulders throughout this section 
of the country and eastward to Winnipeg are unseen, even 
in the bed of the river at low water. Towards Westbourne, 
the large tract of low land, usually covered with water, and 
lying between Rat Creek and the Westbourne marsh proper, 
and through which the Manitoba and Northwestern Rail- 


40 Canadian Record of Science. 


way’s track is built, was perfectly dry. That this was an 
exceptionally dry year, was shown by the enormous num- 
bers of dead shells of Limnea, Planorbis, Physa and other 
genera, which, everywhere, rendered the ground crisp 
under the tread of the foot. The ground was covered by a 
heavy growth of grasses of three or four species, scattered . 
everywhere in great patches, each grass occupying its own 
patches to the exclusion of the other grasses. The soil is a 
heavy black loam, and the surrounding circumstances all 
clearly show how such soils have been formed in the val- 
leys of the Lower Assiniboine and of the Red River, and 
around Lake Manitoba, by the annual decay of such marsh 
grasses. 

To the westward of the Big Grass Marsh and the West- 
bourne Marsh, circumstances are changed. The country, 
after leaving the gravel ridges which strike the line of the 
Manitoba and Northwestern Railway at Arden, becomes of 
a slightly rolling character, and increasingly so some dis- 
tance farther westward. As Neepawa is approached, the 
surface loam is underlaid by sand. Boulders become exposed 
in the river valley at Minnedosa and in the side valleys 
leading into it—washed out, no doubt, from the drift clays 
which at a greater or less depth underlie the surface soil. 
At Birtle, the Laurentian boulders are not only common 
in tbe deep valleys, especially on the eastern side, of the 
Bird Tail and of Snake Creek,—appearing in almost a 
solid mass of both large and small boulders at one point at 
the creek level near Birtle—but are also on the surface of 
the prairie above. They are in the latter case, generally 
more common in and upon the surface of the low ridges 
which here and there somewhat parallel each other. 
Proceeding still westward, boulders are not frequent in the 
valley of the Assiniboine River at Fort Ellice and at the 
railway crossing eighteen miles up the stream, but the bed of 
the river at the ford is formed entirely of very large sized 
gravel. Nor do boulders appear again until the country 
beyond Langenburg is reached. Here there are two or 
three gravelly knolls rising twenty-five or thirty feet above 
the general level, like the Spy Hills, also gravelly knolls, 


- 


Prairies of Manitoba. 41 


nearer Fort Ellice. In the vicinity of Kinbrae, the surface 
soil is a sandy loam with ridges of loam mixed with gravel. 
A well sunk here on George B. Fisher’s farm, gave a section 
showing in descending order, one foot of sandy loam, eleven 
feet of clay, with a few rounded boulders in it, and thirty — 
feet of sand, which grew coarser towards the bottom. At 
Langenburg, another well gave, before the sand was 
reached, one hundred and sixty feet of wet sticky clay, 
holding boulders. There was considerable difficulty in 
securing water at this latter place until this depth was 
reached. At neither place was there any appearance of 
layers of black loam as at Portage la Prairie and Winnipeg. 
The boulders here and at Birtle are relatively small, sel- 
dom exceeding two feet across, and, with the gravel, have 
rather the worn appearance resulting from the action of 
ice than the rounded look which the water on a sea or lake 
coast would give them. Both boulders and gravel in the 
neighborhood of Kinbrae are Laurentian, intermixed with 
some of a limestone which weathers a buff in colour. One 
of these larger limestone boulders was heavily striated and 
was, otherwise, worn smooth to the condition of a slab. 
Nearly all of the sloughs were dry, as a result of the 
drought this year, and some were, like the dry marshes 
near Westbourne already alluded to, dotted with the dead 
shells of Limnea and other fresh water mollusks, 


CONCLUSIONS, 


The conclusions I have formed are, that the Manitoba 
prairies east of the Pembina and Riding mountains are the 
most recently formed, and are still undergoing a process of 
extension in the great marshes still existing and on the 
shallow lake margins, through the annual growth and 
decay of the luxuriant grasses growing there. There had 
been two or three depressions of the land in the course of 
the formation of these prairies, during each of which, 
deposits of sediment, carried down by the muddy northern 
and western rivers, were made over the loam formed by 
such decaying grasses, giving thus the alternate loam and 
clay now observable. ‘There is no evidence to show that 


49 Canadian Record of Science. 


during these depressions the subsidence was sufficient for, 
or the other surrounding conditions favourable to, the 
action or even the existence of icebergs, though previous to 
this time, this section of the Northwest was no doubt also 
subject to the action of ice, all evidence being now covered 
up by the more recent deposits here referred to. 

West of these lower and more recently formed prairies, 
are the rolling prairies, which have an origin somewhat 
different. The stretches of sand, both on the surface and 
under the clays, point to the existence of extended lake and 
sea margins at more than one period. The extensive, some- 
what parallel gravel ridges at Arden, the gravel knolls, the 
smaller ridges with boulders in and on them at Birtle and 
west of Langenburg, and the uneven, rolling nature of the 
surface of the prairie, all seem to me to point to the action 
of icebergs in the glacial or post-glacial seas, modified after- 
wards by the water during subsidence, and to indicate the 
direction of the force, whether wind or current or glacier, 
which at these places impelled the bergs onward. Further, 
the thinner surface loam, mixed to the westward with some 
sand, would seem to point to a condition of growth and 
decay of plant life, less defined than and probably of a 
different character from that on the lower prairies to the 
eastward. 

The Assiniboine, though presently a branch of the Red 
River, was not always so, and is in its upper reaches above 
Brandon, a much older river. When the whole prairie east 
of the Riding and Pembina Mountains was a vast shallow 
lake, the Assiniboine was a large stream varying from half 
a mile to a mile and more in width for most of its course, 
discharging into this lake the surplus waters of the country 
to the northward and westward. As the whole surface 
of the continent here, to the east and west, but more 
especially to the westward, continued to rise, in the long 
lapse of time, the Assiniboine, with the strongly increased 
current which its relatively higher level westward gave it, 
cut its way through the surface soils to its present great 
depth of about two hundred feet below the prairie level. 


Specemen of Lake fron Ore. 43 


’ As the land eastward of Brandon rose above the water level, 
the river had of necessity to form a continuation of its 
course to some new outlet for its waters. This new outlet 
was eventually found at Winnipeg, where it joined the Red 
River, which must then have been a new stream, formed 
by the waters of the south, seeking, by reason of the rise of 
the land there, a new exit to the sea to the northward. 
That the Assiniboine had by this time become a small 
stream compared with its former proportions, is shown by 
the contracted banks of this newer part of its course, those 
at Winnipeg and Portage la Prairie being not more than 
from two to three hundred feet apart, and from twelve to 
fifteen feet high. 


‘ 


NOTE ON A SPECIMEN OF LAKE [RON ORE FROM LAG 
LA TORTURE, P. Q. 
By B. J. HARRINGTON. 


Some time ago, through the kindness of Mr. George 
McDougall, of Three Rivers, P. Q., the writer was enabled 
to obtain a specimen of Lake Iron Ore from the bottom of 
Lac la Tortue, where the material is said to occur in con- 
siderable quantity. The Lake is situated about twenty 
miles north of Three Rivers in a region which, according 
to Sir William Logan’s geological map, is occupied or 
underlaid by rocks of Laurentian age. In appearance, the 
ore closely resembles one of the concretionary bog ores 
found in so many parts of the country, and of which 
analyses have frequently been published. A few months 
ago, an analysis of the La Tortue lake ore was made by Mr. 
W. A. Carlyle, B. A. Se., then a student in the laboratory 
of McGill College, and the results are deemed worthy of 
recording, especially as no facts concerning Canadian lake 
ores have hitherto been published. No. I. is Mr. Carlyle’s 
analysis, while No. lI. is one by Svanberg of a Swedish 
lake ore:— 


44 Canadian Record of Science. 


HErrICOXIGG =: tees seals 69.64 69.95 
Ferrous oxide........... 00. 0.72 3566 
Manganic oxide (Mn, 0,)..... 2.99 Li 
INUIT, codd00 6cob4a0 onu0S 2.43 3.47 
Asie aes teers ace oe tisanarele cee 3000 1.82 
IWIN so co oSon od oam 790400 0.60 0.06 
Phosphoric anhydride....... 0.47 0.56 
Sulphuric anhydride........ 0.09 0.12 
SUKEApo Goose nanaon CoUCUs 00s 4 8.17 5.85 
Loss on ignition. ......--.... 15.00 16.19 
100.11 moo-99 
Mietalliearomereenetrleteereriers 49.31 48.96 
Phosphorus<-... »o«.- DEAE TAE 0.205 0.244 
Slulllaypiesss copsboouoogsaoroot 0.036 0.048 


It will be observed that the correspondence between the 
two analyses is very striking, and also that in a general way, 
these lake ores resemble our ordinary bog ores in composi- 
tion. Judging from published analyses, however, the 
average proportion of volatile matter in the latter is higher 
than in the lake ores. The average quantity of water, 
deduced from nine analyses of Canadian bog ores, is 19.78 
per cent., while the average deduced from seven analyses of 
Swedish lake ores by Svanberg, is only 14.13 per cent. (**) 


ROCEEDINGS oF NaTuRAL History SOcIETY. 
Sesston 1887-1888. 


The First Monthly Meeting of the Society was held on 
Monday evening, October 31st, 1887, at eight o’clock. 

The minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed, 
also the minutes of Council Meetings, June 9th, September 
20th, October 24th and 31st. 

The Honorary Curator reported the following donations 
to the Society. A coilection, composed of native spears, 
clubs, dresses, mats, shells, stones, etc., from the Samoan 


(*) For Svanberg’s analyses and other particulars concerning the 
Swedish lake ores, see Percy’s “ Metallurgy of Iron and Steel.” 


Proceeding's of the Society. 45 


Islands, bequeathed by the late Mr. George J. Bowles, 
presented by his son, Mr. George Bowles. 

Specimen of Vulpes lagopus (Arctic Fox), by an 
unknown donor; Nest of Common Black Wasp ( Vespa 


maculata) from Mr. W. G. Oswald, Belle de Reviére, Two . 


Mountains ; Specimens Belosoma americana ; Busts of Bishop 
Fulford and his father, from Mr. Charles Holland. 

Dr. T. Wesley Mills then read avery interesting paper on 
“The Meeting of the American Association for the Advance- 
meut of Science, for 1877,” a reswmé of which appears in 
this number of the REcorp. 

The Second Monthly Meeting was held 28th Nov., 1887, at 
eight o’clock. Sir Wm. Dawson in the chair. 

The minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed; 
the minutes of the last Council meeting were also read. 

In the absence of the Hon. Curator, the Hon. Librarian 
reported a donation from Mr. Montpetit of an Astrophyton 
vermicosum, ‘Star of the Sea,” from Labrador, for which 
the thanks of. the Society were expressed. 

The following gentlemen were elected : Walter Drake, Dr. 
Ruttan, Hon. Justice Baby, as ordinary members, and Rey. 
Dr. W. E. Winslow, of Boston, and Dr. D. B. McCartee, 
Amoy, China, as Corresponding Members. 

A letter was read from Dr. L. N. Britton, Treasurer of 
the Audobon Memorial Fund, soliciting subscriptions, which 
was referred to the Hon. Treasurer. 

Mr. A. T. Drummond read two very interesting papers, 
“The Prairies of Manitoba, and “The Physical and Past 
Geological relations of British North American Plants,” 
which created considerable discussion. 

These papers appear in the present issue of the Recorp. 


MontTREAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY, SESSION 1886-87 


The annual meeting was held on Monday evening, 
October 18th, 1886, in the library of the Natural History 
Society. 

The following officers were elected for the session 1886- 
87 :— 


46 Canadian Record of Science. 


President—Very Rev. Dean Carmichael. 

Vice- President—D. P. Penhallow, B. Sc., F.R.S.C. 

Treasurer—A. Holden. 

Secretary—Jeffrey H. Burland. 

The second monthly meeting was held on Monday even- 
ing, November 15th. 

After the regular business had been attended to, the 
President read a very interesting paper, entitled, “ Rules 
for Distinguishing Animal from Vegetable Organisms.” 
The Treasurer was elected Secretary-Treasurer, Mr. Bur- 
land having resigned as Secretary. 

The third monthly meeting was held on Monday evening, 
December 13th, in the laboratory of Dr. J. B. McConnell, 
when he read a paper on “ Bacteriological Methods,” bring- 
ing before the society, in the most lucid manner, a general 
outline of the action of bacteria and the modes of sterilizing, 
propagating and detecting them. 

The fourth monthly meeting was held on Monday even- 
ing, January 10th, 1887. 

Mr. J. Stevenson Brown gave a demonstration on modes 
of mounting objects for the micvoscope, showing some very 
ingenious apparatus made by himself, which was most 
instructive and highly appreciated. 

The fifth monthly meeting was held on Monday evening, 
February 14th, 1887. 

The Secretary reported that in response to the invitation 
of the Natural History Society to attend the Conversazione 
held at the Museum on the 20th January, twenty members 
of the society were present, with their microscopes and 
objects, and were assisted by friends from the McGill 
University and others. 

Mr. A. W. Clement read a very interesting paper, “The 
Use of the Microscope in the Inspection of Meat,” illus- 
trating same by appropriate slides. 

The sixth monthly meeting was held on Monday evening, 
March 14th. 

The paper of the evening, by the Rev. Dr. Smyth, 
‘Chalk as seen through the Microscope,” was well illus- 
trated with drawings and slides. 


Montreal Microscopical Society. 4y 


The seventh monthly meeting was held on Monday 
evening, April 18th. 

Dr. Wanless’ paper, “The Determination and Results of 
Minute Materials, Physiologically and Microscopically Con- 
sidered,” was illustrated with interesting experiments and 
slides. 

The eighth monthly meeting, held on Monday even- 
ing. May 9th, after the regular business, was devoted to 
the exhibition by the members of diatom slides. 


Sgsssron 1887-1888. 


The annual meeting of the society was held on Monday 
evening, October 10th 1887. 
The following officers were elected for the session 
1887-88. 
President—Professor D. P. Penhallow. 
Vice-President—J. Stevenson Brown. 
Secretary-Treasurer.—A. Holden. 
The annual reports were read and adopted. 


The second monthly meeting was held on Monday 
evening, November 14th. 

The President read a most interesting and instructive 
paper, “The Microscope as an Aid to Research,” exhibiting 
some very fine objectives, and other accessories. 


48 Canadian Record of Science. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


We have recently received the last published statement of the 
valuable series of investigations conducted by Sir J. B. Lawes at 
Rothamsted, England. This statement was first formulated in 
1877 for the occasion of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the estab- 
lishment of the First Experiment Station in Germany,at Mokern. 
Since then it has been continued each year, and extended to embody 
the more recent work of the field and laboratory. From the num- 
ber before us, we find that from 1847 to 1887 the published results of 
the work conducted during this period by Sir J. B. Lawes and his 
staff of assistants, number no less than one hundred and four. As 
most of our readers are aware, these publications embody some of 
most important scientific results touching the chemistry of plant 
foods and their sources in the soil. Probably no experiment 
station has done more in the way of securing valuable and accurate 
scientific data, to advance the cause of scientific agricultnre, than 
Rothamsted. 


The experiments at Rothamsted began in 1834 with a simple 
series of pot cultures, designed to throw light upon the relation 
of various chemical compounds to vegetable nutrition. These 
rapidly led to more enlarged operations in the field, supplemented 
by laborious researches in the laboratory by some of the most 
eminent chemists and botanists of the day. There was thus 
developed a systematic method of enquiry, which has resulted in 
throwing much important light upon many obscure or imperfectly 
understood laws. The peculiar value of the system adopted may 
be fully appreciated when we state that some of the experiments 
have been extended continuously for thirty-seven years, and are 
likely to be continued into the future for an indefinite period. 


Although this valuable work is conducted primarily with refer- 
ence to the practical application of the results, it has led to the 
accumulation of a large amount of data which are of the highest 
value from the standpoint of pure science. Very few institutions 
of a similar character have been able to surpass Rothamsted in 
the character, extent and general usefulness of its work. That the 
institution has a liberal endowment and is established on a broad 
scientific basis, reflects the highest credit upon its founder. 


Unfortunately, many of the valuable papers embodying these re- 
sults are no longer to be obtained. The annual statement, there- 
fore, serves as an important means of gaining a summary of some 
of the more extended investigations and as a valuable historicc] 
and bibliographical record. 


an ‘Tro ye ttl Fares 
, “qe heriic wii dour 3 (bey) 


e 
' 


2 nos yo 3h bi theo) d ' 
ne ere aatn 5 annua J “yt 


pat 1 Plbpuinee wins | | 
a onal talib oiduolay base Gin UN ; ; 


i, aoe 


a 


saney 
ste 


+V4 


Fig. 1.—PROTOSPONGIA TETRANEMA, S.N. 


‘luebee group, Little Métis. Diagyammatic restoration. slightly eularged. 


THE 


fas DPAN RECORD 


in doe. 


eS are a 

OF SCIENCE. A Se a 

Lore hee 

a 7 g Cy we +t NC 
VOL. III. APRIL, 1888. NO. 2. Yssseceu64 


PRELIMINARY NoTE oN NEw SPECIES OF SPONGES 
FROM THE QUEBEC GROUP aT LiTtLE Métis. 


By Sir J. Wit1u1am Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S. 


Little Métis Bay presents a good section of rocks of the 
Quebec Group, including sandstones, slates and conglomer- 
ates similar to those which characterise this series of beds 
along the south shore of the St. Lawrence. These beds 

have afforded a species of Retiolites, allied to or identical 
with &. ensiformis of Hall’, worm-burrows of various forms, 
including a spiral form similar to Arenicolites spiradis, and 
radiating markings of the kind elsewhere known as Astro- 
polithon. A small species of Obolella also occurs, resembling 
V. Ida of Billings. In the conglomerates are limestone 
boulders, holding fragments of Trilobites of the genus 
Solenopleura and other fossils; but these seem to be of Mid. 
die Cambrian age, or considerably older than the beds in 
which they occur. 

There can be no doubt, from the stratigraphival position 


' Identified by Prof. Lapworth. 
4 


50 Canadian Record of Science. 


of these beds, that they belong to the Quebec Group of Sir 
W.E. Logan. This is, however, now known to include, on 
the Lower St. Lawrence, beds ranging from the Calciferous 
to the Trenton, and the beds are so much plicated that it is 
often difficult to unravel their complexities of arrangement.’ 
At Métis, the evidence of the pebbles in the conglomerates 
indicates that they are newer than the Middle Cam- 
brian, and the few fossils found in the sandstones and shales 
would tend to place them at or near the base of the Lévis 
division, or approximately on the horizon of the Chazy, or 
equivalent to the English Arenig. Lapworth, in his paper 
on “Canadian Graptolites,” suggests that the sandstones 
holding Retiolites are older than this; but hitherto we 
have not found at Métis the characteristic Graptolites of the 
older or Matane series, which occurs further east, and is 
probably of Calciferous or Tremadoc age. 

In the past summer, Dr. Harrington, F.G.S., was so for- 
tunate as to find a bed of black shale rich in remains of 
sponges, hitherto unknown in these rocks, and having made 
known the fact to the writer, we visited the place several 
times and made considerable collections of these interesting 
fossils, which are now in the Peter Redpath Museum. 

The locality of this discovery is the beach at the foot of 
the cliff below the Wesleyan church, where a considerable 
thickness of black shales appears well exposed. The section 
at this place is as follows, in descending order :— 

1. A thick bed of hard sandstone or quartzite and con- 
glomerate, forming the cliff immediately in front of the 
church, and shewing in some of the beds radiating mark- 
ings (Astropolithon). 

2. Black and dark gray shales, with a few calcareous 
bands—thickness about 100 feet. The black shales of this 
band hold sponges and layers of sponge spicules, with fucoids 
(Buthotrephis, of a new species,) and valves of a small Obo- 
lella. All of these fossils are usually in a pyritised state. 


1 Logan, Geology of Canada, 1863; Selwyn, Report Geol. Survey, 
1877-78 ; Ells, Ibid, 1880-82 ; Lapworth, Canadian Graptolites, Trans. 
R. 8. C., 1886. 


New Species of Sponges. Mon 


3. Flaggy sandstone and shale, about 20 feet. 

4, Hard sandstone with quartz veins, 3 to 5 feet. 

5. Hard gray shales and calcareous and dolomitic bands, 
with some layers sf sandstone—800 feet or more. 

6. Apparently underlying these, and occupying a great 
extent of the shore, are black, gray and red shales and thick 
beds of gray sandstone, the latter appearing at Mt. Misery 
and Lighthouse Point, and holding the Graptolites above 
referred to. These beds must be of great thickness in the 
aggregate, but they are possibly repeated in part by faults 
and contortions. 

The sponges contained in Band 2 above, are apparently 
contined to a small thickness of the shale, but in this are 
quite abundant. They are perfectly flattened, and their 
spicules are replaced by pyrite; but in some cases they re- 
tain the outline of their form, and have their root spicules 
attached. The spicules were, no doubt, originally siliceous, 
but they have shared the chemical change experienced by 
other fossils in this bed, whereby they have lost their silice- 
ous matter and have had pyrite deposited in its place. In 
some cases, also, the pyritised spicules have been frosted 
with minute crystals of the same substance, greatly enlarg- 
ing their size and giving them a mossy appearance. This 
pyritization of spicules, once probably silicious, is not un- 
common in palwozoic rocks, and it arises from the soluble 
condition of the silica in sponges, and its association with 
organic matter, which, in some modern sponges, as in 
Hyalonema, enters into the composition of the spicule itself. 
These spicules, therefore, suffer the same change with the 
calcareous shells associated with them. 

Many of the sponges in these beds have been entire when 
entombed. Others are decayed and partially broken up, 
and there are some surfaces covered with confused patches 
of loose spicules arising from the disintegration of many 
specimens. 

Some remarks are perhaps necessary here respecting the 
appearance of sponges in different states of preservation. 
Of course the original textures of sponges are different, and 


52 Canadian Record of Science. 


those which have consolidated spicules or firm external cor- 
tex, are those most likely to retain their original forms. 
Even the looser kinds of sponges, however, may under cer- 
tain circumstances preserve their rotundity of form, in 
which case they will usually show external markings, but 
not so well internal structure, unless when sliced. On the 
other hand, when completely flattened, which is usually the 
case in shaly beds, only an outline of the form remains, and 
sometimes not even this, while the forms and in part the 
arrangement of the spicules are usually apparent. Farther, 
the hollow and thin-walled species are more liable to be 
completely flattened, though in some cases, as in the Devo- 
nian Dictyospongie, they may retain their form. It was 
this property, and the membranous appearance of the outer 
coat, that for a long time sustained the belief that these 
were plants rather than sponges. 

In the case of the sponges procured in the shales at 
Little Metis, perfect flattening has occurred, and in many 
cases the spicules have been separated, and appear as mere 
spicular patches or layers. In other instances, however, they 
remain approximately in their natural position, and even the 
general outline of the form can be observed. The collec- 
tions include several species of sponges, Hexactinellid and 
Monactinellid; but, so far as observed, one of them is more 
abundant and better preserved than the others. The fol- 
lowing may serve as a preliminary rough description of the 
species collected,—which will be more fully described and 
commented on by Dr. J. George Hinde, F.G.8., the author 
of the British Museum Catalogue of Fossil Sponges. See 
paper appended. 


1. Protospongia tetranema. S. N. (Fig. 1)' The general 
form has been spheroidal, probably with an osculum or 
oscula at top. Root composed of four long spicules in two 
pairs, which diverge somewhat and then bend toward each 


' This figure is a restoration, with two of the spicules enlarged. 
The defensive spicuies and osculum are conjectural, being based 
merely on loose spicules and general form. 


New Species of Sponges. 53 


other and unite, forming a loop. General diameter, about 
3 to 5 centimetres. Length of root-spicules, 6 to 7 centi- 
metres, Wall of body apparently thin, composed of large 
cruciform spicules, stout at centre and tapering to sharp 
points, and arranged in square meshes, with smaller spic- 
ules of the same forms in the meshes. Length of largest 
spicules and size of meshes, 1 centimetre or less. 

The structure of this sponge places it in Protospongia of 
Salter. It is true that the species of Protospongia are not 
known to have root spicules, but these must have been pre- 
sent in some form, and perhaps the bundle of spicules from 
the Menevian, described by Hicks as P. flabella,' may have 
been of this nature. 

The root of this species is very peculiar in its arrange 
ment. It seems to have been a cruciform spicule, of 
which the rays were bent upward and lengthened, form- 
ing a stalk for the sponge. This would give a firm attach- 
ment, and adapt itself to the gradual rise of the bottom to 


which the sponge was attached. The mechanical proper- - 


ties of such an arrangement of spicula are obviously well 
suited to effect their purpose. 

Salter, in his original description of Protospongia from 
the Cambrian of Wales, compares it with Acanthospongia of 
Griffiths from the Silurian of Ireland, the original specimen 
of which he had seen; but says it has six-radiate spicules. 
He also remarks that the spicules of Protospongia seem to 
be all on one plane.” P. Major of Hicks is a still older spe- 
cies from the Lower Cambrian or Longmynd Series, and 
seemingly of different structure and of much more open tex 
ture than that above described. Matthew has also noticed 
and figured fragments of Protospongia from the Lower 
Camlrian of St. John, New Brunswick. The present spe- 
cies, though somewhat later in age than the foregoing, 
has the merit of presenting a better state of preservation 
and better illustrating the general form, and more espe- 
cially the root-spicules. 


' Hicks’ Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. xxvii. 
* Journal Geol. Soc., Vol. xx. 


BAIN Canadian Record of Science. 


2. A second species shows numerous large and long root 
spicules similar to those included in the genus Hyalostelia 
of Hinde. Some of them shew crutch-shaped terminations 
at the distal ends. Such remains of the body of the sponge 
as have been found, appear to consist of small cruciform 
and simple spicules, not unlike the debris of a modern 
Hyalonema. This sponge was larger than the preceding. 
It may be provisionolly named H. Metissica. 


3. A third shews what seem to be remains of a thin-walled 
hollow sponge, with vertical and tranverse spicules arranged 
somewhat in the manner of those of the genus Cyathophy- 
cus of Walcott.' Like that genus, it contains also small 
loose cruciform spicules. It seems to have been conical 
and pointed below, and without long roots. It may be 
named OC. Quebecensis. 


4. Small ovoid masses of stout biacerate spicules, diverg- 
ing from the centre and sometimes in fan-shaped tufts, 
seem to indicate a species of the genus Lasiocladia of 
Hinde. The specimens shew indications of an external 
membrane, and they had somewhat strong root spicules, 
much larger than those of the body. 


5. Oval masses of small simple spicules, imbedded in 
patches of pyrite and without any definite arrangement of 
root spicules, may either indicate the presence of a hali- 
chondroid sponge, or of patches of spicules imbedded in 
coprolitic matter. The former is, perhaps. more likely to 
be the correct explanation. 


An interesting point in connection with these remains is 
the appea: ance of so many distinct types of silicious sponges 
in one locality and formation. This fact was not distinctly 
noticed till the specimens were carefully examined, and it 
invites to further search in the locality, in hope of discov- 
ering new forms or more perfect examples of those repre- 
sented in the present collection only by fragments. 


1See note appended. 


New Species of Sponges. ess) 


In the shales containing the above species, the only other 
fossils observed were slender fucoids, a small Obolella and a 
minute Cystidean or Crinoid, as follows :— 


Obolella Ida? Billings. 


I refer the specimens of Brachiopods found to this species, 
which belongs to the Lévis division of the Quebec Group. 
The valves are mostly pyritized, but sometimes flattened 
and then represented by a mere carbonaceous film. Mr. 
Whiteaves, to whom I have shewn these shells, agrees 
with me on their probable reference to one of Mr. Billings’ 
smaller species from the Quebec Group. 


Oystites ? 
A small-jointed stem one centimetre in length, with an 
elongated, flattened, oval mass at one end, in which, how- 
éver, no distinct plates can be discovered. 


Buthotrephis pergracilis. 8. N. 

Stems very long and filexuous, about one millimetre in 
diameter, and obscurely striate longitudinally ; sending off 
at their extremities short alternate or opposite branches. 
Allied to B. gracilis, Hall, of the Siluro-Cambrian, but 
much more elongated and slender. These plants are 
replaced by pyrite. 


Note on Cyathophycus reticulatus. Walcott. 

In the collection of minerals of the late J. S. Miller, Hsq., 
of Ottawa, purchased for the University. are a few fossils, 
some of them Canadian, others from the phosphate deposits 
of South Carolina. Among the former ave a few specimens 
of Utica slate fossils, which, from their appearance I sup- 
pose, have been collected in the beds of that formation near 
Ottawa, though it is possible that some of them may have 
been obtained from the United States. They include 
a specimen of the above species, which Mr. Ami, who 
has collected extensively in these beds at Ottawa, informs 
me has not yet occurred to him. The specimen is a small 
slab of the ordinary Utica shale, having an impression of a 


56 Canadian Record of Science. 


glabella of Triarthrus on the back, which proves its geolo- 
gical horizon. It has two specimens of Cyathophycus close 
together, nearly perfect at their bases and broken off at the 
height of about three inches. They are perfectly flattened 
and pyritized, which is also the condition of other fossils in 
these shales, with the exception of the graptolites, which 
seem to have resisted this kind of change. 

The genus Cyathophycus was originally described by Wal- 
cott from specimens obtained at Trenton, Oneida Co., New 
York. He regarded it as an alga, whence the termination 

1 Trans. Albany Instit., 1879. 

“ phycus,” but subsequently, in the American Journal of 
Science, 1881, corrected this error, and referred it to the 
sponges. Hall (35th Regents’ Report) properly places it 
with the reticulate sponges included in his family Dictyo- 
spongidae, but does not add much to Walcott’s original 
description, to which the present specimens permit some 
additions to be made. 

The specimens are perfectly flattened, but show distinct 
indications of the two sides of the originally conical form. 
The wall of the skeleton has evidently been thin and com- 
posed of slender bundles, each of a few long simple spicules, 
and increasing both by bifurcation and the introduction of 
new bundles, so as to preserve nearly the same distances in 
the wider parts of the cone. They are very regular in the 
lower part, where there are about nine principal, with 
some intermediate secondary bundles in a centimetre, but 
become more irregular toward the top. This may, how- 
ever, be an effect of decay and crushing. At the base these 
bundles become thicker, and in a specimen from the origi- 
nal New York locality, kindly lent to me by Mr. Ami, I 
have observed that they become expanded and converted 
into somewhat short clavate root spicules. This is, how- 
ever, not apparent in Mr. Miller’s specimens, which may 
have been broken off at the surface of the mud. 

The vertical bundles are crossed at right angles by hori- 
zontal spicules much less regularly arranged, but dividing 
the surface into rectangular meshes. These are slightly 


New Species of Sponges. om 


oblique and rhomboidal in the specimens, but this is pro- 
bably due to pressure. The horizontal spicules seem to be 
triacerate in form, and much shorter than those of the ver- 
tical system, though of very different lengths. They are 
sométimes in bundles and sometimes solitary. 

In parts of the substance, apparently within the reticulate 
wall, may be seen a few cruciform spicules, and floccu- 
lent patches apparently of very small spicules, which seem 
to have been mostly internal and most abundant toward the 
base, but cannot be distinctly made out. 

The whole of the spicules are completely pyritized, and 
appear under the microscope to be made up of rows of 
cubical crystals of pyrites. They were probably originally 
siliceous, but this need not excite surprise, as the silica of 
such spicules is in a condition which facilitates solution, 
‘and in some modern sponges the spicules are not purely 
silicious, but contain some animal matter. I have also 
noticed other cases in which silicious paleozoic sponges 
have experienced this change, while in many specimens 
the spicules have entirely disappeared. 

This is the case with the Erian or Devonian sponges of 
the genus Dictyophpton and allied genera, which, owing to 
their apparently membranous character, I at one time be- 
lieved to be fucoids, but abandoned this idea on seeing the 
specimen of Uphantenia (Physospongia, Hall) which Prof. 
Whitfield was kind enough to show me in the New York 
Museum in July, 1881. In a note communicated to Prof. 
Whitfield in August, 1881, I have made the following 
remarks on the pyritization of sponges :— 

“The most puzzling fact in connection with the original 
silicious character of these sponges is their mineral condi- 
tion, as being now wholly replaced by pyrite. Carbonaceous 
structures are often replaced in this way, and so are also 
calcareous shells, especially when they contain much cor- 
neous matter, but such changes are not usual with silicious 
organisms. If the spicules were originally silicious, either 
they must have had large internal cavities which have been 
filled with pyrite, or the original material must have been 


58 Canadian Record of Science. 


wholly dissolved out and its place occupied with pyrite. It 
is to be observed, however, that in fossil sponges the sili- 
cious matter has not infrequently been dissolved out, and 
its space left vacant or filled with other matters. I have 
specimens of Astylospongia from the Niagara formation 
which have thus been replaced by matter of a ferruginous 
color; and in a bundle of fibers, probably of a sponge allied 
to Hyalonema from the Upper Llandeilo of Scotland (since 
named Hyalostelia by Hinle’), I find the substance of the 
spicules entirely gone and the spaces formerly occupied by 
them empty. It should be added that joints of Crinoid 
stems and fronds of Fenestella occurring in the same speci- 
men with the Uphantaenia are apparently in their natural 
calcareous state.” 

The type of structure of Cyathophycus is essentially that 
of the Hexactinellid sponges of the sub-order Dictyonina. of 
Zittel, and under this, as has already been suggested by 
Barrois, it belongs to the family of Dictyospongide, estab- 
lished by Hall for Dictyophyton and the allied sponges of 
the Erian rocks. This type, already known as far back as 
the Utica slate, is now carried a stage farther by our 
discoveries at Métis. 


While the above paper was in the press, Dr. Selwyn was 
so kind as to send to me for inspection, through Mr. Ami, 
of the Geological Survey, some slabs of gray and dark 
coloured shale from the Quebec group rocks of the Chau- 
diére River, in which spicules of sponges had been detected 
some years ago, by Mr. T. C. Weston and Mr. Willmot of 
the Survey, but which have not been published. The spe- 
cimens show two forms of cruciform spicules, one with very 
slender rays and as much as a centimetre in measurement 
from point to point, the other stouter and measuring about 
five millimetres in extent, and therefore more nearly resem- 
bling those of Protospongia tetranema. There are also long 


1T have similarly explained Pyritonema of McCoy and Hophyton 
explanatum of Hicks, as has Hinde also, in Geol. Maga., 1886. 


New Species of Sponges. eg 


slender root spicules scattered on one of the slabs. On an- 
other specimen are large and strong forking spicules, the 
principal ray being about 1.5 centimetre in length, with a 
bulb or expansion at base, giving off two or more shorter 
and stout rays. They are quite different from any of the 
forms found at Metis. 

These specimens are from beds referred to the Levis or 
Sillery formation, and are therefore approximately of the 
same age with those at Metis. They indicate the wide dis- 
tribution of Hexactinellid silicious sponges in rocks of this 
period, and hold out the prospect of the discovery of addi- 
tional species. 

Mr. Ami also showed me a new sponge recently dis- 
covered by him in the Utica Shale at Ottawa. It consists 
of radiating groups of long slender simple spicules in a 
pyritized state. He hopes to make further collections from 
the same bed before describing these interesting forms, 
which resemble the spicules of the Pleistocene Tethea 
Logani,so common in the Leda clay of the St. Lawrence, 
but which may possibly be root spicules of a Hexactinallid 
sponge, as there are obscure cruciform spicules on the same 
slab. 


NOTES ON SPONGES FROM THE QUEBEC GROUP AT 
MéTIS, AND FROM THE UTICA SHALE. 


By Gxnorcp JpNNinNGs Hinpp, Pxu.D.! 


Through the kindness of Sir J. W. Dawson, F.R.S., I 
have had the opportunity of studying a series of specimens 
of the fossil sponges lately discovered in the Quebec group 
at Little Métis by Dr. Harrington, and also of an example 
of Oyathophycus reticulatus, Walcott, from the Utica shale 
formation. The Metis specimens are specially interest- 


' These Notes, kindly communicated by Dr. Hinde, arrived after 


the previous paper was in type; and are added without change. 
—J.W.D. 


60 Canadian Record of Science. 


ing since they throw much fresh light on the charac- 
ter of the earliest known forms of these organisms, and 
their discovery is the more opportune from the fact that 
our knowledge of the existing hexactinellid sponges—the 
group to which all, or nearly all, these fossils belong— 
has been vastly increased by the work of Prof. F. H. 
Schulze, of Berlin, on the hexactinelled sponges dredged up 
by the Challenger expedition, and thus we are now better 
enabled than hitherto to compare the fossil and the recent 
forms. . 

Sir J. W. Dawson has already given a preliminary account 
of the character and stratigraphical relations of the rock 
in which the sponges occur, as well as some details of the 
fossils themselves, and at his invitation | now add some 
further comments thereto. 

In the present specimens, the amor dacsile or soluble silica 
of which their spicular skeletons were originally composed, 
has entirely disappeared, and the spicules now consist of 
iron pyrites. This replacement by pyrites is of common 
occurrence, more particularly in a matrix of black shales; 
for example, the earliest known sponge, Protospongia fenes- 
trata, Salter, from the Cambrian rocks of South Wales, is in 
the same mineral condition, and in a nearly similar matrix, 
as the specimens from the Quebec group and the Utica 
shale. When thus replaced, the general outline of the 
larger spicules is fairly distinct, but where the spicules 
are minute, and in close proximity to each other, their in- 
dividual outlines are blurred by the tendency of the crystals 
of the replacing pyrites to amalgamate together so as to 
form a coutinuous film of the mineral. in which the finer 
spicular structures are quite indistinguishable. This coales- 
cence of the pyrites likewise makes it very difficult to de- 
termine whether the spicular elements of the sponge were 
organically soldered together into a silicious mesh, or 
whether they were merely held in their natural positions 
by the soft animal structures, and owe their present union 
to subsequent fossilization. 

Next to the chemical changes, we have to take into 


New Species of Sponges. 61 


account those produced on the original structures of these 
sponges by what may be termed the mechanical influences 
of fossilization. There can be no doubt that they were 
hollow sacci-form or vasi-form structures with very delicate 
walls of spicular tissue, supporting the soft animal mem- 
branes. They existed at the surface of the soft ooze of the 
sea-bottom, probably their basal portions were embedded in 
it, and they were furnished with elongated spicules whose 
extension into the mud served to anchor them in one spot. 
After the death of the animal, and the decay of the soft 
tissues, the delicate skeletal framework would be gradually 
buried in the accumulating sediments, until by their weight 
it became completely flattened. Under favorable circum- 
stances, the outline of the sponge and the natural arrange- 
ment of the spicular skeleton would be preserved, and this 
is fortunately the case with the specimens of Cyathophycus 
from the Utica shale, and to a partial extent with one of 
the specimens of Protospongia tetranema. More frequently, 
however, probably owing to currents and other causes 
acting at the surface ef the ooze, the skeletai framework is 
partially or wholly broken up, so that only small patches 
of the connected skeleton, or merely the dislocated and de- 
tached spicules irregularly scattered over the rock surface 
remain for determination, and this is the present condition 
of the majority of the specimens from the Quebec gronp. 
For some reason, probably connected with the arenaceous 
character of the rock in which they occur, the nearly allied 
sponges belonging to the Devonian genus, Dictyophyton, 
Hall, usually retain their outer forms complete—that is, 
without being compressed—but most of these sponges ex- 
hibit only internal casts of their spicular skeleton, so that 
at present we know very little of their oriyvinal structures. 

As already mentioned, nearly all these Quebec sponges 
belong to the sub-order of the Hexactinellidie, in which the 
fundamental type or elementary spicule of the skeleton 
consists of six equal rays, radiating from a common centre 
at right angles to each other, forming three equal axes. 
But this typical form is subject to great modifications 


62 Canadian Record of Science. 


through the unequal development or even suppression of 
one or more of the individual rays, so that spicules with 
five, four, three, or merely two rays only, are frequently 
present, and in the same species of sponge several modified 
forms of spicules may be found. Now, in the compressed 
condition in which the Quebec sponges occur, we can, as a 
rule, only perceive those rays of the spicules which lie in 
the exposed plane of the rock, these are generally the four 
transverse rays of the normal spicule, but the two rays 
forming the axis at right angles to the treynsverse rays, are 
not likely to be distinguished, for one would be concealed 
in the matrix immediately beneath the transverse rays, 
whilst the other, projecting above the exposed surface, 
would inevitably be broken away. Consequently it is very 
difficult to determine positively whether the forms with 
four transverse rays exposed on the plane of the.sponge- 
wall, represent the entire spicule,—in which case it would 
be termed cruciform,—or whether one or both of the other 
rays of the normal spicules were originally present. Judg- 
ing by the analogy of allied recent forms, it is probable 
that in most cases these spicules were furnished with a 
fifth ray at right angles to the other four. In the examples 
of Cyathophycus from the Utica shale, are distinct traces of 
a fifth ray in some of the larger spicules, and it can also be 
seen in a detached spicule on a slab from the Quebec group. 

In both recent and fossil hexactinellids, many of the 
elongated filiform anchoring spicules terminate distinctly in 
four short recurved rays, and are thus five-rayed spicules in 
which one ray is greatly developed; but in other instances 
they have simple blunt or pointed ends, and may thus 
represent only one ray or one axis of the normal spicule. 
With one doubtful exception, all the anchoring spicules 
present in the Quebec sponges are merely pointed at their 
distal ends. 

In recent hexactinellid sponges, in addition to the spic- 
ules forming the regular framework of the skeleton, there 
are much smaller spicules of varied forms, imbedded in the 
soft tissues. These, generally known as flesh-spicules, are 


New Species of Sponges. 63 


very seldom met with in the fossil condition, but it is not 
improbable that the delicate film of pyrites, seen in places 
on the surface of the Quebec sponges, may arise from the 
replacement of the flesh-spicules by this mineral. 

Sir J. W. Dawson has already classified and given pro- 
visional names to the Quebec sponges, and it will therefore 
be more convenient for me to refer to. their generic and 
specific details under these names. 


Genus, Protosponals, Salter. 

Protoepongia tetranema, Dawson. 

In the one specimen in which the outline of the sponge 
has been preserved, the body appears to have been elongat- 
ed oval, measuring about 45 mm. in length by 30 mm. in 
width. Very probably there was an aperture at the sum- 
mit, though it cannot now be distinguished. The wall of 
the sponge appears to have consisted—as in the other species 
of this genus—of a single layer of cruciform (?) spicules 
of various dimensions, disposed so as to form a framework 
with quadrate or oblong interspaces; the rays of the larger 
spicules constituting the boundaries of the larger squares, 
and within these, secondary and smaller squares are 
marked out by smaller spicules. Judging by the length of 
the rays of the larger spicules, the larger squares would 
be about 6 mm. in diameter, whilst the smallest do not ex- 
ceed 1 mm. The rays of the individual spicules slightly 
overlap, and it is probable that they may have been lightly 
cemented by silica at the points of contact. . The rays of 
the larger spicules are conical, gradually tapering from the 
central node to the blunted extremity; whilst the rays of 
the smaller spicules appear to be nearly cylindrical. 

From the base of the sponge, four slender elongated fili- 
form spicules project, They are approximately cylindrical, 
pointed at both ends, from .1 to.25 mm. in thickness, and 
from 50 to 70 mm. in length. Their proximal ends are in- 
serted apparently in the basal wall only of the sponge, and 
they project in the same direction, though not in lateral 
apposition with each other. In some specimens their dis- 
tal ends converge and appear as if united terminally, but 
this may be merely due to chance overlapping. 


64 Canadian Record of Science. 


This species appears to have been the prevailing form at 
Métis. Four specimens have been sent to me; in two of 
these the spicular frame-work of the body of the sponge re- 
tains in places its natural arrangement; in the other two 
the framework has been almost entirely broken up, and its 
constituent spicules irregularly mingled and compressed 
together. But in every specimen there are four anchoring 
spicules occupying the same relative position to the frame- 
work or body-wall of the sponge, thus clearly showing that 
they are essential to the species. In the spicules of the 
body-wall only four transverse rays can be distinguished, 
but it is quite possible, as already mentioned, that a fifth 
ray may have been present. On one of the rock-slabs 
there is a detached spicule in which the fragmentary 
stump of a fifth ray can be clearly seen projecting from 
the central node of the transverse rays. The rays in this 
spicule are unusually long, one can be traced for 30 mm, 

There can be no hesitation in placing this form in the 
genus Protospongia, since the same arrangement of the 
spicular mesh-work is present in it as in the type of this 
genus. In no other examples of the genus, however, has 
the presence of anchoring spicules been recognized, owing, 
no doubt, to their imperfect state of preservation, and this 
feature may now be reckoned as one of the generic 
characters. 

There are also differences of opinion as to the character 
of the spicular mesh-work and the systematic position of 
Protospongia, and fresh light on the points contested is 
afforded by these Quebec specimens. It has been doubted 
whether the body-wall of the sponge merely consisted of a 
single layer of spicules, or whether this layer corresponded 
to the dermal layer in other sponges of this group, and, as 
in these, was supplemented by an inner spicular skeleton. 
The evidence of the Quebec specimens favors the view that 
the body-wall of the sponge consisted only of a single layer 
of spicules. Various opinions have likewise been held as 
to whether the body-spicules were free, and merely held in 
their natural positions by the soft animal tissues, or 


New Species of Sponges. C08 


whether they were cemented together by silica at the 
points where their rays are in contact. Professor Sollas, 
in an able paper on the structure and affinities of the genus 
(Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. 30, p. 366), asserts ‘that 
they are separate, and not united either by envelopment in 
a common coating or by ankylosis,” whereas it has seemed 
to me that a certain degree of organic union must have 
existed to have allowed even the partial preservation of the 
mesh-work of the body-wall in the fossil state, and I have 
regarded the delicate film of pyrites which extends over 
the mesh-work in many specimens, as indicating a connect- 
ed spicular membrane which served to hold the larger 
spicules in position. From the study of the Quebec speci- 
mens [ still think a certain degree of organic attachment 
existed where the spicular rays were in contact, but I am 
quite prepared to admit that it was not of the same com- 
plete character as in typical Dictyonine hexactinellids. 
Prof. F. E. Schulze has clearly shown that a certain degree 
of irregular coalescence takes place in the body-spicules of 
undoubted Lyssakine sponges, and now that we know that 
Protospongia was furnished, like most of the sponges of this 
group, with anchoring spicules, there is good reason to re- 
gard this and the allied paleozoic genera as belonging rather 
to the Lissakine than to Dictyonine hexactinellids. This 
is the position assigned to them by Carter and Sollas. 


Genus Cyatrnopnycus, Walcott. 

The two specimens of Cyathophycus reticulatus, Walcott, 
—the type species from the Utica shale*—exhibit the 
structural features so very clearly, that it seems desirable to 
refer to the generic characters, as shown in these specimens, 
before referring to the Métis specimens which have been 
placed in this genus. 

The specimens are, as already described by Sir J. W. 
Dawson, compressed side by side on the surface of the same 


*These specimens are from the collection of the late Mr. J. 8. 
Miller, of Ottawa, and their locality is uncertain; but the formation 
is determined by a Trilobite on thesameslab They perfectly 
resemble specimens from the original locality of Walcott in New 
York. J.W.D. 


5 


aaa. ——— 


66 Canadian Record of Science. 


slab of shale; their spicules have been replaced by pyrites 
precisely the same as in the Métisspecimens. The sponges 
were evidently vasiform, gradually increasing in width 
from the base upward, their summits have not been pre- 
served, but with a length of 65 mm. they are 40 and 30 
mm. in width, respectively. Owing to compression, the 
opposite walls are now nearly in contact, being only separ- 
ated by a mere film of the shaly matrix, hardly half a 
millimetre in thickness. The shale has split in such a man- 
ner as to expose in some places the outer surface of the 
wall, and in others, the inner surface of the opposite wall. 

The wail is very delicate, and consists of quadrate or ob- 
long areas formed by slender longitudinal and transverse 
strands or fibers, of which the former are the more prom- 
inent. As in Protospongia, the quadrate areas are formed 
by the four transverse rays of cruciform, or five-rayed spic- 
ules, but these are disposed so that their rays overlap each 
other, and thus form fascicles of closely opposed parallel 
rays. The spicules in the transverse strands of the wall are 
less thickly grouped together, and even in some of the 
larger squares they may be arranged singly, whilst the 
smaller squares are generally bounded by single spicules 
only. The longitudinal strands principally consist of 
cruciform (?) spicules, but it is possible that elongated 
filiform spicules may likewise be present. There are plain 
indleations of a fifth or distal ray in many of the principal 
spicules of the wall, shown by a very minute knob or blunt- 
ed process projecting from the central node of the trans- 
verse rays, which may represent a partially developed ray, 
or the broken stump of a complete one. In some places, 
also, there is a continuous film of pyrites, probably indicat- 
ing a membrane of very minute spicules or an agglomera- 
tion of flesh-spicules, now replaced by this mineral. 

The basal portion of these specimens is incomplete, but 
there are indications of an extension of the longitudinal 
strands of the wall downward into the a tuft of anchoring 
spicules. 

This genus is mainly distinguished from protospongia by 
the fascicular arrangement of the spicular rays in the prin- 


New Species of Sponges. x67 


cipal longitudinal and transverse fibres. The regular quad- 
rate areas of the body-wall also mark it off from Plecto- 
derma and Phormosella, Hinde. (See Brit. Foss. Sponges 
pt. i. pl. i., figs. 1, 2 and pt. li. p. 124-5, Pal. Soc., 1886-7.) 
How far it may resemble Dictyophyton,* Hall, and the 
other genera associated therewith by Prof. Hall [85th 
Report of the State Museum (1884) p. 465, pls. 18-21], it is 
impossible to state, for, so far as I am aware, the structural 
features of this genus have never been sufficiently describ- 
ed, and the characters assigned to the other genera are 
mainly those of external form, which, as regards this 
group of sponges, are hardly of generic importance. 

The structures of Cyathophycus, as shown in these speci- 
mens, bears a great resemblance to that of the recent 
genus, Holascus, Schulze, (Challenger Reports, Vol. xxi., p. 
85) based on sponges dredged from depths varying between 
1375 and 2650 fathoms in the South Atlantic and in the 
Southern Ocean. There is a striking similarity in the 
structure of the sponge-wall in the fossil and in the original 
specimens described by Schulze, now in the British Mu- 
seum of Natural History. 

Cyathophycus Quebecensis, Dawson. (No. 3 of previous 
paper.) 

One of the specimens thus named is the basal portion of 
an apparently elongated tubular sponge, the wall of which 
consists of cruciform spicules disposed in longitudinal and 
transverse fibres, as in the type of the genus. The speci- 
men is too imperfect and the spicular mesh too broken up 
to permit of minute discription. On other rock-fragments 
are fibres or strands of straight elongated spicules, either 
parallel with each other or irregularly scattered over the 


*Tf the spicular structure of Dictyophyton should prove similar to 
that of Cyathophycus, this latter named will have to be suppressed 
in fayor of the former, which has the priority. Both these names, 
applied under the supposition that the organisms were plants, are 
alike unsuitable, and it might be advisable, as suggested by Prof. 
Whitfield, to reinstate Conrad’s original name, Hydnoceras. [In the 
only species of the Dictyospongide in which I have seen struc- 
ture, that named by Whitfield Uphantenia Dawsoni (Am. J. 


68 Canadian Record of Science. 


surface and intermingled with detached cruciform spicules. 
These various forms may well have been the anchoring 
and body-spicules of examples of the same species, now 
disintegrated and compressed together. 

Hyalostelia Metissica, Dawson. (No. 2 of previous paper.) 

This species is based on detached cruciform and anchor- 
ing spicules, the latter somewhat more robust than those 
placed as C. Quebecensis. In the present fragmentary con- 
dition of these forms it is impossible to give a satisfactory 
description, and the species must be regarded as provisional 
until better specimens are discovered. 

Sponges of uncertain character. (Nos. 4 and 5 of pre- 
vious paper. 

On some of the slabs from Métis are small oval com- 
pressed patches, apparently consisting of small fusiform 
acerate spicules, sometimes parallel, at other times cross- 
ing each other irregularly. They do not stand out definite- 
ly as in the case of the hexactinellid sponge spicules, but 
appear to be embedded in some membrane. In two in- 
stances, anchoring spicules, like those of Protospongia, pro- 
ject from the base of the mass. Ido not know of any mon- 
actinellid sponge furnished, as these appear to have been, 
with long anchoring spicules. Sir J. W. Dawson has 
suggested a resemblance to Lasiocladia, but they do not 
belong to this genus. 

In another specimen an elongated space about 50 mm. in 
length by 16 in width, with well-defined margins, is covered 
with a thin film of pyrites, which may have resulted from 
the replacement of a mass of minute spicules, of which 
traces remain in some places, but no structure whatever 
can be recognized in it now. Sir J. W. Dawson has pro- 
visionally named the fossil Halichondrites. 


Science, Aug., 1881, and Bulletin Am. Num. Nat. Hist., Dec., 1881), 
the spicules are apparently filiform and arranged in broad longi- 
tudinal and tranverse bund?es crossing each other, and with small, 
loose flesh-spicules in the meshes. They are therefore different . 
from those of Cyathophyens, or, as it should now be called, Cyatho- 
spongia. Hydnoceras is liable to the objection that it was intended 
to indicate affinity to cephalopod shells. J. W. D.] 


Examination of some Manitoba Waters. -. 69 


EXAMINATION OF SOME MANITOBA WATERS. 
A. McGutt, B. A., B. Sc. 


The following results of the examination of the solids con- 
tained in certain waters from the Province of Manitoba, pos- 
sess interest as illustrating to a certain extent the character 
of the water supplies in the region from which they were 
taken; a region whose mineral peculiarities have, as yet, 
come but little under the notice of the chemist. The object 
for which the assays were made, required only the estima- 
tion of the substances given in the table. I am indebted to 
the courtesy of W. R. Baker, Esq., Superintendent of the 
Manitoba and North Western Railway, for information re- 
garding the sources of the water: 

No. 1. From the White Mud River, at Westbourne. 

No. 2. From the White Mud River, at Gladstone. 

No. 3. From a well 30 feet deep, through sand and clay, at 
Portage la Prairie. 

No. 4. From a well 30 feet deep, through sand and clay, at 
Neepawa. 

No. 5. From a well at Minnedosa. The well is 20 feet in 
depth, through clay, hard pan, shale and gravel; and is situ- 
ated a few hundred feet from the Little Saskatchewan River. 

No. 6. From a well atStrathclair. The well is 34 feet deep, 
through blue and yellow clay, with boulders, sand and gravel. 

No. 7. From a well at Rapid City. The well is 12 feet 
deep, through hard pan, shale and gravel. 

No. 8, From a well at Kelloe. Total depth of well, 91 
feet. It was sunk through hard boulder clay to a 12-inch 
vein of clay, under which water was found, which rose to a 
height of 40 feet in the well. 

No. 9. From a well at Basswood. The well is 20 feet deep, 
through a quicksand. 

No, 10. From awell 195jfeet deep, at Birtle. 

No. 11. From a well at the 174th mile of the Man, and 
N. W. R. R. The well is 162 feet deep. 

In the table appended, all the results of analysis are ex- 
pressed in parts per 100,000. 

Sodium was estimated only in No, 8—a «| iron only in 


No. 1. 


Canadian Record of Science. 


70 


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Cambrian Rocks in Acadia. sae (| 


ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE CAMBRIAN Rocks 
IN AGCADIA. 


By G. F. Marruew, M.A., F.R.S.C. 


[In continuation of a paper in this journal on a Basal Series of Cambrian Kocks 
in Acadia, Vol. II1., No. 1, 1888.] 

Our acquaintance with the Cambrian rocks of HKastern 
North America has now reached that point where it may 
be profitable to suggest the outlines of a general classifica- 
tion of these deposits, in accordance with the scheme laid 
down by the International Congress of Geologists. 

By the term Cambrian, we understand the strata contain- 
ing the Primordeal Fauna of Barrande, both those which 
contain it exclusively, and those which hold its later, modi- 
fied representatives, mingled with the types of the Second 
Fauna ; and also the antecedent forms, which lead up to the 
typical primordeal genera. The base of the system is de- 
fined in the preceding paper, and the summit is best marked 
by the appearance of the early typical graptolites of the 
genera Tetragraptus, Didymograptus, Phyllograptus, Xe, 
These, with the associated trilobites of the Second Fauna, 
form the natural base of the Ordovician System. 

Prof. Jules Marcou expresses a similar view in his limi- 
tation of the formations (terreins) which are included in 
the system called by him Taconic, but which is equivalent 
to the Cambrian, as defined above. His three divisions of 
the system are the Infra-primordeal, the Primordeal, and 
the Supra-primordeal. But, if Mr. Walcott is right in count- 
ing the Georgian Series as Middle Cambrian, the term 
Supra-primordeal hardly expresses the immense develop- 
ment in America of the Potsdam, in which many genera 
are analagous to those of the Second Fauna, Similar genera 
are found in the Regio Ceratopygarum of Angelin in 
Sweden, and in the “Fauna of Hof” in Bavaria, which 
Barrande did not exclude from the Primordeal Fauna. 

At the base of the Cambrian System in Hurope and other 
regions are comparatively barren measures, which, as their 
faunas are made known, will, no doubt, he ound to Primor- 


72 Canadian Record of Science. 


deal Fauna by biological links. Such is the Regio Fucoida- 
rum of Angelin in Sweden, and the Caerfai Group in Wales. 
The process of unfolding the faunas of these initial terreins 
and stages of the Cambrian is now in progress, and has 
already given some remarkable results, both in Kurope and 
America. 

Applying these data to the classification of the Cambrian 
System in Acadia and Newfoundland, we find indications 
of the following series :— 


Series A.—The Basal Series, or Eteminian.' 
“ _B.—The St. John Group, or Acadian. 
‘¢ C.—The Lower Potsdam, or Georgian. 
‘‘  D.—The Potsdam Sandstone and Limestone. 


Srerizs A. 


The terreins which in Newfoundland and Hurope are 
supposed to be of equal age with this series, have been de- 
scribed in the previous paper. 

There are, however, in America, further west, formations 
(terreins) that have been described by geologists as pre- 
Cambrian, some of which may be of equal age with this 
series. But as the Series B. has not been recognized in 
the central and western parts of North America, and these 
terreins have not yielded distinctive fossils, the means of 
determining their relation to the Hteminian Series are 
wanting. 

Such formations are the Kewenawan and Animiki of 
Lake Superior, and the Chuar Group and underlying strata 
west of the Rocky Mountains. Messrs. Hague and Walcott 
were at first disposed to class the Chuar Group as Cambrian, 
but the latter now thinks it is of greater antiquity. 

In the Lake Superior region no fauna older than that of 
the St. Peter’s Sandstone has been established; so there re- 
mains the whole range of the Cambrian, as well as possibili- 


1 Named from the Etchemins, the aborigines of New Brunswick 
and Maine. 


Cambrian Rocks in Acadia. 2 oS 


ties of older formations, within which the terreins around 
Lake Superior may be classed. Until the controversies 
relative to the comparative age of those rock masses are 
settled by the discovery of characteristic faunas, we cannot 
tell how they compare with the older series, or the Cam- 
brian System, in Eastern North America. 


SERIES B. 


In speaking of the sub-divisions of this series, the writer 
proposes to use hereafter the terms recommended for divi- 
sions of a rank inferior to ‘‘Series.”. The term “Stage” will 
therefore take the place of ‘‘ Division,” as heretofore used in 
describing the parts of this terrein. 

Stage 1. This includes the lower part of the series, as 
high up as Paradoxides are found. The divisions of 
this stage are as follows :— 

Band (Assise) a. Hard grey sandstone or quartzite. 
Fossils: none known. 

Band (or Assise) b. Dark-grey sandstones and grey 
sandy shales. Fossils: Hllipsocephalus, Agraulos, 
Hipponicharion, Beyrichona, Xe. 

Band (or Assise) ¢. Grey shales. Fossils : Paradoxides, 
Conocoryphe, Liostracus, Microdiscus, Agnostus, &c. 

Band (or Assise) d. Dark-grey shales. Fossils : Para- 
doxides, Ptychoparia, Solenopleura, Microdiscus, Agnos- 
tus, &c., of different species from those in Assise ¢. 

Stage 2. This consists of grey flags and sandy shales. 
The sub-divisions have not been worked out, but the 
stage corresponds to the lower half of the Olenus 
Zone in Europe. No species of the genus Olenus 
have been found in it. 

Stage 3. Dark-grey and black shales. Fossils: Cteno- 
pyge, Kutorgina, Orthis, &c. This corresponds to the 
upper half of the Olenus Zone of Europe. The shales 
in Cape Breton, which contain Peltura and Spherop- 
thalmus belong here. There are in the St. John 


h 


74 Canadian Record of Science. 


Basin grey flags, which overlie the Ctenopyge beds, 
but no higher stage than the Olenus Zone has been 
established by fossils. 


Series C. 


This, the ‘‘ Lower Potsdam” of Billings, or “Georgian” 
of Mr. Walcott, has not been recognized on the main land 
of Acadia, but is found in the island of Cape Breton, where 
the fossils are Bathyurus (sub-gen ?), Orthisina, Orthis, Hyo 
lithes princeps. 

We place this series provisionally above the Series B. for 
reasons that will appear in the sequel, but a few considera- 
tions militating against this view may be mentioned. 

Mr. A. Murray, late provincial geologist of Newfound- 
land, in his reports and sections of the Cambrian formation 
in the peninsula of Avalon, in that island,’ places the lime- 
stone beds of Topsail Head and Brigus, in Conception Bay, 
below the Paradoxides beds. But, perhaps, it would be 
more correct to say that this limestone, by his observations, 
appears to be included in the Paradoxides Zone, as the 
horizon of Conocoryphe at Manuel Brook, not mentioned 
by him, is found below the limestone.?, Mr. Walcott asserts 
that the fossils of this limestone belong to his Middle Cam- 
brian or Georgian fauna, and explains the anomaly of their 
presence in the Paradoxides measures of Conception Bay, 
on the ground that they form an unconformable overlying 
series.” 

Dr. W. C. Brégger, of Stockholm, in his review of the 
“ Kureka Paleontology,” urges several reasons for regard- 
ing the Georgian series as older than the Acadian.* Some of 
these reasons will be referred to hereafter, in connection 
with the genus Olenellus, but one may be mentioned here. 


1 Geol. Survey of Newfoundland, London, 1881, pp. 2388 and 239. 

? Mr. Murray includes in his section the conglomerate of Manual 
Brook, which is immediately below the Concorphe shale. 

> U. States Geol. Survey, Bull 30, p. 49. 

*Om alderen af Olenelluszonen i Nord Amerika, p. 195, &e. 


Cambrian Rocks in Acadia. 5 


In Europe it has been found that there is a great prepon- 
derance of species of Agnostus in the lower part of the 
Paradoxides Zone. There are in the— 


Ceratopyge limestone and shale, 2 species. 

Olenus Zone (4 in the lower part), 5 species. 

Paradoxides Zone (25 in the lower part), 29 species. 

Zone of Paradoxides (?) Kjerulfi, 0 species. 

Dr. Brégger calls the last named the Olenellus Zone, on 
account of the genetic relations of Olenellus to P. (?) Kjerulji, 
and compares the absence of the genus Agnostus at this 
horizon in Europe, with the scarcity of it in the true Olenel- 
lus Zone in America, and then shows that species of 
Agnostus are more numerous in the Acadian than the 
Georgian Series in America, as they are in the Paradoxides 
Zone, when compared with the Zone of Olenellus (?) 
Kjerulfi in Europe. Butif the Olenellus Zone of America be 
compared with the Ceratopyge beds of Europe, it will be 
seen that that group also is characterized by a paucity of 
species of Agnostus. 

One of the most characteristic genera of the Georgian 
Series is Olenellus. Of its close relationship to Paradoxides 
there can be no question, and yet it is associated with an 
assemblage of species differing widely from those of the 
Paradoxides Zone in Europe. There is the further remark- 
able feature that Olenellus is more closely related to the 
older species of Paradoxides, than to the later; indeed, so 
close is this relation to the earliest Paradoxidean form in 
Scandinavia, that this form, P. (gen.?) Kjerulfi, has been 
ealled Olenellus. As long as the pygidium remained un- 
known, there was much to sustain this view of its generic 
relations; but now that this part of the organism (a very 
important part in the economy of the trilobites) has been 
recovered, and is found to conform to that of Paradoxides, 
and not of Olenellus, it is evident that the species cannot 
be referred to the latter genus. 

On the other hand, the admirable study of’ this species 
carried out by Gerhard Holm’ shows that it differs from 


'“ Or Olenellus Kjerulfi,” in “Geol. Féren. i Stockholm,” 1887. 


76 Canadian Record of Science. 


Paradoxides in such important points, particularly in the ab- 
sence of adorsal suture, as well as in having three prominent 
furrows on the glabella (in place of the two or four of Para- 
doxides), and especially in its peculiar hypostome, that it 
must be regarded as a genus intermediate between Paradox- 
ides and Olenellus.* 

Since Olenellus thus finds its nearest relative in the fauna 
of Series B., at the base of that series, are we, therefore, to 
regard the fauna of Series C, of which Olenellus is a part, 
as older than that of Series B.? If Mr. Murray’s strati- 
graphical work in Newfoundland is correct, this would 
appear to be the case. In any event there is the possibility 
that Olenelloid forms in some part of the world, were con- 
temporary with Paradoxidean forms in another part: but 
only the possibility, as the Paradoxidean stem may have 
thrown off genera resembling Olenellus in the earlier, as 
well as in the later stages of its existence. 

Having considered some points which favour the view 
that the Georgian Fauna is of greater antiquity than the 
Acadian, we may now take notice of those which have a 
contrary tendency. 

A prevalent and very striking genus of this series is 
Dorypyge of Dr. W. Dames.’ Of this genus, one species (the 
type) is known in China and four in America.’ In 
the latter region the species of this genus are found 
in the same layers with those which contain Olenel- 
lus,t and, therefore, are of equal antiquity. In China 
the latter genus has not been found with Dorypyge, 
which has with it only a Ptychoparian’ form, telling only 
that the enclosing strata are Cambrian. Dr. Dames com- 
pares Dorypyge to Peltura and Parabolina, as the most 


‘ It is to be hoped that his countrymen will see reason to connect 
Holm’s name with this new genus. 

> Included by Mr. Walcott in Olenoides, U.S. Geol. Surv. Bul. 
30, p. 221. 

* D. quadriceps, D. Wasachensis, D. Marcoui and D. Fordi. 

* U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 30, pp. 26 and 32. 

° Liostracus megalurus, Dames. 


Cambrian Rocks in Acadia. eee iy 


nearly related genera ; to the former there is considerable 
resemblance, but the thorax and pygidium of the latter are 
of a different port. He also remarks of the rocks in China, 
in which this genus is found,' that there is, so far, no hori- 
zon in Europe to which, with confidence, they can be paral- 
leled; but adds that there are some observations [which 
lead to the view] that the slates with Dorypyge belong to 
the horizon of the Scandinavian Ceratopyge limestone. 
Species of other genera occurring with the Chinese Dorypyge 
have been compared by Dr. Dames with those of the Potsdam 
sandstone in Wisconsin, especially with those of the central 
portion of that formation. These sandstones are regarded 
by Walcott as younger than the Georgian series; so in the 
associated genera there is nothing to lead to the supposition 
that Dorypyge marks an older horizon than the Ceratopyge 
Jimestone and shale. Dr. Brogger also admits that Dames 
places together the Chinese limestone with Dorypyge and 
the Ceratopyge limestone of Sweden.” 

As for Olenoides (proper) of Meek, we see in it a much 
closer relation to Parabolina of the European Cambrian 
beds than can be observed in Dorypyge. To judge by the 
sections of the Cambrian rocks in Western North America, 
given by Mr. Walcott, the genus belongs to a somewhat 
higher horizon than Olenellus and Dorypyge, a conclusion 
which may also be gathered from the species of other 
genera associated with it. Olenoides may be considered as 
having its representatives in Europe in the upper part of 
the Olenus Zone. 

Another consideration which militates against the greater 
antiquity of the Georgian Series is the presence in it of 
several genera of trilobites as Protypus, Bathyuriscus and 
Asaphiscus,’ in which the size of the head-shield, thorax and 
pygidium are nearly equal. Such genera predominate in 


' Cambrian trilobites of Liau-tung, China, p. 33. in Richthofen’s 
China, vol. iv. 

* On alderen, &c., p. 

*Compare Nilevs and Niobe of the Tremadoe and Ceratopyge 
beds, with these genera, 


78 Canadian Record of Science. 


the Ordovician or Second Fauna, and in Hurope they first 
appear about the horizon of the Ceratopyge shales. 

Other trilobites help to estabiish this connection, as the 
Chinese Conocephalites,? and Dames himself compares the 
Chinese Agnostus with A. cyclopyge of the upper part of the 
Olenus Zone in Hurope, and with species of Lower and 
Upper Potsdam age in America. 

These observations on the trilobites serve to show that 
the fauna, of which they form a part, is younger than the 
Acadian series, or at least younger than Stages 1 and 2 of 
that series. If, on the other hand, we were to regard the 
Georgian Series as the older, we would be met by greater 
anomalies in the vertical distribution of the genera than if 
we adopt Dames’ suggestion as to the age of the correspond- 
ing series in China, and place it with the Scandinavian 
Ceratopyge limestone. 

Similar arguments as to the more recent age of the Geor- 
gian fauna might be drawn from the brachiopods ; among 
which Orthisina may be referred to. This genus is un- 
known in the Acadian Series, and in Kurope we do not 
know of it in the Cambrian at all; but it is a well-known 
genus of the Ordovician system. Hence the presence of 
three species of this genus in the Georgian fauna gives it, 
as a Cambrian fauna, a decidedly modern facies. 

The paleontological relations of the Georgian fauna may 
be summed up in the table on the following page, from 
which it will appear that they are decidedly with the 
faunas of the upper rather than the lower part of the Cam- 
brian System :— 


> Compare Conocephalites typus, Dames, with C. teucer, Billings ; 
also Anomocare latilimbatum, Dames, with Ptychoparia Pichoensis, 
Walcott; also, A. planum, Dames, with Conocephalites Adamsi, 
Billings. 


Cambrian Rocks in Acadia. pe 7(o) 


AFFINITIES OF THE CHARACTERISTIC GENERA OF THE 
GEORGIAN FAUNA. 


Cambrian in Stages of the 
Europe, prin- Acadian 
cipal part. Series. 
4. Ceratopyge Orthisina affinities, with species above 4. 
limestone and} Bathyuriscus 
shale Nenafidone affinities with genera in 4 
2 ae, and above. 
Protypus 
3. Upper Ole-| Bathynotus affinities with genera in 3 and 
b Stage 3. 
nus beds. apove. 
Dorypyge affinities with genera in 3 and 4. 
hea Ole- Ptychoparia ‘ ** “species in 3 and 4. 
a “c “ * Stage 5 
wine (Pee Agnostus in 38. 
‘ Olenoides “genera in 3. 
Microdiseus ‘‘ ‘* “species in 1. 
1. Paradoxides|} Qjenelus  “! “genera in 1 Stage 1 
beds. Mesonacis “ “* genera in 1. 


A further point for consideration, seeing that the Geor- 
gian Series, by its fauna, is for the most part younger than 
the Acadian, is as to whether it overlaps the latter ; that is, 
whether the Georgian epoch was cotemporary with the 
closing part of the Acadian. The majority of the 
trilobites of the Georgian may be said to compare 
with those which in Europe, mark the upper part 
of the Olenus Zone and the Ceratopyge beds; but this is by 
resembling genera only, while we know Stage 3 of the Aca- 
dixn Serie~ to be equivalent to the upper part of the Olenus 
Zone by identical genera, and even by identical species. 
The upper part of the Acadian would, therefore, be near the 
Georgian in time; but whether it is cotemporary with 
the latter or not, can only be established by an examin- 
ation of the region where they come together, namely, in 
Cape Breton and Newfoundland, In the former island they 
are separated only by a low, narrow range of pre-Cambrian 
hills, and in Newfoundland, according to Mr. Walcott, they 


a 


80 Canadian Record of Science. 


are in actual contact; yet we do not know that in either of 
these islands there it any mingling of the two faunas. In 
the St. Lawrence Valley and Gulf, the Georgian Series is 
present at several localities, but no trace of the Acadian has 
been found. These conditions seem to indicate that the 
two series are entirely independent of each other, in which 
case the Georgian would be the more recent. 

But if there is no overlap, as would appear from these 
conditions, then the Georgian can be of no greater antiquity 
than the Ceratopyge beds, and the 4,800 feet of Middle and 
Upper Cambrian in the Hureka district west of the Rocky 
Mountains, would be represented by the 1,000 of the Tre- 
madoc Group in Wales, or the very much thinner Cerato- 
pyge beds of Sweden. 


SERIES D. 


Of the relation of the Potsdam Series to the Georgian 
there is less doubt than hangs around the connection of the 
latter with the Acadian Series. Mr. Walcott’s fortunate 
discovery of the highest bed of this series in the Saratoga 
limestone, has enabled him to show its equivalency to the 
highest Cambrian sandstone in Wisconsin. This group, 
characterized by the genus Dikellocephalus of Owen, ap- 
pears to be equivalent to the Ceratopyge limestone, or the 
Tremadoe Group, and would represent the upper part of 
the Tremadoc, as the Georgian Series probably does the 
lower. 

This, the upper, or true Potsdam, appears to form in 
Eastern North America a fourth series of the Cambrian 
system, since its distribution is not coincident with that of 
the Series C.,, but it is apparently wanting in the region to 
which this article relates. The Potsdam series is present in 
the upper part of the St. Lawrence Valley, and in the 
middle and Western States, but absent, as far as known, 
from the eastern border of the continent. 

In Eastern North America, then, the Cambrian System 
is represented by the following series ;— 


Climate of the Canadian West. Gi 


New England. |N’w Brunswick} Nova Scotia. |Newfoundland. 
Series D., }f we ; at ge “s : 
s e western | not known. not known. not known. 
(Potsdam) haedor 
Series C., } Hee at 
- the western | not knewn. present, present. 
(Georgian. Raaioe 
Series B., jhe ath on 
- the Atlantic | present. present. present. 
(Acadian) aaisiat: 
Series A., 
(Eteminian) not known. present. not known. present. 


THE CLIMATE OF THE CANADIAN WEsT.’ 


: By Ernest INGERSOLL. 


It may seem presumptuous in me, the citizen of an out- 
side power, however friendly, to come before an audience of 
Canadians as a lecturer upon their own country. But, in 
extenuation, I may plead that it has been my fortune to 
travel a great deal in all parts of Western America from 
Mexico to British Columbia; and, consequently, that I am 
not speaking from hearsay alone, but in the light of personal 
experience. 

The climate, or rather climates, for there are several 
distinct climatic areas, of the vast western half of Canada, 
is, however, a matter of fact and science rather than of exper- 
ience, and an intelligent man, though he had never been west 
of Lake Superior, nor heard asingle word about its actual 
weather, could predict with much accuracy what kind of 
climate would be met by explorers in each of its various 
divisions, simply from knowing the physical situation of 
each. 

For climate is very largely—almost wholly—a function, 
as mathematicians say, of, first, the latitude, and, second, 
the physical geography of the region under consideration. 


' Abstract of a lecture in the Somerville Course, delivered in 
Montreal, March 15th, 1848, 
6 


82 Canadian Record of Science. 


By physical geography, I mean, here, the way in which the 
seas, mountains and plains of a sufficiently large district 
are disposed towards each other; and it is due to the close 
relation existing between these diversities of surface and cli- 
mate, that the latter is not a whimsical thing, but one of the 
steadiest and most characteristic features of any region— 
even though the weather there may, at certain seasons, be 
most Capricious. 

The Canadian West I take to mean, for the purposes of 
this lecture, all of north-eastern America, from the limits of 
the forests around Hudson’s Bay and Lake Superior, west- 
ward to the Pacific Ocean. 

A glance at the map is the first thing in order. . 

We find that north of the International boundary line— 
or, better, let us say north of the watershed between Can- 
adian rivers and those tributary to the Mississippi and the 
Missouri—there is an immense area of treeless plains 
nearly a thousand miles wide east and west, and stretching 
north-west, in triangular form, to the border of Alaska. 
This may be said to be one climatic area, which we may call 
that of the Plains. 

West of the Plains stand the serried ranks of the grand 
old Rockies, forming a belt of snow-bearing mountains 
averaging 200 miles in breadth, and rising everywhere into 
tne zone of perpetual snow and ice. This belt has a 
climate of its own, which we may term that of the Rocky 
Mountains. Beyond this lies the interior basin of British 
Columbia, about as large as Manitoba, forming a third 
climatic area, which may be named the Kamloops Climate, 
for want of a better term. A fourth climate, that of the 
rainy Coast Range, is attached to the narrow but lofty rank 
of mountains improperly called the Cascades, which extend 
parallel with the Pacific coastin southern British Columbia, 
and form the coast itself in the northern part of that Pro- 
vince. Last of all, there is the strip of lowland and the 
tongue-like valleys along the coast itself, together with the 
islands bordering it, which constitute a fifth climatic area. 
Hach of these divisions is, in fact, a long strip of country, 


y ‘ 


Climate of the Canadian West. es 


north and south, conforming to the lines of coast and moun- 
tain ranges, by which their peculiarities in each case are 
governed. 

We have, then, five separate and natural divisions of the 
West, each characterized by a climate of its own, depending 
upon its natural condition, as follows :— 

1st—The Plains. 

2nd—The Rocky Mountains. 

3rd—The Interior of British Columbia. 

4th—The Coast Mountains. 

5th—The Pacific Littoral. 

Let us take these up in reverse order, and so prepare our- 
selves for a study of the Plains, in which most persons are 
mainly interested. 

It is almost needful, however, to consider the whole West 
‘as one, at first, in order to get at the philosophy of the 
subject in each separate ease. 

Remembering the northerly position of Canada, which 
gives it the general climatic features belonging to the 
Temperate Zone, we may say that every local peculiarity of 
climate in the West—at least beyond the central part of the 
Plains—is due to the arrangement of the currents of the 
Pacific Ocean, and its winds, on one hand, and to the posi- 
tion of the mountains in reference to them on the other. 
The reaction of ocean and mountains—of their influences, 
that is—upon each other, is really what makes the climate ; 
and as the ocean currents and world-winds flow uniformly 
and unceasingly, while the mountains stand as the very type 
of permanence,—this reaction is necessarily constant, 
followed, of course, by uniformity in the visible effects. 

With the course of the Gulf Stream all are familiar, and 
rightly attribute to its indirect influence the warm and 
moist climate of Great Britain and France, though those 
countries are as near to the arctic pole as the frigid cliffs 
of Labrador, where perennial winter holds sway. 

Now, in the Pacific the case is the same. A great warm 
current out of the tropical seas courses up the eastern coast 
of Asia until it is fended away by the headlands of Siberia 


84 Canadian Record of Science. 


and the Alaskan islands, and then turns to sweep southward 
along the coast of British America. ‘The prevailing winds 
there, as everywhere else in the North Temperate Zone, are 
from the West; and these, after passing across thousands of 
miles of unobstructed and well-warmed ocean, come to us 
loaded with moisture. Warm air, you must remember, be- 
cause expanded by its warmth, will absorb more moisture 
than cold, so that these Pacific winds are saturated by the 
time they reach the shore. 

Now the mountains begin to do their part. 

One cannot appreciate how important is the influence of 
the mountains of the globe upon its climates, until he stops 
to think what a state of things would exist in their absence. 
Weather is simply the state of the atmosphere in respect to 
temperature, dryness or wetness and thelike. What affects 
these conditions causes a change in the weather. Were the 
surface of the continents flat, temperature would decrease 
from the equator precisely in ratio with the latitude, sub- 
ject only to the influence of winds from the ocean, which 
would blow with unfailing regularity and continuance, bear- 
ing a definite quantity of moisture and depositing it,probably 
unceasingly, in the same place, year after year. Heat and 
cold in climate would then be almost entirely a matter of 
summer or winter, or distance from the equator, and wet 
weather would belong wholly to certain zones, migrating 
with the seasons, while all the rest of the world would be 
arid. 

But the irregularities of the surface of the globe interfere 
with this, and make it a tolerable place to live. Without 
mountains (if we can conceive of such a state of things) the 
earth would scarcely be habitable—or at any rate comfort- 
able. But the hilis rise up toward the spaces of eternal 
frost which encircle the globe only a few thousand feet 
overhead, and act as condensers. The damp ocean air 
coming near them is cooled down to its dew point—that is, 
to a point where the invisible vapor of water it carries is 
changed into perceptible drops, clouds are formed and per- 
haps rain falls. 


Climate of the Canadian West. > 389 


The higher the mountains, of course, the greater must be 
the condensation, because lofty summits are necessarily 
colder than those of less altitude. 

With these general facts in view, let us now enquire as to 
the particular climates of British Columbia, which is to an 
extraordinary degree, a region of mountains and sea coast. 

Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte archipelago 
have a climate upon which the inhabitants congratulate 
themselves. They havea mild and even winter, with rain, 
(the annual rainfall is estimated at 45 inches) and occasion- 
ally snow ; an early spring; a dry, warm summer, and a 
clear, bright and enjoyable autumn. Sometimes the frost 
is sufficiently hard to permit of skating, but this is ex- 
ceptional. As arule flowers bloom in the gardens of Vic- 
toria throughout the year. The climate is warmer than 
‘that of England, and the rainfall is periodic—not irregular. 
The summer is decidedly dry, so that dust is one of the 
greatest inconvenicnces in every settlement. But it is a 
curious fact that July, the dryest month on the coast, is the 
time of greatest wet in the interior. Fruits of all kinds in- 
digenous of the temperate climates ripen in the open air, 
air, and amongst them some that are in England brought 
to perfection only under glass. Some of my hearers may 
remember an exhibition of apples, embracing some thirty 
varieties, all of extraordinary perfection, which grew near 
the mouth of the Fraser and were exhibited here in the 
early part of the winter. I have never seen plums and 
cherries to approach in size or flavor those of that region ; 
and fruit culture will surely be one of the leading industries 
in the future of that coast. Thunder storms seldom break 
over the island. They can be heard in the distance but are 
rarely experienced. It is this climate, combined with the 
situation of Victoria, that makes that city so pleasing a 
contrast to those who visit it from the hot valleys of 
California, 

Yet in the Interior of Vancouver Island mountains that 
rise more than 6,000 feet above the sea level not only hold 
the snow the year round, but even bear glaciers of large 


86 Canadian Record of Science. 


size; and the climate of the Queen Charlotte Islands is 
cooler and more rainy than that of Vancouver, whose 
northern end, in turn, is less pleasant than its southern part. 

Between the western, or oceanic, border of Vancouver 
Island, and the mainland coast, there is considerable dif 
ference, in favor of increased dryness and greater thermo- 
metrical range. That is, it becomes colder in mid-winter, 
and hotter in mid-summer than on the outer coast of the 
island. But the extreme in neither season is a hardship, 
and, on the whole, New Westminster and the new city of 
Vancouver have an even more agreeable climate than Vic- 
toria. People wear the same clothes the year round, and 
an umbrella must be a pretty constant part of one’s outfit, 
except during the long and beautiful autumn, which is like 
a far-extended Indian summer. 

The explanation of this climate has already been hinted 
at. The water of the Pacific is warm—20 degrees warmer 
than that of the North Atlantic near Canadian shores. 

The prevailing south-westerly winds, sweeping over its 
surface, are raised to the temperature of the water, and 
become saturated with moisture, abstracting from it, and 
rendering “latent,” in conformity with well-known physical 
laws, a still greater quantity of heat. Wh n, on reaching 
the mountainous coast, this moisture is condensed and dis- 
charged, the latent heat becomes again apparent, and 
greatly raises the temperature of the atmosphere in which 
the reaction occurs. fence the coast climate of the whole 
north-west coast of North America is warm. The mean 
annual temperature of Sitka is nearly the same as that of 
Montreal. 

That the climate is wet as well as warm, is owing to the 
effect of the height of the coasts. The heaviest rainfall 
occurs in exact correspondence with the height to which 
the moist air is forced into the higher regions of the atmos- 
phere, and cooled there by its expansion and loss of heat 
by radiation. In proportion to the elevation of the islands, 
and the degrees in which they shelter the mainland coast 
from the rain-bearing winds, the rain fall on the opposite coast 


Climate of the Canadian West. IRE 


is more or less. The comparatively less rainfall of the 
coast of the south-western section of the mainland, (New 
Westminster district) than farther north, is owing to the 
abstraction of part of the moisture of the rain-bearing winds 
by their striking the mountains on Vancouver Island (where 
it is very wet), and to the lowness of the land about the 
mouth of the Fraser river. 

This dampness produces that extraordinary growth of 
gigantic forests and vegetation characteristic of the Pacific 
slope; but this vegetation is distinctly northern in type, 
and the climate is far removed from a tropical one, where 
summer is eternal and proportionately enervating to man 
and beast. It is,on the contrary, though drier and steadier 
than England, in ordinary seasons not unlike the western 
counties, more particularly Devon and Cornwall. 

. Passing over the uninhabited ranges popularly known as 
the Cascades, whose summits reach eternal frost, and whose 
gorges are wet and densely wooded, we emerge on this side 
into a wholly different region. Instead of the lowlands of 
the Fraser delta, and the forests of almost tropical luxuriance 
that choke the narrow mountuin-valleys, whose slopes are 
running With copious streams fed by an almost incessant 
rainfall, we have here, in the interior of British Columbia, 
wide areas of grassy plateus and rounded hilltops. The 
rainfall of this southern interior is, in fact, slight and intermit- 
tent, and is insufficient for agriculture, so that farming must 
rely upon irrigation, For grazing, however, this condition of 
things is most favorable, and stockraising is likely to be the 
principal industry asfar north as the rough, wooded country, 
which begins some 50 miles north of the railway. Yet the sky 
is often heavily clouded; but these clouds sweep overhead 
from west to east without shedding a drop of rain, though it 
may fall for days at a time on the mountains each side. 
The explanation, undoubtedly is: that the hot air, ascend- 
ing from the heated and trecless plateau continually buoys 
up the clouds, and at the same time keeps them warmed 
above the point of condensation, Once in a while there is 
an interruption of this equilibrium in the shape of what is 


88 Canadian Record of Science. 


called a ‘‘cloud burst,’ when the rain will fall in a deluge 
upon some limited space. It may truly besaid of a region like 
this, that it never rains but it pours. This steady dryness of 
climate, coupled with its small altitude, makes the Kam- 
loops and Okinagan districts a most excellent retreat for 
persons with pulmonary maladies, and many men are living 
there in health, who, would not have survived within years of 
this time had they remained in eastern Canada. Here, where 
the thermometer rises occasionally to 110° in mid-summer, 
and the breeze is like the breath from the door ofa furnace, the 
boastful natives have much to say of the refreshing effect 
of the cool nights. So they do on the coast, where the very 
airissometimes greasy with warm steam and your strength 
dissolves asina Turkish bath. But that claim is a matter of 
course! If there is one thing in this delusive world more 
certain than another, it is that every son of Adam will teil 
his friends (and most of all his enemies!) that where he 
lives the nights are cool and there are no mosquitoes. 

But to resume: The winds thut have swept ungenerously 
over the Kamloops downs are compelled to yield their bur- 
dens of moisture to the mountains on this side of the great 
Thompson River basin. Here the Gold Range, stretching 
north and south for 200 miles along the western bank of the 
Columbia, rears its ancient peaks into the sky and interrupts 
the westerly gales. Striking this cold barrier, the air is 
suddenly condensed and drops its rain. One would think, 
after seeing the downpour upon the Cascades that little 
would be left in the clouds for any region beyond; yet the 
Gold Range is as damp as the Cascade, and its fountains 
nourish the great group of the Shushwap and Okinagan lakes, 
and keep alive many rivers of the first class. 

But the Gold Range is only the westernmost of three huge 
mountain-ranks, which together form the great Cordillera of 
Canada, a belt of snowy mountains 250 miles in width. It 
is fifty miles across the Gold Range from Great Shuswap 
Lake to the Columbia river: It is sixty miles across the 
Selkirks from the Columbia on the west to the same river 
on the east of the range; and it is 125 miles from that river 


“pi 


Climate of the Candian West. 89 


across the Rocky Mountains to the plains. None of these 
three divisions is formed by a single line of elevations, but 
each consists of lines and groups of mountains almost 
untraceable in their confusion. They stand athwart 
prevailing winds, and hundreds of their peaks rise far into 
the chill regions of upper air, where winter is perennial. 
The highest are nearest the eastern border, and by the time 
the winds from the Pacific Coast have struggled between 
the crags, and swept across the wide snow-fields and ice-beds 
of the Selkirks and the Rockies, they are almost as dry as 
the dust ofa fiour-mill. Hence, of course, the rain-fall and 
snow-fall are far greater in the Gold and Selkirk ranges, first 
encountered, than in the Rockies; and the western side of 
each range is far more wet than the eastern. The snow-fall 
in the Selkirks amounts to about 30ft. in depth, yet winter 
,there is hardly three months long, and the weather, as a 
rule, is so mild that explorers and workmen find little 
inconvenience in tents and shanties, and are only comfort- 
able at work by taking off all their coats and laboring in 
their shirtsleeves. In the Rockies, on the contrary, the 
snow-fall is comparatively light, and what falls wastes 
rapidly, so that the railway is never incommoded in this 
range. ‘The cold, on the contrary, is often very severe, and 
the winter of longer duration than in the Selkirks. This 
contrast is easily explained: We have seen that the warm 
and damp currents of air from the Pacific Ocean are gradu- 
ally deprived of their moisture by condensation against the 
cold peaks of the Gold and the Selkirk ranges of mountains, 
so that they reach the Rockies almost dry. The very fact 
of its contact with the ice and snow must cool the air some- 
what, of course, but the philosophical explanation is behind 
this—the warm winds of the coast are cool winds in the 

tockies, because they have become dry winds. In giving 
up their moisture by condensation they have lost heat; and 
in their further rarification, due to their lofty flight over the 
high peaks, they have parted with still more heat, in exact 
proportion to the height ot their ascent. Everyone who has 
climbed a mountain or gone up in a balloon, has noted how 


ee SE - 


90 Canadian Record of Science. 


the coolness of the air increases in pace with its rarification. 
Professor McCleod, in the second lecture of this course, 
made this plain by his diagrams, showing how an increase 
of altitude above the sea is equal to an increase of latitude 
away from the Equator, until, on the tops of very lofty 
mountains truly polar weather exists. The summits of the 
eastern Rockies are not much higher, however, than the 
crests of the Gold and Selkirk ranges; and they are colder 
than their more western compeers, not because they are 
higher, but because they are more inland, and hence receive 
air already dry, rarified and well cooled. 

It is this characteristic of the atmosphere of the eastern 
side of the Rockies—-in the neighborhood of Banff Springs, 
for instance—which gives it such a sanitary value, particu- 
larly in diseases of the lungs and throat, 

Now let us make a hasty review: The winds of British 
Columbia are, broadly speaking, from the west. They are 
warm from the ocean, and loaded with moisture. Condens- 
ing into fog at the coast, they give a uniform, English-like, 
muggy climate along the Pacific coast. Further condensed, 
they are less foggy, but produce a more cloudy sky and 
heavier rainfall on the coast mountains. Raised to the 
elevation of the crest of the Cascades or Coast range, they 
take a flying leap across the interior basin, discharging 
little rain on the Thompson valley,—leaving it subject to 
extreme cold in winter, excessive heat in summer, and 
drought all the time. Condensed again by the Gold Range, 
the moist winds give those mountains rain and heat almost 
equal to that of the Coast Range. Condensed still further, 
by the Selkirks, there is a copious rainfall and snowfall upon 
these mountains, and a further giving up of warmth, which 
greatly tempers the climate; but by the time the Selkirks 
are past, the winds have lost nearly all their moisture and 
warmth, and have been rarified by being forced to an aver- 
age height of seven or eight thousand feet. Hence, when 
they pass to the Rockies they are dry and cool in summer— 
dry and very cold in winter. What little humidity and 
warmth they may retain is almost lost on the western slope, 


Climate of the Canadian West. ou 


and at the summit of the Rockies the atmosphere is almost 
perfectly thin, dry and cold. The eastern slope of the 
Rockies is sparsely supplied with trees, and those of small 
size, while the rivers are scanty, except those fed by the 
glaciers and great snow banks conserved upon the cold 
central heights, and slowly doled out to keep the streams 
running. No great freshets occur, as happens upon the 
Pacific slope. 

Yet the eastern foothills of the Rockies have a milder 
climate, and earlier spring and less snow than the western 
base of the range. Why? Owing to the Chinook winds. 
But what are the Chinook winds? Currents of warm air— 
broad sheets—cataracts—of warm air falling down in mid- 
winter from the top of the Rockies. But why, if the air 
on the crest, where the wide spaces of snow lie, is deadly 
edld, should the breezes decending from those snow-fields 
be comfortably warm in winter? Simply because they do 
descend. 

Here is the reversal of the previous condition. The air 
ascending the western side and at the top of the Rockies is 
cold because it is losing its moisture and becoming rarified ; 
the air descending the eastern slope becomes condensed, 
picks up moisture with every part of its descent, and cor. 
respondingly develops, or gives up, the latent heat which 
invariably accompanies condensation, The Chinook, then, 
is a warm dry wind, manufactured on the spot by the 
condensation of the mountain air as it sweeps down, increas- 
ing in density, absorbing moisture, and yielding up its 
latent heat. In summer the same breeze seems cool in 
comparison with the fierce radiation of the baked plains ; 
but it is equally a Chinook. 

This wind is marvelous in its effect. To it is due the 
pleasing dryness of even the deepest gorges and nooks in 
the rocks in summer, while in winter it clears the plains for 
hundreds of miles away from the mountains of nearly all 
the snow—always scanty in amount—with amazing celerity. 
A northern gale will blow for two or three days, forcing the 
mercury below zero, and bringing all the wide plains under 


92 Canadian Record of Science. 


a foot or two of drifted snow. Cattle, horses and wild game 
can only huddle in sheltered hollows or hide among the 
groves along the river banks and hope for better times. 
All the pasture is covered with a blanket of snow, too deep 
to let an animal get a bite of grass. Then the wind lulls 
and a breeze from the west springs up. It is warm— 
almost balmy in contrast to the biting easterly or northerly 
snow-gales. Near the mountains only a few hours suffices 
to lick up all the snow, except from the gullies, into which 
it may have drifted to a great depth. Cattle and horses 
find the grass exposed, and resume their feeding. The cold 
has done them no harm, for there has been no wet snow or 
sleet. The genial influence of the balmy west wind is felt 
far down the Mackenzie, enabling the buffalo to wander 
almost as far as the arctic circle in that part of the country. 
Winter there, in fact, is neither so long nor so severe as on 
the lofty plateaus fifteen hundred miles southward, for the 
height above the sea is only a few hundred, instead of several 
thousand feet. McKenzie found spring along Peace River, 
in latitude 56°, so advanced by the 10th of May that the 
buffalo and their young were cropping the new grass on 
some of the most exposed uplands. 

Eastward from the mountains the influence of the Chin- 
ook gradually fades out, and is superseded by the northerly 
and southerly currents of Manitoba, which flow up and 
down the great trough of Lake Winnipeg, the Red River 
valley, and the valley of the upper Mississippi. 

In respect to the climate of Manitoba and the Saskat- 
chewan prairies, there is one man to whom all of us are 
indebted for information drawn from an untiring and early 
experience, and sustained by a sound judgment. I refer to 
Prof. John Macoun, of the Geological Survey. His book 
‘“ Manitoba and the Great Northwest,” is a most admirable 
compendium of information in regard to all the natural 
aspects of that great region, and I have had it constantly 
before me in writing out these notes. 

The Canadian plains, as has already been said, stretch 
from Red River westward to the Rocky Mountains, and 


Climate of the Canadian West. OR 


northward to the forests beyond the Saskatchewan — an 
area as spacious as Ontarioand Quebec together. Over all 
this area a fair uniformity of climate prevails, characterized 
by a rigorous, but comparatively short winter, early spring, 
an intense and fairly rainy summer, and a prolonged dry 
autumn. The air is dry, healthy and invigorating, the 
warmth and rainfall favorable to agriculture, the winter 
weather and light snowfall well adapted to success in raising 
live-stock. Indian-corn and apples can be grown to the 
50th parallel of latitude in Manitoba and still higher farther 
west; while wheat, barley and all the hardy vegetables 
attain full ripeness on the banks of the Peace River, in 
latitude 50°, —the parallel which touches the southern ex- 
tremity of Greenland. 

At Fort Dunvegan, on Peace River, thirteen degrees 
north of Toronto, or nearly as faras Cuba is south of it, the 
winters, as I have said, are milder than those of Manitoba 
or Ontario; and for the seven months, from April to Octo- 
ber, constituting the period of cultivation, Dunvegan and 
Toronto do not vary more than about one-half a degree in 
average temperature; while, as compared with Halifax, the 
difference is in favor of Dunyegan. The frosts there do 
not linger in the spring as late as here in the neighborhood 
of Montreal, nor do they begin so early in the fall;—and 
everything which will grow here will ripen there, in many 
cases with greater luxuriance. Out of 212 species of plants 
seen along Peace River, near Dunvegan, 138 grow in the 
vicinity of Toronto, and the rest are such as belong to the 
Saskatchewan plains. The list includes a native cactus ! 

In view of these facts, it is evident that mere difference 
of latitude is of small account; and when we come to 
examine the isothermal lines marking similarity of mean 
summer temperature, we find that they curve far northward, 
the isotherm of an average summer temperature of 65°, 
which is that of this part of Quebec, curving through 
Georgian Bay, along the south shore of Lake Superior, and 
swinging northward through Manitoba and north of the 
Saskatchewan almost to Peace River. In other words, the 


a ii 


94 Canadian Record of Science. 


temperature in summer of the North Saskatchewan and 
Peace River valleys is substantially the same as that of 
Montreal and Quebec. Similarly, the isothermal lines that 
pass through the thickly settled districts near the southern 
boundary of the plains are those of northern Ohio and 
Illinois. In fact, it is a truth proved by long observation, 
that the summer climate, in relation to agriculture, is 
warmer all over.the western plains than it is in central 
Ontario. Spring opens earlier, too. Plowing is very often 
begun, all the long way from Red River to the Rockies, by 
the last week in March; and in Manitoba, which is the 
coldest corner, spring is never postponed beyond April 5. 
In the fall, on the other hand, plowing may generally be 
continued until the first of December, and sometimes much 
later. The Lethbridge News, of February 16th, this year, 
(Lethbridge is near Fort McLeod, 100 miles south of Cal- 
gary), says: ‘‘ Winter is generally believed to be practically 
at an end. The thermometer registered 57° at noon.” 
Karly in April, then, the sun dissipates the light snow, the 
dry air evaporates it, leaving the ground dry, and plowing 
and seeding go on simultaneously. In a few days the seed 
germinates, owing to the hot sunshine. The roots receive 
an abundance of moisture from the thawing soil, and pene- 
trate to an astonishing depth into the loosened loam. By 
the time the rains and heat of June have come, abundance 
of roots have formed and the crop rushes to quick maturity. 
The enormous Crops are owing just as much to the opening 
power of the frost as to the fertility of the soil; this is a 
peculiarly favorable effect of the swift change from sharp 
cold to intense heat which characterizes the climate of that 
region. The summer weather is often extremely hot—fre- 
quently reaching 100 degrees; but this is a scorching, nota 
sweltering heat. It is the direct burning of the sun’s rays 
—not a heat resident in the air: hence you mark an in- 
stantaneous and grateful relief when you step into the 
shade, or catch the breeze. Sunstrokes and loss of vigor 
through heat, which so often accompany summer days here 
when the mercury may not goso very high, are almost un- 


Climate of the Canadian West. 1 BOS 


known effects in the West. I hesitate to mention the dear 
old claim of cool nights, dreading your smiles, yet it is a 
fact that as a rule they are too cool to sleep uncovered; and 
a sultry night is more rare, even, than a sultry day. This 
intensity of the heat makes up for the comparative short- 
ness of the season of cultivation, urging grain to a far 
greater celerity of growth than proceeds in more southerly 
latitudes : nor should it be forgotten that the high latitude 
gives greater length of days—far more sunshine and grow- 
ing time in each 24 hours—than can be had further 
south. On the Saskatchewan in midsummer the nights are 
only four or five hours long. It thus happens that vegeta- 
tion has about as many working hours, so to speak—hours 
when sunlight is promoting growth—between seed time and 
harvest, as in the longer season but shorter days of Iowa. 

This increased ‘energy of growth has been remarkably 
manifested in some instances. The early spring wheat cul- 
tivated for forty years in the Selkirk settlement, before the 
birth of Manitoba, was originally an English winter wheat. 
More lately a winter wheat from Pennsylvania was trans- 
formed intoaspring wheat in Manitoba after a single year’s 
reproduction. The seed of a certain kind of Indian corn 
cultivated about Winnipeg was two weeks later in maturing 
when sown near St. Louis, whence it had originally been 
brought; but quickness in coming to maturity is in fact, char- 
acteristic of all the plants indigenous to the Northwest, 
and is a quality speedily acquired by imported plants—a 
point not only in agriculture, but a pretty fact for the 
evolutionist to ruminate upon. 

Furthermore, the cool moist spring checks an undue 
luxuriance of stem, and allows the strength of the grain- 
plant to be expended on the head and fruit (that is the 
grain) which is what the prairie cultivator, unsolicitous 
in regard to manure, seeks to perfect. This vigor given 
to vegetation in cold climates is in accordance with the well 
formulated law that cultivated plants yield their greatest 
product near the northernmost limit at which they will 
grow. Rice andcotton are tropical plants, yet the products 


96 Canadian Record of Science. 


of both these plants in Georgia and South Carolina, almost 
at the northern limit of their range, stand first in com- 
mercial rank in their respective markets. Indian corn, or 
maize, is sub-tropical, and in the West Indies grows to a 
height of 30 feet, but bears only a few stunted seeds, instead 
of the 125 bushels to the acre sometimes gathered in New 
York state, where the stalks are hardly one-eighth as high ; 
while the first prize for number of kernels and general 
perfection was given to corn grown last year near Winni- 
peg, in competition with the whole of the United States. 
The potato, indigenous to the equatorial zone, becomes 
really good only in the temperate zone, and finest of all in 
the more northerly localities. The Northwest can beat the 
world in its potatoes and tuberous vegetables generally— 
another outrage on poor Ireland ! 

As for wheat—everyone interested in these matters 
ought to read the remarkable facts stated by Mr. J. W. 
Taylor, U.S. Consul at Winnipeg, in his numerous writings 
and speeches on this subject. Here again it is along the 
northern part of its range that the best product is obtained 
The finest wheat grown in Kurope comes from the Baltic 
shores; and in the United States from Minnesota and 
Dakota; and in this important grain we have our most 
striking example of what the climate of the Canadian West 
is in relation to agriculture. In southern Minnesota, Iowa, 
etc., more than two well-formed grains of wheat are seldom 
found in each cluster or fascicle forming one of the rows in 
ahead In Manitoba and Assiniboia (where the shortness 
of the straw is surprising to a stranger), three grains are 
habitually found. This is an addition of one-third to the 
yield of each acre. That means 30 bushels on the average 
instead of 20—$15 instead of $10 an acre at present prices. 
But wheat grown along Peace River often shows four and 
five grains in the cluster ! 

This is not the whole of the story. The kernels are 
harder and better filled out than southward; and it is an 
established fact that varities of wheat classed as “ soft” in 
the Mississippi states regain their flinty texture and become 
“hard” in the Northwest. 


Climate of the Canadian West. Og 


During May, June and July rain, generally in the form 
of thunder-showers, is of almost daily occurrence; so that 
there is no lack of moisture for the sustenance of the grow- 
ing crops, just when they need it most. This diminishes 
toward the west, however, and when the plateau beyond 
the Coteau de Missouri, with an elevation of 3,000, is 
reached, summer showers are less frequent and certain. 
Even here, however, it is quite sufficient, as experience 
shows, until the very foot-hills of the Rockies are ap- 
proached, when irrigation becomes necessary to success in 
farming. Over the great mass of the tillable prairies, how- 
ever, drought causes no apprehension; and there is a belief 
abroad that as wire fences, railway lines, buildings and 
other lightning conductors spread over the plains, a greater 
electric equilibrium will be maintained, and rain will tend 
to fall more frequently and equably than heretofore. 

After the middle of July rains are few, and during harvest 
cease altogether. This is another marked advantage over 
our eastern provinces, where farmers have to contend with 
wet harvest-weather nearly every year. 

Harvest begins by the first of August, and is uninter- 
rupted. Hay has been been stacked in the open air quite 
unprotected, for the farmer is sure that no deluging rains 
will fall upon, nor melting snows sink into it, to wash out 
its juices or mildew it underneath. The grain is stacked 
uncovered in the fields and threshed in the open air without 
fear of harm through dampness. You will see everywhere 
small stables for stock, some small granaries, and cellars for 
keeping vegetables; but hardly ever a barn for storing hay, 
straw or grain. The climate renders it unnecessary. 

Over the whole of Canada’s great west the climate is 
equally favorable for live-stock. As is is usual in northerly 
regions, the grasses are of the best, and by reason of the 
absence of fall rains and wet winter snows, they dry up on 
the stalk—are cured into real hay as they stand, instead of 
rotting ; and their nutritious juices are never washed out of 
them. Horses, cattle and sheep fatten on this prairie grass 
as well as upon the richest meadows of Ontario, and cows 


8 


98 Canadian Record of Science. 


give an extraordinary quantity of milk, while the dry- 
ness of the air and ground is especially favorable to sheep 
as well as cattle. 

How the Canadian plains, in spite of their interior and 
northerly situation, come to have so warm and dry a 
climate is worthy a moment’s consideration, though the 
instruction which this audience has already received from 
Professor McCleod, makes any remarks from me hardly 
needful. It is to be remembered that south of western 
Canada lies the vast plains-country of the United States, an 
arid space thousands of square miles in extent, towards 
which blow steadily the warm currents of air from the 
Gulf of Mexico, attracted by the heated air issuing from 
these ample spaces of treeless land. The ground becomes 
baked, and the air, heated by contact with it, rises rarified 
in enormous volumes, sucking in the northward-bound 
currents to take its place, and at the same time buoying 
them up and preventing the condensation or precipitation 
of moisture. This overfiow of heated air continually drifts 
polewards, or northward, where, it must not be forgotten, 
the land is far lower; and as it goes it is joined by similar 
currents from the Nevada and Idaho deserts, and from the 
coast of California and Oregon. Combined, this current 
pours steadily northward, attracted by the rarified air now 
rising from the Canadian plains, and still bearing a large 
part of its original moisture. 

But over the Saskatchewan valley it meets the cooler air 
flowing from the north, also attracted by the heated prairies, 
and in contact with this cooling current the moisture of 
the south and west winds is condensed into clouds and falls 
as rain. A secondary characteristic of this movement is 
the diversion of the northward-blowing wind eastward, al- 
though, as the earlier lecturers in this Course have shown 
us, the natural tendency of these antitrades is toward the 
west. : 

But as winter approaches the conditions are altered. The 
cooling of the plains diminishes their attractive power, and 
the warm southerly winds tend away from the east, toward 


Climate of the Canadian West. Gp 


the west, in accordance with cosmic laws. Down from the 
-north come the cold and dry winds, unchecked by any 
obstacle, and the hot breath of Holus is overcome by a frosty 
blast from Boréas’ cold cheeks. How remarkably ditferent 
would be the climate of Manitoba were there a high range 
of mountains between it and Hudson’s Bay; or were the 
Saskatchewan occupied by an extensive inland sea! 

It appears, then, that (apart from the influence of the 
Chinook, due to the presence of the Rocky Mountains) the 
reason the Canadian Northwest enjoys so warm and com- 
paratively rainy a climate is, in a word, because it lies 
northward of arid plains of much higher elevation. 

In this same condition seems to be found the valuable im- 
munity which western Canada, and the northern border 
of United States enjoy from those fearful blizzards that 
devastate southern Dakota, and make cattle and cattle- 
men shiver even on the coast of Texas. These winds all 
come from the far Northwest, and have blown, perhaps, a 
thousand miles across Canada before they become blizzards. 
But their course over the Saskatchewan, Qu’Appelle and 
Assiniboine plains, and down the Winnipeg valley, is con- 
tinually impeded. First, the country is everywhere uneven 
and often broken by respectable hills ; second, large areas 
of it are covered with a scrub of bushes, or dotted with cop- 
ses of trees, all of which check and divert the gale; third, 
these winds are moving steadily up grade, and their speed 
is as continuously checked by friction against the earth, as 
is that of a railway train climbing a gradient. A wind will 
blow down hill faster than up, just as a stone will roll down 
hill easier than it can be pushed up. Finally, the air in the 
north is so nearly the temperature of the gale that it is not 
sucked forward with greatly accelerated speed, until it nears 
the warmer latitudes where more heated and rarified air is 


rising from the more southerly plains, and this cold northern 
air is drawn in to fill the vacuum. But by the time the 
“norther” has reached Nebraska it finds itself blowing 


across plateau-lands, at the top of the hill, where there is 
not a bush nor tree nor range of hills to check it, and the 


100 Canadian Record of Science. 


vacuum is close in front. It has been a respectable wind 
in the Northwest; a terrible gale in Montana; in southern 
Dakota and Nebraska it becomes a death-dealing blizzard. 
Poor Nebraska and Dakota must always expect them; grate- 
ful Assiniboia and Alberta need never fear them. As for 
the Red River Valley region, its situation makes it subject 
occasionally to a very respectable imitation of a regular 
blizzard ; but this is a far rarer and less severe visitation 
than in Minnesota, south of it. 

How do the people who live in the North-west es this 
climate? They universally praise it and laud especially its 
healthfulness. They speak of it as extremely stimulating 
and conducive to good spirits and courage. 

The secret of this is its dryness. The atmosphere is bright, 
and when in winter it is very cold there is seldom any 
wind. Let a man take ordinary care of himself, and he 
will live longer and grow stronger on these prairies than 
anywhere else in the world. 

A peculiar exhilaration of body and soul belongs to the 
climate, especially in and about the Rockies, which is the 
choicest of regions for camping excursions and sporting 
trips. ‘‘ No man should desire a soft life,” wrote King Alfred 
the Great, but “roughing it,’ within reasonable grounds, 
is the marrow of a visit to the Rockies. What a pungent 
and wholesome savor to the taste there is in the very 
phrase. The zest with which one goes about an expedition 
of any kind in the Rocky Mountains is phenomenal in 
itself; I despair of making it credited by inexperienced 
lowlanders. We are told that the joys of Paradise will not 
only be greater than earthly pleasures, but that they will be 
still further magnified by our increased spiritual sensitiveness 
to the “ good times” of Heaven. Well, in the same way, 
the senses are so quickened by the clear, vivifying climate 
of the western uplands in summer, that an outdoor life 
is tenfold more pleasurable there than it could be in the 
east. And then, one’s sleep in the crisp air, after the 
fatigues of the day, is sound and serene. You awake at 
daylight, perhaps, readjust your camp-blankets, and want, 


. 


Notes on Fossils of Utica Formation. ai 


again, to sleep. The sun may pour forth from the “ golden 
window of the East,” and flood the world with limpid light; 
the stars may pale and the jet of the midnight sky be dilut- 
ed to that pale and perfect morning blue, into which you 
gaze to immeasurable depth; the air may become a pervad- 
ing champagne, dry and delicate, every draught of which 
tingles the lungs and spurs the blood along the veins with 
joyous speed ; the landscape may woo the eye with airy un- 
dulations of prairie or snow-pointed pinnacles lifted sharply 
against the azure; yet sleep claims you. That very quality 
of the atmosphere which contributes to all this beauty and 
makes it so delicious to be awake, makes it equally blessed 
to slumber. Lying there in the open air, breathing the 
pure elixir of the untainted mountains, you come to think 
even the confinement of a flapping tent oppressive, and the 
ventilation of a sheltering spruce-bough bad. 


Notes ON FossILsS FROM THE UTICA FORMATION AT 
Pornt-a-Pic, Murray River, Murray Bay 
(QUE.), CANADA. 


By Henry M. Amy, M.A., F.G.S. 


Whilst preparing my paper “On the Utica Formation 
and its fossils in Canada” for the Royal Society meeting of 
last spring, a very interesting though small collection of 
fossils was kindly placed at my disposal by Mr. Walter F. 
Ferrier, who had obtained the same in the black bituminous 
shales which crop out along the shore on the Murray River 
near its mouth, holding a fauna pre-eminently Utica in its 
facies. 

The numerous and interesting geological features of 
Murray Bay and its environs have in years gone by received 
much attention and elicited careful study at the hands of 
geologists, notably Sir William Dawson, Dr. Harrington, 
members of the Geological Survey staff, and others whose 
contributions form a valuable series of articles in the Cana- 


102 Canadian Record of Science. 


dian Naturalist and elsewhere. (See Dawson in Can. Nat., 
vol. vi., p. 138, et al. loc.) 

In the “Geology of Canada, 1863,” the geology of that 
district is sketched out carefully with the accumulated evi- 
dence at the disposal of the writer (Sir Wm. Logan) at that 
time, but neither here nor elsewhere have I been able to 
find any record made of the occurrence of rocks belonging 
to the Utica formation at Murray Bay. This is my only 
plea for the present notes, which are hereby submitted as a 
humble contribution to the knowledge of the geological his- 
tory of the locality in question. 

From the papers already published, and the lists of fossils 
therein contained, both the Bird’s Eye and Black River and 
the Trenton formations are known to be well developed 
and easily recognized among the Cambro-Silurian or Ordo- 
vician strata of Murray Bay. 

Sir William Dawson has recorded the occurrence of Am- 
bonychia radiata (Hall) along with species indicating a lower 
horizon than that species, but its presence may certainly 
point to the development of strata of less antiquity than the 
Trenton formation in that district, most of which have 
been long since removed, either (?) by glacial action or 
by other denuding agencies at work everywhere. No dis- 
tinction has as yet been made here, I believe, between the 
Trenton measures holding a characteristic fauna and the 
Utica formation, which holds a fauna very similar to the 
rocks ofthe same age at Ottawa, Whitby, Collingwood, and 
other places where that formation is developed. 

From these shales, which are black, bituminous, some- 
what indurated and calcareous at times, holding numerous 
organic remains, the following species of fossils were ob- 
tained in a tolerably good state of preservation : 


RHABDOPHORA. 


1. Diplograptus sp. (resembling D. pristis, Hisinger). 


POLYZOA. 
2. Pachydictya sp. 


Notes on Fossils of Utica Formation. 108 


BRACHIOPODA. 
. Leptobolus insignis, Hall, 
. Siphonotreta, sp. 
. Leptena sericea, Sowerby. 
. Orthis testudinaria, Dalman, var. 


D> OF hm 


CEPHALOPODA, 


7. Trocholites ammonius, Conrad. 
8. Endoceras proteiforme, Hall. 


TRILOBITA. 
9. Triarthrus sp. (?) 
10. Calymene senaria, Conrad. 


OsTRACODA. 
11. Leperditia (Primitia) cylindrica, Hall. 
oo %s probably n, sp. 


NOTES ON THE ABOVE FossIts. 


RHABDOPHORA. 


1. DipLocraprous sp.—A few broken and imperfectly pre- 
served stipes of a diprionidian, or petaloid graptolite, 
whose specific relations cannot satisfactorily be ascer- 
tained with the specimens before me. 


POLYZOA. 

2. PacHybioTyA sp.—Several fronds of a species of this 
genus, or of a very closely related one, occur in the col- 
lection. They exhibit a considerably wide nonporifer- 
ous margin. The form in question may possibly fall 
under one of Mr. E. O. Ulrich’s species, but which is 
not as yet definitely ascertained. 


BRACHIOPODA, 


3. Leprono.us instants, Hall,—This species occurs in toler- 
able abundance in the collection, and is well preserved, 


104 Canadian Record of Science. 


It is eminently characteristic of the Utica wherever that 
formation has been traced in its natural position over- 
lying the Trenton formation in Canada and the United 
States ; so that its presence at Murray Bay affords good 
evidence upon which to determine the geological hori- 
zon. The specimens from Murray Bay exhibit the 
radiating lines very well, showing no appreciable varia- 
tion compared with Ottawa or Collingwood specimens. 

4, SIPHONOTRETA sp.—This is undoubtedly the most interest- 
ing and rarest form in the collection. A cursory ex- 
amination of this form and the associated specimens 
was made some three years ago, but at that time it was 
considered and grouped along with the specimens of 
Leptobolus insignis; but a closer examination having 
been made last spring, it was found that the surface of 
the shell and other parts presented all the essential 
characters of a true Siphonotreta (de Verneuil). The 
specimen is preserved as a mould or cast of the shell, 
exhibiting the spines all around the outer margin and 
sides, and may possibly be a young individual of, or close- 
ly related to, Siphonotreta Scotica Davidson, a species re- 
corded by Mr. J. F. Whiteaves in 1883 from the Utica 
formation in a paper read by him at the Montreal meet- 
ing ofthe A. A. A.S. Additional notes on that species 
were made by the writer in the “Ottawa Naturalist” 
for December, 1887, and in Vol. II. No. 3 of the Ottawa 
Field Naturalists’ Club Transactions, No. 7, p. 347. 
The following notes are taken from the Murray Bay 
specimen, which is probably the larger value: Dimen- 
sions as follows :—Length of the shell, 1:75 millimetres ; 
breadth, 1°8 millimetres ; length of the setaceous spines 
in front, °5 millimetre. 

This minute form agrees very well with the characters 
such as a young form of Siphonotreta Scotica, Davidson, 
and its Canadian variety might assume or be expected to 
have from an examination made of many adult individuals 
collected in the Utica of Gloucester, near Ottawa, but there 
is also a very close resemblance between the Murray Bay 


Notes on Fossils of Utica Formation. 105 


specimen and the Siphonotreta micula described by Prof. 
McCoy ' from the Llandeilo :ocks of Great Britain, and 
which he himself recognized. afterwards in rocks of similar 
age in Australia. Dr. Bigsby, in his ‘ Thesaurus Siluri- 
cus,” states that S. micula, McCoy, occurs in Meath, 
Ireland, England and S. W. Scotland, at Glenkiln, Dum- 
frieshire, and in several localities in Wales. The Murray 
Bay specimen differs from S. micula in having the con- 
centric lines of growth or strie more distant, there 
being only twelve in the space of one millimetre, whilst 
there are are said to seventeen in the same space in the 
latter. The spines, again, are comparatively longer in the 
Murray Bay form than in S. Scotica, but much more numer- 
ous than in S. micula. They are exceedingly slender and 
smooth. The specific relations of this form require better 
specimens before definite conclusions are arrived at. 


5. LepraNna sERICEA, Sowerby.—Only a fragment of what 
uppears to be this ubiquitous and common species oc- 
curs in the collection. 


6. ORTHIS TESTUDINARIA, Dalman, var.—This species of 
Orthis resembles one which is found in tolerable abun- 
dance in the limestones at the foot of the Montmorency 
Fails, near Quebec. It is here provisionally referred as 
a variety of Orthis testudinaria, though there is good 
reason for a different specific dvsignation. The coste, 
especially about the beak and along the anterior 
margin, differ considerably as to their arrangement and 
distribution. 


CEPHALOPODA. 


7. TROCHOLITES AMMONIUS, Conrad.—The mode of occur- 
rence, preservation and characters of the specimen 
referred to this species agree perfectly with the numer- 
ous individuals occurring in the Utica shales of Whitby, 
Ottawa and Collingwood. 


' British Palzozoic Fossils, pp. 188 and 189; Pl. 1 H. fig. 8. 


106 Canadian Record of Science. 


8. ENDOCERAS PROTEIFORME, Hall.—As is usually the case, 
with nearly all the specimens collected of this species 
in the Utica, the shells are flattened and broken, show- 
ing that it was exceedingly thin and brittle. There 
are four cepta in the space of 3°5 centimetres. 


TRILOBITA AND OstTRacoDA. 


The trilobites and bivalved crustaceans mentioned in the 
list (supra) have been determined with as much accu- 
racy as the state of preservation of the specimens war- 
rants. When more specimens are obtained, and some 
more perfect ones than those before me, the relations, 
both generic and specific, may be changed, and a num- 
ber of additional species recorded from that outcrop of 
the Utica at Murray Bay. 

It may not be deemed out of place here to point out the 
entire absence of those species of fossils which characterize 
the so-called Utica shales along the south shore of the St. 
Lawrence, and on the northern side of the Island of Orleans. 
The geological horizon indicated by the fossils contained in 
this brief note is evidently that of the Utica formation. 
Nearly every species mentioned occurs in that formation at 
Ottawa and Whitby, in Ontario; so that the exposures of 
this formation at Murray Bay may be said to be the most 


easterly outcrop visible of the Utica on the north shore of 
the St. Lawrence. 


Relation of Climate to Vegetation. 107 


THE RELATION OF CLIMATE TO VEGETATION.’ 
By D. P. PENHALLOW. 


In conformity with the laws of Natural Selection, as 
stated by Darwin and accepted by modern biologists, condi- 
tions of environment are the determining factors in the 
growth, character and distribution of organic life. These 
conditions are nowhere uniform, and present numberless 
gradations and complications, in consequence of which 
organic life possesses characteristics which are everywhere 
subject to more or less striking variations; and if we are to 
form a correct estimate of the relations between cause and 
effect, it is essential that we first inquire into the specific 
influence upon functional activity of each one of the ele- 
ments which, in the aggregate, constitute the environment 
of any individual or species. 

Among these conditions we may note those of food supply 
and nutrition ; varying intensity and quality of light; mois- 
ture; pressure; electricity ; the presence or absence of 
certain gases and temperature ; and in this latter element 
is found one of the most important of all the factors which 
determine the normal life of a plant. We are well aware 
that certain plants are found growing in hot springs ata 
temperature of 199.4° F. or within 12.6° of the boiling point 
of water, thus representing in modern times, although in 
exaggerated form, conditions under which, in the later Laur- 
entian age ; primitive vegetation very generally flourished. 
Other plants—the red snow—are found to complete their ex- 
istence at a temperature so near the freezing point of water 
that the difference cannot be measured. But in each case 
the plant is equally sensitive to extremes of an opposite 
nature and would perish miserably were the temperature to 
be sensibly lowered in the one case or raised in the other. 
Between these two extremes, the majority of plants flourish 
at a much more moderate temperature, nevertheless, it is a 
well defined law of nature that each species thrives best at 


‘Abstract of a lecture delivered in the Somerville Course, at 
Montreal, March Ist, 1888. 


108 Canadian Record of Science. 


a specific temperature, to which it is specially adapted. 
The seeds of wheat and barley will not germinate below 
41° F., while they grow more rapidly at 83.6° F., and cease 
all further growth beyond 108.5° F. Corn will not ger- 
minate below 48° F. ; its vegetation becomes most vigorous 
at 92.6° F., but ceases when the temperature exceeds 115° F. 
The squash seed demands at least 56.6° F., attains its best 
growth at 92.6° F., and beyond a superior limit of 115° F. 
its existence ceases. We thus find that the total range cf 
temperature, between the superior and inferior limits, 
under which the life of wheat and barley can be accom- 
plished, is 67.5° F. For corn, 67° F. and for the squash 
58.4° F. From these simple facts, which might readily be 
extended to other species, we learn that each plant not only 
requires a certain degree of heat for the completion of its 
normal functions—a degree which varies with the species or 
with the type—but that the extremes of temperature which 
a plant can successfully withstand, may be much greater in 
some cases than in others. And also that when all the 
energies of the organism are dormant, it is in that condition 
best adapted to its resisting these extremes, especially of 
low temperature. ‘Thus in our own locality, trees which, 
in the month of August, flourish under a mean temperature 
of 67.5° F., sometimes subjected to a maximum of 91°, still 
exist without apparent injury, when in January or Feb- 
ruary, they encounter a mean 6.8° F., and a possible 
minimum of 26° below zero, thus giving an extreme range 
of 117° F. Weare aware, however, that as we approach 
the equator, the extremes are greatly reduced and the 
general conditions under which vegetation flourishes, become 
much more uniform. 

From this we perceive that when the conditions of envi- 
ronment are of an unusual character, the organism must be 
affected in one or more of its functions, with a constant ten- 
dency towards permanency of variation according to the 
strength and duration of the modifying influences. It is 
true that the conditions to which any organism may be sub- 
jected—as in transfering a plant from an equatorial to a north 


Relation of Climate to Vegetation. 109 


temperate region—may be of so unusual and extreme a 
nature as to absolutely limit its existence. On the other 
hand, it is equally true that if the same conditions are ap- 
plied with less energy for a given time, and thus the sum 
total of the modifying influences is extended over a much 
greater period, the organism not only becomes gradually 
adapted to its new conditions of life, but under their in- 
fluence may even become permanently modified in one or 
more essential characteristics. This is a matter of common 
observation with those who are familiar with plant life, and 
such variations may be accomplished so rapidly as to be 
recognisable within the lifetime of a given observer. Thus 
it is well known that plants grown in botanic gardens, be- 
come so modified by their unusual conditions of life, that 
they no longer answer in a strictly scientific sense, to the 
description of the species in the original wild state. Similar 
variations are to be noted among wild plants as their sur- 
roundings vary. The same species growing under different 
conditions of moisture, as in wet and dry places, will present 
important differences in size, color and form ; or growing 
at different elevations, and thus under somewhat widely 
different conditions of temperature and pressure, its general 
aspect becomes wholly changed. 

It is thus not difficult for us to appreciate the fact that 
since climate involves many of the factors already enumer- 
ated, and especially temperature, it as a whole, must exert 
a preponderating influence upon plant life, not only to de- 
termine its character in a given locality, but also the range 
of distribution for various species. With these general 
principles in mind, we are prepared to examine and under- 
stand some of the relations known to exist between climate 
and vegetation, which constitutes the subject of our lecture 
this evening. 

Of the various important problems with which modern 
botanical science has to deal, that which is concerned in de- 
termining the relations between climate and vegetation is 
perhaps one of the most intricate and far-reaching. 

Climatic conditions mean, primarily, temperature and 


110 Canadinn Record of Science. 


moisture ; but these in turn are variously modified by ele- 
vation, pressure and latitude, as well as those influences 
which originate in the movements of air, proximity of 
water, ocean currents and diversified character of the great 
land areas. Add to all these the influence of ocean currents, 
winds, animals and man, in effecting a wider distribution ; 


‘while we also keep in mind that those very conditions of 


environment, which serve to induce wider distribution in 
some species, are the limiting conditions for other species, 
and some conception may be formed of the peculiarly com- 
plicated nature of the problem before us. 

But if climate directly influences vegetation, it is also 
true, though in a much more restricted sense, that vegeta- 
tion exerts a counter influence upon climate, with a ten- 
dency to modify it in more than an important respect. 
This will be found to hold true, chiefly, in plants of arbor- 
escent form, and instead of affecting wide areas, the in- 
fluence is usually of a mere local nature. While, therefore, 
less direct and certainly far less potent, the effect of vege- 
tation on climate is felt in the purity of the air ; its relative 
humidity and consequently its temperature, local rainfall, 
and even upon the air, as a medium for the distribution of 
septic organism. At the same time, many of these effects, 
either positive or negative, are to a large extent susceptible 
of control at the hands of man. The changes which he 
effects in the vegetation of a given district, either through 
ignorant waste or to meet actual requirements, find their 
final expression in their climatic influence. This fact is so 
well attested, not only by our present experience, but by 
the history of the world for centuries, that it needs no 
special argument at this time to enforce it upon our atten- 
tion. 

As the influences already referred to are by no means 
uniformly distributed over the surface of the earth, which 
is also variously modified as to surface and geological char- 
acter, there are found large areas between which extreme 
variations occur, in consequence of which there is a corres- 
ponding inequality in the distribution of vegetation. From 


Relation of Climate to Vegetation. | 111 


this we perceive that while a study of climate will enable 
us to pretty accurately determine the character of the vege- 
tation for a given area, conversely, the critical examination 
of a given flora will enable us to arrive at tolerably exact 
conclusions relative to the climatic conditions under which 
it flourishes. Therefore, while geographical botany enables 
us to solve many questions of importance so far as the pre- 
sent is concerned, it renders it possible, by comparing 
similar types of the present and the past, to accurately de- 
termine the climatic conditions which must have obtained 
in the various geological periods since vegetation first made 
its appearance. And finally, we may note that, as plants 
are influenced in their distribution, so will their regularity 
of development depend upon uniformity of climatic condi- 
tion—periodicity in the latter enforcing periodicity in the 
former. 

In instituting inquiries of the nature of those with which 
we are now dealing, we first of all naturally seek informa- 
tion respecting the number of plants known to man. Bot- 
anists in all parts of the world are bringing hitherto un- 
known species to our knowledge, and in some of the more 
imperfectly explored parts of the globe, the number thus 
constantly added is very considerable. It will therefore 
appear that we are wholly unable at the present time to 
make any exact statement relative to the number of existing 


species. Meyen in 1846, estimated the whole number of 


species at somewhat more than 200,000. Duchartre’s es- 
timate places the figure between 150,000 and 200,000, while 
De Candolle and Gray estimate somewhat more than 
120,000 species of flowering plants alone. 

But the distribution of this enormous number of plants is 
nowhere uniform. Hach species or genus has its centre 
of distribution where the number of individuals is greatest, 
from which there is a more or less rapid diminution in all 
directions until the extreme limits are reached. This law 
may be illustrated in our own flora. Of the North American 
oaks, there are thirty-six species. These have their cen- 
tre of distribution within a narrow radius centering upon 


112 Canadian Record of Science. 


the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. There at 
least fourteen species are found. If we now move north- 
ward, we find that a line passing through central New 
York, northern Pennsylvania and central Ohio, marks the 
limits of ten species. A line extending from central Massa- 
chusetts through the centre of Lake Ontario, touching the 
southern extremity of Lake Huron and thence into southern 
Wisconsin, marks the northern limit of eight species. Four 
species extend as far north as Montreal, and two to Quebec, 
while only one species extends a few miles further, and thus 
reaches the extreme northern limits of distribution. 

The tulip tree has its center of distribution in Kentucky, 
Western Virginia and the eastern half of Tennessee. Its 
extreme limits reach southward, almost to the Gulf of 
Mexico, westward to the Mississippi, eastward to the 
Atlantic, and northward to the Great Lakes, finding their 
termination just within the Dominion, along the northern 
shores of Lake Erie. 

This law of distribution was fully recognized by the elder 
Michaux who, 102 years ago, undertook to determine the 
centres of distribution for all our North American trees, a 
task which led him over the greater part of the United 
States and Canada, and resulted in one of the most impor- 
tant contributions to American botany prior to this cen- 
tury. 

Distribution of different species over a comraon area and 
therefore under similar conditions, constitutes a flora. 
Between one floura and another, there are no sharply 
dividing lines—each merges more or less into the other by 
insensible degrees, yet each is distinguished by certain pre- 
vailing forms. It therefore follows from what has thus far 
been stated, that any division, in point of distribution, of 
the vegetation which covers the surface of the earth, must 
be based upon purely arbitrary considerations. 

Recognising these laws, Grisebach divides the surface of 
the earth into twenty-four great regions, each of which is 
distinguished by the characteristic or most prevalent forms 
of plant life, together with the part of the world in which 
it lies. 


Y 


Relation of Climate to Vegetation. ; 118 


On this continent aione, there are wholly or in part, six 
distinct regions of vegetation, but in certain of these, at 
least, we note that the greatest range is from north to south, 
in consequence of which plants of widely different type and 
habits must be included in one common flora. Thus in the 
North American Forest Region, the flora of that portion 
lying north of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes is 
characterised bysuch trees as the white pine, spruce, hem- 
lock, willows, birches and poplars; while such types as the 
oak, walnut, magnolias, chestnuts and long leaved pines, 
belong to the southern portions ; the connection between 
these two groups being established through the maples, 
beeches and elms. 

We may now direct our attention to another mode of 
division based upon temperature and variations in type. 

If a person were to commence a journey at the equator, 
and follow due north until he reached the Pole, certain im- 
portant facts—changes in the character of the vegetation— 
would force themselves upon his attention and demand 
explanation, however unobservant he might be. Starting 
in a region of richly luxuriant vegetation, remarkable for 
its great variety of forms, rich foliage, brilliantly colored 
flowers, as well as the rapid growth and often great size of 
all forms of plant life, he would by almost imperceptible 
gradations, find all these characteristics changing, until, on 
reaching the Arctic Regions, he would discover himself 
landed in a waste devoid of trees, bearing but scanty spe- 
cimens of woody plants, which, instead of holding them- 
selves proudly aloft, would be found trailing close along the 
ground orstunted into a most unseemly condition, Lichen 
covered rocks and moss grown fields would everywhere pre- 
sent the characteristic forms of plant life, while here and 
there, between the rocks, dwarfed herbs would rear their 
disproportionately large and abundant flowers, to catch the 
scant blessings of an altogether too brief existence, From 
a region where all nature seems to glory in existence, where 
plants appear in their greatest number and variety, and life 
is a perpetual joy, our traveller has passed to another region 


8A 


114 Canadian Record of Science. 


where variety and number are reduced to a minimum, and 
life appears to be one continual protest against the condi- 
tions imposed upon it. 

The inquiring mind at once asks what produces this mar- 
vellous charge? ‘To this the answer as naturally comes 
that, with an increased obliquity in the sun’s rays as they 
strike the surface of the earth, there must be corresponding 
variation in the absorption and radiation of heat, and hence 
a lower temperature in the surrounding atmosphere. The 
climate has therefore changed with the progress of our 
traveller, and with it the vegetation of the various latitudes 
through which he has passed. 

We therefore find that botanists are in the habit of 
dividing the surface of the earth into a certain number of 
regions or zones, between the equator and the pole, as de- 
termined by the most characteristic changes in climate and 
vegetation ; and that this offers a somewhat more rational 
and convenient division than that proposed by Grisebach, 
is apparent. Those zones, therefore, with their corres- 
ponding mean temperatures, are as follows :— 

The equatorial zone extending to lat. 15° N. with a mean 
temperature of 26° 30° C. Here the extreme heat, com- 
bined with a high degree of atmospheric humidity, calls 
forth the most luxuriant vegetation, such as impresses the 
reflecting mind in the most profound manner. Palms, 
bananas, rich orchids, luxuriant ferns and gigantic fig trees, 
over and among which swing enormous vines, give a pecu- 
liar character to the region, and bear witness to the highly 
favorable conditions under which organic life has its devel- 
opment. 

The tropical zone, reaching from 15° lat. to the limit 
of the tropics, has a mean temperature of 23°-26° C. Here 
we meet with great variations in temperature. In sum- 
mer, the mercury often exceed 30° C, while in winter 
it sometimes descends below the freezing point. Monsoons 
also constitute one of the characteristic features of the 
climate. Here we also meet with the palms, bananas and 
orchids ; but the tree ferns and fig are the characteristic — 
types. 


Relation of Climate tv Vegetation. 115 


The sub-tropical zone reaches from the tropics to 34° of 
lat., with a mean temperature ranging from 17°-21° C. 
We now meet with a vegetation in which evergreens pre- 
vail, and the myrtle and the laurel mark the type of the 
flora, At the same time, the high summer temperature 
induces the growth of annuals which properly belong to 
the tropical zone. 

The warm temperate zone embraces the regions between 
34° and 45° lat., with a mean temperature of 12°-17° C. 
Here we find the oak, chesnut, walnut, magnolias; while 
leguminous plants and the various grains flourish exten- 
sively. 

The cold temperate zone includes a belt lying between 
45° and 58° lat., with a temperature ranging from 6°-12° C. 
‘Here the prevailing forms of vegetation appear in the coni- 
fers, birches, maples, the heathers and junipers; while the 
rocks and trees are distinguished by an abundant growth of 
lichens, and mosses are everywhere abundant. 

The sub-arctic zone, extending from 58°-66° lat., with a 
mean temperature varying from 4°-6° C., is much more 
restricted than the former, and its limits are not always 
clearly defined. Here the pines appear only along the 
southern border, and the poplar, birch and juniper give 
character to the region. Lichens and mosses are more 
abundant. 

The Arctic region reaches from 66°-72° lat., with a mean 
temperature of about 2° C.—86° F. The prevailing tree 
here is the birch. Herbaceous plants are small, and their 
flowers disproportionately large and numerous. Lichens 
and mosses prevail, 

In the Polar zone, herbaceous plants are rare, and even 
small bushes are wanting. The surface of the earth, during 
the short season when the snow is removed, is everywhere 
characterized by the extreme poverty of its vegetation, 
seyond this is the Polar limit of perpetual snow. 

If now we return to the equator and ascend a high moun- 
tain, with increasing altitude we pass through regions 
where the vegetation successively changes, until we ulti- 
mately reach the line of perpetual snow. 


116 Canadian Record of Science. 


Thus at the plain we begin with the region of palms and 
bananas; at 1900 feet pass into the region of the tree fern 
and fig; 3800 feet brings us to the region of myrtles and 
laurels; at 5700 feet we encounter the evergreen dicotyle- 
donous trees; at 7600 feet, the region of deciduous trees ; 
9500 feet, the region of spruces; 11,400 feet, the region of 
rhododendrons; 13,500 feet, we enter the region of Alpine 
plants, and at 15,200 feet encounter the snow limit. 

We thus find that there are eight distinct regions, both 
with reference to latitude and altitude, in which corre- 
sponding forms of plant life occur, whence it appears that 
both increasing elevation and increasing latitude, through 
diminishing temperature, exert the same influence upon 
plant life. 

Were the surface of the earth everywhere uniform, and 
no other modifying influence felt, the distribution of plants 
would also be tolerably uniform within the limits thus 
assigned ; but even within the same line of latitude, great 
variations are to be noted both in climate and vegetation. 
Temperature decreases at the rate of 1° for every 200 or 400 
feet of elevation, and were the surface of the earth suffici- 
ently uniform, there would be a regular variation in vege- 
tation and definite limitation of plant life with increase of 
elevation. But on steep mountain slopes, less heat will be 
absorbed and radiated into the surrounding air than upon 
plateaus even at a much greater elevation, whence it fol- 
jows that plants which are confined to a relatively low ele- 
vation in the first case, become abundant at much higher 
altitudes in the second case. This affords an explanation, 
therefore, of the well known occurrence of certain plants at 
unusual elevations. 

This fact finds a familiar illustration in the progress of 
vegetation on the slopes of mountains, where the same spe- 
cies extend from the plain, for some distance up the slope. 
As spring approaches, the plants on the plain will be found 
to come into bloom first, but as the season advances, the 
same species will come into bloom at successively later 
periods of one or more days, corresponding to difference in 
elevation. 


Relation of Climate to Vegetation. | nly 


Another fact that may be noted in this connection, is 
that plants of a more southern type not infrequently 
ascend to higher latitudes, and thus occur beyond the gen- 
eral limit of distribution for the species as a whole. This 
finds its explanation in part in the fact already cited, that 
great plateaus have a somewhat higher temperature than 
isolated mountains at the same elevation, but it is also to be 
referred in part to other causes. Such northern extensions 
of a flora will be found to be accomplished under the pro- 
tecting influence of large bodies of water, which secure a 
more equable temperature, and tend to produce a somewhat 
higher annual mean than in more remote parts in the same 
latitude and at the same elevation above sea level. Warm 
ocean currents have a similar effect, and often produce the 
most striking modifications in the climate and vegetation of 
the shores they wash. 

In the Atlantic, the Gulf Stream sweeps along the coast 
of Newfoundland, and reaches across to the northern shores 
of Great Britain, and even of Norway, giving to the former 
a climate whose mean annual temperature is that of New 
York, and a vegetation which, on this continent, flourishes 
only at several degrees lower latitude. 

But if it is possible for such northern extensions of a 
flora to be made under special conditions, it is equally true 
that southern extensions of northern floras are possible. A 
notable instance of this is found in the arctic plants which, 
under the influence of the polar current reaching southward 
out of Baffin’s Bay, extend along the coast of Labrador and 
into the Gulf of St. Lawrence along its northern shores, 
thus intruding an arctic flora into the north temperate 
flora. 

As, however, an increase of temperature is, in general, 
more favorable to vegetation, it is found that plants more 
readily extend southward and adapt themselves to the 
conditions they there find, than in the opposite direction. 
Or to state it in a more practical way, plants may be trans- 
planted from a northern to a more southern region, with 
far greater assurance of successful acclimatisation, than if 


118 Canadian Record of Science. 


carried in the opposite direction, the adverse influence of 
cold being far greater than that of heat, within the same 
limits. In all such cases of forced or natural migration, 
the species undergoes more or less striking and rapid modi- 
fication. Thus the alpine plant carried to a lower latitude 
or elevation, gradually loses its dwarf habits of growth and 
ultimately becomes indistinguishable from the plants native 
to the region. On the other hand, southern plants, when 
carried north, if they survive the cold of winter, grow more 
slowly and fail to attain their former height. It more fre- 
quently happens, however, especially when the ditierence 
in latitude is great, that the plant experiences important 
changes in other respects. This finds a striking illustration 
in the castor oil plant so commonly grown here on the lawn. 
A tropical plant by nature, it is in its usual habitat a per- 
ennial, which not only becomes woody, but attains the form 
and dimensions of a tree. Planted in this latitude, it at once 
becomes reduced in size, rarely exceeds six or eight feet in 
height, and remains essentially an herbaceous plant, limited 
in its growth to one season. 

On the other hand, the heat of summer, even in so high 
a latitude as this, is sufficient to bring to maturity many 
sub-tropical plants like the squash, melon and cucumber, 
which supply much needed variety to our diet. We thus 
learn that plants which, through natural means of distribu- 
tion, would find it impossible to reach high northern 
limits, on account of the extremely low temperature to be 
endured at certain seasons of the year, may nevertheless, 
through the agency of man, who plants the seed at the 
return of each spring, be maintained at very high latitudes 
or altitudes. The influence of extreme temperature thus 
indicated, is apparently a determining factor in the distri- 
bution of plants, but this can only be regarded as true when 
such extremes are severe and of long duration. 

Recognizing these facts, it is generally considered by 
botanists that the distribution of plants as a whole, is not 
determined by the extremes of temperature, but by the 
annual means. And if we follow the lines of distribution 


a 


Relation of Climate to Vegetation. | La 


for any species, we will find them conforming to those lines 
of equal temperature which Humboldt designated isother- 
mal. It is therefore easy to understand that the mi- 
gration of plants is accomplished with the greatest difficulty 
in direction of latitude, but that it becomes a comparatively 
simple matter for them to extend in direction of longitude, 
Itis a recognition of these laws which should guide us 
whenever we desire to introduce exotic plants for the 
adornment of our grounds, or to add new resources to our 
food or forest supply. 

These laws are also expressed in the germination and 
growth of plants. It is a well recognized law of vegetable 
physiology, that while a certain temperature is essential to 
the germination of seeds, the requisite degree of heat is 


not the same for all plants, and in fact often differs widely. 


The same may be regarded as true of growth after germina- 
tion. We may therefore indicate the lowest temperature at 
which germination can begin, and also the best temper- 
ature for growth as follows :— 


Germ. Best Growth. 


Wheat and barley ...... -..c0s ses « 41° F. 83.6° 
ABO Me tee oleletiietele.et sis'oisievaverstevanarsiets AS De 79.9° 
WUUS PM tes esses ae sy eek iaeionelaierehni tals) siete els 48 .0° 92.6° 
ESSN a oe onic oo! Wee eo e ook olaicr o; ava iaiajeley ovate s 48.0° 92 .6° 
Squash ..-..- ie S epeiara co eats atta) ciety eet ee 56.6° 92.6° 


Such facts as these are significant and could readily be 
made to apply to all plants. 

A very interesting, and in some respects important effect 
of climate upon vegetation, and more especially upon the 
arboreal forms, is to be seen in the correspondence between 
climatic periodicity, and periodicity in growth with corres- 
ponding modification of structure, 

An examination in Gross section, of any of our common 
trees such as the maple or elm, will show that the woody 
trunk is built up of a series of concentric rings, and if we 
follow the growth of such a tree from year to year, it will 
appear that these rings coincide more or less closely with 
the alternation of seasons, one ring for each year, in conse- 


120 Canadian Record of Science. 


quence of which they are usually designated as the annual 
rings. Advantage has been.taken of this fact to reach an 
approximate estimate of the age of trees such as the great 
redwoods and sequoias of California, and it becomes of prac- 
tical value to the surveyer in re-establishing old boundary 
lines. 

In order, however, to correctly determine their relation 
to climatic influences, a few important considerations may 
be passed in review. 

The formation of such rings or layers of growth, is refer- 
able to periods of physiological rest and activity, which 
alternate with one another, together with the secondary 
influence of internal tension established between the wood 
and bark. Whenever the change of seasons is sharply 
defined, and the conditions which obtain during summer 
are favorable to continuous growth, there will be but one 
period of activity and one of rest ; consequently, but one 
layer of wood for a given year. There are notable excep- 
tions to this, however. The red maple has been known to 
form several such rings in one season, and the same is true 
of other plants, but many such cases find at least a partial 
explanation in the attendant conditions, which induce 
repeated periodicity within the same season. In the tropics, 
where the conditions for continuous growth are more favor- 
able, trees generally exhibit no rings whatever, and when 
they are developed, an explanation is usually to be found in 
local conditions. We therefore learn from this, that in- 
creasing cold, through inducing a more perfectly defined 
periodicity in growth, causes the formation of layers of 
growth which, in number, correspond approximately to 
the age of the plant, and this correspondence will be closer, 
other conditions being equal, the farther north, or the more 
remote from the equater, the lovation is. 

Finally, we may turn our attention to a brief considera- 
tion of those influences which vegetation is supposed to 
exert upon climate. The history of Southern Europe and 
Asia Minor, as well as the more recent history of this con- 
tinent, shows that with the removal of the large forests once 


a 


Relation of Climate to Vegetation. 121 


covering these areas, certain pronounced changes have 
been effected in the frequency of rainfall and in the con- 
stancy of supply of water, as marked by the flow of rivers 
and small streams. It has, therefore, been a somewhat 
common practice to refer such changes to effect upon the 
total rainfall, and to ascribe to the presence or absence of 
abundant vegetation of the arborescent form, a definite in- 
fluence upon climate. The question is of the greatest im- 
portance, as through its influence upon manufactures and 
water supply, as well as its effect upon tillage, it directly 
concerns some of the more important economic aspects of 
life. As at the present time, the changes referred to— 
de-forestation and re-forestation—are now taking place 
upon a large scale within the limits of the United States 
and Canada, we have a ‘convenient field of observation at 
hand, as a basis upon which to determine how far such 
opinions coincide with known facts. 

One of the most important functions of the plant is its 
power of transpiration, or its ability to liberate water from 
its structure in the form of aqueous vapor. Such transpira- 
tion is one of the important factors in determining the 
movement of water from the roots, where it has been 
absorbed from the soil, to the leaves, where it is utilized in 
the various chemical changes incident to growth. The ca- 
pacity of plants in respect to this function, or the amount 
of water they will thus liberate within a given time, is ex- 
tremely variable, though constant for any one species under 
uniform conditions of growth. Moreover, while many 
plants are structurally adapted to the freest possible 
transpiration, others are adapted to retardation of this 
function when the conditions of supply are limited, as must 
be the case in very hot and dry regions. In all cases, how- 
ever, transpiration is controlled by conditions of light and 
heat, as well as by the extent to which the surrounding at- 
mosphere is already charged with aqueous vapor. 

The general tendency of this function will in all cases be 
to establish a constant movement of water upward from the 
soil through the plant, until it is liberated from the leaves, 

9 


122 Canadian Record of Science. 


and the younger and more active these organs are, the 
greater will be the volume of water transpired within a 
given time. Upon the same principle, plants exposing 
large leaf areas, which retain their activity for a long time, 
are much more energetic agents in effecting this transfer 
and conversion than those which are more woody, have a 
less proportional leaf area, and mature earlier. 

Various investigations have from time to time been made, 
to determine the actual amounts transpired under different 
conditions. It will answer our present purpose to cite only 
one or two of these results. Héhnel records that in an 
old beech forest somewhat more than 100 years of age, the 
whole volume of water transpired by one hectare or 2.47 
acres, during the six months from June 1st to December 
Ist, amounted to between 2,400,000 and 3,500,000 kilos, or 
from 5,291,000 to 7,716,100 pounds, which, reduced to 
liquid measure, would give from 529,104 to 771,610 gal- 
lons. But these figures express only a portion of the water 
actually withdrawn from the soil, whence we can readily 
understand that plants serve as a drainage system as it 
were, for the soil. 

This fact has of recent years, been somewhat largely 
taken advantage of, for the purpose of draining swamp 
lands with a view to improving them for purposes of til- 
lage, and to remove their influence in promoting the 
dissemination of malarial organisms which are formed in 
the presence of large quantities of decomposing organic 
matter. For this purpose such plants as the sunflower, 
with its great expanse of leaf area, from which transpira- 
tion may proceed at a rapid rate, may be used. But the 
Eucalyptus globulus, or the blue gum of Australia, appears 
to answer this purpose even more fully, and is at the present 
time largely employed. 

The liberation of large volumes of water by a forest, as 
indicated above, necessarily tends to reduce the tempera- 
ture of the surrounding air and to bring it nearer the point 
of saturation—.e., it increases the relative humidity of the 
atmosphere, Any general influence which tends to still 


Relation of Climate to Vegetation 123 


further reduce the local temperature, brings the air below 
the actual point of saturation and rain falls. It is therefore 
to be noted that forests affect precipitation in the form of 
rain or snow, to the extent that rains become more frequent 
in forest regions than elsewhere. This effect. then, is of a 
local nature, but has popularly been interpreted to mean 
that forests increase the total rainfall, which can hardly be 
regarded as true, since they do not increase the absolute 
amount of water in the atmosphere, but only the relative 
quantity. And, moreover, the weight of scientific evidence 
thus far available, shows that such influence is not pro- 
duced. One of the most conclusive arguments bearing upon 
this point, is that of Mr. Henry Gannett in a recent number 
of Science. For this purpose he employs large areas in the 
‘United States where, since colonial times, deforestation and 
reforestation have been going on on a very large scale. The 
deforesting of 25,000 square miles in New England, prior to 
1860, was found to be attended by an actual increase in 
annual rainfall. The deforesting of 40,000 square miles in 
Ohio was attended by an almost inappreciable diminution 
in rainfall, while the reforesting of 100,000 square miles of' 
prairie in Iowa, Missouri, Minnesota and Illinois has been 
accompanied by a slight diminution. And Mr. Gannett’s 
conclusion that it is useless “to discuss further the influ- 
ence of forests upon rainfall from an economic point of 
view,” is to be endorsed as essentially correct. 

But the question is then pertinent, How do we account 
for the shrinkage of streams, the drying of springs and 
other changes which are known to attend the removal of 
forests? Southern Kurope and some parts of Asia Minor 
have, by removal of their once abundant forests, become 
converted into dry wastes. ‘The question here raised is of 
the greatest importance, and each year demands more seri- 
ous consideration. In their report for 1885, the Forestry 
Commission for the State of New York, the chairman of 
which is no less an authority than Prof. C. 5. Sargent, of 
Harvard University, give expression to the following 
views, based upon observed facts:—“The most important 


124 Canadian Record of Science. 


function of the Adirondack forests is found in the influence 
which they exert upon the streams heading among the hills 
of the Adirondack plateau, which distribute the heavy rain- 
fall of this region. As reservoirs of moisture, these forests 
are essential to the continued prosperity of the State. 
Their infinence is felt far beyond the limits of the State, 
and their destruction must be followed by widespread com- 
mercial disaster. The future of the rivers which flow from 
the Adirondack plateau may be judged by their past. 
Great changes have been noticed in these streams since the 
area of the Adirondack forests has been materially reduced. 
All the testimony which the commissioners have been able 
to collect upon this subject, indicates that the summer flow 
of the Adirondack rivers has been decreasing within the 
memory of men now living, from thirty to fifty per cent. 

These effects have a simple explanation. Any land area 
covered by forest has its rate of evaporation reduced by the 
shade thus afforded to the extent of 38 per cent., as com- 
pared with cleared lands; and the reduced evaporation 
under such circumstances so far exceeds the loss of water 
by transpiration, that there is an actual accumulation of 
water in the soil of forest-covered areas. Moreover, the 
organic matter accumulated in the growth of a forest, and 
the abundauce of moss induced by the moist shade thus 
afforded, serves as a retaining medium to hold the excess of 
water and allow it to gradually flow away into the st: cams. 
It follows from this, that streams rising in a dense forest 
will be distinguished by the uniformity of their volume and 
rate of flow; drought and flood are rare; springs abound. 
A removal of the forest destroys all the conditions upon 
which these phenomena depend. The stream experiences 
strong fluctuations in vclume and rate of flow; springs dis- 
appear, and drought becomes frequent ; while every rainfall 
is immediately precipitated down the steep hillsides, rap- 
idly merging into a flood, which carries disaster in all 
directions. 


THE 


Sa NADIAN RECORD oe 
wg RUA My, 
i te Seal pS 
OF SCIENCE. (LIBRA 
VOL. III. JULY, 1888. NO. 3. 


NOTES ON SOME OF THE BIRDS AND MAMMALS OF THE 
Hupson’s Bay Co’s. TERRITORIES AND THE 
Arotic Coast. 


By Jonn Rap, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., &c. 


During a residence of twenty years in various parts of 
the Hudson’s Bay Co’s. Territories, embracing the extreme 
south of James’s Bay, Hudson’s Bay and north to the Arctic 
Sea, I had, as a sportsman, many opportunities of paying 
considerable attention to the habits and peculiarities of the 
fauna—especially birds—over a rather extensive field of 
observation, the result of which I shall attempt to give in 
the following remarks, some of which may perhaps be new, 
others disputed, or possibly well known, 

My first ten years in this wild country were spent at 
Moose Factory, the Hudson’s Bay Company’s depot, in the 
southern department, lat. 51° N., long. 81° W., where the 
salt-marshes along the coast afford favorite feeding grounds 
to a great number and variety of water-fowl on their migra- 
tions to and from their breeding place in the north, and 


10 


126 Canadian Record of Science. 


nearly all my spare time, at these seasons, was spent in 
shooting and acquiring some knowledge of the peculiarities 
of the game I was in pursuit of. First let me say some- 
hing of that magnificent bird, the Canada Goose (Anser 
Canadensis), one of the finest of its order in the world. 

This is the earliest of the spring water-fowl migrants, and 
makes its appearance at Moose, with extreme regularity, on 
the 23rd of April. So much is this the case that during my 
ten years stay there, we had a goose at our mess dinner 
table on St. George’s day, first seen and shot on that day ; 
and this I learnt had been the case for a long series of 
years previously. I may add that this species of goose 
arrived with about equal regularity at York Factory, lati- 
tude 57° N., 420 miles further north, but a week later. 

The Cree Indians, at both these places, assert positively 
that a small brown bird uses this goose as a convenient 
means of transport to the north, and that they have been 
often seen flying off when their aerial conveyance was 
either shot or shot at. The little passenger has been point- 
ed out to me, but I have forgotten its name. Certainly it 
makes its appearance at the same time these geese do, 
which, by the way, are the only kind that are said to carry 
passengers. The natives of the Mackenzie River, more 
than a 1000 miles to the south-west, tell the same story, 
so I believe in its truth. 

According to my experience and belief, there is another, 
but less numerous, variety of the Canada goose; the male 
of this bird is usually distinguished by a ruddy brown 
colour of the plumage on the breast, by the extreme loud- 
ness and sonorousness of the call, and by the so much 
greater size, that there is a difference made in the quantity 
served out as rations to the men. The line of flight of this 
larger variety is also different, as they pass chiefly by 
Rupert’s River, about 100 miles to the east of Moose, and 
thence on to the east main coast of Hudson’s Bay, on which 
lands they breed, not going very far north, nor crossing as 
far as I know, Hudson’s Strait—as none are mentioned as 
having been seen at the Meteorological station, under Mr, 


Notes on Birds and Mammals. 127 


Payne, at Hubert’s Bay, on the south shore of the Strait. 
A few are sometimes obtained at Moose, by which I had an 
opportunity of comparing them with the smaller and more 
common variety. 

This Anser Canadensis (Major?) instead of being found 
feeding during its autumn visit on the low marshy shores 
of the bay, is seen on the higher and more rocky ground 
on the east coast, where its principal food is berries of 
various kinds. 

By far the most numerous of the goose tribe that visit 
Moose and Albany marshes in the autumn are the snow 
goose (A. hyperboreus), and the blue wavy or blue-winged 
goose of Edwards. Some forty-five years ago, when I was at 
‘Moose, only the blue-winged wavy was seen at Rupert’s 
River, and no snow geese; and it is so at the present time. 
About equal numbers of both kinds used of old to visit 
Moose, and such is the case now; but half a century ago 
not a single blue-winged goose was to be seen at Albany 
River, 100 miles north of Moose, while now they are about as 
numerous at the former place as the snow goose, and both 
are more abundant at Albany than at any other part of the 
west shore of Hudson’s Bay. As far as I can learn, no 
blue-winged geese are ever seen at York Factory, latitude 
57° N., nor at any of the lines of flight of the snow 
goose further to the west. 

As these two species resemble each other in form, size, 
and call, but not in colour; and as they often feed together, 
the blue-winged was for a long time considered as the 
young of the white wavy, an erroneous opinion, which I 
endeavoured to correct, after seeing a great many of both 
kinds of birds.’ I showed that the young of the snow goose 
was of a light grey colour, slightly darker on the head and 
neck, while the young of Kdward’s blue winged-wavy,’ 
was much darker, of a bluish-grey, approaching to black on 


'See my little book entitled “ Expedition to the Polar Seas” 
(1846-7), published by Boone, London. 

* The term Wavy is a corruption of the Indian word “ whey-whey, 
an imitation of the call of the goose. 


128 Canadian Record of Science. 


the head and neck. To prove the correctness of this, I 
obtained the specimens shown on the table, namely, an old 
and young snow goose, and an old and young blue-winged, 
shot in autumn on their return from breeding in the north. 

In the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada for 
1882, Section IV. p. 49, there is a paper entitled ‘ Notes 
on the Birds of Hudson’s Bay,”' in which we are told that 
“there appears to be no doubt that the blue-wavies are only the 
young of the white.” This is, of course, a mistake, but there 
are other inaccuracies in the same paper. For example, 
it states that minick, gadwall and grey duck, are one and 
the same bird. The pintail, (Dajila acuta) is the minick, 
aname given to it by the Indians in imitation of its call. 
The long-tailed duck is called in the paper Dajila acuta, 
but this is the scientific name of the pintail. The long- 
tail or (Ka-ca-ca-mee) of the Indians is F. glacialis. 

The same paper says “that in the breeding season the 
male of the willow grouse has the head and neck of a 
reddish pheasant color, with the exception of the wings, 
which have a good deal of white,” and that in the winter 
the white of the living bird “has a beautifully delicate 
rosy tint, which forms a considerable contrast with the sur- 
rounding snow.” ‘The summer plumage resembles the 
plumage of the Scottish cock grouse, but the wing feathers 
are always white, whilst the “rosy tint” is only to be seen 
on fine, mild and sunny days, never during cold dull weather. 

After this brief digression let me return to my subject. 
The snow and blue-winged geese have a peculiarity I 
have never noticed in any other species. Previous 
to taking their southern flight from Hudson’s Bay, they 
are for several days almost constantly on the open sea, 
never feeding, but busy washing themselves, taking short 
and rapid flights, and apparently having a good romp 
and great enjoyment. They are at this time very fat, and 
when shot, their stomachs and intestines are found perfectly 
empty, resembling, I am told, in this respect, those of 
salmon, prior to the hard work of ascending rivers to the 


1 By R. Bell, M.D., F.G.S., &c. 


Notes on Birds and Mammals. 129 


spawning-beds. After this spell of fasting, ablution and 
athletics have been gone through, the geese are evidently 
prepared for their long flight of many hundreds of miles to 
the south. On the first favourable opportunity, which means 
a fresh breeze of northerly or north-westerly wind, they 
take wing in batches of thirty or more, circling round until 
they attain a safe altitude and then bearing away before the 
wind on about a true southerly course, never resting, I 
believe, until they reach winter quarters, many hundred 
miles distant. The Canada goose, on the contrary, stops 
to feed by the way, especially on the lakes in which wild 
rice abounds, which brings both ducks and geese to a much 
finer condition for the table than any other kind of food 
that they can obtain. Both the blue and white wavy are 
excellent, wholesome food, and one of these with a pound 
of flour or bread forms a days rations much liked by the 
men, especially when fresh. Many thousands are cured 
by salting and packed in barrels for the use of the Hudson 
Bay Co’s. people, and the Indians of or near the coast, be- 
sides living upon them during a part of spring and autumn, 
“bone” and smoke-dry a great many for winter use, and 
also prepare much of the fat, to use with their hares 
or fish. 

Allkinds of grouse in Canada with which I am acquainted 
have the well known habit, during winter, of passing the 
night under the snow to protect themselves from the cold ; 
but possibly a practise which most of them more or less 
follow, when the snow is in the right condition for doing 
so, has not been generally observed. The bird is not con- 
tent to make its bed close to the door by which it has 
entered the snow, but generally bores a tunnel at the dis- 
tance of a few inches under the surface to a distance of 
three or more feet, before it settles down for the night. The 
reason why the bird should go through so much apparently 
useless labour—for its night’s bedroom would have been 
equally warm had it gone only a few inches beyond the 
door—was at first difficult of explanation, but a little more 
experience taught me to admire the intelligence of the 


130 Canadian Record of Science. 


bird; for during my walks through the woods, I frequently 
came to places where a fox, lynx, marten, &c., had, in the 
night, approached cautiously (judging by the short foot- 
steps), and made a spring at the hole where the snow had 
been entered. Had the bird remained near the entrance it 
would certainly have been killed, instead of which it had flown 
up a yard or more away and escaped uninjured. The 
prairie hens, a good many of which are to be found near 
Moose, show great intelligence in this respect, and in very 
cold weather even take their siesta during the interval be- 
tween their breakfast and supper under the snow. I have 
often in the day-time seen them “pop” up their heads 
through the snow, without taking wing, before I got with- 
in gun range, no doubt to observe if it were an enemy 
that was approaching. 

Without including the white grouse, peculiar to the Rocky 
Mountains, there are, I believe, three other kinds to be 
found in the northern parts of British North America. 
First, there isthe willow grouse Tetrao (Lagopus) saliceti 
Sw. & R—albus Aud., the most numerous of all, met with 
more or less abundantly at different seasons, at or near the 
arctic coast, on the barren lands and along the shores of 
Hudson’s Bay, &c. 

This bird, as I have already said, not only resembles the 
Scottish cock grouse in its summer plumage, with the ex- 
ception of the wing-feathers being white in the former at 
all seasons, but in the pairing season their call and move- 
ments are so identical, that I consider them to be the same 
bird, modified to suit different winter climates. 

The other recognized white grouse (7. rupertris) is 
so well marked by its smaller size, its more slender beak, 
its different call and the black patch or streak from the 
beak to the eye, that there can be no possibility of mistak- 
ing it for the other species. It bears a very close resem- 
blance to the ptarmigan of Scotland. The third variety 
differs very considerably from both the above. Although 
about the same size as the willow bird, its beak appears 
shorter, its feet smaller, and its call perfectly different, 


Notes on Birds and Mammals. TRL 


whilst its usual habitat, winter and summer, is chiefly on 
the islands (such as Wollaston and Victoria Lands) north 
of the Arctic coast. Here I saw a good many cock birds in 
the spring of 1851, but shot only a few, as they were very 
shy, possibly with the object of drawing me away from 
their wives, none of which were seen, as they were resting, 
and lay close on some of the lands uncovered by snow, 
where their already brown plumage was not readily seen. 
The cock retains its winter plumage to a much later date 
in spring than the hen does. These birds do not all 
migrate to the south to pass the winter. 

All over the wooded portion of what is, or was, usually 
called the Hudson’s Bay Company’s Territory, east of the 
‘Rocky Mountains, comprising an extent of country equal 
to a quarter of Europe, the American hare (Lepus Ameri- 
canus) is to be found in greater or less numbers; but it may 
not be generally known that these animals are every ten 
years attacked by an epidemic, so fatal, that from being in 
great numbers, they gradually die off until scarcely any 
are left, after which they begin to increase, and at the end 
of ten years are again at their maximum. I have myself, 
seen two cycles of this curious occurrence, and am acquaint- 
ed with men in the Hudson’s Bay Company’s service who 
have witnessed four or five of these events. For instance, 
a friend wrote to me a few months ago, saying that 1884-85, 
were years of abundance, and 1880-81, years of scarcity, 
and that 1895-96 will again probably be years of plenty. 
My friend, the late Sir John Richardson, a distinguished 
naturalist and keen observer, states somewhere in “Fauna” 
“that the hares migrate.’ He must have relied upon 
erroneous information, and his residence in the country was 
at no one time long enough to enable him to observe for him- 
self. After the epidemic commences, the hares are found dead 
in their forms, usually under small pine trees, the branches 
and thick brush of which grow close down to the ground. 
It is difficult to account, satisfactorily, for this regularly 
recurring and terrible epidemic, but it may be produced as 
follows: The hares are not spread broad-cast over the 


132 Canadian Record of Science. 


country, but congregate at certain localities, say a mile or 
two in extent, where their favorite food of various kinds 
abounds. I believe these grounds after a time become 
poisoned by the excreta from the multitudes of hares, just 
as is the case with domestic poultry when kept too long on 
the same piece of land, or with grouse in Scotland, when 
allowed to increase too much. In winter when the grouse 
collect in great packs, and select as a shelter from westerly 
storms some favorite lee hill-side, | have seen the ground 
thickly covered with their “droppings,” even in Orkney, 
where grouse have never, as far as I know, been numerous 
enough to be attacked with disease. 

The effect of these epidemics is very peculiar and im- 
portant, to the Indian, the fur trader and the fur-bear- 
ing animals in the far north-west. When the hares are 
numerous, the Indian pitches his tent at one of the locations 
I have named, and immediately cuts down a number of 
small pine and spruce trees as barriers, in which small gaps 
are cut for the hares in their “runs” to pass through. At 
the same time birch and other trees, the bark of which 
forms a favorite food of the hares, are felled, and on these 
they fatten rapidly. 

Then many snares, perhaps a hundred or more, are set 
in the gaps mentioned, these snares are generally set and 
attended by the wife and children (if any), whilst the 
Indian himself constructs ranges of traps for the marten, 
fisher, lynx, &c., (which come to feed on the hares), extend- 
ing for perhaps ten miles in two or three directions. These 
ranges are visited two or three times a week, the animals 
caught, taken out, and the traps re-set and freshly baited 
with meat or fish. In this manner the Indian passes a by 
no means laborious winter, his food being easily obtained, 
and the skins of the hares making excellent warm sleeping 
robes * and clothes for the children, and at the same time, 
he makes a good “ fur hunt.” 


1 In making these fur-blankets, the hare-skins are cut up into 
strips, sewed together into a long line, which is roughly netted 
together, and although the fingers may be pushed through any- 
where, it is one of the warmest robes known. 


Notes on Birds and Mammals. 138 


When the hares are scarce, the Indian has to go toa 
fishery to obtain a supply of food, or to travel about in 
search of deer or other large animals for food, whilst at 
the same time the fur-bearing carnivora, get scattered all 
over the country, also in search of food, and are not so 
readily trapped, and have thus an opportunity of increasing 
in numbers until the next season of abundant hares comes 
round. 

There is a curious practise sometimes resorted to—not 
however common, as far as my observation extends—by 
the muskrats, to enable them to reach the food at all parts 
of the pond in which their house is built. In early winter, 
when the ice begins to form, the rats keep small holes 
open in different directions at a distance from their house, 
and build little huts of mud and weeds over these, into which 
they can enter and eat their food taken from the bottom of 
the pond, without having to swim all the way back to their 
house to do so. It has been only in large ponds or swamps 
that I have seen this done, and probably where there was 
an extra large number of rats in one house. On one 
occasion, when snowshoeing through a swampy part of the 
north-west, one of my men went very quietly up to one of 
these little shelters, and with a heavy blow of his axe 
knocked it over, and inside a poor little rat was found with 
some of the food it had been eating. It was knocked on 
the head, and in the evening formed part of the men’s supper. 

In 1851, in the early part of June, when on my way 
from the Arctic Sea, where I had been making a long 
sledge journey of more than 1000 miles, I was surprised to 
meet thousands of lemmings travelling with all the speed 


in their power to the north. On some of the tributaries of 


the Coppermine River the ice had broken up, and at these 
it was curious to see these little animals running up or 
down the southern bank of the stream looking for a 
smooth place with little current at which to swim across, 
having found which, they immediately jumped in, swam 
with great rapidity, and gave themselves a shake, as a dog 
would do, when they reached the opposite side, and then 


134 Canadian Record of Science. 


continued their advance as before, This was in latitude be- 
tween 67° and 69° north; so the sun was visible all the 
twenty-four hours, and we travelled at night so as to have 
his light on our backs. Had we been travelling in the day 
time, we would not have seen one of our little friends, as they 
then hide themselves under the snow or stones. Having 
accidentally lost the small quantity of food we had with us, 
by the man carrying it falling when fording a rapid, our 
chief food for two or three days was these lemmings, which 
we found very good when roasted between two thin slabs 
of limestone, heated by andromeda as fuel. Our three 
dogs also picked up as many as they required. It is well 
known that the lemmings of Norway and Sweden fre- 
quently migrate in immense numbers, but I did not think 
that those of America did so. They are found very far 
north, as they were abundant where the Nares Expedition 
wintered, in latitude 82° north, up Smith’s sound. Here, 
as elsewhere, they formed a considerable portion of the 
food of the white fox. 

That beautiful animal, the arctic hare, has a rather artful 
dodge which it resorts to, evidently with the object of 
throwing his enemies off the scent. After feeding at night 
in the lower grounds, it generally resorts to some higher 
position to lie hid during the day, and the sportsman in 
following his or her track, is surprised to come to a place 
where there are several tracks one over another, causing 
confusion. On going further, he comes to the end of the 
track altogether, the animal having jumped off somewhere ; 
and on retracing his steps, carefully inspecting both sides, 
two little marks are seen in the snow at a distance of 
twenty feet or more from the track, always on the lee side, 


- so that a fox or wolf could not catch the scent. These 


long jumps are repeated three or four times,—the animal 
evidently either using only his hind legs, or putting all 
his four feet close together. Experience soon taught me 
that the hare was in his form at no great distance from 
these “ jumping off” places, and a sharp look-out had to be 
kept, as if you happened to walk directly for him he 


Notes on Birds and Mammals. 135 


would usually slip away under shelter of the large stone or 
rock near which he lay. When noticed, the sportsman 
should walk as if apparently passing by the hare, taking 
care not to look directly at him, but at the same time 
approaching, and when near enough, wheel round and fire ; 
for you must do with the hare as with the ptarmigan 
among the rocky hills of Scotland—take him any way; 
otherwise he is in a moment round the corner and safe. 

These hares seem to have puzzled the officers and crew 
of McClure’s ship in the Arctic,when he wintered in Prince 
of Wales sound. They were so numerous as to be seen in 
droves of hundreds at a time, yet only seven were killed in a 
month by the sportsmen, in a crew of about sixty persons. 
On a somewhat similar occasion, but with fewer hares, I 
shot ten in little more than an hour, and carried them to 
our snow hut, their average weight being about 8 lbs. each. 

Whilst walking one day in August along the shore of 
‘Victoria Land, latitude 69° north, the tide ebbing, I heard 
a clattering among the small limestone debris on the 
beach, which reminded me of a sound very common and 
often heard many years before in winter, on the shores of 
the Orkney islands. On cautiously looking over the bank, 
there, sure enough, I noticed a family of turnstones 
( Tringa interpres), two old and three young, busy turning over 
stones and feeding on the insects underneath. They looked 
so happy and were so fearless, that I had not the heart to 
shoot any of them for specimens. 

The American golden plover, commonly called the 
“ og-eye,’ must breed in immense numbers, at least as far 
north as 70° to 71°, as I saw large flocks of them flying to 
the south towards the end of August, when on the south- 
east corner of Victoria Land, on the shore of Victoria strait, 
in 1851, Great numbers of snow geese were at the same time 
noticed making their way apparently to Back’s Great Fish 
River, and thence probably to Great Slave and Athabasca 
Lakes, The Coppermine River is also one of the lines of flight 
of these birds, both in going to and returning from their 
breeding places. ‘They were very abundant in the autumn 


136 Canadian Record of Science. 


of 1848, and in the spring of 1851, near the mouth of the 
Coppermine River when I was there, and not being difficult 
of approach, I shot a good many. Those killed in the 
spring were very fat. 

Perhaps | may mention that it is, especially to the 
sportsman or naturalist, a very pretty sight to see the 
snow and blue-winged goose (wavy) arrive at the marshes 
of James’ Bay, after their long flight from their breeding 
place. A strong breeze of northerly wind usually accom- 
panies their advent, and their call is generally heard before 
they are seen, high up in the air, going at express railway 
speed. Suddenly several of the leaders of the flock, no 
doubt old birds, make a dive downwards, apparently in the 
most frantic and reckless manner, followed by others in a 
more or less adroit manner, making a great cackling all 
the time, until the whole have got pretty low down, when 
haying fixed upon a resting place, they wheel, round head 
to wind, and alight on the marsh. Flock follows flock, 
all going through similar manceuvres, each new. arrival 
being received with noisy and hearty congratulations of 
welcome by their predecessors. 

It may not be out of place to notice, that I do not think 
any snow or blue-winged geese breed on any part of the 
shores of Arctic America proper lying west of Hudson’s 
Bay and east of the McKenzie, unless it be in some large 
marshes near the mouth of that great river on the Melville 
Peninsula, whereas most of, if not all, the blue-winged 
“wavies” breed on lands and islands east of Hudson’s Bay. 


SS ——— ———— 


Sporocarps in Erian Shale of Columbus. 137 


On SpoRocARPS DISCOVERED BY Pror. KE. ORTON IN 
THE ERIAN SHALE OF COLUMBUS, OHIO. 


By Sir J. Wo. Dawson, F.R.S., &e. 


In a paper published in this journal in 1884, I directed 
attention to certain specimens from Brazil and from Ohio, 
which I placed in connection with the curious round bodies 
from the Erian or Devonian of Kettle Point, Lake Huron, 
discovered by Sir W. H. Logan, and which I described as 
Sporangites Huronensis. These bodies were shown to be 
macrospores, and, on the analogy of the Brazilian species, 
to have been probably enclosed in sporocarps resembling 
those of the modern genus of Rhizocarps known as Salvinia, 
and found floating in water, with a few green leaves and 
rounded sporocarps on the bases of the leaves or at the 
proximal ends of the roots. These curious little plants, 
insignificant in the modern world, would seem to have been 


‘vastly abundant in the Erian period, inasmuch as hundreds 


of feet of the Ohio black shale are filled with them; and 
this formation extends across the State of Ohio, and is 
found in New York and in Ontario as well. But though 
the macrospores are thus abundant, the sporocarps, which 
it was presumed had contained them, were absent. Quite 
recently, however, Prof. Orton has found at Columbus, 
Ohio,’ well-preserved sporocarps flattened like those from 
Brazil, exhibiting their cellular structure quite distinctly 
under the microscope, and sometimes showing the impres- 
sions of the contained macrospores. Along with these sporo- 
carps were others of quite different form, and apparently 
belonging to a very distinct species, though probably of the 
same general type—that is, allied or belonging to the 
Rhizocarps. Prof. Orton has kindly furnished me with 
specimens of these curious bodies, and the following notes 
relate to their characters, What should now be looked for 
is some indication of the foliage of these interesting plants, 
which may prove to have been like that of the modern Sal- 


' The specimens were collected by Mr. C. J. Walsh. 


138 Canadian Record of Science. 


vinia, or perhaps somewhat more advanced in complexity of 
structure, as these old forms of vegetation usually present 
types of structure in advance of those of their modern suc- 
cessors in the same groups. 

The specimens occur plentifully on the surfaces of a firm 
dark gray shale. They are perfectly flattened and carbon- 
ised, and so loosely attached that they can readily be re- 
moved, as thin pellicles, which when partially broken, often 
show their double walls. As opaque objects, under a low 
power they present a shining surface marked with cellular 
areolation. In this they resemble the Sporocarps of Proto- 
salvinia Braziliensis.1 When removed from the matrix, 
and immersed in water or in Canadian balsam, they become 
transparent, and show their thick-walled cellular structure 
very distinctly. The transparency is somewhat increased 
by boiling for a short time in nitric acid. 

There are two distinct forms on the surfaces of the shale 
—one, which is the more common, perfectly circular; the 
other, elongate obovate, and notched at the apex, sometimes 
so much as to give a bifurcate appearance. 


1.—Sporocarps of Protosalvinia Huronensis. 


These are the circular specimens. I refer them to this 
species, because its macrospores are the most common fossils 
of this shale, because they resemble those of P. Braziliensis, 
and because some of the specimens show impressions of 
contained macrospores similar in size to those of the species 
Huronensis. 

They are rather larger than the sporocarps of P. Brazili- 
ensis, some being four millimetres in diameter, They are, 
therefore, considerably larger than the sporocarps of the 
modern Salvinia of Kurope. In structure they are coarsely 
cellular, more thick-walled and larger-celled than those of 
P. Braziliensis, probably indicating a good specific differ- 
ence. Both of these ancient sporocarps are composed of 
coarser cells and more dense in texture than those of 


1 Record of Science, 1884. 


Sporocarps in Erian Shale of Columbus. 139 


Salvinia natans, though indicating a plant of similar general 
type. Ihave stated in my previous paper the probability 
that such sporocarps would be found, and their discovery 
is therefore very satisfactory. 


2.—Sporocarpon furcatum. 


The smaller and probably immature specimens of this 
organism are obovate and broadly truncate below, with a 
slight emargination at the apex. Larger and probably 
mature specimens have a very deep slit at the apex, or 
divide so as to give a bifurcate appearance. Length of one 
of the larger specimens, 5.5 millimeters; breadth, near the 
apex, 2 m.m.; at base, 1 m.m. Surface with fine cellular 
reticulation, which, when seen as a transparent object, 
appears as a network of thick-walled cells, rather finer than 
that in the previous species, but of the same general char- 

, acter. Toward the base. it becomes more lax, as if verging 
into an ordinary epidermal tissue. No contained spores or 
macrospores were observed; but it can be seen that the 
specimens are not mere fronds, but have a double wall and 
are really flattened sacs. 


FIG. 1. SPOROCARPON FURCATUM. 


(a) Natural size. (4) Young specimen (mag.). (c) Full grown specimen (mag.), 
showing cellular areolation. (d) Cellular structure, highly magnified. 


These objects are, therefore, to be regarded as sporocarps 
or spore-cases of some unknown plant, saccate in form, and 


140 Canadian Record of Science. 


dividing at the distal end into two sacculi, the dehiscence 
of which seems to have been by asliton the inner side of 
each division. This last property and their form recall the 
spore-cases of the ferns of the genus Archaeopteris, which 
are, however, different in other respects. They still more 
nearly resemble the spore-cases of Psilophyton (see figures 
in my Report on the Hrian Flora of Canada, 1871), but the 
latter are entirely separate and supported upon slender 
stalks. Some tendency to the double or divided form of 
these Sporocarps, though much less pronounced, occurs in 
the Protosalvinia bilobata from Brazil.’ 

I should suppose that these bodies belonged to a genus 
distinct from Protosalvinia, but ordinally related to it. 
The form of the base would seem to imply that they grew 
on a frondose or thick pedicel. Possibly they may have 
been attached to the sides or bases of fronds; but this must 
for the present remain uncertain. 

Williamson has used the generic name Sporocarpon for 
conceptacles of various forms and structures from the carbon- 
iferous, of which he remarks that he has formed no opinion 
of their relations, but which may have been Rhizocarpean, 
inasmuch as the nearest modern analogues of some of them 
appear to be the sporocarps of Pilularia. For this reason 
IT have thought it best to place the present species in this 
provisional genus, till farther information can be obtained 
as to the nature of the other organs of the plant to which 
they belonged. It would now be a very desirable discovery 
to find the vegetative organs of these ancient plants. For 
other facts bearing on the affinities of these organisms, I 
would refer to the papers above cited, and to my little work, 
“The Geological History of Plants.’” 


1 Record of Science, 1884. Bulletin Chicago Academy, 1886. 
2 Appletons, New York, 1888. 


Note on Graptolites from Dease River, B.C. 141 


Note ON GRAPTOLITES FROM DEASE RIVER, B.C. 
By Pror. CHartus Lapworts, F.R.S. 


In June, 1887, a small collection of Graptolites was ob- 
tained by Dr. G. M. Dawson on Dease River, in the extreme 
northern and inland portion of British Columbia, about lat, 
59° 45’, long. 129°. These fossils were derived from cer- 
tain dark-coloured, carbonaceous and often calcareous 
shales, which, in association with quartzites and other 
rocks, characterize a considerable area on the lower part of 
the Dease, as well as on the Liard River, above the conflu- 
ence. The collection referred to was transmitted by Mr. 
J. F. Whiteaves to Prof. Lapworth, whose special studies 
on Graptolites are well known. It is believed that the fol- 
lowing preliminary note by Prof. Lapworth will be of inte- 
rest, as the occurrence of Graptolites on the Dease River 
extends very far to the north-westward of our previous 
‘knowledge of the occurrence of these forms in North 
America. In 1886 a similar small collection was obtained 
by Mr. R. G. McConnell near the line of the Canadian Paci- 
fic Railway, in the Kicking Horse (Wapta) Pass. This 
and the new locality here described are the only ones 
which have yet been found to yield Graptolites in the entire 
western portion of the Dominion. 

Prof. Lapworth, under date December 13th, writes as 
follows :— 

I have, to-day, gone over the specimens of Graptolites, 
collected by Dr. Dawson, from the rocks of the Dease 
River, British Columbia. I find that they are identical 
with those examined by me from the rocks of the Kicking 
Horse Pass, some time last year. The species I notice in 
the Dease River collection are: 

Diplograptus euglyphus, Lapworth. 
Climacograptus comp: antiquus, Lapworth. 
Cryptograptus tricornis, Carruthers. 
Glossograptus ciliatus, Emmons. 
Didymograptus comp: sagittarius, Hall. 
New form, allied to Coenograptus. 

11 


142 Canadian Record of Science. 


These graptolite-bearing rocks are clearly of about 
Middle Ordovician age. They contain forms I would refer 
to the second or Black River Trenton period: i.e. they are 
newer than the Point Lévis series, and older than the Hud- 
son and Utica groups. The association of forms is such as 
we find in Britain and Western Europe, in the passage beds 
between the Llandeilo and Caradoc Limestones. The rocks 
in Canada and New York, with which these Dease River 
beds may be best compared, are the Marsouin beds of the 
St. Lawrence Valley, and the Norman’s Kill beds of New 
York. The Dease River beds may perhaps be a little older 
than these. 

Mr. C. White described some Graptolites from beds in 
the mountain region of the West, several years ago, which 
may belong to the same horizon as the Dease River zones, 
though they have a somewhat more recent aspect. 

The specific identification of the Dease River fossils, I 
regard as provisional. While the species correspond 
broadly with those found in their eastern equivalents, they 
have certain peculiarities which may, after further study, or 
on the discovery of better and more perfect specimens, lead 
to their separation as distinct species or varieties. 

It is exceedingly interesting to find Graptolites in a 
region so far removed from the Atlantic basin, and also to 
note that the typical association of Llandeilo—Bala genera 
and species is still retained practically unmodified. 


THE GREAT LAKE Basins oF CANADA. 
: By A. T. Drummonp. 

In a paper read recently before the Royal Society of 
Canada, on “‘ The Origin of Some Geographical Features in 
Canada,” Dr. Bell alluded more particularly to the lake 
region of the Dominion, including in this not only what is 


Notr.—This preliminary note comprises a short extract from the 
closing lecture in Science, delivered by the author before the autho- 
rities of Queen’s University on April 23rd of this year, and its pub- 
lication has been suggested by Dr. Bell’s more recent paper, above 
alluded to, read before the Royal Society. 


The Great Lake Basins of Canada. 143 


popularly known as the Great Lakes, but also those vast 
stretches of water which form the sources or expansions of 
the Mackenzie, Churchill and other rivers which fall into 
the Arctic Sea or Hudson Bay. Lake Superior was alluded 
to as being in part of volcanic origin, whilst the vast basin 
of Hudson Bay was referred to as being in some respects 
due to similar causes. On the other hand, Lake Athabasca, 
Great Slave Lake, Lake Winnipeg, the Georgian Bay and 
Lake Ontario lie more or less along the line where the 
limestones and sandstones meet the older Laurentian and 
Huronian strata, and he attributed their excavation to the 
action in post-tertiary times of glaciers, which, descending 
from the then greater elevations to the northward, had in 
their southern course torn away, one after another, the 
upturned edges of these softer limestones and sandstones. 
This process going on for ages, resulted in the formation of 
these lake basins. 

‘ Dr. Bell also pointed out that dykes of greenstone, Xc., 
often formed the original lines along which the channels of 
rivers, arms of lakes, and fiords were by denuding forces 
cut. 

The whole subject still merits careful investigation. Dr. 
Bell’s opinion that the Great Luke basins have a glacial 
origin, is the commonly received impression among scien- 
tists. Too much importance has, however, been attached 
to the influence of glaciers. It has been recently shown 
by Prof. J. W. Spencer that they have much less eroding 
power than has been attributed to them. If we draw rea- 
sonable conclusions, especially from correlated physical con- 
ditions as they now exist, serious difficulties present them- 
selves in the way of accepting the theory, still adhered to 
by American geologists, of a vast, continuous, continental 
glacier covering the Arctic and northern temperate regions 
of North America, and with its enormous tongues of ice 
forking into Massachusetts, New York, Indiana, Illinois, 
lowa and Wisconsin. Equally are there difficulties in the 
way of accepting the great thickness of the ice-sheet, which 
some, judging from the crushing power of a column of ice, 


144 Canadian Record of Science. 


have estimated in places at several miles. Scientists have 
apparently somewhat overlooked the vast effects of erosion 
by atmospheric and other agencies in Miocene and Pliocene 
ages which immediately preceded the glacial epoch, and 
the great deposits of decomposed rock which must have 
accumulated during these ages in northern temperate 
America. Nor have they fully considered the immense 
elevation, if even by accumulated ice, necessary in our 
Laurentian area and southwestward, to admit of great gla- 
ciers finding their way in a massive stream for, as in the 
Lake Michigan glacier, four hundred and more miles from 
the Laurentian or Huronian mountains, and, generally, in 
a direction which is presently up instead of down the natu- 
ral incline of the St. Lawrence valley and Great Lake basins. 
For a glacier from the Laurentian mountains to have reached 
even the head of Lake Michigan would, at the rate of pro- 
gress of the enormous Humboldt glacier in Greenland, as 
measured by Dr. Hayes, have taken about 21,000 years; 
and whilst the climates are, for argument, assumed to have 
been similar, the Greenland slope is greater than that 
through Lake Michigan could possibly have been. 

If, again, the Great Lake basins had been each over- 
spread by a vast moving glacier, there is a strong proba- 
bility that during the onward progress and the subsequent 
slow recession of the ice, the inequalities of the lake bot- 
toms must have been worn away or largely filled up with 
the debris which continually accompanied the glaciers. 
Nevertheless, Lake Michigan has a depth varying from 
700 to 1800 feet, and, excepting Lakes Erie and St. Clair, 
the other lakes have equally varying depths. 

It has, also, not been considered that continental glaciers 
even only one mile in thickness, extending over the Arctic 
and northern temperate regions of Hurope, Asia and 
America, would represent a depth of about 500 to 600 feet 
taken uniformly everywhere from the waters of the ocean 
and transformed into ice, even supposing that a milder cli- 
mate existed at the Antartic Pole. Apart from the effects 
on the general level of the continents which the weight of 


The Great Lake Basins of Canada. 145 


these enormous masses of ice would have, and of the heat 
generated underneath which would probably prevent any 
excessive accumulation, the withdrawal of a depth of 600 
feet of water from the North Atlantic Ocean would have 
moved the whole United States coast line from Texas to 
Maine about seventy-five to one hundred miles seaward of 
its present position, would have rendered the Guif of St. 
Lawrence dry land, and brought to the surface the Great 
Banks of Newfoundland, would have obliterated the Ger- 
man Ocean, thus connecting Great Britain with the conti- 
nent of Europe, and would have almost formed an isthmus 
between Great Britain and Iceland. How far are we pre- 
pared to accept these results as occurring simultaneously 
at this time? Some of them actually did occur at other 
periods, but through the slow elevation of the land. 

The subject of the origin of the Great Lakes is still beset 
with some difficulties. Whitney, and more recently R. D. 
Itving, have shown that Juake Superior throughout its 
whole area is a synclinal trough or depression, and that the 
Keweenaw series of rocks in its upper and lower divisions 
probably underlies nearly the whole lake. This, then, 
largely dispels the idea of the glacial origin of this lake. 
When this depression took place is a more difficult ques- 
tion. Through its western half the axis of the depression 
lies in a southwesterly direction and, in a general sense, 
parallel to the trap overflows of the western shore, showing 
that they may both be due to the same force. 

Again, Lakes Erie and St. Clair, which without doubt 
have at one time been united more intimately than now, 
are probably the most recent in origin of the Great Lakes. 
The county of Essex, which now separates them, has quite 
the characteristics of the modern prairie, and its formation 
is undoubtedly due to similar causes. Centuries of growth 
and decay of rich grasses and sedges in the extensive 
marshes here bordering the lake, gradually contributed a 
loamy soil, which even now is not much above the level of 
Lake St. Clair. These two lakes lie in very shallow depres- 
sions in the Erie clays—Lake Erie in its southwestern half 


146 Canadian Record of Science. 


having a maximum depth of about seventy feet, whilst 
Lake St. Clair has a maximum depth of only twelve feet. 
These lakes appear rather to be shallow overflows caused 
by the restricted passage now of the waters over the Nia- 
gara escarpment in the one case, and through the Detroit 
River in the other, than to be due to physical forces which, 
operating in past ages, excavated preparatory basins for 
them. There can be no doubt that, as Dr. Hunt suggests, 
the post-tertiary clays of south-western Ontario now occupy 
the basin of what may have in earlier times been a much 
larger lake or inland sea. 

Regarding the operation generally of glacial forces in 
contributing in some respects to the features of our Great 
Lakes, we can conclude that our whole Laurentian and 
Huronian country north of these lakes and of the St. Law- 
rence was elevated into great mountain chains, that, with 
the colder climate, enormous glaciers everywhere flowed 
down the mountain sides and over the country beyond, 
and that contemporaneously, probably towards the close of 
the age, there were, as has been shown by Sir William 
Dawson, extensive depressions in the eastern parts of 
Canada, and of the northern United States, which admitted 
tha Arctic current laden with huge icebergs up the St. 
Lawrence and across the basin of the Great Lakes; or, 
what is more probable, that the Great Lakes formed an 
inland sea which extended over parts of the Northern 
States as well. Across this inland sea and towards the 
Mississippi River, which was probably then its outlet, 
floated numberless icebergs, the offshoots of the Laurentian 
glaciers to the northward, freighted with their loads of 
boulders and debris, which were dropped on the sea bottom 
as the bergs melted, or were broken by contact with other 
bergs or with rocks. Our North-West, as far as the Rocky 
Mountains, was at this time, or subsequently, the floor of 
an even vaster sea, with the prevailing winds or currents 
carrying, in the direction of these mountains, fleets of ice- 
bergs from the great glaciers on the eastern borders of the 
sea, which were then on a line with the present Lake 


Proceedings of Royal Society of Canada. 147 


Winnipeg. Further, whilst during a part of this colder 
period, there was a high northern temperate vegetation, 
including in it such trees as the balsam poplar, the white 
cedar, and the mountain maple, there is some evidence in 
the North-West that since the close of tertiary times there 
have been two separate periods of cold, intermediate 
between which was a milder period when a vegetation on 
a considerable scale flourished. During perhaps each of 
these periods of cold the central parts of the continent 
formed a great inland, probably fresh water, sea, of the 
later of which the present Lakes Manitoba, Winnipegosig 
and Winnipeg are the remnants. 


PROCEEDINGS OF RoyaL SocieTy oF CANADA.! 
With Notes by A. T. Drummonp. 


. Under the presidency of Dr. Lawson, of Dalhousie Col- 
lege, Halifax, the Royal Society of Canada commenced on 
the 21st May the sessions of its annual meeting at Ottawa. 
There was a smaller attendance of members than could 
have been desired. The great length of the journey to 
Ottawa must no doubt deter some members from being 
annually present, and unforeseen reasons must occasionally 
prevent others; but the absence of so many members is apt 
to be construed into a lack of appreciation by them of the 
Society’s work, and is, besides, discouraging to those who 
have interesting papers to read. It was thought by some 
that a change in the date of the annual meeting might 
secure a better attendance. 


PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 


The annual address of the President was listened to, as 
usual, with great interest The following extracts give the 
leading features of Dr, Lawson’s address :— 


‘Abstracts marked with an asterisk have for the most part been 
specially prepared for the Record by the authors of the papers. 


148 Canadian Record of Science. 


“My first duty on this occasion is to express to you, fel- 
low members, my personal acknowledgment and thanks for 
the honour you have bestowed in placing me in the high 
position of President of the Royal Society of Canada, an 
office whose character is sufficiently shown by the mere 
mention of the names of those whom you selected to fill it 
in former years—Sir William Dawson, Dr. Chauveau, Dr. 
Sterry Hunt, Dr. Daniel Wilson, Monsignor Hamel. It 
would be difficult to select five other living names more 
intimately associated than those with the intellectual, edu- 
cational and industrial developement of Canada, or engra- 
ven in clearer lines in the records of our literature and 
science, or more deeply impressed upon the hearts of those 
classes of our people who are thoughtful, intelligent and 
enterprising. I might well then shrink from taking this 
chair and attempting to discharge the duties that pertain 
to it. If I had thought that your selection had been made 
solely on the ground of personal fitness, or as an acknow- 
ledgment of work done or to be done in any individual 
capacity, I should have hesitated to assent to your choice, 
or to attempt the task which acceptance involved. But the 
considerations which led to my acquiescence were of a dif- 
ferent kind. I felt that we were working together for the 
success of this society, not as an end in itself, but as a 
means—an organization—whereby we might be enabled, in 
some measure, to contribute our part in accomplishing the 
country’s good, promote literary and scientific research and 
discovery, educational improvement, industrial develop- 
ment and general intellectual activity throughout this 
Dominion; that we were charged with this work, and each 
bound not to shrink from the part that might be allotted to 
him; that we were here, moreover, as members not only 
in our individual capacities, for what we might do with our 
own hands, but also as the representatives of other active 
labourers in.the several departments of knowledge scattered 
through the various provinces; that once a year we might 
one and all come to the common meeting place, not merely 
to give account of the results reached by our personal 


Proceedings of Royal Society of Canada. 149 


efforts, in the way of trying to push forward the boundaries 
of the known or to clear the way for discoveries by others, 
but that we were also expected to bring in our hands the 
offerings of co-workers with whom we were more or less 
closely associated in our respective districts. For these 
reasons I was led to regard your choice of a president from 
the extreme eastern part of our long and wide country as a 
choice deliberately made in pursuance of a wise and safe 
policy, often referred to in our deliberations, that aims not 
only at recognizing every department of literature and 
science, and every form of intellectual activity, but also as 
offering, to the fullest possible extent, fair representation 
and encouragement to every province and every part of the 
Dominion. I trust that this policy, and the principle upon 
which it is based, will long continue to guide the delibera- 
tions of the members and council of this society in the 
selection of officers, so far as compatible with efficiency, and 
‘of its several sections, in the nomination of members. 
“These remarks naturally suggest a fact of another kind, 
viz., that a large amount of the executive business during 
the year, when the Society is not in session, and when it is 
inconvenient for distant members of council to attend, has 
necessarily to be performed by a small number of those 
who reside within convenient distances of Ottawa or Mont- 
real, Responsibilities and labour thus devolve upon the 
few that should otherwise be spread over the many. This 
is especially the case in regard to the publication of tran- 
sactions, which involves a serious amount of irksome labour. 
If we, the distant members, cannot lighten it any, it may 
be permissible to say that while not insensible of the un- 
avoidable disadvantages under which we labour, and which 
often limit our participation in the Society’s operations in 
many ways, we yet have but one feeling in regard to the 
laborious and thoroughly efficient manner in which, 
through many difficulties, the work of publication has been 
carried on. We are grateful for this to our active members 
in Montreal and Ottawa, whose labours are apt to be over- 
looked, and especially to our active secretary, who is styled 


150 Canadian Record of Science. 


honorary, on the sound principle, I presume, that the greater 
the labour the greater the honour. We have also the com- 
fortable assurance, expressed in many tangible ways and 
not as a mere sentiment, that by seeking to maintain the 
activity of the distant provinces, the Society will have the 
surest guarantee against the tendency to centralization, 
which seemed to some of us from the first to menace it, 
and the best prospect of success in carrying out its aim of 
permanent usefulness to the whole Dominion. 

“We first assembled as a society in the railway committee 
room in the parliament buildings on the 25th of May, 1882, 
and have come together annually since then, so that we are 
now engaged in our seventh year’s work. The record of 
the preceding six years is contained in our five volumes of 
proceedings and transactions, a perusal of which enables us 
to ascertain to what extent the objects set before us are 
being accomplished. 

“But from the very nature of our organization, being 
divided off into sections for facilitating work, and meeting 
in separate rooms, we are apt, as working members our- 
selves, to be but imperfectly cognizant of the full extent of 
what is actually being accomplished by the Society as a 
whole. If it be s0 among ourselves, how much more is a pau- 
city or total absence of knowledge of what we are doing 
likely to prevail among those who are merely onlookers. 
When we are here assembled together, the members of all 
sections, and favoured by the presence of friends who mani- 
fest an interest in our proceedings, I do not know that the 
hour can be spent more profitably than by adverting to 
some of the work of the past year, completed by the publi- 
cation of the fifth volume of transactions, now ready for 
distribution.” 

Dr, Lawson then adverted in detail to the several subjects 
upon which the members had contributed papers during the 
year, and, first, to the great importance of a system of obser- 
vations of tides and currents in the waters of the Dominion, 
in regard to which the Society had been co-operating with 
the British Association for the Advancement of Science, with 


Proceedings of Royal Society of Canada. 151 


the view of pressing the matter upon the attention of the 
Home and Dominion Governments. The report on a scien- 
tific federation of the Empire had been discussed in corres- 
pondence between Sir William Dawson and Prof. Stokes, 
President of the Royal Society of London, and the matter 
of the International Geological Congress had been referred 
to Section 1V. During the past year, forty-five memoirs had 
been published by the Society, out of about seventy read. 
In his address last year he had called attention to the pre- 
ponderance—not unlooked for—of papers in the fourth sec- 
tion over those especially in the sections of French and 
of English literature. In the new volume, this discrepancy 
well nigh disappears, and in the programme for the present. 
year there is a further increase in the literary sections, so 
that, apparently, the contributions of English literature have 
doubled, and of French trebled, in the course of two years. 
On the other hand, the difficulty of reaching perfection in 
literary production, where we are dealing with progressive 
science, was illustrated by the fact that of forty papers sub- 
mitted and read last year in the section for geology and 
biology only twenty-one reached the printer’s hands. The 
first section, French literature and history, was referred to 
as the special repository for choice literature and for re- 
searches in the very earliest Canadian history, the beginnings 
of European life in Canada. The Abbé Casgrain’s elaborate 
memoir on the Acadians was specially dwelt upon as a 
valuable contribution to a striking episode that bad been so 
invested with poetic imagery that the scalpel of science was 
needed to lay the truth bare. No more fitting company 
than the members of this Society could undertake the work, 
formed as they are of compatriots representing the two 
races, using the two languages, and bound together by a 
singleness of purpose to seek the truth. In the second sece- 
tion, English literature and history, the several contribu- 
tions of Mr, Lesperance, Mr. Ganong, Sir Adams Archibald, 
Mr. Reade, Dr, Boas, Mr. Lucien Turner and Dr, George 
Dawson were spoken of in turn, and their special bearings 
indicated, either as regards results obtained or as aids in the 


152 Canadian Record of Science. 


promotion of research. In the third section, mathematical, 
physical and chemical sciences, Mr, Macfarlane’s address 
was specially spoken of as indicating the industrial results 
of chemistry; Mr. Hoffman’s analyses of native Canadian 
platinum ; the contributions of Mr. McGill and Dr. Ellis to 
analytical processes ; Dr. Ruttan’s paper on digestibility of 
bread as affected by baking powders and alum; Dr. Har- 
rington’s observations on the flow of sap in the western 
maple; Mr. Coleman on microscopic petrography, and Mr. 
Bovey’s investigation in regard to girders. In the fourth 
section, geology and biology, the Abbé Laflamme gives a 
valuable contribution to the history of science and medicine 
in Canada, in a biographical study of Dr. Michael Sarrazin, 
whose name was linked by the renowned early French 
botanist, Tournefort, to our pitcher plant, Sarracenia, Prof. 
Penhallow’s review of Canadian botany from the first settle- 
ment of New France to the eighteenth century was fully 
referred to in special relation to the early connection of the 
history of botany in Canada and in Kurope; Dierville having 
carried Acadian plants to Tournefort, and Peter Kalm, of 
Abo, in Sweden, having, through encouragement of Linné, 
spent four years in Lower Canada collecting plants, which 
he cultivated afterwards in his garden, whilst Menzies, the 
Scotch botanist who accompanied Vancouver, collected on 
our Northwest coasts and around the Halifax harbour before 
the close of the last century. Dr.C. Hart Merriam answers 
in the affirmative, for the hoary bat, the question, Do any 
Canadian bats migrate? Messrs. Hay, of St. John, and A. 
H. Mackay, of Pictou, give a list of the marine alge of the 
Maritime Provinces, which will necessarily be useful to 
students, to whom these plants present an inviting aspect 
as an illimitable field for study of life histories. 

Dr. T. Wesley Mills, in his able paper on the mental 
endowments of squirrels, brings these creatures forward in 
a new light. Prof. Fowler tabulates the Arctic plants of 
New Brunswick, and Mr. Payne gives his observations 
made on the periodical phenomena of vegetation through- 
out the season at Cape Prince of Wales, Hudson Strait. In 


Proceedings of Royal Society of Canada. 153 


geology we have Mr. Gilpin’s accounts of the faults and 
foldings of the coal-field of Pictou, Nova Scotia; Sir Wm. 
Dawson's valuable addition to what he has already done in 
regard to our fossil flora; Prof. Bailey’s notes on the 
physiography and geology of Aroostook, Me., in connection 
with regions of New Brunswick and Quebec, etc. Mr. 
McKellar communicates a paper on the corelation of the 
Animikie and Huronian rocks of Lake Superior; Dr. Franz 
Boas, on the geography and geology of Baffin Land, with 
interesting observations on ice action. Mr. Lucien Turner 
describes the physical and geological character of the 
Ungava district of Labrador, fully three-fourths of which is 
bare rock, mainly Laurentian, showing disintegration of 
the higher altitudes, while the lower and older rocks are 
smoothly polished by glacial action; the climate is severe, 
the vegetation dwarfed. Prof. Spencer, formerly of King’s 
College, Windsor, communicates two papers on Glacial 
Erosion in Norway, and the theory of Glacial Motion. In 
the first he describes from personal observation the three 
largest snowfields in Norway (one of which has an area of 
580 square miles), all of which send down glaciers to within 
50 to 1200 feet of the sea; in the second, he adopts the old 
(J. D. Forbes) theory of fluidity as the most acceptable 
explanation of the motion of glaciers. The petroleum field 
of Ontario, its history, theory of origin, and the operations 
carried on, are all described by Dr. Bell, the president of 
the section. Mr, Matthew, of St. John, continues his illus- 
trations of the fauna of the St. John group, and describes 
the remarkable trilobite, found by himself, apparently the 
largest hitherto discovered, which he appropriately honours 
with the titlke—Paradoxides Regina. 

The President then remarked: ‘ At the double risk of 
proving tedious to hearers and unsatisfactory to authors, | 
have given this sample of a year’s work to indicate the 
nature and extent of the researches in which our members 
are engaged. Referring to the uses of scientific periodicals 
and societies devoted to special branches, or with local 
objects, it was a main object of the Royal Society to foster 


154 Canadian Record of Science. 


these, and encourage the publication by them of matter of 
immediate and local interest, whilst its own transactions 
would form arepository for finished memoirs of as com- 
plete a character as the state of knowledge will permit, and 
adequately illustrated, for permanent use, and not merely 
designed to furnish information on their special subjects, 
but also to form foundations and guides for further research. 
Hitherto, information in regard to any question in Canadian 
history, literature or science, had to be looked for through 
the scattered papers in periodicals, and proceedings of 
societies published in many countries and in different lan- 
guages. Our transactions are now a storehouse for every- 
thing that may be judged of permanent value in relation to 
science and literature in Canada. We may hope that year 
by year the publication will increase in volume and in 
cumulative value, and that the student seeking for the 
latest information on any subject may be able to turn to it 
with some confidence that his needs will be supplied.” 


The contributions to literature and science presented to 
the Society during the present meeting were numerous, 
and not inferior in character to those of other meetings. 


Among the interesting papers in the literary sections 
were those on the Indian tribes of British Columbia and 
their languages. The Rev. A. J. Hall submitted a grammar 
of the Kwakiool people of Vancouver Island, whilst Dr. Franz 
Boas presented two papers—one on the Indian tribes of Brit- 
ish Columbia and the other on the Nanaimo Indians. The 
higher civilization of many of these west coast Indians, and 
the very mountainous character of much of British Colum- 
bia, preventing the rapid inroads of the white man, may 
possibly even lead to an increase in the numbers of the 
tribes there. Thus these investigations may have more 
than an ethnological value. The whole subject of the 
North-Western tribes has engaged the attention of a com- 
mittee of the British Association for the Advancement of 
Science, and recently a circular of inquiry has been issued 


Proceedings of Royal Society of Canada. 155 


with a view of eliciting information from those who have 
in past years had, or now have upon the spot, the oppor- 
tunity of observing the differences in language, the social 
customs, and the mental and physical characteristics of the 
different tribes of Indians. Education has now been tried 
for some years in a few localities. What success has at- 
tended the effort? Has there been any proof or disproof 
of the received impression that the children of the Indians 
show, up to a certain point, a fair capacity for mental 
work, but that at this point the intellectual development 
appears to cease? If this impression is correct, has the 
cause been studied ? Many such interesting fields of inquiry 
are suggested by the circular. 

Among the papers in geology and biology were the 
following :— 


On the Nympheeacee.* 
By Gxnorcn Lawson, Ph.D., LL.D. 


“ An account was given of the general conformation and of 
the arrangement of tissue systems in the organs of these 
plants, and of special features in their organization and 
minute anatomy. The South American Water Lily, Vic- 
toria Regia, had been, years ago, carefully studied by Plan- 
chon, whose researches were published in Flores des Serres, 
Vol. VI., p. 249, &., and by Trecul, who illustrated the more 
important facts of its structure, and the development of 
organs, in the Annals des Sciences Naturelles, Botanique, 
4 ser., I., pp. 145-172. Some facts well known a quarter of 
a century ago seem to be forgotten now. Lately, De Bary, 
in the Comparative Anatomy of Phanerogams and Ferns, 
and J. H. Blake, of Cambridge, in the new Annals of 
Botany (August, 1887), question the explanations given of 
the structure of the prickles of the Victoria, and especially 
the character of the ostiole or depression at its apex. The 
author of the present paper had shown, as long ago as 
1855, the true character of these prickles, and that the 
ostiole had no special function, as had been argued (and in- 


156 Canadian Record of Science. 


ferentially was not pathological as now suggested by 
Blake), but ‘a simple depression in the apex of the prickle 
of no physiological importance.’ (Proceedings Bot. Soe. 
Edin., November, 1855, on the structure of Victoria Regia, 
Lindl. By George Lawson.) In the same paper it was 
shown that the stomatodes or perforations of the leaf were 
not mere holes, caused by insects, as argued by Trecul, and 
accepted on his statement by Blake, but special structures 
of uniform size, formed by surrounding modified cells, and 
comparable with the more complete reductions of parenchy- 
matous tissue seen in submerged plants and in Ouvirandra 
fenestralis ; moreover their special function in Victoria was 
indicated. 

‘““A statement is given of the historical facts connected 
with the nomenclature of the Nympheacee, with regard to 
the proposal recently made by some American and English 
botanists to give up the generic name Mymphea to the 
group now well known as Nuphar, and to re-instate Salis- 
bury’s name Castalia for the true Water Lilies. The paper 
also contains a synopsis of species. 

“A series of coloured drawings illustrated the minute 
structure of the Victoria. These were made from a plant 
that flowered in the autumn of 1851, in the nursery of 
Knight & Perry, King’s Road, London, and another grown 
in the Botanic Garden, Glasgow, in 1855. They show the 
epidermis and stomata—the latter with chlorophyll granules 
—of the upper surface of the leaf; the surface cells, hairs, 
and base hairs, of the lower surface; the prickles, in several 
aspects and sections, showing internal tissue, ostiole, &c. ; 
the air spaces of the leaves, with the large stellate pro- 
cesses projecting into them sculptured with bead-like mark- 
ings as in diatoms; colour-cells of the lower surface; 
stomatodes, or perforations, surrounded by oblong cells 
filled with deep rose-coloured contents; surface petal-cells, 
with crimped cell-walls and filled with rosy colouring mat- 
ter, of varying depth of shade.” 


Proceedings of Royal Society of Canada. 157 


Revision of the Canadian Equiseta.* 
By Gurorce Lawson, Ph.D., LL.D. 


“The genus Hquisetum, Tournefort, is composed of a com- 
paratively small number of existing species. They are 
plants with subterranean or submerged rhizomes, sending 
up hollow, jointed stems, which are either simple (un- 
branched) or bear verticils of branches at the joints, similar 
to the stems, but smaller in size. Both stem and branches 
are longitudinally grooved, and punctated with lines of 
stomata along the grooves. These plants are leafless, the 
foliar organs being reduced and cohering into tubular 
sheaths at the joints, with the leafpoints only free as teeth. 
The cuticle is more or less highly silicified, so that in some 
species the plant retains its form after its vegetable mat- 
ter has been removed. The genus constitutes a natural 
order by itself, well defined both by structural characters 
of the vegetable organization and peculiarities in the re- 
productive organs. Hven regarded as an order, these 
plants are isolated, cut off from near relationship with other 
groups. This fact, taken in connection with the differences 
of minute structure and modes of growth observable among 
the existing forms, and their wide geographical distribu- 
tion, indicates that they may be a remnant of what was 
formerly a more multitudinous group of species and 
varieties. Linnzeus (who is not the author of the genus, 
although always so credited) gave, in the Species Plantarum, 
seven species, of which only one (£. giganteum) was then 
(1764) known to exist in America. Alex. Braun, of 
Carlsruhe, prepared a Monograph of the North American 
species, which was translated from the author’s MS by the 
late Dr. George Engelmann, of St. Louis, and, with some 
additions, published in the American Journal of Science for 
October-December, 1843 (vol XLVI., No. 1, pp. 81-91). 
A synopsis of the Canadian species was published by the 
writer in the Edinburgh Botanical Society’s Transactions, 
in 1863 (vol. VII., pp. 558-564), and subsequent additions 
were made, in the Synopsis of Canadian Ferns and Filicoid 
Plants, in _ (Trans. Bot. Soc., Ed., VIII., pp. 20-50, 

2 


158 Canadian Record of Science. 


and Canadian Naturalist, 1864). In 1866, Dr. J. Milde, a 
most painstaking Silesian botanist, published his mag- 
nificent ‘ Monographia Equisetorum’ (pp. 600), and sub- 
sequently (1867) the ‘ Filices Europe et Atlantidis,’ includ- 
ing the Equiseta. Mr. J. G. Parker, F.R.S., has more re- 
cently (1887) issued from Kew a ‘ Handbook of the Fern 
Allies,’ in which several of Milde’s species are reduced. 
The object of the present paper is to place before Canadian 
botanists a concise statement of what is known respecting 
our species,—which may be enumerated as follows :—Eq. 
arvense, Linn.; maximum, Lam.; pratense, Khrh.; silvati- 
cum, Linn.; palustre, Linn.; limosum, Linn.; ramosissz- 
mum, Desf.; hiemale, Linn.; robustum, A. Braun ; leviga- 
tum, A. Braun; variegatum, Schleich; scirpoides, Michaux; 
—twelve in number, with several varieties and abnormal 
forms, and one species (litorale Kuhlw.) apparently attribu- 
ted to Canada in error. Some of the species are widely 
spread over the globe, others are of more limited range. 
Of extra-Canadian species, three are South American, one 
is Japanese, one Hast Indian, one doubtfully distinct belongs 
to tropical Asia, and one is Huropean. Of the totai number 
of good species—twenty—we have twelve in Canada, and 
a reputed thirteenth. 

“A map of the hemisphere of greatest extent of land was 
shown, with the distribution of the principal species of 
EKqiusetum laid down in different shades of Indian ink, 
the species of greatest range being shown by light shading, 
the others deeper according to their restriction. The 
Equiseta form a definite belt around the northern hemis- 
phere, stragglers passing into South America and other 
parts of the southern hemisphere.” 


Contributions to the Bryology of the Dominion of Canada. 
By Prors. Kinppere AND Macoun. 


The first systematic attempt to catalogue our Canadian 
Cryptogams was made in 1865 by Mr. D. A. P. Watt, with 
the aid of Mr. Geo. Barnston, Mr. B. Billings, Prof. Macoun 
and myself, and the results were published at the time in 


Proceedings of Royal Society of Canada. 159 


the Canadian Naturalist. Canada then comprised simply 
the two provinces of Ontario and Quebec. The lists were 
necessarily very incomplete, as but little attention had 
been paid to the Cryptogams. Nevertheless, my collection 
of lichens then comprised 156 species, increased shortly 
afterwards to 187 species; whilst Mr. Watt’s list of mosses, 
to which Prof. Macoun was a large contributor, numbered 
211 species. Since this time, Prof. Macoun has gradually 
increased his collection, and now, with the area of the 
Dominion extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and 
with the Province of British Columbia—so distinct, botani- 
cally, from the other provinces—now fairly well explored 
along the line of railway by him and others, he has been 
able to present a catalogue of 467 species of mosses, all indi- 
genous to the Dominion, and many, as among the higher 
forms of plant life, peculiar to the Rocky Mountains and 
the Pacific coast. Of these, 41 are new to science and are 
futly described in the paper by Prof. Kindberg, whilst 27 
others are new to America, and, with the localities of occur- 
rence, are given below, as interesting from a geographical 
point of view :— 


In Nova Scorta. On Rocky Mountains. 
Andrea alpestris, Schm. Barbula angustata, Wils. 
Sphagnum medium, Limp. Bryum Blindi, B. 

At GASPB OR ANTICOSTI. Mnium inclinatum, Lindl, 
Pottia intermedia, Turn, Polytrichum sexangulare, F 1. 
Webera gracilis, Schl. Orothecium intricatum, Hart. 
Bryum Archangelicum,Schm. Thudium decipiens, De N. 

B. elegans, Nees. Hypnum fastigiatum, Brid. 
Hypnum Vaucheri, Lesq. H. Goulardi, Schm. 
Bryum contextum, Hornsch, In Britis CoLuMBIA. 

In OnTArIo. Andrxa Huntii, Limp. 
Hypnum Juratyka, Schim. Barbula ruraliformis, Besch. 
H. Sommerfeltui, Myr. Bryum Doni, Grer. 
Fiasidens puscellus, Wills. B. murale, Wils. 

On Rocky Mountains. Heterocladium heteropterum, Bush. 
Dicranum congestum, Lindl. Pottia litoralis, Mut. 


Prof. Macoun is understood to be also engaged in inves- 
tigating the lichens of Canada, 


160 Canadian Record of Science. 


Observations on Early Ripening Cereals.* 


By Wm. Saunpers, DrRECTOR OF EXPERIMENTAL Farms, OTTAWA. 


“In this paper the author gave some interesting and prac- 
tical results which have been obtained from the distribution, 
for test, of a variety of spring wheat, known as ‘ Ladoga’ 
which was imported from Northern Russia in the spring of 
1887. From careful observations extending over a series of 
years in Russia, it has been shown that wheat and other 
cereals ripen in léss time in the northern provinces than 
they do in the more southern parts of that Empire, the dif- 
ference in favour of the north varying from 12 to 35 days. 
While this may be partly attributable to the influence of 
light during the long summer days, there is no doubt that 
the cereals in the north have undergone gradual changes 
by which they have accommodated themselves to a shorter 
period of growth, and thus acquired an early ripening 
habit. 

“‘Shortly after the author was appointed Director of the 
Experimental Farms of Canada, he opened correspondence 
with seed dealers in Russia with the objece of securing the 
earliest ripening wheats grown in that country. This cor- 
respondence resulted in the purchase of a quantity of 
Ladoga wheat, a variety much esteemed in Russia, but new 
to Canada. This wheat was grown near Lake Ladoga, 
north of St. Petersburgh, in lat. 69—840 miles further north 
than Ottawa—where the summer season is shorter than 
in any of the settled portions of the Northwest of Canada. 
A large proportion of this grain was distributed by mail in 
3ib sample bags to such farmers as were found willing to 
test it and report upon it, the greater part being sent to 
Manitoba and the Northwest. The reports which have been 
received place the period of ripening of the Ladoga wheat 
on an average at from ten to fifteen days earlier than other 
varieties in cultivation, a difference which, if maintained, 
will suffice to ensure the ripening of this wheat soon enough 
to escape the early autumn frosts which in the past have 
always caused more or less injury to the crop in the Cana- 


Proceedings of Royal Society of Canada. 161 


dian Northwest, and in some years caused heavy losses in 
many parts of that great wheat growing territory. 

“The fertility of the Ladoga wheat is said to be very satis- 
factory, the average yield from all the returns received being 
57ibs from the 3ibs ot seed, or nineteen fold. 

“The quality of the wheat, which is a point of the utmost 
importance, is being carefully investigated and the evidence 
thus far obtained on this point is on the whole very satis- 
factory. Fuller information will be given in the next bulletin 
to be issued from the central experimental farm. Besides 
a second supply of Ladoga wheat there has been imported 
this year a variety of wheat known as Onega, from lat. 62° ; 
barley from lat. 66°, and both barley and rye from lat. 67°. 
These latter are believed to be from the extreme northern 
limits at which cereals are grown in Kurope in a continental 
climate. Early ripening cereals are also being songht from 
other countries, and it is hoped that by persevering effort 
in this direction, varieties will eventually be obtained which 
will ripen sufficiently early to relieve the settler in the 
more frosty districts from the discouragements experienced 
in the past, and result in extending the limits of the success- 
ful cultivation of cereals in Canada, and that thus the ex- 
perimental farms may become an important aid in the 
settlement of these distant parts of the Dominion.” 


On some remarkable Organisms of the Silurian and Lower 
Devonian Rocks of Acadia.* 


By G. F. Marrnnw, F.G.S. 


“In this paper are described three crustaceans and the 
Pteraspidian fish (Diplaspis Acadica), of which latter preli- 
minary descriptions have been given in the CANADIAN 
Record or Science and in the Bulletin of the Natural His- 
tory Society of New Brunswick. Further particulars are 
given, and figures showing the form, ornamentation and 
arrangement of the plates forming the dorsal and ventral 
armour of the fish. The species is compared with other 


162 Canadian Record of Science. 


genera and species of Pteraspidian fishes, and a near relation 
to Cyathaspis shown. Remarks on the geological horizon 
of the species, based on the studies of Billings, Honeyman 
and others, are added. This species, and the Paleaspis of 
Claypole, found in Pennsylvania, are thought to be the 
oldest known forms of the family. 

“‘ Besides the description of this fish, the paper contains 
that of three crustaceans. One of these is a small Ceratio- 
caris (C. pusillus) from the same beds as the fish, viz., Divi- 
sion 2 of the Silurian series of New Brunswick. It is there- 
fore one of the oldest species of this genus, and is remark- 
able for its narrow carapace and long rostrum. 

“A nother form described is a crustacean (Bunodella horrida) 
of the sub-class Synziphosura, allied to Bunodes, but with a 
small carapace and longer body. This also was found in the 
same beds as the fish plates. 

“The third crustacean is a small species (Hrypterella ornata) 
possessing features which make it difficult to say whether it 
should be referred to the Kuripterida or Synziphosura. 
This species is from the plant beds of the Lower Devonian 
series at St. John, N.B.” 


Notes on the Gold-bearing Veins of Nova Scotia.* 
By E. Grpin, Jr, F.G.S. 


“In this paper, the writer, after referring to the general 
geological and mining accounts of the Nova Scotia gold 
fields, given by him in papers read before the American 
Institute of Mining Engineers, etc., drew attention to the 
conditions of folding in the district under consideration 
The veins occur in the anticlinal folds, and correspond in 
size, extent, and depth to the facilities afforded by the 
varying conditions of folding and pressure. Thus, veins are 
met thinning out in depth, and disappearing laterally, to be 
succeeded by other veins not necessarily in the same plane, 
etc. 

“The relation of the veins to the strata are those of con- 


Proceedings of Royal Society of Canada. 168 


formability, with the variations and exceptions caused by 
fracture, and subsequent movements. The district is much 
interrupted by masses of granite, which apparently do not 
affect the strata, except locally by metamorphism; and the 
auriferous veins, so far as the writer’s experience goes, are 
not modified in value by their proximity. The ‘pay 
streaks’ or zones of rich ore are described at some length, 
and compared with those found in fissure or cross-country 
veins. In referring to the source of the gold in the veins, 
and especially in their richer portions, the facts are dwelt 
upon, that the proximity of the granitic masses was not the 
source of enrichment, nor did the veins, owing to their con- 
formability to the strata and their limitation to the sides of 
the anticlinal folds, find access to underlying and possibly 
auriferous strata. The fact of the almost invariable pres- 
ence of gold in the slate bands would lead to the belief that 
the gold has been concentrated locally from them, and that 
the pay streaks merely represent the proximity of the 
veins to a spot in the original strata, in which the gold had 
been deposited to an unusual extent. This view would 
necessitate the careful study and comparison of the pay 
streaks of the various localities before the question of 
deeper or ‘second’ pay streaks could be practically tested.” 


The Origin of some Geographical Features in Canada. 
By Dr. Ropprr BE. 


The author first referred to the causes which had pro- 
duced the basins of the great lakes of the Dominion. That 
of Lake Superior was said to be partly volcanic in its ori- 
gin; and the immense basin of Hudson Bay had some 
points in common with it. These basins had been greatly 
enlarged by the subsequent decay and glacial erosion of the 
rocks on all sides. 

Lake Ontario, Georgian Bay, Lakes Winnipeg, Atha- 
basca, Great Slave and other large lakes of Baffin Land, 
occupied geographical positions resembling one another, 


164 Canadian Record of Science. 


They all lie between the Archean rocks and the newer 
strata dipping away from them. The glaciers of former 
times descending from the higher grounds of the former 
against the upturned edges of the softer rocks, tore them 
up rapidly and carried away the debris, thus leaving the 
lake basins. But when the glaciers moved from the strata 
lying upon the Archzan nucleus so as not to tear their 
edges, then no channels or basins were excavated. 

Lakes Hrie, Huron, Michigan, Manitoba and Winnipegosis 
lie in basins worn out of soft strata, dipping at low angles, 
with harder beds above and below them, which form their 
margins. 

The lake region of North America was almost a conti- 
nental plain but little elevated above the sea, and hence 
some of our great lakes lie on or near the water-sheds,. 
Lake Superior is near the highest part of this plain, and 
the water flows from near its margins to the west, north 
and south, and its outlet is to the east. By a small artifi- 
cial cut at Chicago, Lake Michigan discharges into the 
Mississippi as well as the St. Lawrence, and Lake Huron is 
on the same level. 

Dr. Bell next pointed out the important part played by 
dykes of greenstone, etc., in producing the original cuts 
which, by the decay and erosion of the rocks, form the 
channels of rivers, arms of lakes and fiords on the sea 
coasts. Parallel faults or dislocations have the same effect, 
Other river channels, such as those of the northern branches 
of the Ottawa between Mattawa and Montreal, are excavated 
along the softer bands in the crystalline rocks. 

The thousands of lakes, many of them of considerable 
size, scattered over the vast Laurentian regions of North- 
ern Canada, were regarded as due to the deep decay of 
these rocks by long continued atmospheric causes and the 
subsequent sweeping away of the softened rock by glacial 
and other denuding agencies. These lakes all lie in rock 
basins, and, owing to the generally level nature of the 
country, many of them have two outlets. They are often 
shallow and full of islands, running in chains, their arrange- 


Proceedings of Royal Society of Canada. 165 


ment and the directions of the bays and points depending 
on the combined effect of cleavage, stratification and the 
course of the drift. 

The formation of the deep valleys in which the rivers 
flow in the prairie country was explained, and also the 
cause of the formation of the ridges and valleys in the 
continuation of the Appalachian structure in the Eastern 
Townships and in Gaspé. 


On Some Relations Between the Geology of Maine and New 
Brunswick.* 


By Prorsssor L, W. BaiLey. 


“This paper contains a review of the geology of the border 
region of Maine and New Brunswick, as based upon the in- 
vestigations of the Geological Survey of the latter province 
during the last twenty years, its purpose being to show 
more particularly what conclusions of general importanee 
as to this region may be regarded as fairly established, 
what points are still doubtful, and in what ways the ascer- 
tained geology of New Brunswick may be thought to 
throw light, not only upon that of Maine, but also of the 
whole of New England. 

“ After pointing out the importance which the position of 
the province gives it as a geological indicator, and the fact 
that this is greatly enhanced by the comparatively large 
number of fossiliferous horizons recognizable within its 
limits, a review of the successive formations as passed over 
in a section from south to north along the boundary line is 
given, the main points discussed being (1) the Silurian 
rocks of Passamaquoddy Bay and their relations to the 
associated formations, with comments upon observations 
recently made in that vicinity by Prof. N.S. Shaler (Am. Jour. 
of Sc., July, 1886); (2) the age of the slates and granites 
which traverse central New Brunswick and pass into Maine 
along the course of the St. Croix River, the slates being re- 
garded as consisting partly of Cambro-Silurian and partly 


166 Canadian Record of Science. 


of Silurian strata; and (3) the Silurian system of Northern 
New Brunswick, Maine and Southern Quebec. Comparisons 
are instituted between the rocks of Lake Temiscouata, in 
the last named province, and those of Aroostook County, 
Maine, and large areas of the latter, regarded in the Maine 
reports as Devonian, are shown to be Silurian. Attempts 
are, at the same time, made to establish more clearly the 
equivalency of different portions of the Silurian system, and 
lists of fossils are given, indicating horizons ranging from 
the Medina and Clinton to the Lower Helderberg forma- 
tions,” 


On Nematophyton and Allied Forms from the Devonian (Erian) 
of Gaspé and Baie des Chaleurs.** 


By D. P. Pennaiow, B.Sc., with IntRopuctory GHoLocicaL Note By 
Sir Witt1am Dawson, F.R.S., re. 


“The paper stated the facts relating to the original dis- 
covery of these plants by Sir William Logan, their geo- 
logical relations, and the original description of the speci- 
mens, with notices of recent exhaustive microscopic exam- 
inations of the original specimens and slides recently pre- 
pared, and comparisons of these curious plants with allied 
forms and associated remains of plants. It would appear 
that these remarkable trees, while evidently plants of the 
land, though growing in swamps or on the borders of the 
sea, have structures not now found in arboreal plants, but 
rather resembling those of algee and lichens. It was 
pointed out that this is parallel to the fact seen in the giant 
Lycopods and Equisetums of the Carboniferous, that ancient 
forms of vegetation, with few kinds of tissue, emulated the 
size and complexity of modern Exogens. Nematophyton 
seemed to be a survival to the time of the Lower Devonian, 
of a type of tree peculiar, with others akin to it, to the 
oldest ages of the earth’s history. The paper discussed the 
question as to the probable connection of this plant with 
the strange seeds or spore-cases named Pachytheca, by 


Proceedings of Royal Society of Canada. 167 


Hooker, and Aetheotesta, by Brongniart. These were prob- 
ably its fruits. The long, narrow leaves named Cordaites 
angustifolia may have belonged to the plant, though there 
is yet no certain proof of this. There is also a probable 
connection between Nematophyton and the resinous matter 
found in flakes and patches on the beds in which these 
singular plants occur, For the curious and complex struc- 
tures of the stems, reference must be made to the paper 
itself, and to the figures which illustrate it. These plants 
are not found higher than the Lower Devonian, on the one 
hand, and the base of the Silurian, on the other; but they 
will probably be traced farther back. The associates of 
Nematophyton in the beds in which it occurs are Psilo- 
phyton, Arthrostegma, Leptophleum, and a few other forms, all 
characteristic of the lowest Devonian beds.” 


Note on the Preliminary Examination of a Collection of Cre- 
taceous Plants from Port McNeill, Vancouver Island.* 


By Sm Wiiui1am Dawson, F.R.S., Ere. 


“The plants in question were collected by Dr. G. M. 
Dawson, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of Canada, from 
beds believed to be on the horizon of those of Nanaimo and 
Comox, or perhaps a little newer. They include a number 
of apparently new and interesting forms besides others 
similar to those in the last mentioned localities. The notice 
is intended to indicate the general features of the collection 
in advance of more detailed descriptions, which will prob- 
ably be ready in time for the next meeting of the Society, 
but not for insertion in the Transactions of the present 
year. At present it may be stated that the collection has 
many species in common with the Cretaceous of Nanaimo, 
and nearly resembles the Upper Cretaceous plants of Atané 
and Patoot, in Greenland,” 


168 Canadian Record of Science. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATURAL History Society. 


The third monthly meeting was held on Monday, January 
30th, the President, Sir William Dawson, in the Chair. 

The minutes of the last monthly meeting were read and 
confirmed. 

The Hon. Curator reported the following donations :— 
“Flying fish and West Indian Bat,” from Mr. Chas, T. Hart. 

Mr. A. H. Mackay, of Pictou, N.S., was elected a corres- 
ponding member. 

Mr. J. H. R. Molson took the chair at the request of Sir 
William Dawson, who now exhibited a cast of the new 
trilobite (Paradoxides regina) recently discovered by Mr. 
Matthews in the Cambrian of New Brunswick, remarking 
on its great size and the importance of its discovery. He 
also read a paper on “ Fossil Sponges in the Peter Redpath 
Museum,” referring to certain sponges discovered at Little 
Metis, describing one of them as a species of Protaspingia, 
and explaining its form and structure in comparison with 
other sponges, recent and fossil. 

Sir William was, on motion of Dr. Mills, seconded by Mr. 
Beaudry, accorded a hearty vote of thanks for his interest- 


ing paper. 


The fourth monthly meeting was held on Monday, Feb- 
ruary 27th, Sir William Dawson in the chair. 

The minutes of the last meeting were read and adopted. 

The following donations were reported by the Hon. 
Librarian :—Chemical Reports & Memoirs, 1848, by Thos. 
Graham, from Mr. EH. T. Chambers; Report of the Geolo- 
gical Society, 2 Vols., from Rev. Dr.Smyth; The Scientific 
American & Supplement for 1887, from Mr. J. A. N. Beau- 
dry, The Hon. Curator reported a donation of 40 Photo- 
graphs taken in Cuba, from Dr. Wolfred Nelson. 

Sir William Dawson read a letter from Dr. Molson, thank- 
ing the Society for his election as a corresponding member. 

A letter of resignation was read from Dr. T. Sterry 
Hunt. 


Proceedings of the Society. 169 


It was moved by Prof. T. Wesley Mills, and seconded by 
Dr. J. Baker Edwards, and 


Resolved,—That Dr. T. Sterry Hunt be elected an Hon. 
member, and be requested to allow his name to be con- 
tinued on the list of Vice-Presidents, and that this resolu- 
tion be accompanied with the best wishes of the Society 
and the hope that he may soon be able to resume his active 
connection with its work. Carried. 

The following members were balloted for and elected :— 
Dr. Wm, A. Conklin, corresponding member; Dr. W. John- 
ston, Rev. Jno. Williamson, Chas. T, Hart, F. W. Evans, 
ordinary members. 

Mr. A. McGill’s paper on ‘‘ Water Analysis” was now 
read by Mr. Joseph Bemrose. A vote of thanks was 
tendered. 

In the absence of Mr. G. M. Matthew’s paper on “ Cam- 
_brian Rocks,” it was moved by Dr. Edwards that it be 
taken as read, as it was being printed in the Record. 


The sixth monthly meeting was held on Monday, March 
26th, the President, Sir William Dawson, in the chair. 

The minutes of the last monthly meeting were read and 
confirmed. 

The following donation was received from Mr. Ernest 
Ingersoll :—Eggs of Swamson’s Buzzard, the Tropic Bird, 
and Bells Virio; also Unio Shells from Hast Tennessee, etc 
(several species). 

Mr. H. M. Ami, of the Geological Survey of Canada, now 
read his paper on “ Fossils of the age of the Utica Shale, 
from Murray Bay.” 

Sir William Dawson made interesting remarks on the 
above paper, and tendered the thanks of the Society for 
same, 


The seventh monthly meeting was held on Monday, 
April 23rd, the President, Sir William Dawson, in the 
chair. 

R. W. McLachlan acted as Secretary in the absence of 
Mr, Holden, 


170 Canadian Record of Science. 


The minutes of last meeting were’read and approved. 

The Hon. Treasurer reported progress with the special 
collection for liquidation of the debt. 

Donations of an embroidered buffalo skin and a number 
of books from Mr. Ingersoll were announced. 

Dr. John Rae’s paper on “Some of the Birds and Mam- 
mals of the Hudson Bay Territories and the Arctic Coast,” 
and a paper by Dr. Anderson on “ Chicago Boulder Clay,” 
were read by the President. 

The thanks of the Society were tendered for these. 


ANNUAL MEETING. 


The annual meeting of the Natural History Society was 
held on the 28th of May, Sir William Dawson, President 
of the Society, occupied the chair, and delivered the follow- 
ing address :—On the present occasion I think it may 
be well, by way of variety, to deviate somewhat from our 
usual custom, and to make some general remarks on the 
use and function of a society of this nature in the midst of 
a busy mercantile and manufacturing community, and in a 
province in which an interest in science is, to say the least, 
very scantily diffused. When in 1855 I began the educa- 
tional work, which I have ever since been carrying on 
here, | regarded the existence of this society at that time 
with a small membership, but with some able men in its 
ranks, and with a very valuable museum, as a great encour- 
agement and aid in the introduction of the study of natu- 
ral science. In some respects I have not been disappointed. 
The collections of this society were of essential use to me 
in all the early days of my teaching here. The lectures 
and meetings and field-days have formed rallying points for 
our young devotees of natural science. The Society was 
the means of sustaining the Geological Survey in its earlier 
struggles, and it was the agency by which the American 
Association for the Advancement of Science was invited to 
this city in 1857—a movement which not only brought 
together a larger number of British and American and 
Canadian men of science than any previous assemblage, 


Proceedings of the Society. Wy 


but which paved the way for the later and more remark- 
able gathering of the British Association in Montreal in 
1884. That these enterprises of our society have had a 
marked effect in the development of science, not only in 
Montreal, but throughout Canada, no one can doubt. When 
I look at the long series of our proceedings, extending from 
1856, in the Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, and subse- 
quently the CANADIAN REcorD oF ScrEncE, I have another 
measure of our power for good. The Canadian Naturalist 
was originally planned and issued by a man of rare power 
and gifts, the late Mr. Billings. When Sir William Logan 
wisely invited him to Montreal to take the position of pale- 
ontologist to the Geological Survey, he became associated 
with this society, and transferred the infant publication to 
its fostering care. Through many vicissitudes and difticul- 
ties it has continued to be published; and we may point to 
its volumes as arepertory of the natural history and geology 
of this country, which stands unrivalled as a collection 
of information on these subjects, since it includes not merely 
the original papers submitted to this society, but abstracts 
and notices of most of the papers and publications on Canada 
issued elsewhere. No scientific library, in which it is pro- 
posed to represent the natural history of that great section 
of North America which belongs to this Dominion, can 
afford to be without these volumes. By means of them 
also, and the separate copies of papers everywhere distri- 
buted, Canada is very widely known to scientific men 
abroad, and though we cannot, in detail and magnitude, 
rival the publications of the Geological Survey, I believe 
we have, with our comparatively slender means, done 
nearly as much to make the natural resources and produc- 
tions of our country known abroad. We have, besides, fur- 
nished an early and convenient means of publication to 


many of the more important discoveries of the officers of 


the Survey themselves, as well as to amateur and private 
workers in natural history fields. The Record or ScreNcE 
appeals to only a small circle of readers in this province. 
but it is widely known and read abroad. Our regular 


172 Canadian Record of Science. 


monthly meetings are, as is usual with societies of this 
kind, slenderly attended. I feel, however, that if the real 
interest of the papers and of the discussions upon them was 
better understood by the public, we should have large 
houses to listen to them. Scarcely any meeting of this 
society fails to produce some paper or discussion or speci- 
men of great interest to all intelligent persons, and often 
of vast practical importance. Very many valuable sugges- 
tions, bearing on the advancement of material interests and 
on subjects important to the health and welfare of the com- 
munity, have originated in this room. A very different 
statement in regard to attendance may be made respecting 
our annual Sommerville lectures. These have always been 
popular, and have attracted large and interested audiences. 
More especially in recent years, since the lecture commit- 
tee, under the presidency of Dr. Harrington, has adopted 
the excellent practice of providing a connected course bear- 
ing on some one subject of general interest, they have 
assumed a higher educational and practical function. The 
course of last year on physiological subjects was of intense 
interest and of great public value. That of the present 
session on ‘“ Climate,” and this more especially in connec- 
tion with the climate of Canada and of the vast districts in 
the North-West, now being opened up for settlement, was 
in another way equally important. The wise benefaction 
of Mr. Sommerville, as administered by this Society, has 
proved a centre and source of mental illumination, and has 
been conspicuous among us as the only endowment of a 
course of popular scientific lectures always able and inter- 
esting, and entirely free to all. In a country like Canada, 
changes are constantly taking place in the indigenous and 
introduced fauna and flora as culture extends—changes 
which are soon forgotten and of which often no record re- 
mains, while rare visitors or occasional natural phenomena 
or accidentally discovered specimens are being continually 
lost to science in the hurry of active life. From such losses 
and untoward accidents, our museum is a means of refuge. 
It has treasured thousands of specimens which would other- 


Proceedings of the Society. 173 


wise have disappeared, has been a place of refuge and safe- 
keeping to evidences of rare natural phenomena, and has 
furnished, in a form accessible to all, classified collections of 
natural objects of immense value to the scientific student. 
It would be easy to find in our collections specimens of ani- 
mals and plants once common on this island or even within 
the limits of this city, and now locally extinct. It is inter- 
esting to see in the old botanical collections of Dr. Holmes, 
one of the founders of this society, plants credited to swamps 
on Craig street, and to examine skins of wild animals cap- 
tured in places where no hunter will again find them till 
Canadian civilization has passed away and the sites of our 
towns and farms shall have reverted to the original wilder- 
ness. So the traveller may see in our cases the rude imple- 
ments and manufactures of that aboriginal city of Hoche- 
laga, which preceded Montreal, and was visited 300 years 
ago by the intrepid yet courteous Cartier, but which has 
been finally swept away by the encroachments of our 
streets and terraces of houses. Our collections are rela- 
tively small, but in some departments, as in Canadian 
mammals, birds and insects, they are very complete, and 
not only afford means of study to the naturalist, but tend 
to inspire the young with an interest in natural objects. 
Their value in this respect is also enhanced by the foreign 
specimens which have been presented to us, and which 
illustrate some of the most strange and beautiful creatures 
of foreign lands. Such a museum is more than a mere 
curiosity shop; it is an actual and arranged presentment of 
Nature, loved and cared for and augmented by zealous and 
enthusiastic souls, who, actuated only by affection for Na- 
ture and by public spirit, have devoted time and labor to 
its maintenance, preservation and extension. The report 
of our honorary curator, Mr. Mason, to whom we are very 
much indebted for the improvements he has introduced, 
shows many important donations in the past year and a 
large number of visitors. Our library is, perhaps, the least 
advanced part of our equipment. Still we have a large 
number of valuable and rare scientific books, more especi- 


13 


174 Canadian Record of Science. 


ally the publications of societies abroad, and some of which 
are not accessible elsewhere in this city. Much has been 
done of late years by our honorary librarian, Mr. Beaudry, 
and by the library committee in enlarging our library and 
binding its numerous periodical publications, but the Society 
has always lacked the means to develop its usefulness 
in this direction. In the last session the Society has well sus- 
tained its work in the reading and in the publication of pa- 
pers. I may mention among these the interesting résumé by 
Dr. T. Wesley Mills of the work of the American Association 
in 1887, and papers by him on important physiological sub- 
jects; the papers by Mr. A. T. Drummond on the Prairies of 
Manitoba and on the Geographical and Geological Relations 
of British North American Plants; those of Prof. Penhallow 
on Physiological Botany; that on Fossil Sponges by Dr. 
Hinde and myself; those on Cambrian and Siluro-Cambrian 
Fossils by Mr. Matthew and Mr. Ami; Dr. Rae’s interesting 
Notes on Mammals and Birds of the Hudson’s Bay Terri- 
tories, and an important contribution on Water Analysis by 
Mr. McGill, and on the Climate of the Northwest by Mr. 
Ingersoll; New Species of Fresh-water Sponges from New- 
foundland by Mr. McKay, and a paper on a Destructive 
Visitation of Field-mice in Nova Scotia by Rev. Dr. Patter- 
son. A number of other subjects, however, occupied our 
attention at the monthly meetings, and will be found in 
the REcorD oF SciENcE. By way of practical conclusion, I 
need not hesitate to affirm that what the Society has done 
with very slender means might be largely increased if 
more ample resources were provided, and that both our 
fellow-citizens and the Provincial Government are called 
upon to lend us their aid. It has been well remarked that 
in societies of this kind the actual work is done gratuitously 
by scientific laborers who ask for no public recompense, and 
that all that the state and the general public are called 
on to do is that smaller part which consists in affording 
means of publication. No work for the public benefit is so 
cheaply and economically accomplished as that of scientific 
societies, and it is for this reason that such societies are so 


Proceedings of the Society. 175 


liberally subsidized in all civilized countries. The benefits 
flowing from the operations of the great scientific societies 
of the mother country are of incalculable public value and 
not to be measured at all by the aids which they receive. 
In this country in our more limited sphere it is the same ; 
and the useful work of a society like this is limited only by 
the resources placed at its disposal. In the winter of 1856-7 
I had the honor to deliver the introductory course of the 
Sommerville lectures, and as the audience of that evening 
has mostly passed away, I may be excused for quoting 
some sentences at the conclusion of this address. The sub- 
ject was Natural History in its educational aspects, under- 
standing by education that most practical and useful of all 
arts which develops men and women fitted to occupy useful 
and honorable places in the world and to minister not only 
to their own comfort and happiness but to those of others :— 


“ Natural History, rising from the collection of individual facts to 
such large views, does not content itself with merely naming the 
objects of nature. A naturalist is not merely a man who knows 
hard names for many common or uncommon things, or who collects 
rare and curious objects, and can tell something of their habits and 
structures. His studies lead him to grand generalizations, even to 
the consideration, in part at least, of the plans that from eternity 
existed in the infinite mind, and guided the evolution of all material 
things. Natural history thus rises to the highest ground occupied 
by her sister sciences, and gives mental training which in grandeur 
can not be surpassed, inasmuch as it leads her pupils as near as man 
may approach, to those counsels of the Almighty in the material 
universe, which are connected, atleast by broad analogies, with our 
own moral and religious interests. 

“Tt follows from the preceding views that the study of nature 
forms a good training for the rational enjoyment of life. How much 
of positive pleasure does that man lose who passes through life ab- 
sorbed with its wants and its artificialities, and regarding with a 
‘brute, unconscious gaze, the grand revelation of a higher intelli- 
gence in the outer world. It is only in an approximation through 
our Divine Redeemer to the moral likeness of God, that we can be 
truly happy; but of the subsidiary pleasures which we are here 
permitted to enjoy, the contemplation of nature is one of the best 
and purest. It was the pleasure, the show, the spectacle prepared 
for man in Eden, and how much true philosophy and taste shine in 


176 Canadian Record of Science. 


the simple words, that in that paradise, God planted trees ‘ pleasant 
to the sight,’ as well as ‘good for food.’ Other things being equal, 
the nearer we can return to this primitive taste, the greater will be 
our sensuous enjoyment, the better the influence of our pleasures 
on our moral nature, because they will then depend on the cultiva- 
tion of tastes at once natural and harmless, and will not lead us to 
communion with, and reverence for merely human genius, but will 
conduct us into the presence of the infinite perfection of the Creator. 

“T have sought to magnify the office of this society, on educa- 
tional grounds alone; but I cannot conclude without reminding you 
that natural science has its utilitarian aspects. All our material 
wealth is founded on the objects of natural history. All our mate- 
rial civilization consists of such knowledge of these things, as may 
give us mastery over their uses and properties. Such knowledge is 
every day finding its reward, not merely in the direct promotion of 
the happiness of the possessor,but in enabling him to add to the com- 
forts of our race, or to diminish the physical evils to which they are 
exposed. Into this subject, however, I cannot now enter; and this 
is the less necessary, since the minds of nearly all intelligent men 
are sufficiently alive, at least, to the utilitarian value of the natural 
sciences.” 


REPORT OF CHAIRMAN OF COUNCIL. 


Mr. John S. Shearer then submitted the report of the 
council, as follows :— 


The Council of the ‘ Natural History Society,” beg to 
submit the following report:— 

The Session just closed, has been one of much interest and 
valuable research. 'The routine business has been regularly 
performed during the year. Seven regular and three special 
meetings of the Council have been held, and there have 
been six regular meetings of the Society, at which papers 
of great interest were read. 

The progress of the Society in membership has not been 
equal to last year, only twelve ordinary and four corres- 
ponding having been elected. 

The Library has received considerable attention from the 
Chairman and Committee, and is now in a fairly satisfactory 
condition. 


Proceedings of the Society. 177 


The building of the Society is in good order, and a new 
furnace was put in last winter at a cost of $200. 

The hall has again been rented to the congregation wor- 
shiping there, at the same rental as last year, the agreement 
being signed by Mr. T. M. Taylor. 

The Provincial Government granted the Society last year 
$400, in place of $800, the amount which was expected. 
This reduction in the amount promised us, (and upon which 
we depended) greatly interfered with the efforts of the edit- 
ing committee, who are, however, deserving of praise, for 
the manner in which they have issued the RecorD or 
SOIENCE. 

At the last meeting of Council, a committee was appointed 
by of the Society, to draw up a petition, and forward 
the same to the Hon. Honoré Mercier, Premier of the Pro- 
vince of Quebec, asking the Government for the amount of 
the original grant to the Society of $1,000. The petition was 
duly completed and forwarded on the 18th of this month, 
An answer has been received by the Recording Secretary, 
acknowledging its receipt by the Premier, and stating, that 
it had been handed to the Rev. Curé Labelle, Assistant 
Minister of Agriculture and Colonization, for his considera- 
tion and attention. 

The Annual “ Field Day” was held on the 4th of June last, 
the enterprising village of St. Jeréme having been selected 
for the occasion. About 100 ladies and gentlemen, started by 
train from Dalhousie Square Station, C. P. R., to enjoy the 
day’s outing. It is not necessary to go into details here, 
tails, as a very graphic description of the day has alrecdy 
appeared in the Reoorp or Screnoz, On our arrival at the 
Montreal station a resolution was passed, thanking Mr. 
Tuttle, and other officers of the C. P. R., for the courtesies 
and hospitable treatment, receceived at their hands. In 
connection with the above, at a meeting of Council held on 
the 9th day of June 1887, a resolution was unanimously 
adopted, and sent to W, C. Van Horne, Esq., Vice-President 
of the C.P.R., tendering to him the cordial thanks of the 
Society, for haying contributed in so large a manner to 


178 Canadian Record of Science. 


make our ‘“‘ Field Day” one of the most interesting and 
enjoyable in the history of the Society. 

The usual course of Sommerville Lectures, six in number, 
was delivered last winter to large and appreciative audiences, 
affording those present much pleasure and profit. The 
museum was open to the public in the evening for one 
hour before the commencement of the lectures. The sub- 
jects, with the names of the lecturers, were as follows:— 
Thursday, Feb. 16th—“ Climate in Geological Time.” By Sir J. W. 

Dawson, F.R.S., C.M.G. 
Thursday, Feb. 23rd—“ Climate; the present Atmospheric Condi- 
tions of the Globe.” By Professor C. H. McLeod, M.A.Sc. 
Thursday, March Ist—‘“ Climate in relation to Vegetation.” By 
Professor D. P. Penhallow, B.Sc., F.R.S.C. 

Thursday, March 8th—“ Weather Probabilities.” By Charles 
Carpmael, M.A., F.R.S.C. 

Thursday, March 15th—“ The Climate of the Canadian West.” By 
Ernest Ingersoll, Esq. 

Thursday, March 22nd—“ Climate in relation to Health.” By Dr. 
T. G. Roddick. 


The thanks of the Society are certainly due to the dis- 
tinguished gentlemen, who so kindly delivered the lectures 
last winter, and to those who contributed to the Museum 
during the year. 

On the 29th January, 1383, through the efforts of the Rev. 
Robert Campbell, the late Mr. Marler was appointed one of 
a committee of three to collect funds for a monument to the 
late Rev. James Sommerville (the founder of the Sommer- 
ville Lectures), in Mount Royal Cemetery. Nothing was 
done in the matter until last year, when the Rev. Dr. 
Campbell, Mr. A. MacNaugton and the Chairman of Council, 
succeeded in collecting sufficient funds from members of this 
society, and others, to put up a monument, with an appro- 
priate inscription, to mark the resting place of one of 
Montreal’s early benefactors. It will not be out of place for 
me in connection with the above to quote a few words de- 
livered in this hall sometime ago by our honoured President. 
He says: ‘“‘Such men are few and deserve commemoration, 
and it may be well to think also of the fact that, in bear- 
ing them in remembrance, we stimulate others to like 


Proceedings of the Society. 179 


noble deeds. Among the many ways open to those who de- 
sire beneficially to connect their names with the real pro- 
egress of this country, none is more fruitful than to follow 
in the footsteps of Mr. Sommerville, and to aid societies 
like this, in educating the people by free popular lectures.” 

The Librarian, Mr. J. A. U. Beaudry, then presented a 
report on behalf of the Library Committee, showing that 
much work had been done during the year and that the 
condition of the library was greatly improved. 

The Treasurer, Mr. P. 8. Ross, also submitted his annual 
statement with regard to the financial condition of the 
Society. 

The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: 

President—Sir William Dawson. 

Vice-Presidents—Sir Donald A. Smith, Messrs. Edward 
Murphy, J. H. Joseph, Dr. Harrington, J. H. R. Molson, 
J. S. Shearer, Rev. Dr. Campbell, Geo. Sumner and Dr. J. B. 
Edwards. 

Members of Council—Messrs. A. T. Drummond, Joseph 
Bemrose, Samuel Finley, Dr. Hingston, W. T. Costigan, 
Dr. T. W. Mills, J.S. Brown, M. Brissette and Dr. Lapthorn 
Smith. 

Honorary Curator—Mr. Alfred H. Mason. 

Honorary Corresponding Secretary—Prof. Penhallow. 

Honorary Recording Secretary—Mr. A. Holden. 

Treasurer—Mr. P. 8. Ross. 

At a subsequent meeting of Council, held June 4th, Mr. 
Samuel Finley was elected Chairman of Council, and the 
following committees were appointed :— 

Editing Committee—Prof. Penhallow, Chairman; Dr. 
Harrington, Dr. T. Wesley Mills, A. T. Drummond, Joseph 
Bemrose. 

Lecture Committee—Dr. Harrington, Chairman; Rev. 
Dr. Campbell, P. S. Ross, A. H. Mason, Dr. J. Baker 
Edwards, 

Library Committee—EH. T. Chambers, Chairman; J. A. U. 

sjeaudry, I. B. Caulfield, R. W. McLachlan, Joseph Fortier. 

House Committee—J. 8. Shearer, Chairman; J. A. U. 
Beaudry, J. H, Joseph, Samuel Iinley. 


180 Canadian Record of Science. 


Membership Committee—J. Stevenson Brown, Albert 
Holden, 8. Finley, P. S. Ross, J. A. U. Beaudry, Dr. J. 
Lapthorn Smith, George Sumner, W. T. Costigan. 


AnnuaL Firtp—-Day, 1888. 


The annual field-days of the Natural History Society are 
looked forward to by many lovers of Nature with much 
pleasurable anticipation, and have always been enjoyable 
events, that of June 18th, 1888, being no exception to the 
rule. The day was glorious and the choice of locality 
admirable, being the grounds of Hon. Mr. Papineau at 
Montebello. The party left Montreal by special train from 
Dalhousie Square Station, and consisted of Prof. Harring- 
ton, Prof. Bovey, J. H. R. Molson, J. S, Shearer, George 
Sumner, S. Finley, Albert Holden, J. S. Brown, Hollis 
Shorey; Mr. Gibb, of Abbotsford; Capt. R. C. Adams, R. 
Miller, J. Henderson, Mrs. J. H. R. Molson, Miss Hill, Miss 
Cordner, Mrs. and Miss Baylis, Mrs. Lewis, Miss Dawson, 
Miss K. Drummond, Mrs. HE. Day, Mrs. H. B. Stephens, Mrs. 
and Miss Finley, Miss Botterell, Miss Van Horne, Miss A. 
Van Horne, Mrs. Adams, Mrs. Sumner, Mrs. Shearer, Mrs. 
and Miss Ritchie, Miss Evans, Miss Henderson, Mrs. Salter, 
and many others. Sir William Dawson was unavoidably ab- 
sent, owing to duties in connection with the recognition of 
McGill degrees in the provincial examinations for the legal 
and medical professions. 

On the arrival of the party at Montebello at noon, they 
were joined by a contingent from the Ottawa Field Natur- 
alists’ Club, including Mr. J. F. Whiteaves, F.G.S., and Mr. 
H. Ami, F.G.S.. On arriving at the grounds they were 
met by Mr. Papineau, who received them with the greatest 
cordiality and kindness. 

The grounds are extensive and laid out with much taste, 
the prevailing principle being evidently to preserve the 
natural beauties, aad this has been done most skilfully, In 
a separate building, resembling a chapel somewhat in 
appearance, is contained a. large collection of curiosities, 
historical paintings, family relics and objets dart. <A visit 
was paid to it by the members, and Mr. Papineau kindly 


Proceedings of the Society. 181 


gave particulars concerning many of the paintings and 
other objects. 

Parties were then formed for the usual collection of 
geological, entomological and botanical specimens. The 
geological party was in the hands of Prof. Harrington, the 
botanical under Mr. Gibb, the entomological under Mr. 
Albert Holden; and all set about their work enthusiastic- 
ally. Others dispersed themselves about the grounds in 
little coteries, and enjoyed more quietly the varied beauty 
of the site. The broad expanse of the Ottawa with its 
dark waters, the varied green foliage of the trees, the wind- 
ing walks with their rustic seats in charming nooks, all 
formed a most charming coup dil. The collecting parties 
having returned to the manor loaded with spoils, a very 
hearty vote of thanks (on motion of Mr. J. H. R. Molson, 
seconded by Prof. Bovey) was given to Mr. Papineau, who 
made avery neat reply. Farewell was then said, and the 
party returned to the station. Here an agreeable surprise 
was in store for them, for a car specially fitted up and 
prettily decorated with flags, hanging baskets, &c., had 
been added to the train, and the party were invited by 
Messrs. A. C. and W.S. Burgess, who were in charge, to a 
most recherché repast as the guests of the railway company. 

On the homeward journey the results of the competition 
for prizes were announced as follows :— 

Botany (unnamed Collections of Plants)—First prize, 
Miss Baylis, 67 species; second prize, Mrs. Edmund Day, 
62 species. Honorable Mention—Miss M. Van Horne, 59 
species; Miss G. Finley, 56 species. 

EntomMoLoagy (named Collections)—First prize, A. F. 
Winn, 57 species ; second prize, J. F. Hansen, 32 species. 

NTOMOLOGY (unnamed)—First prize, KE. F. Baynes, 41 
species ; first prize, W. C. Adams, 41 species. Honorable 
Mention—IH, C, Trenholme, 34 species. 

GEOLOGY (named Collection)—Prize, Miss Blanche 
Evans, B.A. 

GEOLOGY (unnamed Collection)—Prize,Miss A. Van Horne, 

On arriving at Dalhousie Square Station, a hearty vote 
of thanks was passed to the Canadian Pacific Railroad 
officials for their courtesy. 


182 Canadian Record of Science. 


(From the Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, May 23, 1888). 
(ABSTRACT). 


“On the Eozoic and Paleozoic Rocks of the Atlantic coast of 
Canada in comparison with those of Western Europe and the In- 
terior of America.” By Sir J. W. Dawson, LL.D,, F.R.S., F.G.S. 


The Author referred to the fact that since 1845 he had contributed 
to the Proceedings of the Geological Society a number of papers on 
the geology of the eastern maritime provinces of Canada, and it 
seemed useful now to sum up the geology of the older formations 
and make such corrections and comparisons as seemed warranted 
by the new facts obtained by himself, and by other observers of 
whom mention is made in the paper. 

With reference to the Laurentian, he maintained its claim to be 
regarded as a regularly stratified system probably divisible into 
two or three series, and characterized in its middle or upper portion 
by the accumulation of organic limestone, carbonaceous beds, and 
iron-ores on a vast scale. He also mentioned the almost universal 
prevalence in the northern hemisphere of the great plications of 
the crust which terminated this period, and which necessarily 
separate it from all succeeding deposits. He next detailed its 
special development on the coast of the Atlantic, and the similarity 
of this with that found in Great Britain and elsewhere in the west 
of Europe. 

The Huronian he defined as a littoral series of deposits skirting 
the shores of the old Laurentian uplifts, and referred to some rocks 
which may be regarded as more oceanic equivalents. Its characters 
in Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and New Brunswick were referred 
to and compared with the Pebidian, &c.,in England, The ques- 
tions as to an Upper Member of the Huronian or an intermediate 
series, the Basal Cambrian of Matthew in New Brunswick, were 
discussed. 

The very complete series of Cambrian rocks now recognized on 
the coast-region of Canada was noticed, in connection, with its 
equivalency in details to the Cambrian of Britain or Scandinavia, 
and the peculiar geographical conditions implied in tne absence of 
the Lower Cambrian over a large area of inferior America. 

In the Ordovician age a marginal and a submarginal area existed 
on the east coast of America. The former is represented largely by 
bedded igneous rocks, the latter by the remarkable series named by 
Logan the Quebec Group, which was noticed in detail in connexion 
with its equivalents further west, and also in Europe. 


Proceedings of the Society. 183 


The Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous were then treated of 
and detailed evidence shown as to their conformity to the types of 
Western Europe rather than to those of America. 

In conclusion, it was pointed out that though the great systems 
of formations can be recognized throughout the Northern Hemi- 
sphere, their divisions must differ in the maritime and inland 
regions, and that hard and fast lines should not be drawn at the 
confines of systems, nor widely different formations of the same age 
reduced to an arbitrary uniformity of classification not sanctioned 
by nature. It was also inferred that the evidence pointed to a per- 
manent continuance of the Atlantic basin, though with great 
changes of its boundaries, and to a remarkable parallelism of the 
formations deposited on its eastern and western sides. 


DISCUSSION. 


The PrusmDEnt, whilst recognizing the importance of the paper, 
doubted whether the question of correlation of the Pre-Cambrian 
rocks on either side of the Atlantic was ripe for discussion. 

Dr. Hicks felt sure that the paper would be welcomed on this 
side of the Atlantic. He agreed with most of the conclusions of 
the Author, including the correlation of the Huronian with the 
Pebidian. This was borne out, not only by similarity of lithological 
characters, but by the exact correspondence of the succeeding beds 
in the two areas as shown by Mr. G. F. Matthew. The difficulty 
of correlation lay with the rocks below the Huronian. He noticed 
that fragments of granitoid rocks occurred in the Huronian as in 
the Pebidian. He had also called attention to the contrast between 
the Palzeozoic rocks of the ocean borders and those of the interior 
of the continents, in papers read before the Society and elsewhere. 

Dr. Scorr referred to Mr. Walcott’s work, and mentioned the 
occurrence of great deposits of Pre-Cambrian rock in Arizona. 
Where terrestrial species play an important part, difficulties of 
correlation were much increased. 

Dr. Hiypn noticed the difference between the coast-geology of 
America and that of the interior. 

Mr. Mare stated that the paper referred very fully to the point 
noticed by the last speaker. 


184 Canadian Record of Science. 


(From the Annals of the New York Academy of Science, Vol. IV., 
No. 4, 1888. 


On AN ARCH#AN PLANT FROM THH Waite’ CRysTALLINE LIMESTOND 
oF Susspx County, N.J. By N. L. Brirton. 


The abundance of graphite in certain Archean limestones, and 
notably in those referred to the Laurentian systems, has often been 
cited as an indication of the existence of plant life at that remote 
period, and indeed, has seemed to the writer and others, attributable 
to no other source, although this view has not found ready accept- 
ance in the minds of many geologists. The mineral generally 
occurs in these limestones in the form of scattered separated flakes 
or small masses, often somewhat crystalline in outline, thus afford- 
ing neither information regarding the nature of the plant from 
which it has been derived, nor certainty that it is in reality of 
vegetable origin. Through a fortunate discovery made last Septem- 
ber by Mr. J. O. Northrop and myself, I am able to submit 
evidence that in one belt of Archeean limestone in the Highlands 
of New Jersey, the graphite has been derived from a plant, and 
proof that vegetable life existed in that epoch. 

The plant-remains appear as black bands on the rock, consisting 
of very thin films of graphite; in some the thickness reaches 
about 0.5 mm., but it is generally less. The average width of the 
bands is about 8 mm., and the greatest continuous length observed 
about 6 cm., though it is apparent that when entire they are much 
longer. In many parts of the rock these are matted together to 
form broad black patches, which are in reality thin carbon strata. 
The bands and films lie parallel with the bedding of the limestone. 
No cellular structure has thus far been detected. 

As this is undoubtedly the most ancient plant yet discovered, 
I should suggest for it the generic name Archxophyton, aud to 
acknowledge, in an imperfect manner, my obligation to one to 
whom I am indebted for encouragement and counsel in study and 
investigation, and at the same time, to associate with this interest- 
ing plant the name of one foremost in American Paleobotany, I 
would denominate the plant Archxophyton Newberryanum. 

While the imperfect nature of the fossil forbids any definite 
statement as to its botanical affinity, we may, perhaps, assume its 
relation tc the algae. 


THE 


Seen eA HC OR D 


PRED BLAS 6 


fay, 
CADE 
OF SCIENCE. oo 
f{tisRARY: 


Prey see SCIENCES 
VOL. III. OCTOBER, 1888. N wo Cl EN 


‘ON soME CANADIAN ROCKS CONTAINING SCAPOLITE, 
WITH A Frew Norges ON sOME Rocks Asso- 
CIATED WITH THE APATITE DEPOSITS. 


By Frank D. Apams, of the Canadian Geological Survey, and 
Awnprew C. Lawson, Ph. D., of the Canadian Geological Survey. 


At the meeting of the British Association for the Ad- 
vancement of Science, held in Montreal in the summer of | 
1884, a short paper entitled ‘‘On the Occurrence of the : 
Norwegian ‘Apatitbringer’ in Canada, with a Few Notes | 
on the Microscopic Characters of some Laurentian Amphi- 
bolites,” was read before the Geological Section by Mr. 
Frank D, Adams. Only a short extract of some dozen 
lines was prepared for the Transactions, as it was proposed 
to continue the investigation of these rocks and especially 
to study their geological relations in the field. A thorough 
geological examination of the district from which these 
rocks were obtained has not, however, been found to be 
practicable, and in the following paper it is proposed to 
give a more detailed description of them, together with the 
results of the examination of a few others collected since 


that time. 
14 


186 Canadian Record of Science. 


The peculiar scapolite rock, referred to above as the 
“ Apatitbringer,’ was first mentioned by Brogger and 
Reusch in a paper entitled “Vorkommen des Apatit in 
Norwegen.”’ In this paper, the authors state that at 
Oedegarden in Bamle (Southern Norway), where the 
largest apatite deposits of that country are found,—some 
idea of the extent of these deposits may be obtained from 
the fact that in 1882, at Oedegarden alone, 15,000 tons of 
apatite were mined, between 700 and 800 men being em- 
ployed—the mineral occurs in, or in the immediate vicinity 
of, a rock described by them as ‘ Geflecter Gabbro.” This 
rock, however, differed from gabbro, as that word is gene- 
rally understood, as it was stated to be composed essen- 
tially of amphibole and labradorite, and it has been shown 
to be a peculiar form assumed by the normal gabbro of the 
country on approaching the apatite veins. Referring to 
this work, Kjerulf, in his ‘Geologie des siidlichen und 
mittleren Norwegen,” after mentioning one variety of gab- 
bro as an “ Erzbringer,” says:—‘ Der bunte oder Horn- 
blende Gabbro...... wegen seiner Rolle als ‘ Apatitbringer ’ 
gekannt zu sein verdient.” It was also described as Horn- 
blende Gabbro in a paper by H. Méhl.? Michel Lévy,’ who 
subsequently examined the work, showed that, as conjec- 
tured by Lang,’ the white mineral was really not plagio- 
clase, but a mineral of the scapolite family, which he referred 
to the species wernerite. Sjégren,’? who has more recently 


1 Zeit. d. deutsch. geol., Gesellsch, 1875, Heft IIT. 

2 Die Eruptivgesteine Norwegens, mikroskopisch untersucht 
und beschrieben. Nyt magazin for Naturwidenskaberne. Bd. XXIII. 

* Sur une roche 4 sphene, amphibole et wernerite granulitique 
de Bamle (Norwége). Bull. Soc. Min. France. No.3. 1878. 

Sur le gisement de l’amphibolite 4 wernerite granulitique 
d’Oedegaard pres Bamle (Norwége). Bull. Soc. Min. France. No. 
i TRSIASE 

‘Hin Beitag zur Kenutniss norwegischer Gabbros, Z D. G. G. 
1879. XXXI. 484. 

° Om de norska apatitforekomsterna, etc. Geol. Foren i, Stock. 
Foérh. 18838. 447. 


Some Canadian Rocks containing Scapolite. 187 


carefully examined the rock, refers the mineral to the spe- 
cies dipyr, calling the rock a dipyr diorite. 

It is believed by those who have studied the rock and its 
relations in the field, to be derived from the alteration of 
the true gabbro adjoining it, the pyroxene of the gabbro 
being altered to hornblende and the plagioclase of the gab- 
bro to scapolite.. The change would be essentially one of 
diagenesis. Intermediate varieties are found containing 
diallage “rests” in the hornblende and plagioclase mixed 
with scapolite.’ In this connection, an observation made 
by Fouqué and Michel Lévy’ is especially interesting, 
namely, that when the rock is fused and allowed to cool, 
the magma recrystallizes as a mixture of labradorite and 
angite. 

The occurrence of scapolite in certain of the crystalline 
schists, especially augite gneiss and amphibolite, has been 
mentioned by Tornebohm’, Dathe’, Becke’, Wulf,° Migge,’ 
Svedmark,° and others. The last-named author, in addition 
to a number of scapolite-bearing gneisses and amphibolites, 
describes an amphibolite from Orebro which contains s¢a- 
polite to the exclusion of plagioclase, and which also holds 
a little diallage and mica. In composition, therefore, it 
would be closely allied to the Oedegarden rock. 

Lacroix and Baret' have also recently described a pyrox- 
ene wernerite rock which occurs associated with gneiss 

' See Sjogren, loc. cit., and Rosenbusch, Mass. Gest. I., 165. 

*Sur la transformation par voie ignée, etc. Bull. Soc. Min. 
France. 1879. 105. 

* Ett par Skapolitforande Bergarter. Geol. Foren. i. St6ck. Forh. 
1882. VL 192. 

‘ Jahr. preuss. geol. Landesanstalt. 1884. LXXVI. 

* Die Gneissformation des niederésterr. Waldviertels. T. M. P. M. 
1882. 369. 

° Beitrag zur Petrographic des Hererolandes in Stidwest-Africa, 
T.M. P.M. 1887. 213. 

* Ueber einige Gesteine des Massai-Landes. N. J. Beil. Band. 
IV. Heft ITI. 

“Om nagra Svenska Skapolitfo6rande bergarter. Geol. Foren. i. 
Stock. Férh. VII. 1884, 293. 


188 Canadian Record of Science. 


and amphibolite at Point-du-Jour, near St. Nazaire, in 
France. In this rock the pyroxene is associated with, and 
sometimes completely replaced by, a very. pleochroic am- 
phibole, and in some specimens the wernerite is associated 
with oligoclase, the rock thus passing into a wernerite 
oligoclase amphibolite. 

A most interesting paper in this connection and one 
which will be referred to again, was published by Dr. A. P. 
Coleman in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada 
for 1887.7 

As Canada is the only country, except Norway, in which 
apatite is extensively mined, and as in most respects the 
character and mode of occurrence of the mineral in both 
countries are very similar, a corresponding relation to 
dipyrdiorite might be looked for. In Canada, however, as 
pointed out by Dr. Harrington in his excellent “‘ Report on 
the Minerals of some of the Apatite-bearing Veins of 
Ottawa County, Que.',” this relation does not exist, the 
important deposits of apatite occurring associated with a 
granular pyroxene rock, which is always regarded by pros- 
pectors as indicative of the presence of apatite, and occupies, 
in that way, to a certain extent, the position of the “ Apa- 
titbringer” in Norway. ‘These’ pyroxene rocks, which 
have been called by Hunt pyroxenites, vary considerably 
in their characters. Sometimes they consist almost exclu- 
sively of pyroxene, though more commonly quartz and 
orthoclase are present. Mica, too, is of frequent occur- 
rence, while minute garnets may occasionally be seen. 
The frequent presence of disseminated grains of apatite 
is also an important fact. When pyroxene is the principal 
mineral, the rock commonly shows little or no trace of 


1 Lacroix et Baret.—Sur la pyroxénite 4 wernérite du Point-du- 
Jour prés Saint-Nazaire. Bull. Soc. Min. France, July, 1887. 

Lacroix, A.—Note sur une roche 4 wernérite granulitique des 
environs de Saint-Nazaire. C.R. CIV. 1011. 

” Microscopic Petrography of the Drift of Central Ontario. 

+ Reports of Progress of the Geological Survey of Canada, 1877-8. 

? Ibid. 


Some Canadian Rocks containing Scapolite. 189 


bedding, but is often a good deal jointed. Its aspect, when 
the pyroxene is of a dark colour, is often that of a massive 
eruptive rock.’ It is very intimately associated with the 
apatite, in some places apparently passing imperceptibly 
into it. 

In order to ascertain whether these pyroxenites con- 
tained any scapolite, two specimens—one from lots 35 and 
36, range V. of Portland West, and the other from the well- 
known McLaurin Mine in Templeton—were sliced and 
examined microscopically. They are both rather coarse- 
grained, that from Portland being of a light greyish colour 
and holding a little disseminated apatite, sphene and pyr 
ite, while the Templeton rock is light green in colour, and 
in certain places contains a good deal of biotite. Neither 
of them contained any scapolite, nor could any be found in 
the wall rock of the Emerald Mine in the township of 
Buckingham. 

Mr. Coste, Mining Engineer to the Geological Survey of 
Canada, who has had occasion to visit a number of the apatite 
mines, considers that the apatite occurs in the form of more or 
less irregular veins, the above mentioned pyroxene rocks 
occupying the position of vein stones. He also believes that 
these veins of apatite and pyroxenite are found almost invari- 
ably in connection with a certain eruptive rock, which varies 
much in texture but is generally rather coarse-grained, and 
which is composed largely of orthoclase generally having a 
bluish or lilac tint. Two specimens of this rock, collected 
by Mr. Coste,—one from the “Star Hill Mine,” range 
VIL, Portland West, in the Province of Quebec, and the 
other from the “ Blessington Mine,” lots 29 and 30, range 
I., Inchinbrooke, in the Province of Ontario,—were also 
sliced and examined. The two rocks resemble one another 
in appearance, that from the *‘ Blessington Mine,” however, 
being somewhat darker in colour. 

Under the microscope, the “Star Hill” rock is seen to 
be composed essentially of orthoclase and biotite, with very 
small amounts of magnetite and pyrite. ‘The orthoclase is 
almost always clear and fresh; the biotite is also very 


190 Canadian Record of Science. 


fresh, although in places it is slightly decomposed to chlor- 
ite. The magnetite is probably titaniferous, as occasion- 
ally it is altered to leucoxene. Another hand specimen of 
the same rock was found to contain, in addition to the 
minerals mentioned above, a little quartz and a little pla- 
gioclase, and the orthoclase contained the peculiar inter- 
growths characteristic of perthite. This specimen had a 
very obscure foliation, and the quartz and orthoclase 
showed evidence of having been submitted to pressure. It 
also contained a few forms of some mineral which had been 
entirely decomposed, but which may have been pyroxene. 

-The rock from the “Blessington Mine” is composed 
essentially of orthoclase, biotite, pyroxene and magnetite, 
with a little plagioclase, hornblende, pyrite, calcite and 
apatite. The orthoclase contains a multitude of minute, 
black, rod-like inclusions and fine dust. The pyroxene 
occurs in large amount, and is more plentiful than the 
biotite. It is pale green in colour, with scarcely notice- 
able pleochroism and large angle of extinction. It is gene- 
rally without good crystalline form, but occasionally occurs 
in rude crystals. It is also occasionally twinned. The 
hornblende occurs in very small amount—intergrown with 
the pyroxene and biotite. The calcite is present in small 
amount, and results from the decomposition of the pyrox- 
ene and feldspar. The magnetite may be titaniferous. 
The apatite is uniaxial and negative, and occurs in irregu- 
lar shaped grains, with high index of retraction and faint 
bluish colour, generally associated with the pyroxene. 

The rock from the “Star Hill Mine” is therefore a mica 
syenite, and that from the “ Blessington Mine” an augite 
mica syenite. It will be a matter of interest to ascertain 
whether these rocks occupy a similar relation to the apatite 
at the other mines. A monograph of the apatite district 
of the Province of Quebec, which is now being prepared 
by Mr. Ingall of the Geological Survey, willl decide this 
and many other important points. 

Among aseries of specimens from the vicinity of the town 
of Arnprior, on the River Ottawa, which were some time 


Some Canadian Rocks containing Scapolite. 191 


ago, sent to Mr. Hoffmann of this Survey for examination, 
there was, however, one small specimen which exactly 
resembled the Oedegarden rock, and which, when sliced 
and examined with the microscope, proved to be identical 
with it. Unfortunately, we were unable to obtain any 
further specimens or to ascertain the locality from which it 
came more precisely than that, as above mentioned, it was 
from near the town of Arnprior. The large collection of 
rocks in the museum of the Geological Survey of Canada 
was then carefully examined, and sections were prepared 
of all those which at, all resembled this rock in appearance. 
An examination of these sections resulted in the discovery 
of three other specimens, from widely separated localities, 
rich in scapolite, but unlike the Arnprior rock, containing 
also a considerable proportion of plagioclase. 

The first of these specimens was collected by the late Mr. 
‘Vennor at Mazinaw Lake, in the township of Abinger, in 
the county of Addington; the second was obtained by Mr. 
Coste at the Robertsville or Mississippi Iron Mine, on lot 3, 
range VIII. of the township of Palmerstone, in the county 
of Frontenac, and the third was collected by Dr. Bell from 
lot 28, range I. of McDougall, in the Parry Sound district. 
All three rocks are of Laurentian age, and come from that 
great stretch of Laurentian country lying north of Lake 
Ontario and south of of Lake Nipissing and the River 
Ottawa. The eastern half of this area was examined by 
Mr. Vennor, and found by him to be rich in amphibolites, 
dioritic schists and diorites; a very common, coarse-grained 
variety of the latter being called by him ‘“ blotched diorite,” 
and it is associated with these dioritic rocks, whose occur- 
rence at Mazinaw Lake is mentioned by Mr. Vennor, that 
the Arnprior and Mazinaw Lake rocks apparently occur, 
The rock from the Robertsville Mine is found associated 
with crystalline limestone and granite. In some places it 
forms the wall rock of the magnetite, between 50,000 and 
60,000 tons of which have been mined. The mode of occur- 
rence of the McDougall rock is described by Dr, Bell in the 


192 Canadian Record of Science. 


following extracts from his report on the country north of 
Lake Huron and east of Lake Superior.’ 

“ Hastward of the village of Parry Sound, along the road 
of the same name, dark, hornblendic gneiss or schist pre- 
vails for a distance of about a mile and a half. A band of 
crystalline limestone, and one of mottled white and black 
diorite, occur in association with these rocks where this road 
crosses lot 28, concession I., township of McDougall.” “The 
rock which is here immediately associated with the lime- 
stone is a remarkable looking diorite, consisting of a white 
ground, thickly mottled with patches of dark-green or 
blackish hornblende, having their longer diameters arranged 
parallel to the general bedding. This appears to be the 
rock which Mr. Vennor has described in the Hastings, 
Lanark and Renfrew region, under the name of ‘ blotched 
diorite.” The rock from near Arnprior is rather coarse- 
grained, and with the naked eye is seen to consist of white 
of bluish-white scapolite, with a rather larger amount of 
what looks like a dark greenish hornblende. In appear- 
ance, the scapolite closely resembles that occurring in the 
Norwegian rock, which has been aptly compared by Brégger 
to wet snow. The rock appears to have an indistinet folia- 
tion, but the specimen sent was too small to show its struc- 
ture distinctly. When thin sections are examined with the 
microscope, the rock is seen to be fresh and almost entirely 
free from decomposition products. The structure is for 
the most part granular, none of the minerals being idio- 
morphic.” The principal constituents are found to be 
pyroxene, hornblende and scapolite; and the accessory 
ones epidote, enstatite, pyrrhotite and rutile. 

The pyroxene is very light in colour and faintly pleo- 
chroic. A=yellowish; H—greenish; @—light green. The 
absorption is @ > >A. Basal sections show well-marked 
prismatic cleavages intersecting at an angle of about 90°; 


1 Reports of Progress of Geological Survey of Canada, 1876-77, 
pp. 199 and 204. 

2 Rosenbusch.—Mikroskopische Physiographie der massigen 
Gersteine. Band II. i. Abtheilung,—1886. 


Some Canadian Rocks containing Scapolite. 198 


while in sections parallel to the clinopinnacoid, the extinc- 
tion is seen to be about 39° or 40° against C. Most of the 
pyroxene has a peculiar, fibrous or mottled appearance, 
due to what is apparently its partial alteration into a light 
green pleochroic hornblende. This hornblende is darker 
in colour and generally has a shred-like character at its 
contact with the pyroxene, the two minerals, however, 
often having a sharp line of contact, which in this case is 
usually a cleavage trace. The various patches, streaks or 
shreds of hornblende scattered through an individual of 
pyroxene generally have a common orientation, presenting 
elongated forms in prismatic sections of the pyroxene, but 
on basal sections generally appearing as irregular spots, 
the hornblende strings being inlaid parallel to the C axis of 
the pyroxene, and sometimes also elongated parallel to 
«2 P o, both minerals having the B axis in common. 

In addition to the hornblende associated with the pyrox- 
ene, the rock contains other hornblende which shows no 
evidence of derivation from pyroxene. This is of a deep 
green colour, has the usual perfect cleavages, and occurs 
scattered througb the rock in irregular shaped masses, 
which however occasionally have well defined prismatic 
contours. The pleochroism is strongly marked @—=dark 
bluish-green ; M=dark green; A=light yellowish or brown- 
ish-green. 

The scapolite is abundant, and occurs in large, colour- 
less grains. In basal sections a very distinct uniaxial 
figure was repeatedly obtained, and by means cf the 
quarter-undulation plate its negative character was clearly 
established. The quadratic cleavage parallel to o Po is 
distinct. The polarization colours are either brilliant or 
are of a pale bluish-gray tint like those of the feldspars. 
The brilliantly polarizing scapolite occurs side by side with 
that which shows the soft gray tints, so that the difference 
does not seem to be due to a varying thickness of the sec- 
tion. In two instances, traces of polysynthetic lamelle 
were observed, in which the extinction, though much less 
distinct than in plagioclase, resembled it otherwise very 


194 Canadian Record of Science. 


strongly. The appearance was very suggestive of the deri- 
vation of the scapolite from plagioclase, and if this be the 
case the twinning structure of the latter is retained after 
the mineral has apparently been entirely changed tu sca- 
polite. Probably, however, in these cases the change may 
not be complete, and although the mineral has the charac. 
ters of scapolite, there may be sufficient plagioclase remain- 
ing in twinning position to cause the alternate oblique 
extinction observed. There are in the scapolite, inclusions 
of a dusty, opaque character, besides fluid inclusions and 
microlites. The dust and fluid exclusions are disposed 
either in planes or irregularly; in the latter case, the 
section may be really parallel to the planes in which the 
inclusions lie. The microlites lie for the most part in 
cleavage lines, and have their long axes either perpen- 
dicular or oblique to certain planes (sometimes cracks) 
which cross the cleavages. In some instances, numerous 
opaque, thick plates and stout rods were observed lying 
parallel to the cleavage lines. When seen on edge, these 
plates and rods had rectangular outlines, although rounded 
patches of the same opaque material could sometimes be 
seen. Occasionally the scapolite is somewhat cloudy, 
owing to the presence of a kaolin-like decomposition pro- 
duct, but generally it is quite fresh and clear. The epidote 
occurs in small, nearly colourless grains of irregular shape. 
Scattered through both the hornblende and the pyroxene, 
and occasionally to be observed in larger grains situated 
between those of the other constituents, there are irregu- 
larly rounded or oval grains of a mineral which is referred 
to the rhombic pyroxenes. It is biaxial, possesses a rather 
high index of retraction, and polarizes in brilliant though 
somewhat subdued tints. It has one well-marked cleavage, 
to which the extinction is parallel, and has a fine, fibrous 
structure, also parallel to the cleavage, which seems to be 
due to decomposition. The mineral is not quite colourless, 
but has a faint purplish or amythestine tint, and occasion- 
ally seems to be slightly pleochroic. Pyrrhotite occurs very 
sparingly, and is distinguished by its opacity and its bronze 


Some Canadian Rocks containing Scapolite. 195 


colour in reflected light. In one instance it was seen to be 
included in the scapolite, which was stained yellowish- 
green in the vicinity of the grain. Other grains occur 
bedded in the hornblende. Rutile occurs in occasional 
grains, rather large in size and irregular in shape, but has 
not been observed in its usual prismatic habit. It has a 
high index of retraction and a faint brownish or reddish 
colour, and resembles titanite very much both in ordinary 
light and between crossed Nichols. In convergent light, 
however, it gives a distinct uniaxial interference figure, and 
there are traces of a quadratic cleavage. It polarizes in dull, 
leaden-gray tints. In two instances these grains of rutile 
were seen to be made up of lamellz, as if polysynthetically 
twinned. There was, however, no alternation of extinc- 
tion corresponding to the alternate lamelle. In a certain 
position between crossed Nichols, the section was broken 
up into these lamelle, which were alternately light and 
dark. On revolving the stage through 90°, the same 
appearance is produced, i.e., the same lamelle are light 
and dark as before, and there is no position in which the 
light lamelle become dark and the dark lamelle light. In 
one of these two instances, the polyxenthetic lamelli 
appeared to cross each other, the angle between the two 
sets being, as nearly as could be measured, 53°. The rutile 
is associated with the scapolite, and in the last-mentioned 
case, where the grain has a diameter of 14 mm., it is 
entirely surrounded by seapolite. In this case the glass 
cover having been removed, the section was treated with 
hydrochloric acid, the mineral, however, was quite unacted 
upon. Following Sjogren, the rock may be termed a 
Scapolite Diorite. 

The rock from Mazinaw Lake [Museum Number 2930| 
is rather coarse-grained and distinctly foliated. The prin- 
cipal constituents are hornblende, biotite, scapolite, plagio- 
clase and, in smaller amount, quartz, The accessory mine- 
rals are epidote, ziosite and titanite. Pyroxene does not 
occur in any of the slides. In nearly all the sections the 
rock is seen to be made up of two parts: (1) a fine-grained, 


196 Canadian Record of Science. 


eranulitic “ groundmass’” composed chiefly of feldspar 
with some quartz, biotite and hornblende; and (2) a coarser 
grained portion imbedded in this “groundmass,” but not 
having any definite crystalline boundaries. The minerals 
composing this coarser grained portion are scapolite, pla- 
gioclase, biotite, hornblende, and occasionally quartz. A 
gradation between the ‘“ groundmass”’ and the coarser 
constituents can generally be observed, and in some few 
instances there appears to be evidence that the former was 
derived from the latter, particularly from the plagioclase, 
by crushing, the structure being cataclastic. In this con- 
nection, the absence of pyroxene is noteworthy. ‘The sca- 
polite is generally coarsely crystalline, and present in large 
amount. Only occasionally is it sparing in quantity or 
finely crystalline. Very commonly it occurs in large 
plates of uniform orientation, in which more or less elon- 
gated individuals of hornblende or biotite lie irregularly 
imbedded, the structure being quite analogous in appear- 
ance to the ophitic structure seen in diabases. In one 
case, a large plate of scapolite was observed to inclose an 
irregular grain of plagioclase, the latter being somewhat 
decomposed. The scapolite usually occurs side by side 
with plagioclase or with plagioclase and quartz, all being 
in very irregular shaped grains, evidently allotriomorphie. 
The line of contact between the plagioclase and scapolite is 
quite sharp, and generally there is but little evidence of the 
derivation of the latter from the former. Associated with 
the scapolite, there is often a fine-grained aggregate of gray 
decomposition products, which shows aggregate polariza- 
tion in brilliant but subdued colours, and which probably 
consists of muscovite, calcite, etc. 

Hornblende and biotite are well represented in all the 
sections, the former being rather more abundant than the 
latter. The hornblende is of a deep green colour, strongly 
pleochroic, and contains numerous inclusions. The biotite 
is of the usual brown colour, and some grains contain inclu- 
sions, in the shape of films running in between the cleavage 
lamellee, of a mineral which between crossed Nichols resem- 


Some Canadian Rocks containing Scapolite. 197 


bles scapolite, but which are so minute that their character 
cannot be determined with certainty. The plagioclase is 
usually quite fresh and clear. In the “groundmass,” the 
feldspars are only twinned occasionally and can be distin- 
guished from the quartz only by means of the interference 
figure in convergent polarized light. 

The most striking of the accessory minerals, and at the 
same time the only constantly idiomorphic constituent of 
the rock, is the epidote. It occurs in elongated prisms of 
rhombic cross-section, which vary much in width, in 
some cases forming slender needles, but elsewhere being of’ 
stout columnar habit. The crystals are colourless, but 
between crossed Nichols, polarize in the usual brilliant 
manner. The extinction is parallel to the side of the 
prism that is to the axis, and in cross-sections is oblique to 
both of the crystallographic lines. The plane of the optic 
axes may readily be determined to be perpendicular to B. 
The index of retraction is high, the prisms standing out in 
marked relief, and irregular transverse partings can occa- 
sionally be observed. In one section a large plate of zoisite 
was observed. It was oblong in shape, showed a perfect 
cleavage parallel to its length (« P &), and a distinct cross 
parting. The plane of the optic axes was found to be at 
right angles to the C axis. The mineral is colourless, and 
shows dull gray to deep blue polarization colours, Titanite 
is rare, and occurs in small, rudely wedge-shaped grains. 
The rock may be called a Plagioclase Scapolite Amphibolite. 

The rock from McDougall [Museum Number, 2996,] is 
coarse-grained, and possesses a rather indistinct foliation. 
Under the microscope, it is seen to be a granular aggregate 
of plagioclase, scapolite and green hornblende, with a sparing 
amount of pyroxene and quartz and a little accessory epidote 
and pyrite. The plagioclase is for the most part fresh, though 
occasionally a little cloudy, and by means of Lévy and Pum- 
pelly’s method was found to belong to the anorthite-labra- 
dorite end of the plagioclase series. The plagioclase and 
hornblende are present in about equal proportions, The sca- 
polite is less abundant, and occurs in large, irregular-shaped 


198 Canadian Record of Science. 


plates, usually somewhat cloudy from the presence of decom- 
position products. The pyroxene is present in rather sparing 
amount, and is not seen in every slide. It is pale green in 
colour and without noticeable pleochroism, and is inti- 
mately associated wtth the hornblende, being in many 
cases apparently in process of alteration into that mineral, 
as in the case of the Arnprior rock. It may, perhaps, best 
be termed a Plagioclase Scapolite Diorite. 

The rock from the Robertsville Mine is rather coarse- 
grained, and in external appearance bears a strong resem- 
blance to that from McDougall, but possesses a more 
distinct foliation. Under the microscope it is seen to be 
composed of scapolite, plagioclase and hornblende, with 
accessory biotite and epidote. ‘The scapolite is present in 
large amount, and is generally very free from decomposi- 
tion products. It usually occurs in rather large plates, 
which polarize in brilliant colours. The cleavage with 
extinction parallel to it is well seen, and in sections paral- 
lel to the base the mineral is found to be uniaxial and 
negative. The plagioclase, which is also present in large 
amount, polarizes in much more subdued tones. Polysyn- 
theti twinning is seen in many, but not in all cases. It is 
often rendered cloudy by the presence of decomposition 
products, which resemble kaolin in appearance, and as a 
general rule is not so fresh as the scapolite which occurs 
side by side with it. The hornblende, which is light green 
in colour, is without good crystalline form, but is not 
fibrous in character. It is strongly pleochroic, in yellow- 
ish and bluish-green tints. The biotite occurs in very small 
amount, intimately associated with the hornblende and 
partly altered to chlorite. Scattered through the plagio- 
clase, and less frequently also in the scapolite, are many 
small, stout prisms and irregular grains of a colourless 
mineral, with high index of retraction, and which polarizes 
in brilliant colours. Occasionally these are pleochroic, 
with the yellowish tint characteristic of epidote, and have 
been referred to that species. The rock, which under the 
microscope resembles one of the crystalline schists, may be 
termed a Plagioclase Scapolite Amphibolite. 


Some Canadian Rocks containing Scapolite. 199 


Although these scapolite rocks have been ascertained to 
exist at only four localities, they probably occur abun- 
dantly in various parts of the district from which these 
were obtained, and it is very interesting to note that in his 
study of the Petrography of the Drift of Central Ontario,— 
his materials being collected principally about Cobourg, 
situated about the middle of the southern limit of this same 
district, Dr. Coleman found several specimens of “ scapo- 
lite-diorite schist,” which, judging from his description, 
must be identical in character with the rocks described in 
this paper. : 

Although the derivation of at least a part of the horn- 
blende of these rocks from pyroxene is well nigh certain, 
the derivation of the scapolite from plagioclase, which, as 
before stated, has been pretty clearly proved in the case of 
the Norwegian rock, is not so evident in these similar 
rocks from Canada. There is certainly nothing in the sec- 
tions fatal to this supposition, and several facts mentioned 
in this description of the slides seem to give some support 
to it. A much more exhaustive study of the rocks in their 
relations to the pyroxenic and dioritic rocks of the district . 
would, however, be required to decide the question, and 
such an investigation would probably throw additional 
light on the curious paramorphism which the constituents 
of some rocks undergo, apparently under changed condi- 
tions of pressure. Fouqué’s experiment, referred to 
above, on the minerals resulting from prism of the Norwe- 
gian rock, is of especial interest in this connection, as 
tending to show that hornblende and scapolite are not 
stable forms at high temperatures, at least under the ordi- 
nary pressure. The whole question is one of much interest, 
and one which, of late, has attracted a good deal of atten- 
tion.’ 

As mentioned above, the rocks from McDougall and 
Palmerstone occur associated with crystalline limestones 


'See Williams on The Gabbros and Associated Hornblende 
tocks occurring in the neighbourhood of Baltimore, Md., p. 49. 
3ull, U, 8. Geological Survey, No. 28. 


200 Canadian Record of Science. 


of the Laurentian System. There are, however, many 
amphibolites and dioritic rocks occurring in the same 
district intimately associated with these limestones, but 
which contain no scapolite whatever. There is, for 
example, a great thickness of amphibolites, interstratified 
with crystalline limestone, exposed on the north shore of 
the Ottawa, just below the town of Arnprior, which we 
examined some years ago when on a visit to that locality 
for the purpose of endeavouring to discover the Scapolite- 
Diorite in place. They are all rather fine-grained and 
weather dark gray and black, and have a more or less dis- 
tinct foliation. They were followed for a distance of about 
five miles below Arnprior, being gradually replaced by 
quartz feldspar rocks. Like all the other amphibolites and 
dioritic rocks of the district which do not hold scapolite, 
when examined with the naked eye the feldspar is seen to be 
wanting in that peculiar bluish-white tint characteristic of 
the scapolite, and which the Norwegian geologists com- 
pared to wet snow. Three specimens, collected respec- 
tively a quarter of a mile, two and a quarter, and three 
and a half miles below Arnprior, were sliced and exam- 
ined. The last of these is traversed by little pegmatite 
veins, and under the microscope is found to be composed 
of hornblende, biotite and plagioclase, with accessories of 
epidote and sphene. The hornblende is green in colour, 
strongly pleochroic and without any tendency to a fibrous 
structure. It occurs in irregular shaped fragments, which 
occasionally have an imperfect idiomorphic development, 
and which mark the lines of foliation. The biotite, which 
is present in much smaller amount than the hornblende, is 
brown, with the usual strong dichroism and parallel extinc- 
tion. The plagioclase is generally twinned, the lamelle 
being narrow and the twinning generally faint. All un- 
twinned grains which could be found cut in a direction at 
right angles to an optic axis, showed the revolving bar of a 
biaxial crystal. They polarize in rather dull tints, and 
extinguish simultaneously over the whole surface, showing 
little or no evidence of having been submitted to pressure. 


Some Canadian Rocks containing Scapolite. 201 


The pyrite, epidote and sphene occur in small amount in 
little irregular shaped grains. 

The other two specimens contain no biotite, but hold a 
certain amount of quartz, recognized by the absence of 
cleavage and decomposition products and by its uniaxial 
and positive character. The quartz grains are sometimes 
broken, but do not show much evidence of pressure either. 
The specimen collected about a quarter of a mile below 
Arnprior contains a considerable amount of quartz, while 
that from two and a quarter miles below, holds less quartz, 
and contains, in addition to the pyrite, a little magnetite or 
ilmenite. 

To sum up, therefore, it may be said :— 

(1) That the Scapolite Diorite, which in Norway occurs 
so intimately associated with the apatite deposits, does not 
occupy the same relation to the Canadian deposits, 

‘ (2) That its place in Canada is taken by certain pyrox- 
enic rocks which have not, as yet, been thoroughly studied. 

(3) That Scapolite Diorite and transition rocks between 
it and gabbro, identical with the Norwegian rocks, do occur 
in our Laurentian System, associated with amphibolites 
and crystalline limestones. 


Eozoon CANADENSE. 


By Sir J. Wiu1am Dawsoy, F.R.S., ete. 


{Extracts from a memoir by Sir William Dawson in the Publieations of the 
Peter Redpath Museum, Sept., 1888.] 


I, STATE OF PRESERVATION. 


We may first ask, under this head, what are the structures 
supposed to be preserved. On the supposition that Hozoon 
was 4 marine organism, its test or hard part, which grew on 
the sea bottom, consisted of a series of calcareous lamin, 
not perfectly parallel, but bending towards each other at 
intervals, and uniting so as to form flattened chambers, 
deeper toward the base and becoming shallower in the 
upper part, while at the top they sometimes become broken 


up into rounded cells or chamberlets, constituting an 
‘15 


Canadian Record of Science. 


202 


i 


f EHozoon. 


imen 0 


Nature-printed speci 


Fig. 2 


On Specimens of Eozoon Canadense. 203 


’ 


“acervuline”” mass. The chambers, which, on the sup- 
position above stated, were originally filled with the sarcodic 
matter of the animal, were after death and the burial of 
the skeleton in some calcareous sediment, occupied with 
mineral substances introduced by infiltration, and more 
especially with serpentine and pyroxene, which were at the 
same time being deposited in layers and concretions in the 
surrounding material. When well preserved, the calcareous 
lamin are seen to be traversed with innumerable canals, 
terminating in very fine tubuli. These canals are occupied 
by serpentine, pyroxene or dolomite, or by limestone, 
according to the state of preservation. (See Figs. 2, 3, 4). 

The masses of Hozoon sometimes consist of as many as 
one hundred and fifty laminz superimposed. Originally flat 
or rounded, they assumed in growth club-shaped or turbinate 
forms, and sometimes by coalescence formed wide sheets or 
irregular masses, in which case they are often observed to 
be traversed in their thickness by conical or cylindrical 
tnbes oroscula. The outer surface and the walls of these 
tubes were strengthened by bending and coalescence of 
the lamine. The mode of growth would be similar to 
that of more modern organisms of the genera Loftusia, 
Carpenteria and Polytrema, and to that of some kinds 
of Stromatopore. Finally, these calcaceous tests were liable 
to be broken up and scattered in fragments over the 
sea bottom, constituting the material of beds of organic 
limestone, like the coral sand that surrounds modern reefs 
and islands. 

Assuming Hozoon to be a fossil animal of the char- 
acters above described, its mode of preservation in the 
ordinary serpentinous specimens is more simple than 
that of many fossils of later date. The calcareous walls 
have remained substantially unchanged, except that they 
have become somewhat crystalline in structure, and in 
many cases have assumed the crystalline cleavage of cal- 
cite; but this change is quite common in Paleozoic 
shells and crinoids, The chambers have been filled and the 
canals and tubuli traversing the calcareous test have been 


204 Canadian Record of Science. 


ex 


a 


\ 


oY 
y 
a 
ty 


AEE 
SNE 
A iN 


We 
Sa 

} ( vidi 

: » 


7 = hs Pon 
We GEMS: 


4 


Fic. 3. Coral System of Hozoon injected with serpentine (magnified). 
Fic. 4. Very fine canals and tubuli filled with Dolomite (magnified). 
(From Micro-photographs.) 
injected with a hydrous silicate. This is a filling up by no 
means infrequent in later fossils, and as Dr. Carpenter has 
shewn, it is going on in the modern seas in the case of 
foraminifera and other porous tests and shells injected with 
glauconite. Numerous instances of this kind exist in 
Paleozoic limestones. Several of these are described in my 
paper on fossils mineralized by silicates (Jour. Geol. Society, 
Feb. 1879, et infra), and I have recently met with another 
interesting example in a limestone from the Lower Carboni- 
ferous of Maxville, Ohio, collected by Prof. E. B. Andrews. 
and presented to me by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, in which many 
crinoids and corals are beautifully injected with a greenish 
hydrous silicate resembling glauconite. 

Mineralization of this kind is in reality greatly less 
complex than that in which, as in many fossil corals and 
fossil woods, the calcarerous or woody matter has been 
entirely removed and replaced by silica, oxyde of iron or 
pyrite. In many cases also in Paleozoic fossils the cavities 
have been filled with successive coats of different minerals 


On Specimens of Eozoon Canadense. 205 


giving very complex appearances. I have in my collection 
a specimen of Stigmaria in which every vessel has been 
coated in the interior with successive linings of red and 
white calcite, and subsequently filled with calcite and pyrite, 
and in a Sternbergia from the coal formation the phrag- 
mata are silicified and encrusted with crystalline silica and 
pyrite, while the interstices are filled in with sulphate of 
barium. Such-complex and eccentric examples of fossili- 
zation are much more intricate than anything that occurs 
in the ordinary examples of Kozoon. 

Geologists should also be reminded that porous fossils, 
once infiltrated with siliceous minerals, are practically in- 
destructible. Nothing short of absolute fusion can wholly 
deface their structures, and these remain in many cases in 
the utmost perfection when the external forms have been 
wholly lost or inseparably united with the matrix. 

There is therefore nothing anomalous in the preservation 
of Eozoon, except its occurrence in rocks highly crystalline 
and of unusually great age; and but for these circumstances 
it is probable that no doubt would have been entertained on 
the subject. The question of the crystalline structure of 
rocks containing fossils deserves, however, some further 
consideration. 

That in limestones a crystalline condition is compatible 
with the preservation of fossils, and more especially with 
the preservation of their microscopic characters, is very 
well known. Many Palozoic limestones are of a highly 
crystalline character, and yet retain abundant evidence of 
their organic origin. For example, the Chazy and Trenton 
limestones of the vicinity of Montreal have a_ perfectly 
crystalline fracture, and present to the naked eye no trace 
of any form but cleavage planes of calcite, yet, when sliced 
and studied with the microscope, they are seen to consist of 
organic fragments having their most minute structures pre- 
served, but so completely enveloped and identified with the 
crystalline calcite which fills their pores and interstices that 
they cleave with it. It is to be observed also that in these 
limestones, instances occur in which organic fragments are 


206 Canadian Record of Science. 


inscribed in hexagonal crystals and might be mistaken for 
mere crystals containing impurities, did not these latter 
show on examination the original structures. Mesozoic 
and even Tertiary limestones have sometimes assumed the 
same conditions. That the Laurentian limestones holding 
EKozoon have undergone no change incompatible with the 
preservation of fossils, is proved by the fact that they still 
retain their original lamination, and present layers, often 
quite thin, of dolomite and calcite, and of the latter with 
various mixtures of serpentine, graphite, &e. Now there is 
no reason why the structures of any fossil should not 
survive when the lamination of the limestone remains. 

Another example quite in point is that of some large 
calcified trees of the coal period. When broken, these trunks 
show large coarse cleavable crystals like those of stalagmite, 
but when sliced it is often found that the structure has been 
perfectly preserved in the midst of the crystallization. 

That the lamine of Hozoon themselves are in some 
cases replaced by dolomite, or partially by flocculent 
serpentine, is no argument against their organic nature. 
Stromatopore, shells and corals are often found to have 
their calcareous material wholly or in part replaced by 
other minerals, as dolomite, carbonate of iron, pyrite and 
silica. The replacement by the latter mineral more es- 
pecially gives us many of our most beautifully preserved 
Paleozoic fossils. At Pauquette’s Rapid on the Ottawa, 
among the numerous fossils found in a silicified state im- 
bedded in the Jimestone, are many Stromatopore, and in 
these the layers are not merely filled but actually replaced 
with silica, which, while it retains the form of the laminz 
is itself arranged in curious concretionary grains which 
might at first sight be mistaken for a part of the structure. 

In the Silurian dolomite of Guelph in Ontario, specimens 
of Coenostroma, replaced by perfectly crystalline dolomite, 
not only show their lamination, but in some cases even their 
fine canals. In the gray dolomite of Niagara, similar 
appearances are observed. In some places it is filled with 
masses of Stromatopora dispersed through the dolomite just 


On Specimens of Eozoon Canadense. 207 


as Eozoon is in the Laurentian limestone. These fossils are 
silicified and vary in diameter from a foot to an inch. The 
greater part are spheroidal in form, but some are cylindrical 
or club-shaped, while others spread into flat sheets or are of 
various irregular shapes. In many specimens, the structure 
is beautifully preserved; but in others it has partially dis- 
appeared, and the substance of the fossil is replaced by 
coarsely crystalline calcite or dolomite, or presents cavities 
lined with crystals of these minerals. There is reason to 
believe that many cavities in the limestone, now empty and 
coated with these crystals, were once occupied by Stro- 
matopor, or by the species of sponge found in this lime- 
stone. In every respect, except in the absence of hydrous 
silicates, the mode of occurrence of these fossils resembles 
that of Eozoon at Cote St. Pierre. 

In some such cases of replacement it is probable that the 
original material of the fossil was arragonite, and for this 
reason more easily removed or replaced. Hvery Paleonto- 
logist is familiar with the fact that arragonite or prismatic 
shell has been removed in cases where lamellar shell has 
remained, and the latter has sometimes disappeared when 
compact calcite shells, like those of Balanus, for example, 
have escaped. In the case of Kozoon, however, as in that 
of foraminifera in general, the calcite seems to have been 
of the less perishable kind, and this may be connected with 
the integrity of the calcareous wall in the better preserved 
specimens.* 

By what appears to a paleontologist a strange perversion 
of reasoning, some of the opponents of the organic nature 
of Kozoon take the badly preserved specimens as typical, 
and suppose that these represent an original mineral condi- 
tion, which in the better preserved specimens has only 
assumed its greatest perfection. 

As I have often urged, this kind of argument would 
invalidate all reasoning from the structures of fossils, In 
all large masses of fossil coral or wood, we find portions in 


* | have elsewhere remarked that the caleareous wall of Hozoon retains a finely 
granular texture, similar to thatseen in shells, etc., in altered Palssozoic limestones. 


208 Canadian Record of Science. 


all stages of disintegration. Sometimes the centre is a mere 
structureless mass, when the surface is perfectly preserved ; 
Sometimes it is the surface that is disorganised. In 
other cases portions are well preserved, and others disin- 
tegrated in the most capricious manner. I have specimens 
of fossil coniferous wood in which portions are disintegrated 
along the medullary rays, giving the appearance of widely 
separated wedges, and others in which concentric bands are 
alternately preserved and destroyed, others in which 
irregular spaces have been eaten out and filled with struc- 
tureless matter, and others in which crystalline or con- 
cretionary structures have been developed in spots, giving 
the most grotesque and inexplicable appearances. Yet in 
all these cases we have the general form ofa trunk and 
portions of it in which the structures are preserved. 
In one example of silicified wood I have found regularly 
formed prisms of quartz deposited in rows along the woody 
fibres as if these had formed original parts of the structure. 
In fossil woods it is also very common to find the tissues 
compressed, folded and contorted in spots, so as to give the 
most unnatural possible appearances. Now in all such 
cases it is surely reasonable to take the well—preserved 
portion as the means of interpreting the rest, though I have 
known cases where, for want of attention to this, portions 
of woody tissue have been described as cellular, in con- 
sequence of their being disintegrated by the crystallization 
of quartz. 

It is also to be observed that there is a gradation in the 
probability of the preservation of structures. A very finely 
tubulated structure, like that which is supposed to have 
constituted the proper wall of Kozoon, is rarely perfectly 
preserved. In modern foraminifera infiltrated with 
glauconite, we usually see their finer structures pre- 
served only in spots, ora part of the length of the tubes 
only filled. The larger cells are often infiltrated when 
the tubuli are empty. A coarse canal system is more 
likely to be perfectly infiltrated. Further, in Tertiary Num- 
- maulites the fine tubes are often filled with calcite, while the 


On Specimens of Eozoon Canadense. 209 


glauconite has penetrated the coarser portions only. This 
is very well seen in the beautiful specimens from Kempfen 
in Bavaria. All this applies to Eozoon. The most difficult 
part to findis its proper wall. The coarser canals are 
often present without the finer. The coarser parts of the 
canals are sometimes filled with serpentine, when the finer 
branches are filled with calcite or dolomite. The cells and 
laminz are sometimes quite manifest when the finer struc- 
tures are absent. All this is in perfect harmony with the 
analogy of other fossils. 


— SILy 


— ~~ 


Fig. 5. Slice of single lamina of Eozoon, magnified. (a) Tubulated wall; 
(b) Canal system ; both injected with Serpentine. 


Eozoon also agrees with other fossils in the independence 
of its form with reference to the mineral matter with which 
the cavities may be filled. This peculiarity commended it- 
self to the sagacity of Sir William Logan, and induced him 
to argue for the organic nature of Kozoon before its minute 
structures were known, and since these were investigated 
the argument has been much strengthened. The minerals 
serpentine, pyroxene and loganite are found filling the 
chambers, and the two former with dolomite and calcite oc- 
cupy the canals, which often present calcareous fillings in 
the finer ramifications, when the main stems are occupied 
with serpentine. These facts are readily explained if we 
assume cavities and tubes of definite form to be filled with 
minerals according to circumstances; but they are not ex- 
plicable on the supposition of a merely inorganic origin. 
They correspond perfectly with facts observed in the infiltra- 
tion and replacement of all classes of fossils, which often 


210 Canadian Record of Science. 


occur in such a way that similar spaces are occupied in one 
part of the fossil with one mineral, in others with another. 

In connection with this, the imperfections in the preser- 
vation of Hozoon are also parallel with those observed 


Fig. 6. Cross section of canals, injected with serpentine, highly magnified. 


in different organic substances. As an example, I have 
already mentioned that in some of the specimens a white 
flocculent serpentine encroaches upon the calcareous walls 
or in part replaces them. This would indicate the partial 
removal of the calcite prior to or at the same time with the 
filling. In some cases also the calcite wall is wholly or in 
part replaced with dolomite. Such changes are not infre- 
quent in Paleozoic fossils in which the substance of a cal- 
careous part has often been wholly removed and replaced 
by another mineral or has been partially eroded and so in 
part replaced. 


Fig. 7. Longitudinal section of canals, highly magnified. 


There are other peculiarities deserving special notice :— 


On Specimens of Eozoon Canadense. 211 


1. In some specimens the serpentine filling the chambers 
presents a laminated appearance, as if deposited in successive 
layers. There even occur serpentine-lined cavities and ca— 
nals with calcareous filling. This may depend on the depo- 
sition of serpentine in coatings on the sides of those cavities, 
leaving perhaps a central portion to be filled with calcite, 
or may in some cases be the result of the filling of the cavi- 
ties with successive laminz of serpentine from below upward. 
In either case we have frequent examples of these varieties 
of filling in ordinary fossils. 

2. There are examples of Hozoon in which no serpentine 
or other mineral filling appears, and in which the whole 
mass is calcareous, though presenting canals filled with ser- 
pentine or dolomite. In these cases the explanation is that 
the mass of Eozoon has not had its cavities filled, but has 
been compressed by pressure into asolidmass. Such astate 
of preservation is often observed in other fossils, more es- 
pecially in fossil wood, in which the cell-walls often become 
under pressure wholly coalescent. 

3. The condition of the proper wall also illustrates the 
manner of preservation. The tubes which compose it areso 
extremely fine that they are rarely injected with silicates, 
Sometimes they are merely occupied with calcite, and in 
this case the wall constitutes an apparently structureless 
band, or merely presents a band of slightly different appear- 
ance from the remainder. Sometimes the tubuli appear as 
fine continuations of the canals; or as a more or less perfect 
fringe of fine lines, and in decalcified specimens, this part is 
often represented merely by a tabular space between the ends 
of the canals and the serpentine filling. In the best specimens 
and in very thin slices under a high power, these tubuli ap- 
pear as hollow threads with expanded terminations, but this 
is rarely to be seen, All these conditions may be equally 
well observed in Nummulites injected with glauconite. 

4. The larger masses of Hozoon have often suffered con- 
siderable contortion and even faulting, and this seems to 
have occurred in some instances previous to complete fossil- 
ization. ‘This is a condition often observed in fossils of all 


212 Canadian Record of Science. 


_ ages, and every paleontologist is familiar with the fact that 
in all the older formations even the hardest calcareous fos- 
sils have been affected with accidents of this nature. 

There are even a few examples in the collections which 
would seem to indicate that portions had been broken off, 
perhaps by the action of the waves, previous to fossilization. 
It is not unlikely that some of the specimens have been loose 
and subject to the action of the waves and currents before 
being imbedded. 

5. An interesting feature in connection with the specimens 
of Kozoon from St. Pierre, noticed in previous papers, 
is the occurrence of layers filled with little globose casts 
of chamberlets, single or attached in groups, and often ex- 
actly resembling the casts of Globigerine in greensand. On 
weathered surfaces they were often especially striking when 
examined with the lens. In some cases, the chamberlets 
seem to have been merely lined with serpentine, so that 
they weather into hollow shells. The walls of these cham- 
berlets have had the same tubulated structure as EKozoon ; 


+ 50 
Fig.8. Sections and casts of detached chamberlets, magnified. 


On Specimens of Eozoon Canadense. 213 


so that they are in their essential characters minute acervu- 
line specimens of that species, and similar to those I describ- 
ed in my paper of 1867 as occurring in the limestones of 
Long Lake and Wentworth, and also in the Loganite filling 
the chambers of specimens of EKozoon from Burgess. Some 
of them are connected with each other by necks or processes, 
in the manner of the groups of chamberlets described by 
Giimbel as occurring in a limestone from Finland, examined 
by him. That they are organic I cannot doubt, and also 
that they have been distributed by currents over the surface 
of the layers along with fragments of Eozoon. Whether 


Fig. 9. Groups of chamberlets, Canada and Finland, magnified. 


they are connected with that fossil or are specifically distinct, 
may admit of more doubt. They may be merely minute 
portions detached from the acervuline surface of Kozoon, 
and possibly of the nature of reproductive buds. On the 
other hand they may be distinct organisms growing in the 
manner of Globigerina, As this is at present uncertain, and 
as it is convenient to have some name for them, I have pro- 
posed to term them Archosphierine, understanding by that 
name minute Foraminiferal organisms, having the form and 
mode of aggregation of Globigerina, but with the proper 
wall of Hozoon. 

A specimen in the colleetions from Cote St. Pierre 
deserves uotice (Fig, 11 infra) as illustrating the nature 


214 Canadian Record of Science. 


of Archeospherine. It is a small or young specimen, 
of a flattened oval form, 25 inches in its greatest 
diameter and of no great thickness. It is a perfect 
cast in serpentine, and completely weathered out of the 
matrix, except a small portion of the upper surface, which 
was covered with limestone which I have carefully remov- 
ed with a dilute acid. The serpentinous casts of the cham- 
bers are in the lower part regularly laminated; but they 
are remarkable for their finely mammilated appearance, 
arising from their division into innumerable connected 
chamberlets resembling those of Archeospherine. In the 
upper part the structure becomes acervuline, and the cham- 
berlets rise into irregular prominences, which in the recent 
state must have been extremely friable, and, if broken up 
and seattered over the surfaces of the beds, would not be 
distinguishable from the ordinary Archeospherine. This 
specimen thus gives further probability to the view that the 
Archeospherinz may be for the most part detached cham- 
berlets of Eozoon, perhaps dispersed in a living state and 
capabie of acting as germs. Other specimens weathered 
out and showing granular forms have been collected by Mr. 
K. H. Hamilton and are now in the Museum. 

6. Specimens of Eozoon have been traversed by veins of 
chrysotile and calcite which cross all their structures indif- 
ferently, and often seriously affect their preservation. But 
similar accidents have affected fossils of every age, and es- 
pecially those of the older and more altered rocks. The 


Fig, 10. Chrysotile vein‘crossing Hozoon, magnified. (a) Vein of fibrous Serpen- 
tine or Chrysotile; (6) Tubulation of Eozoon. 


On Specimens of Eozoon Canadense. 215 


manner in which these veins cross the forms of Eozoon in 
truth present an additional proof that these are original en- 
closures in the limestone, and not products of any subse- 
quent change. 

7. In connection with this I would refer to a fact which I 
have often previously mentioned, namely, that the Lauren- 
tian limestones, when destitute of the laminated forms char- 
acteristic of Eozoon, are nevertheless often filled with small 
patches showing the minute structures. These I regard as 
fragments of Eozoon broken up and scattered by the cur- 
rents. In this case, the remainder of these bands of lime- 
stone must be composed of fragments of other organisms 
which not being porous have not been so preserved by in- 
filtration as to be distinguishable. In the original investi- 
gation of Eozoon, however, a great number of slices of these 
fragmental limestones were prepared by Mr. Weston the 
lapidary of the Geological Survey, and carefully examined, 
and though they showed no distinct structure exccpt that of 
EKozoon, I felt convinced, and expressed this conviction in 
my original description, that these fragments presented such 
traces of structure as one is familiar with in metamorphosed 
organic limestones of more modern date.* At Cote St. Pierre 
there are several layers of limestone and dolomite studded 
with this fragmental Kozoon, and in specimens from Brazil, 
from Warren County, New York, and from Chelmsford in 
Massachusetts, and St. John, New Brunswick, the traces of 
Eozoon which I have observed consist of these fragments. 

8, In slicing one of my specimens from Cote St. Pierre, I 
have recently observed a very interesting peculiarity of 
structure, which deserves mention. It is an abnormal thick- 
ening of the calcareous wall in patches extending across the 
thickness of four or five lamelle, the latter becoming slight- 
ly bent in approaching the thickened portion. This thick- 
ened portion is traversed by regularly placed parallel canals 
of large size, filled with dolomite, while the intervening 
calcite presents a very fine dendritic tubulation. The longi- 
tudinal axes of the canals lie nearly in the plane of the ad- 


* Especially the finely granular structure above referred to. 


216 Canadian Record of Science. 


jacent laminz. This structure reminds an observer of the 
Cenostroma type of Stromatopora, and may be either an ab- 
normal growth of Eozoon, consequent on some injury, or a 
parasitic mass of some stromatoporoid organism finally over- 
grown by the Hozoon. The structure of the dolomite shows 
that it first incrusted the interior of the canals, and subse- 
quently filled them—an appearance which I have also ob- 
served in some of the larger canals filled with serpentine, 
and which is very instructive as to their true nature. 

The above statements have reference to state of preserva- 
tion, and are intended to remove misconceptions on that 
subject, but the mere fact of so many coincidences both in 
state of preservation and defects and imperfections between 
Hozoon and ordinary fossils, furnishes in itself, independent- 
ly of other evidence, no small proof of its organic origin. 


Il. NEW FACTS AND SPECIAL POINTS. 


Under this heading, I shall summarize some of the pre 
vious statements, and add some special facts bearing on the 
character of the specimens and their interpretation.* 


(1.) Form of Hozoon Canadense. 


Hitherto this has been regarded as altogether indefinite, 
and it is true that the specimens are often in great conflu- 
ent masses or sheets, the latter sometimes distorted by the 
lateral pressure which the limestone has experienced. The 
specimen from Tudor, however, figured by Sir W. H. Logan 
in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, 1867, p. 
253, and that described by me in the ‘ Proceedings of the 
American Association” in 1876, and figured in my work, 
‘“‘ Life’s Dawn on Harth,” gave the idea of a turbinate form 
more or less broad. More recently additional specimens 
weathered out of the limestone of Cote St. Pierre have been 


* Nos. 1 to 1i were read at the Meeting of the British Association, Sept. 5, 1387, 
and printedin partin Geological Magazine, February, 1888. 


On Specimens of Eozoon Canadense. 217 


Fig. 11. Hozoon Cunadense. (1) Small specimen disengaged by weathering. 
(2) Acervuline cells of upper part—magnified. (3) Tuberculated surface of 
lamina—mag. (4) Laminz of Serpentine in section, representing casts of the 
sarcode—mag. 
obtained by Mr, E. H. Hamilton, who collected for me at 
that place; and these, on comparison with several less per- 
fect specimens in our collections, have established the fact 
that the normal shape of young and isolated specimens of 
Lozoin Canadense is a broadly-turbinate, funnel-shaped, or 
top-shaped form, sometimes with a depression on the upper 
surface giving it the appearance of the ordinary cup- 
shaped Mediterranean sponges. (Fig. 11.) These speci- 
mens also show that there is no theca or outer coat either 
above or below, and that the lamins pass outwards with- 
out change to the margin of the form, where, however, they 
tend to coalesce by subdividing and bending together. The 
laminw are thickest at the base of the inverted cone, and 
become thinner and closer on ascending, and at the top they 


16 


218 Canadian Record of Science. 


become confounded in a general vesicular or acervuline 
layer. I feel now convinced that broken fragments of this 
upper surface scattered over the sea-bottom formed those 
layers of Archwospherine which at one time I regarded as 
distinct organisms. 

It is to be observed, however, that other forms of Eozoon 
occur. More especially there are rounded or dome-shaped 
masses, that seem to have grown on ridges or protuber- 
ances, now usually represented by nuclei of pyroxene. 


(2.) Osculiform tubes. 


In the large number of specimens of Hozoén which have 
been cut or sliced in various directions, and are now in our 
museum at Montreal, it has become apparent that there are 
more or less cylindrical depressions or tubes, sometimes 
filled with serpentine and sometimes with inorganic calcite, 
crossing the lamine at right angles. These seem to occur 
chiefly in the large and confluent masses, and are without 
any regular or definite arrangement. In some of the nar- 
rower openings of this kind the lamine can be observed to 
subdivide and become confluent on the sides of these tubes, 
in the same manner as at the external surface. This cir- 
cumstance induces me to believe that these are not acci- 
dental, but original parts of the structure, and intended to 
admit water into the lower parts of the masses. (See Fron- 
tispiece.) A central canal of a similar kind is well shown 
in the accompanying illustration. 


‘ Fig. 12. Section of the base of a specimen of Hozoon. This specimen shows 
an oseuliform, cylindrical perforation, cut in such a manner as to show its 
reticulated wall and the descent of the laminz toward it. Two-thirds of 
natural size. From a photograph. Coll. Carpenter, also in Redpath Museum. 

[This illustration (from Prof. Prestwich’s ‘‘ Geology,” vol. ii., p. 21) has been 
courteously lent by the Clarendon Press, Oxford.] 


(3.) Beds of Fragmental Eozoon. 


If Eozoén was an organism growing on the sea-bottom, 
it would be inevitable that it would be likely to be broken 
up, and in this condition to constitute a calcareous sand or 
gravel. I have already in previous pages noticed Lau- 
rentian limestones containing such fragments, from the 
Grenville band at Cote St. Pierre, from the Adirondack 
Mountains in New York State, from Chelmsford, Massachu- 
setts, and from St. John, New Brunswick, as well as from 

3razil and the Swiss Alps. Indeed, the Laurentian lime- 
stones of most parts of the world hold fragmental Kozoon, 
In the Peter Redpath Museum are some large slabs of Lau- 
rentian limestone sawn under the direction of Sir W. H. 
Logan, and showing irregular layers and detached masses 
of Kozoén with layers or bands of limestone and of ophio- 
lite. These are evidently layers successively deposited, 


220 Canadian Record of Science. 


though somewhat distorted by subsequent movements. On 
selecting specimens from the white and more purely calca- 
reous layers, | was pleased to find that they abound in 
fragments of laminz of Eozoén, having the canals filled 
either with dolomite or with colourless serpentine. Other 
portions of the limestone show the peculiar granulated 
structure characteristic of the calcareous lamin of Eozoén, 
but without any appearance of canals, which may in this 
case be occupied with calcite, not distinguishable from the 
substance of the lamin. There are also indications in 
these beds of limestones of the presence of Hozooén not infil- 
trated with serpentine, but having its lamine either com- 
pressed together, or with the spaces between them filled 
with calcite. There are other fragments which, from their 
minute structure, I believe to be organic, but which are 
apparently different from Kozo6n. 


(4.) Veins of Chrysotile. 


I have in previous pages noticed the fact that the 
veins of fibrous chrysotile which abound in serpentinous 
limestones of the Laurentian are of secondary aqueous 
origin, as they fill cracks or fissures not merely crossing 
the beds of the limestone, but passing through the masses 
of Kozoén and the serpentinous concretions which occur in 
the beds. They must, therefore, have been formed by 
aqueous action long after the deposition, and in some cases 
after the folding and crumpling of the beds. In this 
respect they differ entirely from the lamine of Hozoén, 
which have been subject to the same compression and fold- 
ing with the beds themselves. 

The chrysotile veins have, of course, no connection with 
the structures of Hozoén, though they have often been mis- 
taken for its more finely tubulated portion. With respect 
to this latter, I believe that some wrong impressions have 
been created by defining it too rigorously as a “ proper 
wall.” In so far asI can ascertain, it consisted of finely 
divided tubes similar to those of the canal system, and 


On Specimens of Eozoon Canadense. 221 


composed of its finer subdivisions placed close together, so 
as to become approximately parallel. (See Fig. 4 above.) 


(5.) Nodules of Serpentine. 


Reference has been made in previous papers to the 
nodules and grains of serpentine found in the Kozoon lime- 
stone, but destitute of any structure. These nodules, as 
exhibited in the large slabs already referred to, have how- 
ever often patches of Hozoén attached to or imbedded in 
them, and they appear to indicate a superabundance of this 
siliceous material accumulating by concretionary action 
around or attached to any foreign body, just as occurs with 
the flints in chalk. The layers and grains of serpentine 
parallel to the bedding appear to be of similar origin. 


(6.) State of Preservation. 


Recent observations more and more indicate the impor- 
tance and frequency of dolomite as a filling of the canals, 
and also the fact that the serpentine deposited in and around 
the specimens of Eozoon is of various qualities. Dr. Sterry 
Hunt has shown that the purely ayueous serpentine found 
in the Laurentian limestones is of different composition from 
that occurring with igneous rocks, or as a product of the 
hydration of olivine. There are, however, different varieties 
even of this aqueous serpentine, ranging in colour from 
deep green to white; and one of the lighter varieties has 
the property of weathering to a rusty colour, owing to the 
oxidation of its iron. These different varieties of serpentine 
will, it is hoped, soon be analysed, so as to ascertain their 
precise composition, The mineral pyroxene, of the white 
or colourless variety, is a frequent associate of Eozoon, 
occurring often in the lower layers and filling some of the 
canals. Sometimes the calcareous lamin themselves are 
partially replaced by a flocculent serpentine, or by pyroxenic 
grains imbedded in calcite. 


222 Canadian Record of Science. 


(7.) Other Laurentian Organisms. 


In a collection recently acquired by the Peter Redpath 
Museum, from the Laurentian of the Ottawa district, are 
some remarkable cylindrical or elongated conical bodies; 
from one to two inches in diameter, which seem to have 
occurred in connection with beds or nodules of apatite. 
They are composed of an outer thick cylinder of granular, 
dark--coloured pyroxene, with a core or nucleus of white 
felspar; and they show no structure, except that the outer 
cylinder is sometimes marked with radiating rusty bands, 
indicating the decay of radiating plates of pyrite. They 
may possibly have been organisms of the nature of Arch@o- 
cyathus; but such reference must be merely conjectural. 


(8.) Cryptozoum. 


The discovery by Prof. Hall, in the Potsdam formation 
of New York, and by Prof. Winchell in that of Minnesota, 
of the large laminated forms which have been described 
under the above name, has some interest in connection with 
Kozoon. I have found fragments of these bodies in con- 
glomerates of the Quebec group, associated with Middle 
Cambrian fossils; and, whatever their zoological relations, 
it is evident that they occur in the Cambrian rocks under 
the same conditions as Eozoon in the Laurentian. I find 
also in the Laurentian limestones certain laminated forms 
usually referred to Hozoon, but which have thin continuous 
lamine, with spongy porous matter intervening, in the 
manner of Cyptozoum or of Loftusia. Whether these are 
merely Kozoon in a peculiar state of preservation or a 
distinct structure, I cannot at present determine. 


(9.) Continuity and Character of containing Deposits. 


At a time when so many extravagant statements are 
made, more especially by some German petrologists, re- 
specting the older crystalline rocks, it may be proper to 
state that all my recent investigations of the part of system 


On Specimens of Eozoon Canadense. 223 


which I have called Middle Laurentian, especially in the 
district east of the Ottawa, vindicate the results of the late 
Sir William Logan as to the continuity of the great lime- 
stones, their regular interstratification with the gneisses, 
quartzose gneisses, quartzites, and micaceous schists, and 
their association with bedded deposits of magnetite and 
graphite, and also the regularity and distinctly stratified 
character of all these rocks. Farther, I regard the Upper 
Laurentian, independently of the great masses of Labradorite 
rock, which may be intrusive, as an important aqueous 
formation, characterised by peculiar rocks, more especially 
the anorthite gneisses. I am also of opinion that some of 
the crystalline rocks of the country west of Lake Superior 
are stratigraphically, and to a great extent lithologically, 
equivalent to the Upper Laurentian of St. Jerome and other 
places in the Province of Quebec, differing chiefly in the 
greater or less abundance of intrusive igneous rocks. 


(10.) Imitative Forms. 


The extraordinary mistakes made by some lithologists in 
studying imperfect examples of Kozoon and rocks supposed 
to resemble it, and which have gained a large amount of 
currency, have rendered necessary the collection and study 
of a variety of laminated rocks, and considerable collections 
of these have been made for the Peter Redpath Museum. 
They include banded varieties of dolerite and diorite, of 
gneiss, of apatite and of tourmaline with quartz, laminated 
limestone with serpentine, graphic granites, and a variety 
of other laminated and banded materials, which only 
require comparison with the genuine specimens to show 
their distinctness, but many of which have nevertheless 
been collected as specimens of Kozoon. I do not propose to 
enter into any detailed description of these here, but may 
hope, with the aid of Dr. Harrington, to notice them in 
forthcoming Memoirs of Peter Redpath Museum. 

It is easy for inexperienced observers to mistake lamin- 
ated concretions and laminated rocks either for Stromatopora 


224 Canadian Record of Science. 


or for Hozoon, and such misapprehensions are not of infre- 
quent occurrence. As to concretions, it is only necessary 
to say that these, when they show concentric layers, are 
deficient altogether in the primary requirements of lamine 
and interspaces ; and under the microscope their structures 
are either merely fragmental, as in ordinary argillaceous 
and calcareous concretions, or they have radiating crystal- 
line fibres like oolitic grains. Laminated rocks, on the 
other hand, present alternate layers of different mineral 
substances, but are destitute of minute structures, and are 
either parallel to the bedding or to the planes of dykes and ~ 
igneous masses. In the Montreal mountain there are 
beautiful examples of a banded dolerite in alternate layers 
of black pyroxene and white felspar. These occur at the 
junction of the dolerite with the Silurian limestone through 
which it has been erupted. Laminated gneissose beds also 
abound in the Laurentian. Still more remarkable examples 
are afforded by altered rocks having thin calcite bands, 
whether arising from deposition or from, vein-segregation. 
One of these now before me is a specimen from the collection 
of Dr. Newberry, and obtained at Gouverneur, St. Lawrence 
County, New York. It presents thick bands of a peculiar 
granitoid rock containing highly crystalline felspar and 
mica with grains of serpentine; these bands are almost a 
quarter of an inch in thickness, and are separated by inter- 
rupted parallel bands of calcite much thinner than the 
others. The whole resembles a magnified specimen of 
Hozoon, except in the absence of the connecting chamber- 
walls and of the characteristic structures. <A similar rock 
has been obtained by Mr. Vennor on the Gatineau; but it 
is less coarse in texture though equally crystalline, and 
appears to contain hornblende and pyroxene. These are 
both Laurentian, and I consider it not impossible that they 
may have been organic; but they lack the evidence of 
minute structure, and differ in important details from 
Hozoon. Another specimen from the Horseshoe Mountain 
in the Western States (I regret that I have mislaid the 
name of the gentleman to whom I am indebted for this 


: 


On Specimens of Eozo0on Canadense. 225 


specimen) is a limestone with perfectly regular and uniform 
layers of minute rhombohedral crystals of dolomite. The 
layers vary in distance regularly in the thickness of the 
specimen from two millimetres to one, and must have resulted 
from the alternate deposition in a very regular manner of 
dolomite and limestone. These are but a few of the examples 
of imitative structures which might readily be confounded 
with Hozoon, or which, if resulting from organic growth, 
have lost all decisive evidence of the fact. 

Perhaps still more puzzling imitative forms are those 
referred to by Hahn, which occur in some felspars, and 
which I have found in great beauty in certain crystals of 
orthoclase from Vermont. They are ramifying tubes 
resembling the canal-system of Hozoon, and are evidently a 
peculiar form of gas-cavities or inclusions. Similar appear- 
ances are, however, often presented by the more minute 
‘and microscopic varieties of graphic granite, in which the 
little plates might readily be mistaken, in certain sections, 
for organic tubulation. 

In the present state of knowledge, it is perhaps more 
excusable to mistake such things for organic structures than 
to deny the existence of true organic structures because 
they resemble such forms. Those who have examined 
moss-agates are familiar with the fact that while some show 
merely crystals of peroxide of iron or oxide of manganese, 
others present the forms of Vaucheric or Conferve. So if 
one were to place side by side some fibres of asbestos, 
spicules of Yethea, and coniferous wood, preserved, like 
some from Colorado, as separate white siliceous fibres, they 
might appear alike; but, even if thoroughly mixed together, 
the microscope should be able easily to distinguish them. 
| have specimens of fossil wood, collected by Hartt in Brazil, 
which have been mineralized by limonite in such a manner 
that no one, without microscopic examination, could believe 
them to be other than fibrous brown hematite. Such 
difficulties the micro-geologist must expect to find, and by 
patient observation to overcome, 


226 Canadian Record of Science. 


(11.) Alternation of Mineral Layers. 


It has been suggested by Mr. Julien* and others that 
Kozoénal structure may be due to the alternation of mineral 
layers formed in the passage-beds between concretions and 
other mineral masses, and their enclosing matrix. The 
objections to this view are: 

1. Laminated passage-rocks and laminated concretionary 
forms have only simple laminz, whereas Hozoon has con- 
nected or reticulating lamine. 

2. Laminated passage-rocks have no structure other than 
crystalline. Hozoon has beautiful tubulation in its calcareous 
walls, besides large tubes or oscula. 

3. Sometimes (not usually) pyroxene is the siliceous 
part of Zozoon; or,as we hold, the mineralizing agent. 
More usually it is serpentine, sometimes loganite,or dolomite, 
or mere earthy limestone. It is not possible that all these 
minerals should assume the same forms. 

4. Pyroxene and serpentine both occur in nodules and 
bands in the Laurentian limestones, and in most cases 
without any traces of Hozoon, while Hozoon occurs in the 
limestone remote from such nodules and bands, where no 
passage of any kind can occur, and presents distinct forms. 

5. There are only two localities known to me, one in a 
quarry near Cote St. Pierre, and one at Burgess, where’ a 
bed with badly preserved Hozoon occurs in a manner which 
would even suggest such an idea. Pyroxene is present 
in the one case, and loganite in the other. 

6. I have often thought of this suggested explanation, and 
have compared Hozoon with all sorts of banded and passage- 
rocks taken from the Laurentian and other formations, but 
have seen no reason to adopt such a view for Hozoon. I 
have accumulated in the Peter Redpath Museum at Montreal 
as above stated, a very large number of laminated and 
passage-rocks and concretions for purposes of comparison. 

7. How on such an hypothesis can we explain the beds 
of limestone composed of or filled with fragments of 
Hozoon ? 


* Proceed. Amer. Assoc. vol. xxxili. 1884, pp. 415, 416. 


Ringed Trees. 227 


“RINGED TREES.” 
By W. L. Goopwin, QUEnN’s University, KINGSTON. ~ 


It is usually the case that a tree from which a complete 
ring of bark has been removed, dies within a year. Botan- 
ists teach that the continuity of the cambium layer at any 
part is essential to the life of all parts above. When the 
bark is removed, the cambium layer is torn asunder, and the 
part adhering to the tree as a slimy layer soon dries and 
decays. The tree may survive during the rest of the 
summer, but puts forth no leaves the next spring. In fact, 
I believe “ringed” trees usually survive the operation for 
some months, but on this point I should like to hear the 
testimony of those who have had experience of destroying 
trees in this way. It is a pretty well established fact that 
the circulation of the nutritive juices of a tree takes place 
mostly through the cambium, but that there are other 
channels for the sap is proved by the existence of the tree 
after it has been ringed. However, these subsidiary chan- 
nels are evidently not sufficient to sustain life in the tree 
for more than a very limited period. As far asI know, 
only one exception to this rule has been recorded. A tree 
in the Botanical Gardens of Paris survived the operation for 
several years. I have to bring before the readers of the 
Record of Science another case which first came under my 
observation five years ago (the summer of 1883). It is a 
common pine tree, which had been ringed several years 
before I saw it—just how many, I could not ascertain. 
The tree stands at the edge of the pine woods of Studley, 
Halifax, Nova Scotia, and is one of two rising from a com- 
mon trunk which bifurcates immediately above the surface 
of the soil. The trees are about twenty-two feet high, and 
begin to branch freely at about six feet from the ground, 
The ring is about four feet from the fork and is eight inches 
broad. The exposed wood is dead, and no signs of life 
appear within half an inch of the surface. Within that the 
wood seems to be living. That the tree has grown con- 
siderably since it was ringed is shown by the following 

* measurements, made this summer :— 


228 Canadian Record of Science. 


Circumference below ring.....-..- Sdd00- 50 193 inches. 
“ soon“ g6dGdococg doodoc 26 i 


The diameter of the tree has thus become two inches greater 
above than it is below the ring. The condition of the bark 
and cambium layer below the wound shows that the surface 
of the tree has died for a considerable distance (over six 
inches.) Above the wound, the bark and cambium are 
living and seem to have pushed down over the scar about 
half an inch. The same process had been evidently begun 
below the ring before the death of the cambium layer. 

From measurements made five years ago, I should judge 
that the tree must have been ringed at least ten years before 
that date, so that this tree has survived its injury probably 
fifteen years. Unfortunately the notes of the first measure- 
ment are not at hand for comparison. At that date the 
ringed tree seemed almost as thrifty as its companion, but 
the foliage showed some signs of imperfect nutrition. At 
present, the tree is in much poorer condition, many of the 
branches being dead and the foliage scanty on those that 
are living. 

The problem is: How has the tree been nourished since 
it was ringed? Is it a case like that often occurring in 
surgical cases and depending on the anastomosis of arteries ? 
Is it possible that the subsidiary channels of communication 
between the earth and the branches enlarged to meet the 
emergency for a time, but not sufficiently to allow the tree 
to live out its life. 

Studley, Halifax, Sept. 1, 1888. 


[It is well known that the general nutrition of a tree is 
dependent upon the movement of fluids upward from the 
soil through the sap wood, in which the process of lignifica- 
tion has been developed in only a slight degree; while the 
formation of the new structure proceeds from tissues nour- 
ished by fluids contained in the living bark, and having a 
general downward direction of movement. In cases of 
girdling, the conductive sap wood becomes exposed to the 
atmosphere and dessication proceeds radially inward, while 


Ringed Trees. 229 


there is a simultaneous lignification of the same tissues 
radially outward. Both causes operate to destroy the con- 
ductive power, and, under ordinary circumstances, it there- 
fore only becomes a question of time how long the tree will 
live. Generally a tree will put forth its leaves the second 
year, but die before the season is over. 

Under very favorable conditions of growth, the girdle may 
be bridged over in season to save the tree. One case of 
this kind was brought under the notice of the present 
writer a few years ago, in which a willow tree had been 
girdled by mice for a distance of over a foot. Yet during 
the growth of the spring immediately following, new struc- 
ture was pushed out from above in such a way as to form a 
bridge, which later united to the trnnk, and also several 
roots which struck the soil and established independent 
connection between it and the upper part of the tree. 
‘Similar reparation is known to have occurred in other cases, 
but it is usually found that the favorable conditions are 
great vitality and the presence of an excess of moisture. 

The case cited above is an interesting and peculiar one. 
It is not susceptible of explanation upon the theory of anas- 
tormosing vessels. It may possibly be accounted for upon 
the ground that the outer layers of wood in becoming 
hard, dry and filled with air, thereby established a protec- 
tive layer which prevented, or at least retarded, further 
change in that direction; while the necessarily reduced 
vital condition of the tree may have greatly retarded the 
ordinary lignifaction of the cells to such an extent as to 
render the continued passage of fluids, and thus a very 
slow rate of growth in the tree as a whole, possible. In 
such case, the final death of the tree could only be a ques- 
tion of time. and from the facts stated, it would appear that 
at the time of the last observation its end must have been 
near.—Ep. | 


230 Canadian Record of Science. 


On THE Eozoic AND PaLaozoic ROCKS OF THE 
ATLANTIC Coast OF CANADA IN COMPARISON 
WITH THOSE OF WESTERN HUROPE AND 
THE INTERIOR OF AMERICA.* 


By Sir J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8. 
( Abstract.) 


The author referred to the fact that since 1845 he had 
contributed to the Proceedings of the Geological Society a 
number of papers on the geology of the eastern maritime 
provinces of Canada, and it seemed useful now to sum up 
the geology of the older formations, and make such correc- 
tions and comparisons as seemed warranted by the new 
facts obtained by himself and by other observers of whom 
mention is made in the paper. 

With reference to the Laurentian, he maintained its 
claim to be regarded as a regularly stratified system, proba- 
bly divisible into two or three series, and characterized in 
its middle or upper portion by the accumulation of organic 
limestone, carbonaceous beds, and iron ores on a vast scale. 
He also mentioned the almost universal prevalence in the 
northern hemisphere of the great plications of the crust 
which terminated this period, and which necessarily separ- 
ate it from all succeeding deposits. He next detailed its 
special development on the coast of the Atlantic, and the 
similarity of this with that found in Great Britain and else- 
where in the west of Europe. 

The Huronian he defined as a literal series of deposits 
skirting the shores of the old Laurentian uplifts, and refer- 
red to some rocks which may be regarded as more oceanic 
equivalents. Its characters in Newfoundland, Cape Breton, 
and New Brunswick were referred to, and compared with 
the Pebidian, &c., in England. The questions as to an 
Upper Member of the Huronian or an intermediate series, 
the Basal Cambrian of Matthew in New Brunswick, were 
discussed. 


* Proc. Geolog. Soc., London. 


Eozoic and Paleozoic Rocks. 231 | 


The very complete series of Cambrian rocks now recog- 
nized on the coast-region of Canada was noticed, in connec- 
tion with its equivalency in details to the Cambrian of 
Britain and Scandinavia, and the peculiar geographical con- 
ditions implied in the absence of the Lower Cambrian over 
a large area of interior America. 

In the Ordovician age a marginal and submarginal area 
existed on the east coast of America. The former is repre- 
sented largely by bedded igneous rocks, the latter by the 
remarkable series named by Logan the Quebee Group, 
which was noticed in detail in connection with its equiva- 
lents further west, and also in Europe. 

The Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous were then 
treated of, and detailed evidence shown as to their conform- 
ity to the types of Western Europe rather than to those of 
America, 

‘ In conclusion, it was pointed out that though the great 
systems of formations can be recognized throughout the 
Northern Hemisphere, their divisions must differ in the 
maritime and inland regions, and that hard and fast lines 
should not be drawn at the confines of systems, nor widely 
different formations of the same age reduced to an arbitrary 
uniformity of classification not sanctioned by nature. It 
was also inferred that the evidence pointed to a permanent 
continuance of the Atlantic basin, though with great 
changes of its boundaries, and to a remarkable parallelism 
of the formations deposited on its eastern and western 
sides. 


232 Canadian Record of Science. 


Tuer St. LAWRENCE BASIN AND THE GREAT LAKES.* 
J. W. SPENCER. 


( Abstract.) 


> 
EsTABLISHMENT AND DISMEMBERMENT OF LAKE WARREN. 


This is the first chapter in the history of the great lakes 
and is subsequent to the deposit of the upper boulder clay, 
and therefore the lakes are all very new in point of geolo- 
gical line. By the movements of warping of the earth’s 
crust, as shown in the beaches—after the deposit of the 
later boulder clay—the lake region was reduced to sea level 
and there were no Canadian highlands northward of the 
great lakes. Upon the subsequent elevations of the con- 
tinent beaches were made around the rising islands. Thus 
between Lakes Hrie, Huron and Ontario a true beach is 
found at 1,690 feet above the sea, around a small island 
rising thirty feet higher. With the rising of the land, 
barriers were brought up about this lake region, producing 
lake (or perhaps gulf of ) Warren—a name given to the 
sheet of water covering the basin of all the great lakes. A 
succession of beaches of this lake have been partially worked 
out in Canada, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York, 
covering many hundreds—almost thousands—of miles. 
Everywhere the differential uplift has increased from almost 
zero about the western end of the Hrie basin to three, five, 
and, in the higher beaches, from five to nine feet per 
mile. With the successive elevations of the land, this lake 
became dismembered, as described in the succeeding papers 
—and the present lakes had their birth. The idea that 
these beaches in Ohio and Michigan were held in by glacial 
dams to the northward, is disproved by the occurrence of 
open water and beaches to the north, which belong to the 
same series, and by the fact that outlets existed where 
glacial dams are required. 

The Erie basin is very shallow, and, upon the dismem- 
berment of Lake Warren, was drained by the newly 


* Proc. of Am. Ass. Adv. of Se. 


St. Lawrence Basin and the Great Lakes. va5 


constructed Niagara River, except, perhaps, a small lakelet 
southeast of Long Point. Subsequently, the northeastward 
warping (very much less in quantity than out farther 
northward at the Trent outlet) eventually lifted up the 
rocky ledge and formed Hrie into a lake in recent times; 
thus Erie is the youngest of all the lakes. The beaches 
about Cleveland are not those of separated Lake Hrie, but 
belong to the older and original Lake Warren. 


DIscoOVERY OF THE ANCIENT CoURSE OF THE St. LAWRENCE 
RIVER. 


Previous investigations by the author showed that there 
was a former river draining the Hrie basin and flowing into 
the extreme western end of Lake Ontario, and thence to the 
east of Oswego, but no further traceable, as the lake bottom 
rose to the northeast. Upon the southern side there was a 
series of escarpments (some now submerged) with vertical 
cliffs facing the old channel. By recent studies of the 
elevated beaches it is demonstrated that the disappearance 
of this valley is due to subsequent warpings of the earth’s 
erust, and that the valley of the St. Lawrence was one with 
that of Lake Ontario. Recent discoveries of a deep channel 
upon the northern side of Lake Ontario (a few miles east 
of Toronto) and of the absence of rocks to a great depth in 
the drift below the surface of Lake Huron, between Lake 
Ontario and the Georgian Bay, and in front of the Niagara 
escarpment between these lakes ; of the channel in Georgian 
Bay, at the footof the escarpment, and of the channel across 
Lake Huron, also at the foot of a high submerged escarp- 
ment across that lake, show that the ancient St, Lawrence, 
during a period of high continental elevation, rose in Lake 
Michigan, flowed across Lake Huron and down Georgian 
Bay, and as drift filled the channel to Lake Ontario, thence 
by the present water to the sea—receiving on its way the 
ancient drainage of the Hrie basin and other valleys. 

The paper awakened a warm discussion, in which Pro- 
fossors me Newberry, Wright, Winchell, McGee and 

1 


234 Canadian Record of Science. 


Hitchcock took part. The author’s conclusions were upon 
observed facts in the field, some of which ran against some 
extreme forms of the glacial theory. 


DIscOVERY OF THE OUTLET OF THE Hturon—MIcHIGAN— 
SuPERIOR LAKE AND LAKE ONTARIO BY THE TRENT 
VALLEY. 


With the continental rise described in the last paper— 
owing to the land rising more rapidly to the northeast—Lake 
Warren became dismembered, and Huron, Michigan and 
Superior formed one lake; the Hrie basin really was lifted 
out of the bed of Lake Warren and became drained, and 
Ontario remained at a low level. The outlet of this lake 
was southeast of Georgian Bay, by way of the Trent valley, 
into Lake Ontario (at about sixty miles west of the present 
outlet of this lake). The waters of this upper lake were 
twenty-six feet deep over this outlet into the Trent valley, 
and long continued to flow through a channel from one to 
two miles wide. It has cut across a drift ridge to a depth 
of 500 feet, as the whole area has been rising. With the 
continued continental uplift to the northeast (which has 
raised the old beach at the outlet about 300 feet above the 
present surface of Lake Huron) the waters were backed 
southward and overflowed into the Michigan basin and into 
the Hrie, thus making the Erie outlet of the upper lakes to 
be of recent date. This is proven by the fact that the 
Georgian beach which marked the old surface of the 
upper great lake descends to the present water level at the 
southern end of Lake Huron, and is beneath the surface of 
the water upon its southwestern side, as the uplift, which 
has been measured, was to the northeast. 

The two questions involved are “ origin of the valleys” 
and ‘“‘cause of their being closed into water basins.” The 
basins of Lakes Ontario and Huron are taken for consider- 
ation. The previous paper upon the course of the ancient 
St. Lawrence shows that the Huron and Ontario basins are 
sections of the former great St. Lawrence valley, which was 


St. Lawrence Basin and the Great Lakes. 235 


bounded, especially upon the southern side, by high and 
precipitous escarpments, some of which are submerged. 
But upon their northern sides there are also lesser vertical 
escarpments, now submerged, with walls facing the old 
valley. The valley was excavated when the continent was 
at a high altitude, for the eastern portion stood at least 1,200 
feet higher than at present, as shown by the channels in the 
lower St. Lawrence, in Hudson’s straits, and in the New 
York and Chesapeake bays. The valley was obstructed in 
part by drift, and in part bya north and northeastward 
differential elevation of the earth’s surface, due to internal 
movements. The measurable amount of warping defied 
investigation until recently, but now it is measured by the 
amount of uplift of beaches and sea cliffs. Only one other 
explanation of the origin of the basins has been given—the 
“Erosion by Glaciers.” (a) Because the latter occur in 
glaciated regions. (b) That the glaciers are considered (by 
some) to erode. (c) The supposed necessity, as the terres- 
trial warping was not known. 

In reply: Living glaciers abrade, but do not erode, hard 
rocks, and both modern and extinct glaciers are known to 
have flowed over even loose morainesand gravels. Again, 
even if glaciers were capable of great plowing action, they 
did not affect the lake valleys, as the glaciation of the sur- 
face rocks shows the movement to have been at angles (from 
15° to 90°) to the direction of the side of the vertical escarp- 
ments against which the movement occurred. Also the 
vertical faces of the escarpments are not smoothed off, as are 
the faces of the Alpine valleys, down which the glaciers 
have passed, Lastly, the warping of the earth’s surface in 
the lake region, since the beach episode, after the deposit of 
the drift proper, is sufficient to account for all rocky barriers 
which may obstruct the basins. 


236 Canadian Record of Science. 


THE Stupy oF MINERALOGY. 


By T. Sterry Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S. 
(Abstract.') 


$ 1. Our knowledge of the inorganic kingdom, as seen in 
this earth, may be comprehended under geography, geology 
and mineralogy; the latter in its wider sense including all 
non-organised forms of matter, with their whole dynamical” 
(physical) and chemical history. In didactic language, 
however, minerology is limited to the study of native spe- 
cies, and includes a knowledge alike of their external char- 
acters and their chemical relations. The so-called natural- 
history method in mineralogy, disregarding these latter, is 
based exclusively on specific gravity, hardness, optical char- 
acters, texture and structure, including crystallization ; 
while the chemical method regards the results of chemical 
analysis alone, and mixed methods consider these in con- 
nection with crystallization, and even endeavour to take 
into account other physical characters. The defects of all 
the methods hitherto devised are obvious, and no system of 
classification can be complete which does not assign a value 
and a place to all characters whatsoever. There exists in 
the nature of things such an interdependence of these, that 


1 Read before ths British Association for the Advancement of 
Science, Bath, 1888. 


2 We use the words dynamics and dynamical in the sense in 
which they are employed by Thomson and Tait in their treatise 
on Natural Philosophy, wherein all those manifestations of force 
which are neither chemical nor vital (biotic), including, besides 
ordinary motion, the phenomena of sound, temperature, radiant 
energy, electricity and magnetism, are embraced under the general 
title of Dynamics, corresponding to what in popular language is 
designated Physics. Other eminent students of our time have 
sanctioned this use of the term dynamics, in which they were to a 
certain extent anticipated by Berzelius, who in 1842 included elec- 
tricity, magnetism, light and heat—all of which he regarded as 
affections of matter, and compared their phenomena with those of 
sound—under the common term of Dynamides. (See Hunt, 
Mineral Physiology and Physiography, p. 13.) 


The Study of Mineralogy. 237 


a true natural system can exclude none. To the establish- 


ment of such a system, a clearer view of the nature and — 


relations of physical and chemical phenomena than that 
generally received will materially aid us. 

§ 2. Matter is susceptible of changes of volume of two 
kinds. (1) Those produced from without, by variations of 
temperature and of pressure, which changes are constant 
and regular. Effecting no essential alteration in species, 
they may be called extrinsic or, as the result of external 
dynamic agencies, mechanical changes. (2) Those which 
have been described as due to “internal disturbances,” 
which effect specific alterations in character. These con- 
stitute chemical or wnat may be called intrinsic changes, 
and differ from the last in that, instead of being constant 
and regular, they are periodic and subordinated to definite 
and unforeseen relations of volume. Intrinsic changes of 
volume in matter connote chemical as distinguished from 
dynamical processes. In chemical union we have intrinsic 
contraction or condensation (variously designated as inter- 
penetration, compenetration, identification, integration, 
unification); and in chemical decomposition, intrinsic ex- 
pansion or division. These changes may be either homo- 
geneous, involving one species of matter, or heterogeneous, 
involving two or more species. The first includes so-called 
polymerization and depolymerization, which may be (es- 
cribed as homogeneous intrinsic union and homogeneous 
intrinsic division; constituting what we have called collec- 
tively chemital metamorphosis. Those intrinsic changes 
which involve two or more species we have included under 
the title of chemical metagenesis; the process being one of 
heterogeneous intrinsic union or of heterogeneous intrinsic 
division. In the former, intrinsic contraction involves vol- 
umes of unlike species, and in the latter, intrinsic expan- 
sion resolyes a species into two or more unlike species, 
The relations to volume of all such changes are most simple 
and evident in the case of gases and vapours; but the same 
laws of intrinsic contraction and expansion by volumes 
apply alike to gases and to the liquid and solid species 


238 Canadian Record of Science. 


formed by their condensation. In all of these chemical 
changes temperature and pressure play an important part, 
and, beyond certain limits the intrinsic or dynamic changes 
thereby produced, themselves provoke chemical changes. 
These in their turn are accompanied by thermic changes, 
the study of which is the object of thermo-chemistry. 

§ 3. All chemically stable forms of matter may theoretic- 
ally, by sufficient elevation of temperature, assume, even 
under the greatest pressure, a gaseous condition; the more 
or‘less dense polymeric vapours thus produced being sub- 
ject to intrinsic expansion or depolymerization on diminu- 
tion of pressure. By reduction of temperature these pass, 
as may be seen under favourable conditions, through suc- 
cessive polymerizations, or processes of intrinsic contrac- 
tion, into liquid (or solid) species; the passage from the 
vapour to the liquid being apparently continuous. The 
ideal gas is wholly obedient to the dynamic influence of 
pressure, according to Boyle’s law, to which the ideal solid 
is wholly indifferent. These ideal forms are, however, con- 
stant only within certain limited ranges of temperature 
and pressure, beyond which even the so-called permanent 
gases become liquid or solid by intrinsic changes. 

The regularity of the extrinsic variations in volume for 
gases and vapours, within certain known limits, enables us 
for such bodies to determine their specific gravity, for 
which purpose atmospheric air at 0° and 760 mm. is taken 
as unity. If for this we substitute hydrogen gas repre- 
sented as H,=—2:0), the lightest body known, at the same 
temperature and pressure, the specific weight of an equal 
volume of any given vapour or gas, calculated for this 
standard temperature and pressure, is its equivalent weight, 
or in the language of the popular hypothesis, the molecular 
weight of the species. Extending the same method from 
normal gases and vapours to polymeric vapours, and thence 
to liquids and solids, and remembering that none of these 
forms are stable beyond certain ranges of temperature and 
pressure, we proceed to determine the specific gravity of 
all such bodies in terms of the same gaseous unit; the num- 


The Study of Mineralogy. 239 


ber thus obtained being for each body its equivalent weight. 


We thus find, as has long been suspected, that the equiva-. 


lent (or so-called molecular) weights of liquid and solid 
species are exceedingly elevated. That of water, a litre of 
which at 100° (its temperature of formation under a pres- 
sure of 760 mm.) weighs 958°78 grams, corresponds to 1192 
volumes of water vapour at standard temperature and pres- 
sure (H,O=17:96) condensed into a single volume; or to 
1192 X 17:96=21,408, approximately 21,400. Representing 
by p the empirical equivalent weight, which is really the 
specific gravity on the hydrogen basis (H,—2°0), and by d 
the specific gravity taking water —21,400 as unity, we ob- 
tain by the formula p+d=v, the reciprocal of the coefficient 
of the condensation which takes place in the passage of a 
normal gaseous species, by intrinsic contraction or polyme- 
rization, into the liquid or solid species, the specific gravity 
of which we have determined by comparison with water. 

§ 4. The reciprocal number thus got is, as we shall show, 
one of great significance. In determining the specific weight 
of any given liquid or solid species, the fact of prime impor- 
tance is not simply its specific gravity as compared with 
water, but the relation of the value thus determined to the 
equivalent weight, or, in other words, to its specific gravity 
on the hydrogen basis, It is not d, nor yet p, but the rela- 
tion p: d, as expressed by v. In the case of volatile species 
the true value of p may be known, but for the comparison 
of fixed solids, as oxyds, carbonates, and silicates, we deduce 
from the received formulas an arbitrary value for p by divi- 
ding the value calculated therefrom by twice the number 
of oxygen portions. Thus for MgO, p=40~+2; for SiO,, 
p=60-4; for Al,O,, p=102--6; for SiMg,O,, p=140+8; 
for CCaO,, p=100—6. For metalline minerals, including 
metals, and their compounds, with S, Se, Te, As, Sb, Bi, the 
value assumed for p is that got by dividing the empirical 
equivalent weight by the sum of the valencies, 

While the specific gravity of liquid and solid species is 
represented by d, the hardness, infusibility and insolubility 
or resistance to chemical change are, for related species, 


240 Canadian Record of Science. 


directly as the condensation, or inversely as the value of v. 
This may be seen in comparing colourless ordinary phos- 
phorus, v=17'2, with the metalloidal form, v=13:2; the 
isomeric silicates, meionite, v=6'5, and zoisite, v=5°3; or 
calcite, v=6'2, with dolomite, chalybite and diallogite, 
v=5'2, and with magsenite and smithsonite, v=4°7; for 
aragonite, v=5'55. These examples will serve to show the 
relations between sensible characters and chemical consti- 
tution, the interdependence of which must be taken into 
account in a natural system of mineralogical classification. 
The differences in hardness and in solubility of the different 
species just named are familiar to chemists. The behaviour 
of native silicates with fluorhydric acid, lately studied by 
J. B, Mackintosh, illustrates in a striking manner the rela- 
tions between condensation and solubility. 

S 5. The successive forms imposed upon matter gives us 
the order in which such a system of mineralogy should be 
built up. First, the form which we may call the chemical 
form of the species, either elemental or compound, due to 
the unknown stochiogenic process, or to subsequent chemi- 
cal metagenesis. Second, what may be called the mineral- 
ogical form, which involves the greater or less intrinsic con- 
traction (polymeric condensation) of the normal chemical 
species—often gaseous or volatile, but frequently unknown 
to us—and the assumption by it of a liquid or solid state, 
having greater or less specific gravity, hardness, fixity and 
insolubility, and being metallic or non-metallic, colloidal or 
erystalline. Third, the crystalline form, being the geometric 
shape assumed by the crystalline individual, which connotes 
a certain structure, apparent in the cleavage, the varying 
hardness, and the thermic, optical and electrical relations, 
of the crystal, but is, notwithstanding its value in determina- 
tive mineralogy, the least essential or most accidental form 
of the mineral species. The significance involved in the note 
of metallicity is very apparent when we consider the metal- 
lic and non-metallic conditions of selenium and of phospho- 
rus, the similar dual conditions of the sulphide of mercury 
and antimony, the non-metallic and sparry characters of the 


The Study of Mineralogy. 241 


native sulphids of zinc, cadmium and arsenic, and the sin- 
gular metallic character assumed by the complex tungstates _ 
or Tungstometalloids, known as tungsten bronzes. These, 
with the not less remarkably complex soluble tungstates or 
Tungstosalinoids, and the native tungstic species, make the 
Tungstates one of the most instructive orders known. 

§ 7. The author has elsewhere proposed to divide the 
mineral kingdom into four classes, including (1) Metalline, 
(2) Oxydized, (3) Haloid, (4) Pyricaustate (combustible or 
fire-making) species. Hach of these classes is again divided 
into orders, tribes, genera and species. In the first class a 
single order includes two sub-orders and nine tribes, named 
(1) Metalloideze ; (2) Galenoidez, including three sub-tribes 
corresponding to sulphur, selenium, and tellurium com- 
pounds; (3) Bournonoidee; (4) Pyritoidee; (5) Smal- 
toidee; (6) Arsenopyritidee; (7) Spatometalloidex ; (8) 
Sphaleroidex; (9) Proustoidex ; each tribe including one 
or more genera. Again, in the second class are grouped 
under different orders, Oxyds, Silicates, Carbonates, Borates, 
Sulphates, Phosphates, Tungstates, &c. Three sub-orders 
of silicates include protoxyd, protoperoxyd and peroxyd 
silicates; among peroxyd bases being reckoned aluminic, 
ferric, manganic, chromic, bismuthic, and also, for special 
reasons, zirconic oxyd. Recognising in each sub-order va- 
rious types designated Hydrospathoid, Spathoid, Adaman- 
toid or gem-like, Phylloid or micaceous, and Porodic or 
colloidal; the tribes may be named Pectolitoid, Willemoid, 
Amphiboloid, Talcoid, Ophitoid, Zeolitoid, Feldspathoid, 
Granatoid (garnet-like), Micoid, Pinitoid, Perzeolitoid, 
Julyioid, Topazoid, Pyrophilloid and Argilloid. Soluble 
saline species in any order are referred to a salinoid type, 
as Borosalinoid, Tungstosalinoid. The extension of this 
system to the Haloid and Pyricaustate classes is easy, and 
has been elsewhere explained. 

The work of arranging in genera and species, with a 
Latin binomial nomenclature, and the determination for 
each species of the value of v, is now nearly complete for 
the first two classes; and the whole will probably soon 


242 Canadian Record of Science. 


appear, with a proper introduction, as a Systematic Miner- 
alogy, to be followed by a Descriptive Mineralogy. The 
general principles here set forth are discussed at length in 
the author’s ‘Mineral Physiology and Physiography”’ 
(Boston, 1886), pp. 279-401, where, in a chapter entitled 
“A Natural System in Mineralogy,” will be found an exam- 
ination of the constitution and relations of the known natu- 
ral silicates arranged in tribes, and tabulated, with the cal- 
culated values of v, and a new quantivalent chemical nota. 
tion. See farther, a paper on “The Classification and 
Nomenclature of Metalline Minerals,”* discussing Class I, 
in the « ‘Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society ” 
for May 4, 1886, and in the Chemical News, August 10 and 
27; also the author’s ‘“‘ New Basis for Chemistry,” 2nd edi- 
tion (Boston, 1888), where, in chapters vii. and xiv., many 
points in the proposed mineralogical classification are elu- 
cidated. 


MINERALOGICAL EVOLUTION. 


By T. Srerry Hunt, LL.D., F.RS. 
(Abstract.*) 

In a paper read by the author in 1887, before the Geo- 
logical Section of the British Association for the advance- 
ment of Science, on The Elements of Primary Geology, it 
was said that the “transformation of the primitive izueous 
material of the earth’s crust through the action of air and 
water, aided by internal heat, presents a mineralogical 
evolution not less regular, constant, and definite in its 
results than the evolution apparent in the organic king- 
doms.” The details of this complex evolutionary process, 


‘An abstract of this paper, printed in the programme of the 
Royal Society of Canada, without revision or correction by the 
author, will be found in the Chemical News for June 29, 1888. 

” Read before the British Association for the Advancement of 
Science, Bath, 1888. 

* Transactions, p. 704; also Geological Magazine, November, 1887. 


Mineralogical Evolution. 245 
as explained by what the writer has named the crenitic 
hypothesis, have been elsewhere set forth at length, on - 
more than one occasion, and involve the whole chemical 
history of the various mineral species which enter into the 
constitution of rock-masses, but especially their relations to 
subterranean changes under the influence of heated water, 
and to atmospheric action. As we have pointed out, the 
transformation of basalt into the hydrous porodic body 
known as palagonite, and the subsequent partial conversion 
of this into a crystalline zeolite, as described by Bunsen, 
furnishes a significant illustration of the process under con- 
sideration. 

The stability of silicated species under atmospheric in- 
fluences is very variable, some being readily decomposed, 
and others very permanent; the indifference or chemical 
resistance, moreover, increasing with the hardness or 
mechanical resistance. These two qualities vary for species 
of analogous constitution directly as their condensation; 
while for species of similar condensation and hardness, the 
chemical indifference increases as alumina takes the place 
of the ordinary protoxyd-bases, lime, magnesia, ferrous 
oxyd and alkalies—a fact readily explained by the com- 
parative insolubility of alumina and aluminous silicates in 
atmospheric waters. The less partial action of dilute fluor- 
hydric acid on the various silicates shows more clearly 
than the atmospheric process, the relation of condensation 
to chemical indifference. This relation may be made 
evident by a few examples. The condensation being in- 
versely as the so-called atomic volume, we find that when 
calculated by a simple formula (elsewhere given by the 
author) for all silicates and oxyds, this value, represented 
by v (=p+d) for the various feldspars and scapolites, for 
nephelite, iolite, and petalite, equals 6°8-6.2; for the mus- 
covitic or non-magnesian micas, 5.9-5°6; for garnet, epi- 
dote, zoisite, and the various tourmalines, 54-53; for stau- 
rolite and spodumene, 4°9 ; and for andalusite, topaz, fibrolite, 
and cyanite, 5-0-4'5, approximately. Comparing with these 
the common protoxyd-silicates, we find for wollastonite and 


244 Canadian Record of Science. 


willemite, v=6'6; for amphibole, 5:9 ; for pyroxene and en- 
statite, 5°5; for chrysolite, 5°4-5°3; and for phenakite, 4°6. 
In the sub-aerial decay of crystalline rocks, while feldspars 
and scapolites among aluminiferous silicates are kaolinised, 
the micas, notwithstanding their laminated structure, are 
much less readily changed; and garnet, epidote, tourma- 
line, andalusite, and topaz are found unaltered with the 
quartz, corundum, spinel, cassiterite, and magnetite left 
behind by the decay of the feldspathic rocks—a process in 
which even amphibole, pyroxene, and chrysolite share. 
“The greater stability of those [silicates] which belong to 
the more condensed types is shown in their superior resist- 
ance to decay, and is thus of geological significance.” 

While the above are examples of the varying resistance 
to the atmospheric influences of carbon dioxyd and water 
combined, other changes less well known take place in sili- 
cates by the subterranean action of watery solutions, where 
a greater insolubility determines the formation of certain 
softer hydrated magnesian and aluminous species by epige- 
nesis from harder and more condensed species. The pro- 
‘duction of these epigenic products, as was said in 1885, is 
due to their “chemical stability under the circumstances,” 
and it was added, “The constancy in composition and the 
wide distribution of pinite show that it is a compound rea- 
dily formed and of great stability.” Such being its charac- 
ter, it might be expected to occur as a frequent product of 
the aqueous changes of other and less stable silicates. It is 
met with in veinstones in the shape of crystals of nephelite, 
iolite, scapolite, feldspars, and spodumene, from each of 
which it is supposed to have been formed by epigenesis. 
Its frequent occurrence as an epigenic product is one of the 
many examples to be met with in the mineral kingdom of 
“the law of the survival of the fittest.” It is, however, 
difficult to assign such an origin to beds of this (described 
as dysyntribite and parophite), which are probably the 
results of original deposition or of diagenesis. 

Mr. EK. A. Ridsdale, who during the present year (1888) 
has done good service by publishing a suggestive essay 


Mineralogical Evolution. 245 


” 


called ‘Notes on Inorganic Evolution,” speaks of the pro- 
duction and conservation of more stable species, as above 
described, as a gradual “selection of inert forms,” and fur- 
ther, as “a survival of the most inert.” But as inertness 
consists in stability, and in fitness to resist alike the chemi- 
cal and the mechanical agencies which destroy other spe- 
cies, it is evident that this phraseology is but another state- 
ment of the formula of ‘‘the survival of the fittest.” 

The great principle of the change of the mineral matters 
which existed in former conditions of our planet, into other 
forms more stable under the altered conditions of later ages, 
is but an extenston to the mineral kingdom of the laws 
already recognised in astronomical and biological develop- 
ment. As was written in 1884, “That a great law presided 
over the development of the crystalline rocks was from the 
first my conviction, but until the confusion which a belief 
in the miracles of metamorphism, metasomatism, and vul- 
canism had introduced into geology had been dispelled, the 
discovery of such a law was impossible.” To this we may 
add that “ the great successive groups of stratiform crystal- 
line rocks mark necessary stages in the mineralogical evo- 
lution of the planet ;” and that the principles which we 
have elsewhere laid down will help us “to recognise the 
existence and the necessity of an orderly lithological devel- 
opment in time.” The reader who desires to follow the 
questions here raised will find them discussed in the au- 
thor’s “Mineral Physiology and Physiography,” (Boston, 
1886,) at much length, in chapters v., vi., vii. and viii., 
and further noticed in the Appendix, p. 688, where will be 
found references to previous pages here cited. 


246 Canadian Record of Science. 


AuTUMN FIELD Day. 


For the first time in its history, the Natural History So- 
ciety this year instituted a new departure in its annual 
excursions, by providing an Autumn Field Day. The So- 
ciety, however, is under great obligations to Mr. Gibb for 
causing it to adopt such a popular course, since it was his 
earnest and most cordial invitation to accept the hospitality 
of his country residence, that brought about such a result. 


The Field Day was held on the 29th of September. The 
excursionists, to the number of one hundred twenty, pro- 
ceeding to Abbotsford via the Canada Pacific, and there 
found a most hospitable welcome and an abundant provision 
for all their wants. Immediately upon arrival the various 
announcements for the day were made, after which the party 
had abundant opportunity to inspect the large and valuable 
orchards in the immediate vicinity, where, thanks to the 
energy of Mr. Gibb, a centre of fruit culture is gradually 
being built up, which is destined to produce an important 
influence upon the fruit industry of this Province. Mr. 
Gibb himself has a large number of important varieties of 
Russian apples, and also a valuable collection of ornamental 
and forest trees, the adaptability of which, to this climate, 
he is endeavoring to determine. 

After a bountiful lunch, the excursionists distributed in 
various directions under the leadership of Sir Wm. Dawson, 
Prof. Penhallow, Mr. Holden, Mr. Gibb and others. The 
largest party proceeded to the summit of Yamaska Moun- 
tain, whence a most extended view of the surrounding 
country was obtained, and where Sir Wm. Dawson delivered 
an address upon the peculiar geological features of the 
vicinity. 

The collections made were chiefly geological, although a 
number of interesting botanical specimens were brought in, 
amongst others various species of Lycopodium, Agaricus, 
Aster; a number of ferns and Geranium Robertianum. On 
re-assembling at the house, addresses on the Natural History 
of the locality, were made by Sir Wm. Dawson and Prof. 
Penhallow, and a vote of thanks tendered Mr. Gibb by Prof. 
Bovey. : 

The day was fine, notwithstanding a snow-storm on the 
summit of Mount Yamaska, and the party returned to the 
city with the feeling that it had been a day of much pleasure 
and great profit. 


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VOL. III. JANUARY, 1889. NO. 5. 


THE GREAT LAKE BASINS OF THE St. LAWRENCE. 
By A. T. Drummonp. 


When recently considering the physical and geological 
relations of tue Canadian flora, my attention was drawn to 
the many interesting questions connected with the forma- 
tion of the St. Lawrence Great Lake Basins. What had 
been their history in past time? Were these lakes, as has 
been so long maintained, the outcome of the forces of the 
glacial age, or had they not in some cases an antecedent, 
and in others, or all, a subsequent history as well? What 
influences had they exercised on the climate, fauna and 
flora of the north-eastern part of the continent in the past ? 
How far do their present contours and depths, the physical 


Avutnor’s Nore.—Since this paper was written, I have seen the 
very brief abstracts of articles on a similar subject by Prof. Spencer, 
which have been pnblished in the Recorp or Somnon for October, 
issued this month. I am glad to find that his views on one or two 
points referred to in this paper confirm the conclusions I had ar- 
rived at independently. 

November, 1888. 

18 


st. ACADE 
ea m4 


~: 
LIBRARY 


248 Canadian Record of Science. 


and geological features of the surrounding country, the 
fauna of their depths, and the flora of their shores, furnish 
us with facts for the compilation of their history ? 

The object of the present paper is to suggest what has 
been the origin of the contours of the Great Lakes as they 
now present themselves. All writers on the subject are 
probably agreed that at a relatively recent quaternary 
period these lakes have been united consequent on a depres- 
sion of the land, greatest at Lake Superior, and lessening 
towards the present St. Lawrence outlet. That in the pre- 
vious glacial period this greater lake was a still larger inland 
sea extending farther southward, into which glaciers from 
the then more elevated Laurentian area, and rivers having 
their sources at the glaciers, flowed, and across whose sur- 
faces floated icebergs and icefloes, carrying their burdens 
of boulders and debris in the direction in which the currents 
impelled them, has always appeared the most reasonable 
view to take. The depression would be a natural result of 
a rise of land to the north. It has not hitherto been suf- 
ficiently considered that whatever changes in level take 
place, the maintaining of an equilibrium in the earth’s 
crust can in general terms be predicated. If there is a 
great subsidence in the land over any extended area, it may 
be assumed that there is a corresponding rise in the land 
over some other area. Thus, if over the Laurentian region 
there was an increase in height which gave some slope and 
consequently denuding power to the glaciers which flowed 
to the north and northeastward on the one side of the Lau- 
rentian axis, as shown by Drs. G. M. Dawson and Bell, and 
to the southwestward on the other, then we can accept the 
assumption that immediately to the southward or north- 
ward, or both, there might reasonably be an extensive de- 
pression of the land and an inflow of the sea. This inflow 
on the southward side also found its way, no doubt contem- 
poraneously, as far west as the Rocky Mountains, as the 
enormous boulders and other features discovered by Dr. 
G. M. Dawson indicate. And there seems to be corrobora- 
tive evidence of this inflow in the flora around the lakes 


Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. 249 


and in the fauna of their depths, as will be shown hereafter. 
That in the St. Lawrence Basin this inland sea graduated 
by a general elevation of the land and by local warpings of 
the strata into the more circumscribed fresh-water lake 
before referred to as including the area of the present lakes, 
there seems no question. That, however, prior to this an 
interglacial period prevailed, to be followed by a second 
glacial period, there is not in Eastern Canada very satisfac- 
tory evidence, whatever credence we may give to the 
vegetal deposits relied on by some American geologists 
to prove more than one interglacial period, and to the peaty 
remains in the Canadian superficial deposits towards the 
Rocky Mountains. 

The grave difficulties which on general physical grounds 
stand in the way of the larger conception of a continental 
ice-sheet, need not be repeated here. It may be well, how- 
ever, to allude to one circumstance—the immense mass of 
the superficial deposits—which hasbeen relied on as neces- 
sitating a glacial theory for its explanation, and which has 
a direct association with the history of the St. Lawrence 
Basin. It has been usual to ascribe largely to glacial action 
what must be the effects of ages of subereal and sub-aqueous 
erosion and decay in this great lake basin since the Carbo- 
niferous age. Whilst most sections were above water for 
vast periods prior to the Carboniferous, the whole of the im- 
mense area drained by the Great Lakes has, subsequent to 
that period, and as far onwards as quaternary times, been 
dry land, excepting to the extent that these lakes, or any of 
them, may have themselves been in existence during the 
immense intermediate periods—periods measured not by 
centuries alone, but probably by countless centuries of cen- 
turies. All of the agencies ordinarily at work in producing 
growth, disintegration and decay were then in operation, 
and have been continuously since. Forests covered the 
land, and vegetation in its decay everywhere yearly con- 
tributed to the soil; torrents found their way to the rivers, 
and the rivers to the lakes and to the ocean, creating on 
their way boulders and gravel, and depositing clays and 


250 Canadian Record of Science. 


sands, not only on the river banks, but carrying them to 
these lakes and to the ocean in vast quantities; the ocean 
and lakes were themselves not only great factors in erosion 
on their coasts, but were the distributors of sands and clays 
over great areas of their floors; whilst added to these eroding 
powers were the ceaseless forces of the atmosphere in the 
heat of summer, in the frosts of winter, in the downpours 
of rain, and in the blasts of the storm—each contributing its 
measure of energy in the wearing down of mountain sides 
and cliffs, the carrying away of soil, and exposing of 
vegetation to decay—an energy not especially visible in its 
effects in a single year or in a decade of years, but produc- 
tive of vast results in the course of centuries. And this 
growth, disintegration and decay going on ceaselessly from 
century to century, and from age to age, must have created 
immense deposits of boulders, gravel, sand and clays, in 
every part ofthe country, prior to the advent of the glacial 
period. If Croll’s view were accepted, that since a p!evious 
glacial epoch, which he appears to suggest occurred during 
the Kocene age, a period of 2,500,000 years has elapsed, we 
can form some conception of what must have been the re- 
sults of denudation during the enormous time previous to 
as well as since that age. These deposits were no doubt 
largely added to, and in many cases re-arranged, but the de- 
nuding effects of the glaciers, considerable as they may 
have been on the superficial features of the country, have 
been greatly exaggerated. 

Again, some geologists have been too ready to accept ex- 
isting levels as the basis on which to found conclusions 
regarding the levels of the country in its different sections 
in past times, without any reference to warpings of the 
strata which have since affected local or wide areas. These 
warpings are known to have cut through the channels of 
rivers, created new watersheds, opened up new river valleys, 
and reversed the currents of lakes. Spencer has recently 
drawn attention to such warpings in the Mississippi Valley 
and south of Lake Ontario. 


Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. 251 
CENTRES OF DEPRESSION. 


When examining attentively the general geological fea- 
tures of the country surrounding the Great Lakes, the care- 
ful student will not fail to observe that three great centres, 
as it were, of depression existed in its bygone history. 

One occupies nearly the western half of Lake Superior, the 
floor of which here is overlaid by the Cambrian and upper 
division of the Keweenawan rocks. Beyond these, on the 
north-west and south-east sides of this part of the lake there 
occur, in successive descending order, the lower division of 
Keweenawan, the Animikie division of the Huronian, and 
what are supposed to be the Laurentian rocks. 

Eastward of Lake Superior, it will be observed that, as 
far onward as the Carboniferous period, there were, near 
the present lakes, two other great centres, as it were, of 
depression, the one in Northern Pennsylvania, the other in 
Michigan. In passing southward from the Laurentian 
region lying between the Georgian Bay and the Upper 
Ottawa, the formations are met with in a regular, almost 
unbrok en, ascending order, from the Laurentian of Canada, 
through the Lower and Upper Silurian and Devonian, until 
the Carboniferous rocks of Northern Pennsylvania appear. 
The strata representing these formations occur in this regu- 
lar succession, all within a distance from north to south of 
one hundred and seventy-five miles. ‘The outcrops of 
several of these formations are, on the south side of Lake 
Ontario, more or less parallel to the length of the lake and 
to each other, whilst the outcrop of the Trenton and Black 

tiver limestones to the north of the lake runs in a line dia- 
gonally from the east end of Lake Ontario to the Georgian 
Bay. 

That the area presently occupied by Lake Ontario was 
overlaid in part by Trenton limestones and Utica slates, 
but perhaps more by rocks of the Hudson River and Medina 
age, is apparent from the way in which these strata on the 
north-western side are again represented to the eastward 
and southward of the lake. Thus, the interesting questions 


252 Canadian Record of Science. 


to consider are: Do these strata presently form the floor of 
the lake, or have they within the lake area been removed 
by some vast erosive force acting at a recent period? In 
other words, is the lake the result of a synclinal depression 
or of erosion, or both? Again, is the apparent parallelism 
in the outcrops of the formations due to successive, gradual, 
permanent elevations of the land from the Laurentian 
period onward, each elevation stretching farther south than 
its predecessor, or is it due to a great erosive force which 
exposed in succession the upturned edges of the different 
strata, and as a farther result produced Lake Ontario? 

In Michigan, again, the Carboniferous area which there 
at one time was the centre of depression, is even more con- 
spicuous in its relations to both the surrounding geological 
features and the adjacent lakes. Here, on every side, there 
is a regular series of formations whose outcrops, after 
making every allowance for estimations, appear each in 
proper geological succession within the other, and in 
Michigan, form, as it were, irregularly concentric areas 
around the Carboniferous. Again, the contours of the 
shores of Lakes Michigan, Huron and St. Clair, and of Lake 
Krie at its western end, present the same idea of arrange- 
ment around the same central area. The interesting ques- 
tions arising are: Were these formations originally laid 
down here with this more or less concentric arrangement 
which in Michigan they presently possess, or have they in 
recent or earlier times been the subject of some denuding 
force, which has given them this peculiar arrangement, and 
which probably has also aided in the creation or enlarge- 
ment of the adjacent lakes? Again, as certain of these for- 
mations were evidently originally more or less continuous 
across the area now occupied by Lakes Huron and Michi- 
gan, has some vast erosive force created these lakes by re- 
moving the strata where they occupied the lake area, or do 
the strata underlie the waters of these lakes as a result of 
a depression, or, are there here the effects of both denuda- 
tion and depressiou ? 

The central area of Michigan was, as far onward as the 


Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. 253 


close of the era of the coal measures, generally under water, 
and unless Michigan has been the subject of extreme denu- 
dation, those portions of the State which surround the coal 
measures were dry land when these measures were de- 
posited. Since that period the State has been entirely above 
water, if we except any depression during quaternary 
times. Whatever the oscillations have been at different 
periods, the fact remains that the State is now in consider- 
able sections elevated between one thousand and two thou- 
sand feet above the sea, the areas between the central and 
northern portions of the State forming the highest levels. 
In the country on the immediate west side of Lake Michi- 
gan, the land has, with the same exception, been above 
water since about the period of the Niagara limestones and 
shales, and is now there, in many sections, also between one 
and two thousand feet above the sea. In the Ontario penin- 
ssula, on the east side of Lake Huron, there is an elevation 
reaching on the anticlinal at the Niagara escarpment as 
high as seventeen hundred feet. There is, however, good 
evidence, as will be shown farther on, that at some former 
time there have been certain marked disturbances in the 
general level of the Michigan, Krie, Huron and Ontario 
areas, operating probably simultaneously, and that these 
disturbances had much to do with the more general defining 
of the contours of these lakes. 

In following the history of the Great Lakes, the physical 
features of the lake bottoms afford some interesting chapters. 
The soundings undertaken by Cols. Meade, Comstock, and 
other engineers of the United States War Department, and 
those of Capt. Bayfield and Commander Bolton of the Cana- 
dian Marine Service, enable us to form some important con- 
clusions, especially when taken in connection with the physi- 
cal and geological features of the coasts of the lakes. That 
the lakes have to even a moderate extent a glacial origin does 
not appear to be borne out by the facts which these sound- 
ings reveal, however much icebergs and glaciers have con- 
tributed their quota of results to the outlines of some 
portions of the coasts and to the character and disposition 
of the material upon these coasts and upon the lake bottoms, 


254 Canadian Record of Science. 


Let us examine each lake in turn. 


LAKE SUPERIOR, 


This lake is so distinct from the other lakes in its origin, 
that it must be separately considered. 

The point of greatest depth is not in the centre, but forty 
miles north-east of Duluth, and about six miles off the west 
shore, where, in a small area, 1,026 feet is reached, or 426 
feet below ocean level. The depression to this low level at 
this point is, as frequently occurs elsewhere, very sudden, 
the depths at the immediate sides being 690 and 816 feet. 
The line of deepest depression at this end of the lake does 
not lie along or near the central line ofthe lake, but follows 
somewhat irregularly the west shore from near Duluth 
until it reaches the entrance to Thunder Bay. Between _ 
this bay and Isle Royale the maximum depth is 990 feet. 
From that part of this line of deepest depression, lying 
south-west of Isle Royale, the lake bottom shallows, at first 
somewhat gradually, but finally more rapidly to the south 
shore east and west of the Apostle Islands. 

Along the west shore of the lake the coast line is often 
high, being in frequent places from 900 to 1100 feet, and at 
Thunder Cape attaining over 1300 feet. Below the water- 
line, for nearly the whole distance between Thunder Bay 
and Duluth, there is at or within a mile of the shore a sud- 
den descent to depths varying from 100 feet in some locali- 
ties to over 600 feet in others, whilst in one instance along- 
side the islands, off the east side of Thunder Cape, the 
bottom is only reached at 780 feet. Two miles further 
away from this general coast line the depth becomes 500 to 
1000 feet. Thus along this west coast shore, from the sum- 
mit of the heights overlooking the lake to the deeper points 
in the line of the depression, which is generally about five 
miles distant, there is a total descent varying from 1600 to 
1900 feet, except at Thunder Cape, where it is increased to 
2140 feet. These soundings suggest that between Black 
Bay and the westerly end of the lake there are, running 


Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. 255 


somewhat parallel with and close to the coast, great sub- 
aqueous cliffs, some probably like Thunder Cape, and of 
irregular outline and at different levels, and which give 
rise to the sudden increase in the depths of the lake here. 
There is, however, the possibility that a great downthrow, 
or dislocation, of the upper division of the Keewenaw 
Series, exists here, the hinge, as it were, of the depression 
being towards the south shore of the lake, and the rocks 
gradually sloping from this hinge to the line of deepest de- 
pression near the western shores. These cliffs lie in a gen- 
eral way parallel with the axis of the western end of the 
lake. Is it not suggestive that here we have the effects 
which gave rise in time to certainly the westerly half of 
this greatest of the inland seas? And may not the forces 
which resulted in these cliffs, or in this great dislocation, 
if such it be, have been simultaneous with some of those 
voleanic forces which at different periods produced the ab- 
rupt overflows, or great dikes, or interstrata, of the main- 
land in the Huronian or Keweenawan rocks, and gave 
direction to the heights which at its south-western end form 
there the rim, as it were, of Lake Superior. The Western 
sandstones of the south-west shore give further clue to their 
period of operation. 

Parallel with these cliffs is another sub-aqueous escarp- 
mentin Keweenaw Bay, about twenty-five miles long, lying 
near the south-east shore and facing in the opposite direction. 
Here there is an abrupt descent from depths of 100 and 150 
feet to depths varying from 300 feet to 552 feet. In the 
large outer bay the maximum depth is only 366 feet, and 
the average does not probably exceed 270 feet. 

At the upper end of White Fish Bay the waters of Lake 
Superior converge, and flowing over the rocky rim of the 
lake here, result in the rapids of the Sault Ste. Marie, as 
they descend to the level of Lake Huron. The lake bottom 
in the bay has points of great interest. Running about due 
northward from near Pt. Lroquois, on the Michigan shore, 
past Parisian Island, on its western side, to opposite Pan- 
cake Point, on the Ontario side of the lake, a distance of 


256 Canadian Record of Science. 


about thirty-five miles, is a marked depression in the 
floor of the bay of from three to four miles in width, 
flanked on both sides by more or less abrupt, continuous 
cliffs of probably Potsdam age. From a depth varying on 
the top of the cliffs from 30 to 150 feet, the descent is quickly 
made to depths reaching a maximum of 612 feet, and aver- 
aging from 350 feet to 400 feet. Whilst the summits of 
these subaqueous cliffs form, on either side of the depression, 
a relatively level surface of about two to four miles in width 
for the whole thirty-five miles, beyond that width the lake 
bottom once more, but more gradually, slopes in the one 
case to the eastward, in the other to the westward, so as to 
form two other depressions parallel to that above described, 
but of much less depth. Beyond Pancake Point the middle 
depression leads to the general depths of the lake bottom 
outside of the bay, but with a somewhat decreased depth at 
the immediate outlet. In White Fish Bay the lake bottom 
is, like the coast near at hand on the southern side, com- 
posed chiefly of beds of sand, and it is clear that these de- 
pressions are now partially filled up with this material 
and with clay. 

These subaqueous cliffs and depressions lie in a general 
direction parallel to the eastern coast line of the lake, and 
have probably their origin in the same cause, though subse- 
quently more defined by river action. The conspicuous 
subaqueous ridge between Michipicoten Island and the 
higher division of rocks of Caribou Island has apparently 
also the same direction. 

The forces which contributed to the formation of Lake 
Superior appear to have taken three principal directions: 
the first in a line from Michipicoten Island eastward and 
westward, parallel with the extreme northern and general 
line of the southern shores of the lake, and with the north- 
ern coast of Keweenaw Point, where profound depths almost 
skirt the shores; the second, already referred to, operating 
in the line of the western coasts, of the subaqueous depression 
near these coasts, and of the axes of Isle Royale and Kewee- 
naw Point, and of the Keweenaw Bay depression; and the 


Great Lake Basins of the‘St. Lawrence. | 25% 


third, in a direction parallel with the eastern coast line, the 
White Fish Bay subaquecus cliffs and depression, and the ap- 
parent ridge between Caribou Island and Michipicoten 
Island. Other less important forces acted in other direc- 
tions in forming Thunder Bay, Black Bay, with its deeply- 
channelled entrance, and the eastern and deeper side of 
Nepigon Bay. These forces probably operated at different 
times, each inits turn contributing to the further enlarge- 
ment of the lake, which originally was no doubt of modest 
dimensions compared with the present area. 

It is just probable that the operation of the second force 
in the order given above was more recent than that of the 
first, as a very marked subaqueous anticlinical in a line with 
and forming a continuation under the lake of the Keweenaw 
Peninsula, crosses to the centre of the lake, somewhat ab- 
ruptly severing in two the deep, lake depression which runs 
‘from Michipicoten Island westward. There is a presump- 
tion that this anticlinal was formed subsequently to the de- 
pression, and, considering also the sandstones on the 
south-west coast, that the central part of the lake may thus 
be older than the south-western. Again, the Cariboo Island 
anticlinal apparently likewise crosses the deep, lake depres- 
sion, and thus the central parts of the lake may also be older 
than the eastern. The White Fish Bayriver channel being 
cut through the Potsdam sandstones, will also be more 
recent, 

If we regard these earlier forces as having a common 
source with some of those which resulted in the eruptive 
rocks, forming so prominent a feature in, and so conspicu- 
ously interstratified with, the Huronian and Keweenawan 
Series, then we may date the origin of Lake Superior as far 
back as it may be Huronian and Keweenawan times. And 
this is by no means improbable. Foster and Whitney, and 
especially and more recently, R. D. Irving, have shown that 
the lake is, in both its eastern and western halves, a great 
synclinal trough or depression. This conclusion has been 
arrived at from—particularly in the western half—the gen- 
erally constant dip of the Keweenawan rocks towards and 


258 Canadian Record of Science. 


under the lake; the frequent dip of the Huronian as well; 
the re-appearance of these strata on opposite sides in the 
western half of the lake; the regular order of succession of 
Keweenewan rocks, Huronian rocks and gneiss, granite and 
crystalline schists on all sides when proceeding inland from 
the coast, and the parallelism between the courses of the 
Keweenawan belts on the north and south shores, and of the 
coast line with these belts. 

At the eastern end of the lake, Cambrian rocks overlie 
the Keweenawan and Huronian, and now form the rim over 
which the lake waters flow in their course to Lake Huron. 
It is conceivable that the submerged channel fractured 
through these rocks here was, for ages, the outlet of Lake 
Superior into the Trenton, Hudson River, and later seas, 
and that even in more recent times it joined the submerged 
river channel in Lake Huron, coursing its way across the 
sandstones, limestones, and shales of the north peninsula of 
Michigan by a connecting valley which subsequent eleva- 
tion of the land has cut off. 

Now, all these facts appear to effectually dispel the idea 
that Lake Superior has a glacial origin. It is undoubtedly 
the oldest of the Great Lakes, and has preserved its present 
general contour through vast periods and for countless ages 
before the glacial period. That glaciers prevailed on the 
mountains and hills on its coasts during the ice age, polish- 
ing and grooving the rocks and dotting the united inland 
sea with ice and icebergs at certain seasons is probable, but 
they merely added to the effect of previous ages in toning 
down the rough edges of these mountains and hills, and 
scattering the loose material thus produced over the broad 
surface of the bottom. Great areas of this lake’s bottom 
around the Apostle Islands, the west side of the Keweenaw 
Peninsula, and within and on the west side of White 
Fish Bay, are surfaced with sand derived undoubtediy from 
the wear of the sandstones of these localities, whilst the 
general character of the bed. of the lake, especially in its 
most profound depths, is clay. 

Dr. Selwyn thinks that the geological features of the 


Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. 259 


Lake Nepigon country may be explained by that lake now 
occupying the crater of an ancient volcano, and he is in- 
clined to take the same view of Lake Superior. Whatever 
may be said of Lake Nepigon, the features of the present 
floor of Lake Superior hardly bear out this conclusion, 
although there can be no question of the existence of enor- 
mous volcanic forces at ditferent points. 

Whilst the history of Lake Superior, during the vast ages 
which have elapsed between the Cambrian period and the 
close of the Tertiary, is in most respects a complete blank, 
yet, from the latter time, its history begins once more. 
Apart from the facts which the superficial deposits supply, 
some reference to which will hereafter arise in connection 
with the other lakes, the fauna of the lake itself and the 
flora now existing around its shores afford some interesting 
chapters. 

. On the jutting headlands of the lake, and along the shores 
of the bays of its northern coasts, there are both subarctic ; 
and boreal plants which appear to form a completely iso- | 
lated group in these localities. Their original presence, 
there, it is difficult to disassociate from a migration before | 
the close of the glacial era, when, with the somewhat colder | 
climate, and under the influence of the low equable temper- 
ature of the great inland sea south of the glacier-clad Lau- / 
rentian and Huronian mountains, subarctic and _ boreal 
plants found a natural highway along the coasts. With | 
lofty mountains to the immediate northward, such plants, 
as well as perhaps arctic species, were doubtless not un- 
common. As the waters receded and the climate became i 
milder, these northern plants were driven to localities like | 
the headlands of Lake Superior, where the low temperature 
and moist atmosphere were favorable to the continuance of 
some of them in a struggle for life, in which probably most 
became extinct. 

The inland maritime plants of Canada, which occur along 
the coasts of all the Great Lakes, and on saline ground in 
New York State, and far westward, appear to be the rem- 
nants of a larger maritime flora which margined the coast 


ete 


260 Canadian Record of Science. 


probably before the close of glacial times, and certainly at 
a period when the great inland seas were saline, or ina 
state of transition from saline to fresh water, which the 
gradual change in the elevation of the land would have 
brought about. Their presence so far inland seems a direct 
argument for the saltness of this interior sea at these times, 
and under any circumstances proves, in connection with the 
subarctic and boreal plants of Lake Superior, that the cli- 
mate, at the time of their migration, was not, along the 
shores of that lake more severe than on the coasts of the 
Lower St. Lawrence at the present day. These inland 
maritime plants are all now found there or on the coast of 
Nova Scotia. In further proof of this question of climate, 
does not the comparatively limited flora of the summits of 
the White Mountains, and other considerable heights in 
New England and New York, comprising chiefly four or 
five really arctic and a few subarctic and boreal plants, 
nearly all also found on the coasts of the Lower St. Law- 
rence, of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, or of the adjacent por- 
tions of Labrador, show that the true arctic flora had hardly, 
in glacial times, reached as far south as these mountains? 
Profs. Verrill and 8. J. Smith, in 1871, published in the 
American Journal of Science a list of the deep-water fauna 
dredged by them in Lake Superior. ‘The list is interesting 
as shewing the existence in that lake as well as in Lake 
Michigan of the marine crustaceans Mysis relicta. Loven and 
Pontoporeia affinis, Lindst., previously detected in Lake 
Wetter in Sweden. Both species were discovered in the 
profound depths of the lake, as well asin the shallower | 
waters. Species of Gammarus, which might possibly be 
marine, were also found. They are no doubt the survivors 
of a larger marine fauna which inhabited the St. Lawrence 
basin in glacial times, and would seem to afford proof of the 
saline character of the water of the great inland sea which 
occupied this basin when the subarctic, boreal and inland 
maritime plants migrated to the neighborhood of Lake Supe- 
rior. The Mysis is a denizen of the Greenland seas, and 
suggests strongly that when the great inland sea prevailed 


Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. 261 


the temperature of its water was maintained at a low point 
by cold inflowing streams, by currents, and by icebergs. 
These crustaceans thus aid in identifying the conditions 
under which the northern and maritime plants existed on 
the inland coasts. 


LAKE Huron. 


This lake presents a totally different set of circumstances 
from those of Lake Superior. Its floor is laid in the Arch- 
aean Silurian and Devonian formations, whilst the Niagara 
escarpment, continued across the Ontario peninsula, gives 
shape to the two great divisions into which the lake surface 
is separated in its northern half. 

In its profound depths the lake really forms three great 
basins—the Georgian Bay, the Central, and the Southern 
basins. 

The continuation of the great Niagara escarpment in an 
irregular, subaqueous ridge connecting Cape Hurd, the 
Grand Manitoulin Island, and the various islands between 
them, gives the Georgian Bay a distinctive character. This 
ridge appears to present, under water, bold, precipitous cliffs 
facing the Georgian Bay, similar to the heights from Cabot’s 
Head to Owen Sound, and with similar deep inlets, though 
penetrating the ridge in somewhat different directions. 
Whilst the cliffs on the islands form the real summit of the 
ridge, and its subaqueous portions rise to an average of 
within 30 to 40 feet of the lake surface, the depths on its 
immediate eastern sides often reach 250 feet. At Over- 
hanging Point, between Cabot’s Head and Cape Hurd, the 
depth at half a mile from the cliff reaches 540 feet, the deep- 
est point of the Georgian Bay. Through this subaqueous 
ridge there does not appear to be any break permitting 
direct access from the deeper waters of the bay to those of 
the central parts of the lake beyond. Further, the dip of 
the strata forming the ridge appears by the soundings to 
fall gradually to the westward and south-westward, just as. 
the same strata on the Bruce Peninsula slope to the west- 


262 Canadian Record of Science. 


ward, and those on the Manitoulin Islands in the curve 
which the outcrop of the Niagara limestones there takes, 
slope to the southward. 

The Georgian Bay in this part appears to be subsiding, 
according to Bolton’s survey. North-Hast Shingle, off 
Lonely Island, presently 2 to 5 feet below water, was in 
Bayfield’s time, 3 to 4 feet above, whilst White Shingle, off 
Snake Island, now 1 foot below, was formerly 2 to 3 feet 
above. As Bayfield’s survey was made in 1822, the max- 
imum subsidence has been about one foot in each nine 
years. Commander Bolton, however, has personally sug- 
gested to me the possibility that floating ice may have been 
the cause. 

On the eastern banks of the St. Clair River there are also 
evidences of subsidence, but these may be local. 

It is possible that in some sections the Niagara escarp- 
ment, including under this term the whole strata exposed, . 
may result partly from a fault. The country at the foot of 
and approaching the escarpment is in Canada, almost in- 
variably either obscured by heavy superficial deposits, or 
covered by the waters of the lake, rendering exact observa- 
tion difficult. It is quite possible that could the profound 
depths of the lake adjoining the east and north side of the 
Bruce Peninsula be studied, such a fault or faults might be 
discovered. Whilst the escarpment at Cabot’s Head towers 
324 feet above the water, the depths close at hand in the 
Georgian Bay reach about 498 feet, giving a total of 822 feet, 
and along the face of the escarpment lie the deepest parts 
of the Georgian Bay. From this line of depression the 
slope is upward towards the north-eastern shores of the bay, 
where the depths outside of the islands average about 60 
feet, excepting in Parry Sound, where there is a maximum 
of 354 feet. 

From Cabot’s Head south-eastward, at every point and 
island, and sometimes also in the bays, Mr. Alex. Murray 
found a fringe of reefs close to the cliffs, all apparently com- 
posed of loose blocks, and probably all derived from the 
destruction of the cliffs by rapid. currents, by the action of 


Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. 268 


waves, as well as by the forces of the atmosphere. These 
reefs also extend a short distance eastward of Owen Sound. 
Two or three miles to the eastward of these cliffs Com- 
mander Bolton has found at least two abrupt elevations quite 
near to the surface and covered with loose rocks. 

Whether, however, there has been any special subsidence 

in the strata on the eastern side of the escarpment or not, 
the escarpment itself has been the subject of elevation, 
greatest at the edge of the cliff and gradually lessening to 
the westward on the Bruce Peninsula, and to the southward 
on the Manitoulin Island, until all of the strata are lost under 
the waters of Lake Huron proper. The soundings along 
the whole eastern coast of the lake from Cape Hurd to 
Goderich, and southward, and off the southern coasts of the 
Manitoulin Islands, show that the strata continue to slope 
gradually towards the central parts of the lake. 
‘ Another somewhat parallel escarpment occurs on the west 
side of Matchedash Bay, and along islands at the extremity 
of the peninsula there. This is, however, in the area of the 
Trenton and Black River limestones, near or at their junc- 
tion with the Laurentian rocks. The strata slope from 
Nottawasaga Bay upward to Matchedash Bay, where they 
present bold cliffs facing to the north-east. The depth of 
water adjacent to the cliffs on these islands is very consider- 
able, reaching a maximum of 267 feet. 

The central and southern deep-water basins of Lake Huron 
are readily distinguished, The former, which is the deeper 
of the two, lies in the Upper Silurian strata, and is separ- 
ated from the latter, which rests on the Devonian rocks, by 
a well defined escarpment evidently of Corniferous limestone. 
This escarpment, starting from the Canadian side south of 
Kincardine, crosses Lake Huron in a north-westerly direc- 
tion in, generally, a line with the Straits of Mackinac until 
near Presqu’isle Point, where it approaches the shallower 
waters of the Michigan coast. If 180 feet in depth of water 
were uniformly removed from Lake Huron, it would com- 
pletely separate these two basins and leave the summit of 
this separating ridge in some cases 120 feet above water. 


264 Canadian Record of Science. 


While thus this ridge approaches in some places within 60 
feet of the present level of the lake, the profound depths on 
the immediate north-easterly side vary from 360 to 588 
feet. 

The deepest point in the lake is 750 feet, or 172 feet below 
ocean level, and is found in this central basin about thirty 
miles south-west of Cape Hurd. It is a sudden depression, 
as the depths a short distance on either side are 426 and 366 
feet, and it does not occur in the general line of deepest de- 
pression. This line, starting from near the Canadian shore, 
takes a direction irregularly parallel with the Corniferous 
limestone escarpment to a point somewhat more than half- 
way across the lake, when its direction is diverted north- 
ward towards Grand Manitoulin Island. A branch of this 
line of deepest depression runs from off Kincardine almost 
due north in an irregular line towards Cape Hurd. Lake 
Huron is thus somewhat deeper in its Canadian half, and the 
central basin gradually shallows to about 180 feet near the 
Straits of Mackinac. 

The southern basin comprises all that part of the lake 
south of the subaqueous Corniferous escarpment, and is much 
shallower than the central basin. The summit of the 
escarpment has an average breadth of about four miles, 
after which, on the south-western side, the slope becomes 
more distinctly to the south-west or west, andis somewhat 
gradual, though the greatest depth in this southern basin 
is reached at 330 feet in an abrupt depression at one point, 
at the beginning of this slope, about midway across the 
lake. The depth over the greater portion of this southern 
basin is very moderate, and about its centre is a large area, 
lying somewhat north-west and south-east, where, though 
almost surrounded by deeper water, the depth does not ex- 
ceed 180 feet, and is generally less. 

Whilst the bottom of the central basin is chiefly clay, with 
gravel in places, that of the southern basin is largely sand, 
especially in its lower third towards the outlet at the St. 
Clair River, and in Saginaw Bay. 

Saginaw Bay appears to be a subaqueous continuation of 


Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. 265 


the depression which crosses the State of Michigan along 
the Grand Valley and which, Rominger points out, seldom 
presents surfaces exceeding 100 feet above the lake. It 
does not average 30 feet in depth and it is suggestive 
whether it is not really a very shallow synclinal trough in 
the Carboniferous and Devonian rocks. 

Now, all these facts, with others, have their bearing on 
the origin of Lake Huron. The abrupt, subaqueous Corni- 
ferous ridge diagonally crossing the lake ; the different lines 
of direction of the Bruce Peninsula, its subaqueous exten- 
sion and the Manitoulin Islands, and of their deep bays and 
inlets ; the abrupt cliffs, both above and under water, show- 
ing rather the effects of undermining by waves and currents ; 
the directions of the lines of deepest depression ; and the 
varying and often sudden depths of the lake, showing that 
there has not been any general filling up of the hollows 
and depressions in the lake bottom, all militate against the 
idea that a great glacier from the north or north-east, 
gradually, in the course of ages, formed the depths and ont- 
lines of Lake Huron, nor do the directions of the ice grooves 
suggest what were evidently the travelling lines of the 
forces which gave rise to the above described and other 
physicial features of the lake. A reasonable conclusion, 
quite compatible with the existence of a fault, and with the 
elevation of the Niagara escarpment and of the land to the 
east of the Georgian Bay, would appear to be that the de- 
pression fronting this escarpment is in part the result of 
river excavation, and that through it flowed across Ontario, 
the drainage of the country to the northward and north- 
westward, until the waters joined the preglacial river which, 
as Spencer and Claypole point out, occupied the bed of 
Lake Ontario, This—supplemented by subsequent lake 
action—would account for much of the disintegration of the 
escarpment. The course of the river through Lake Huron 
was then, a8 shown by the line of depression, first to the 
south of eastward for some distance, then south towards the 
corniferous escarpment parallel to which it flowed, until, by 
a diversion to the north, it reached Cape Hurd and turning 


266 Canadian Record of Science. 


eastward, joined this river channel in a great fall over the sub- 
aqueous ridge now worn back to a line between Cape Hurd 
and Grand Manitoulin Island. Another stream from the 
north joined it at this point. These great preglacial rivers 
would continue their flow until the elevation of the anticlinal 
between the Georgian Bay and Lake Ontario blocked their 
course, and filling the Georgian Bay with water, created a 
new outlet, not by the St. Clair River, but to the south- 
eastward of Lake Huron as hereafter referred to. 

Though the eastern coasts, between the Bruce Peninsula 
and the County of Lambton, present bold clay cliffs of con- 
siderable height, the general dip of the strata from the 
Niagara escarpment which crosses Lake Ontario to the 
Georgian Bay, is towards and under the main body of Lake 
Huron. As already mentioned, this is also the case on the 
Manitoulin Islands, and south-eastward across the suba- 
queous escarpment to the Bruce Peninsula. Again, thestrata 
on the Canadian side of Lake Huron proper appear on the 
Michigan side in the same relative positions. These facts 


tend to prove that the lake is in part now a synclinal 


trough which has been further depressed, in common with 
the surrounding country, at the time when the superficial 
deposits were formed, but which, in its rise to its present 
levels, has left behind the great clay cliffs now lining its 
eastern sides, which have been gradualy worn backwards 
by the action of waves and atmospheric causes. 

The subject will be further referred to when discussing 
Lakes Michigan and Ontario, for the final shaping of the 
contour of these three lakes was in part due to one com- 
mon cause. 


LAKE MIcHIGAN. 


This lake rests, to a limited degree, on the Lower Carboni- 
ferous rocks, but chiefly on those of Upper Silurian and 
Devonian age. Its depth has been said to reach even 1,800 
feet;' but the soundings made under the direction of the 


1 Encyclop. Britann. 9th ed. vol. 21, p. 178. 


an 


Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. 267 


engineers of the United States War Department, do not in- 
dicate a greater depth than 870 feet, which is 292 feet be- 
low ocean level. This deepest point lies in the latitude of 
44° 30’ and rather nearer the Michigan than the Wisconsin 
shore. Buta relatively limited portion of the lake has a 
depth exceeding 600 feet, and all of this portion is located 
in its northern half. The most northern parts of the lake 
are comparatively shallow, but there is clear evidence of a 
broad river channel cut through the rocky bed of the lake 
and running along the north side of the Beaver Island group 
to the Straits of Mackinac. Whilst the depth of the lake 
waters everywhere on either side is under 100 feet, this 
ancient river channel registers from 100 to 302 feet, the 
deepest points being in the narrowest parts of the Straits. 
From the Lake Huron side, another river channel entering 
the Strait, and with depths of from 154 feet to 210 feet, 
almost completes a circle around the Island of Mackinac, 
but is presently disconnected from the Michigan river 
channel by a narrow ridge or anticlinal, about two miles in 
width—the result of more recent warpings in the strata 
there—running from Point St. Ignace south-eastward, and 
over which there are now from 17 to 70 feet of water. 
These two subaqueous river channels were, without doubt, 
at one time connected, and at a previous period of these 
lakes’ history, formed the outlet for the waters of Lakes 
Superior and Michigan. Both of these channels are 
flanked by the rocks of the Onondaga, Helderburg and 
probably Niagara groups, and have no doubt been enlarged 
by water action. It is at the same time a coincidence that 
in Lake Michigan the channel runs almost parallel with the 
northern coast of the lower peninsula of Michigan west of 
Mackinac and of the subaqueous ridge which connects the 
Helderberg rocks here with those of the Beaver Island 
group. Whilst this course is nearly due east and west, it 
will be noticed in this connection that the line of direction 
of the jutting headlands and islands immediately near them 
on the north shore, at and east of Mackinac Straits, is almost 
due south-east, and must be attributed to other causes. 


268 Canadian Record of Science. 


The two peninsulas which defend the entrance to Green 
Bay are formed of the Niagara limestones which here curve 
to the south-west, and at Burnt Bluff and neighbouring 
points on the west side of the northern peninsula rise into 
an escarpment facing however to the north-west and west. 
Whilst at the base of this escarpment the water is, as arule, 
comparatively shallow, the western side of the headland of 
the southern peninsula and of the adjacent islands carries 
deep water close to the shore, showing that the escarpment, 
continuing there, is in part, subaqueous, and faces also the 
north-west and west. It is important to observe these 
directions. Green Bay is however relatively shallow. The 
100-foot line encloses a very limited area which, on the 
northern side, extends in a narrow, river-like prolongation, 
into Little Bay de Noquette, giving color, to that extent, to 
the possibility which Winchell has suggested, that in pre- 
glacial times there was a connection between the Lakes 
Superior aud Michigan basins by this bay and the Whitefish 
and Chocolate Rivers. 

On the eastern side of the lake, Grand Traverse Bay in 
its upper half is divided by a long, narrow isthmus into two 
bays, each about twenty miles in length, and from one to 
two miles in width, with a general direction somewhat west 
of south. Though the outer bay which rests on the black 
shales has an average depth of 180 feet, these two inner 
bays are in reality narrow but abrupt and deep depressions 
varying in depth, in the one case, from 300 to 448 feet, and 
in the other from 300 to 612 feet. The lake bottom here is 
either clay, sand or rock. Lying almost parallel with these 
depressions are on the one side the long narrow lake known 
as Torch Light Lake, and on the other, the promontory 
which separates Grand Traverse Bay from the lake, and 
presents high bluffs on the western side. Originally these 
depressions were great fractures in the Devonian rocks, 
created by the elevation of the land here, just as the 
Niagara escarpment has been similarly fractured. 

Between the Beaver Island group and the Manitou Islands 
is another extensive preglacial depression, in the rocky 


Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. 269 


bed of the lake, and with deep inlets joining it from the 
north, north-east, north-east by east, south and south-west 
sides, and the whole connected towards the south-west end 
with the deeper parts of the lake beyond. The descent is 
generally so abrupt from the shallower parts of the lake on 
either side to the depths of this depression and its inlets as 
to convey the idea of escarpments or bold cliffs almost sur- 
rounding the depression. The Helderberg anticlinal 
separates it from the old subaqueous river channel. On 
the other hand, Little Traverse Bay—another fracture in 
the Michigan coast—which has 150 to 230 feet of water 
everywhere within half a mile of its shores, may be said to 
lie about due east and west. It is important to thus note 
the varying directions of the forces which have given rise 
to these different depressions or great fractures. 

The southern half of Lake Michigan has a generally uni- 
form appearance. Its coasts are not indented with deep 
bays, but preserve an outline somewhat straight at the sides 
and curved at the southern end; the waters, though shal_ 
lower towards this southern end, have on the eastern and 
western sides a gradually increasing depth towards the cen- 
tral plateau of the lake; the lake floor, excepting the anti- 
clinal or warp in the strata between Milwaukee and Grand 
Haven, is comparatively level and somewhat, but not alto- 
gether, free from abrupt depressions; and whilst the lake 
floor in the northern half of the lake is frequently rocky, it 
is in the southern half almost entirely overlaid with clay or 
sand. ‘These deposits of sand are much more general along 
the whole western and southern than on the eastern coasts, 
indicating at the time of deposition stronger currents to- 
wards these sides. In fact, the southern end of the laixe in 
its general contour and depths, and in the character of its 
floor, corroborates the view that whilst an outlet to the Mis- 
sissippi valley from the united lakes existed here, it also for 
a considerable time was an outlet of the present lake before 
its waters had receded to their present limits. 

The section of country to the south and west of the 
southern end of the lake is largely prairie, that part imme- 


270 Canadian Record of Science. 


diately surrounding the lake being but slightly elevated 
above its waters. Ata very recent period these waters ex- 
tended in shallows over the prairie country, giving it a 
marshy character. Parts of the land are still so low lying 
and wet as to be chiefly suited for grazing purposes. All 
of the level black-loam prairies of Northern Illinois and In- 
diana have at one time been of this marshy character, but 
by the annual growth and decay of the grasses, sedges and 
aquatic plants generally, the black loam soil has in the long 
lapse of time accumulated and the land has gradually ap- 
peared above the water. This extreme southern section of 
Lake Michigan has thus had its boundaries defined in their 
present outline within a period probably as recent as exist- 
ing times. 

Like Lake Huron the main portion of the lake is pre- 
glacial. The Wisconsin geologists, especially Winchell, 
Chamberlain and Salisbury, have strongly insisted not only 
on a continental ice-sheet covering Northeastern and Central 
North America in the glacial times, but on a great glacier 
having, during what they denominate the later glacial period, 
occupied among others, the Lake Michigan basin, whilst a 
separate smaller glacier overspread Green Bay and its sur- 
rounding country. Chamberlain thinks that Lake Michigan, 
in its regular outline and great depth and breadth, is due to 
glacial action, though it might have been deeply channelled 
by running waters in pre-glacial times. Like others of these 
geologists, he points to the so-called moraines running 
through Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana and Michigan, some 
distance from but irregularly uniform with the coast line of 
the lake, as proof of the existence of the glacier. Now, it 
seems to me that the small extent of these moraines, if their, 
in general more or less, stratified appearance allows them to 
be called such, is ample evidence thatif a glacier did occupy, 
for an immense period of time, the basin of the lake, its 
eroding power was small. Ifthe great superficial area and 
depth of Lake Michigan had been excavated by the glacier, 
the accumulated debris forced to its edges would have been 
vastly greater than the moraines indicate, more especially 


Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. O71 


when we consider the extensive areas crossed by the glacier 
between the lake and the moraines, and the vast Laurentian 
and Huronian country to the northward, then more or less 
glacier-clad and supplying debris, apart from the accumu- 
lated debris of ages previous to this time. Prof. Claypole 
has encountered the same difficulty in discussing the so- 
called moraines to the south of Lake Hrie. 

The character of the floor of the northern half of the lake 
also presents difficulties. The direction of the old river 
channels and of the depressions, varying from east and west 
to north and south, the frequent abruptness of the descent 
to them, the directions of the axes of the promontories and 
neighbouring islands, and the absence of any general filling 
up of the hollows and depressions of the lake bottom in its 
northern half, all indicate that the glacier, if it existed, did 
not contribute to the forming of many of the leading out- 
Imes of the coast, or to the stamping of the chief features 
upon the lake floor. The subject will, however, be further 
discussed when referring to Lake Ontario in connection with 
this lake and Lake Huron. 


LAKE ONTARIO. 


An important fact which at once strikes the observer, 
when noting the soundings in this lake, is that the areas 
of greatest depth are all towards the southern side of the 
lake. The deepest point is 738 feet or 506 feet below the 
ocean level, and is located about fifteen miles off the New 
York State side, between Rochester and Oswego. The 600- 
foot line here encloses an area of about thirty-eight miles 
long and ten miles broad, lying about parallel to the coast, 
and within eight miles of it. ‘To this deep depression there 
is a fall of about 300 feet in two and a-half miles on its im- 
mediate southern side. On the northern side the descent 
is more gradual, Another depression exceeding 600 feet, 
but very small in area, exists about the seventy eighth 
meridian of longitude, but similarily towards the United 
States side. Again, the 300-foot line encloses an area about 


272 Canadian Record of Sctence. 


150 miles long and 24 miles broad, and in outline very like 
that of the present lake, but approaching the southern side 
within three to seven miles for the whole distance. The 
line of deepest depression along the length of the lake is 
also located about two-thirds of the way across the lake 
towards the New York State side. South of Port Credit 
and Toronto it takes the centre of the lake, but after that 
swerves towards the southern side. Preserving a depth of 
540 to 570 feet for over sixty miles, it reaches the 600-foot 
line area, and finally begins to shallow at about nine miles off 
Oswego, where the depth is 576 feet. The evidence afforded 
by the terraces on either side of Lake Ontario would appear 
to show that, on the elevation of the land to its present 
limit, the rise was greater towards the north ofthe lake than 
to the south. ‘This would cause the strata on the north side 
to dip towards the south, and force the waters of the lake 
more towards the southern side. 

The lake bottom within the 600-foot line is chiefly mud, 
whilst outside, within the 300-foot line, it is largely clay and 
mud, with sand in occasional places. Close to the southern 
and eastern shores, rock is met with for the whole distance, 
but, with one exception, not elsewhere. The only large con- 
nected stretches of sand occur off and to the north-east of 
Oswego, suggesting, though not necessarily, an old outlet 
there. 

Between Stony Point, off Sackett’s Harbor, and South Bay 
Point, on the Canadian side, there is a rise in the level of 
the lake floor, culminating in the Duck and Galloo Islands. 
Between this limiting line and the outlet of the lake at 
Kingston, not only is the depth shallower—not exceeding 
120 feet except in what may be two river channels, on either 
side of Duck Island, running inwards for ten miles towards 
Kingston—but its bottom is in nearly all directions rocky, 
and the contour of its shores—unlike the rest of the lake— 
is irregular, with deep bays and channels, which with the 
islands lie in a general north-east and south-west direction. 
The absence of the mud or clay which overspreads the lake 
elsewhere, and the two river channels opening towards the 


Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. 273 


lake, suggest that this section of the lake is more recent 
than the main basin beyond, and that the coast at one time 
may have been between South Bay and Stony Point. The 
conformation of the shores, the line of axis of the islands 
and the direction of the strie at Kingston and of the lime- 
stone escarpment and striated Laurentian hills and gorge 
at Kingston Mills also suggest the action of a glacier from 
the north-east, whilst the whole would seem to show that 
at that time the lake outlet at Kingston did not exist. The 
absence of striz on the surface of the limestones on the 
-summit of the anticlinal at Fort Henry, near Kingston, 
though present in frequent places at the waterline, would 
indicate that the glacier here was not very thick. That 
the country around the present lake outlet has been in 
places subject to abrupt changes of level is shown by the 
heavily dipping limestones at Fort Henry and eastward, and 
the eruptions of granite through the syenitic gneiss and the 
limestone both here and farther down the river. There is 
some evidence to show that an eruption took place during 
the deposition of the Black River limestones, but the abrupt 
upheaval of these limestones at Fort Henry and Barriefield 
is conclusive that there were forces at work, operating ina 
somewhat westerly direction, subsequent to the Trenton 
and Black River, and possibly in recent, times. 

That Lake Ontario has had a pre-glacial origin seems 
beyond question. Several causes have contributed to bring 
about its present outline and depth, and it may be that one 
ov more of these causes operated after the glacial epoch. 
Towards the western and on the southern side the Medina 
sandstones and the Hudson River shales sink apparently 
north-westerly under the lake at the eastern end the Trenton 
and Black River limestones dip to the east of south, and 
the general slope of these limestones between Kingston and 
Belleville is perceptibly towards the lake. There is thus 
some ground for the assumption that the Trenton limestones, 
Utica and Hudson River shales and Medina sandstones 
descend both ways under the lake waters, forming perhaps 
originally, in at least a part of the lake, a synclinal trough 


2n4 Canadian Record of Science. 


which was affected by after changes. The relative positions 
of these strata around the lake further suggest this. 

Another feature, however, has played an important part 
in the formation of not only Lake Ontario but also of Lakes 
Huron and Michigan, and even had its strong influence on 
Lake Erie as well. The Niagara escarpment, which nearly 
fronts the southern side of Lake Ontario, passes around its 
immediate westerly end, and then, facing to the north-east, 
continues in a somewhat irregular north-westerly direction 
until it eventually forms the prominent features of the 
Bruce Peninsula between the Georgian Bay and Lake 
Huron. At Cabot’s Head, at the end ofthis peninsula, there 
is a break, but this is only apparent as there is a subaqueous 
ridge here, commencing near Cape Hurd, with deep water 
on the Georgian Bay side. This ridge, through the neigh- 
bouring islands, connects the peninsula with the Manitou- 
lin Islands. The same limestones re-appear, crossing these 
islands, in bold escarpments facing to the northward, and 
extend uninterruptedly to the State of Michigan, the height 
diminishing to the westward. Along the northern shores 
of Lake Michigan they continue until Green Bay is reached, 
where, facing to the westward, they once more in places 
rise into an escarpment. Here they form two horns of the 
bay, with islands and another subaqueous ridge connecting 
them. Thence these limestones are found in the country 
skirting the western shores of Lake Michigan and they 
probably form the floor of its southern end beneath the 
superficial deposits. 

The dip of the strata is, from the escarpment north of 
Hamilton and on the Manitoulin Islands, to and under the 
waters of Lake Huron. From Dundalk station on the 
Toronto, Grey and Bruce Railway, on the summit of the 
escarpment, there is a fall of 1,119 feet to the level of Lake 
Huron at Kincardine, seventy miles distant. South of the 
valley of the River Thames, which lies on the Cincinnati 
anticlinal, and at Niagara Falls, the slope is towards Lake 
Erie. To the north of the cliffs, on the Grand Manitoulin 
Island, are parallel escarpments of Hudson River age, form- 


Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. 275 


= 


ing the blufis on the northern side of the island, and with 
the strata dipping southward similarly to those of the 
Niagara age there. Again, the clitts of Green Bay face to the 
westward, and the dip is easterly towards and under Lake 
Michigan. 

This Niagara escarpment, in its course easterly from the 
western end of Lake Ontario, lies parallel to the axis of that 
lake, whilst in the other direction, it conforms in a general 
way to the course that more or less characterizes the out- 
crops of all the formations which, as it were concentrically, 
surround and underlie the coal measures of Michigan. The 
contours of Lakes Michigan and Huron and the Georgian 
Bay, and the subaqueous Corniferous escarpment crossing 
Lake Huron, also conform to this arrangement. 

At the western end of Lake Ontario, the Niagara lime- 
stones in their outcrop suddenly change from an east and 
west course to one which is north-west and south-east. When 
these limestones were elevated into an escarpment, two 
separate lines of force appear to have operated—the one 
taking an easterly direction and causing the strata on the 
southerly side of the lake to dip in a southerly direction— 
the other taking asomewhat north-westerly course resulting 
in the strata thence to the Georgian Bay dipping more to 
the westward. These two forces appear to have, at the 
point of meeting, created a vast fracture in the escarpment 
near Hamilton, forming what ultimately became, chiefly 
through the eroding force of water, the Dundas valley. 
Again, between the Bruce Peninsula and the Manitoulin 
[slands, another change in the direction of the outcrop of 
both the limestones and underlying shales, caused, when 
the escarpment was elevated there, a series of great fractures 
which, by the action of the waves and currents and of 
atmospheric forces, and possibly of glaciers and icebergs as 
well, became, ultimately, the interrupted subaqueous ridge 
there. To similar fractures were no doubt originally due 
the narrow straits which divide the Manitoulin Islands from 
each other and the most westerly of them, Drummond 
Island, from the State of Michigan. Such fractures may 


276 Canadian Record of Science. 


perhaps be found on the upper peninsula of Michigan, but 
much less pronounced in character, as the strata there have 
not been elevated to the same extent. Finally, there are 
the fractures which afford the entrance to Green Bay, and 
those which constitute the various bays around the whole 
front of the escarpment. 

Now, these different facts are not mere accidental oc- 
currences, and their conformity to each other is not a mere 
coincidence. They show that the oscillations of the earth’s 
crust in this particular area, covering the State of Michigan, 
the larger part of Lake Huron, and the immediate country to 
the east of Lake Huron, and to the west of Lake Michigan 
have, from the Trenton period and probably earlier, been 
of a peculiar nature. These oscillations were confined to 
this area, and the forces which gave rise to them appear to 
have operated in conformity, in a general way, with the 
curved outline of the area and towards its centre. It is im- 
possible to ascribe to glacial forces the varying directions 
of the outcrops of the different formations within this area, 
from the Trenton to the Carboniferous, nor do the glacial 
strize or the alleged directions taken by the glaciers suggest 
it. It is most reasonable to assume that this area, located 
as it is close to Lake Superior, where during Huronian and 
Keweenawan or probably later times were vast volcanic 
eruptions, has been subject to repeated oscillations in level 
around a central area. That these oscillations have con- 
tinued to more recent periods is shown by the uplifting, 
west of the longitude of Hamilton, of the Niagara escarp- 
ment with its face always away from, whilst the dip is 
towards, the central area of the State of Michigan or of Lake 
Huron, as well as by the depression and re-elevation of this 
whole area when the present superficial clays were laid 
down. 

That the Niagara rocks did notextend much farther north 
of their present position near the southern coasts of Lake 
Ontario, nor much farther eastward than the escarpment be- 
tween Lake Ontario and the Georgian Bay, is shown by the 
present general position and direction of these and the 


Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. 277 


underlying rocks to the immediate east, south and west of 
the lake, and the way in which they converge at the south- 
ern extremity of the Georgian Bay. A similar opinion 
may be ventured regarding the Medina sandstones. Prof. 
Bell, referring to Lake Ontario and certain other lakes, 
thinks that the glaciers descending from the higher grounds 
against the upturned edges of the softer rocks, tore them up 
rapidly, and carried away the debris, thus leaving the lake 
basins. The sharply defined edges of the escarpment, its 
generally bold face, and the comparatively short distance 
it has apparently receded, would, however, rather indicate 
in its case atmospheric effects, the wearing force of rivers, 
and the undermining action of waves upon an open lake or 
sea coast. 

Sir William Logan, in the Geology of Canada, points out 
the resemblance of the Niagara escarpment, in places, to 
an ancient sea cliff. He also shows that it merely requires 
a depression of 442 feet to bring the ocean into Lake Ontario 
by way of the Hudson River and the Mohawk Valley, as 
well as by the St. Lawrence, and to inundate the whole of 
Central Ontario, although he did not then think that there 
was evidence that such an inroad had taken place. Such a 
depression would lead to the ocean penetrating as far west 
as the Niagara escarpment, and as far northward, in some 
places, as the Laurentian hills. The Georgian Bay would 
still be 140 feet above the ocean level, but if the thick de- 
posits of sands, gravels and clays, between it and Lake 
Ontario, the positions of some of which are attributable to 
relatively very recent times, had not then existed, or were 
cut through at any point, the Georgian Bay would have 
been lowered to the ocean level, and have formed part of 
the same interior ocean as Lake Ontario, This would bring 
to the surface the presently submerged ridge between the 
jruce peninsula and the Manitoulin Islands, owing to the 
lowering of Lakes Huron and Michigan to the level of the 
surface of the ridge. The outlet of these lakes would there- 
after be over this ridge, and not by way of Lakes St. Clair 
and Erie. Now, the deep water cliffs on the eastern side of 


278 Canadian Record of Science. 


the subaqueous ridge, between the Georgian Bay and Lake 
Huron, and those which are immediately beneath the 
escarpment of the Bruce peninsula, would seem to indicate 
that the waters of this bay have been at much lower levels 
than now to admit of the denuding action of waves and 
atmosphere on these subaqueous cliffs, and further, as 
already mentioned, that these cliffs formed the western 
boundary of a large and rapidly flowing pre-glacial river 
which, before the upheaval of the ridge between the Georgian 
Bay and Lake Ontario, connected these two basins, the 
denuding of the escarpment being due largely to it. 
Without further here discussing the question of a connec- 
tion between this bay and Lake Ontario, this fact is clear 
that at a period comparatively recent, and yet so far dis- 
tant that the mammoth (Huclephas Jacksoni) then living, 
has since become extinct, the Niagara escarpment formed 
the western and southern boundary of a large interior fresh- 
water sea. The terraces and ridges around Lake Ontario 
show that this basin was considerably depressed or its out- 
let blocked, or that both causes intervened, raising the 
water to levels probably more than 400 feet higher than 
now. ‘These terraces and ridges are found resting against 
the Niagara escarpment at Hamilton and Dundas, rising, 
Logan says, to a height of 318 feet, but they must in some 
cases be much higher there, as they nearly reach the sum- 
mit of the escarpment along the line of the Grand Trunk 
railway ; and whilst Bayfield mentions heights of 460 feet, 
Spencer gives the highest point on the summit near Ham- 
ilton as 516 feet. To the northward of Lake Ontario there 
are ridges of clay, sand or gravel, reaching varying heights. 
The summit on the Northern railway is attained at 755 feet 
above the lake, at twenty-six miles north from Toronto,’ but 
the levels after falling nearly 300 feet, rise again at fifty- 
seven miles to 641 feet, passing first through a gravel ridge 
at fifty-three miles. Again, on the Toronto and Nipissing 
railway, the summit station is reached at 893 feet, at 


1 Spencer’s Elevations in Canada. 


Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. 279 


twenty-seven miles back from the lake. Farther eastward 
on the Midland railway, in rear of Whitby, clay ridges are 
met with at twelve miles, attaining 649 feet, at fourteen 
miles 781 feet, and at thirty-three miles 674 feet. On the 
Port Hope section, further eastward, the heights are some- 
what less. But let us not be led astray. Being so much 
higher than other ridges surrounding the lake, it is clear 
that the underlying Hudson River, Utica and Trenton 
strata, have been elevated during or since the deposition of 
these clays, sands and gravels, and in a direction roughly 
parallel with the lake. These superficial deposits obscure 
the strata, but this elevation, continued in a line towards 
Lake Huron, is noticeable on a greater scale at and beyond 
the townships, where it strikes the Niagara escarpment, 
whose summit near Dundalk station, on the Toronto, Grey 
and Bruce railway, has a height of 1,462 feet above Lake 
Ontario, and 1,127 feet above the Georgian Bay. 

On the south side of Lake Ontario, where the subsequent 
elevation has been less than on the north side, an extended 
ridge of 188 feet has been thrown up. The American geo- 
logists have observed a gradual rise of 130 feet in this ter- 
race, from the western end of Lake Ontario to Oneida Lake, 
and a rise of 170 feet more from Oneida Lake north to 
Jefferson County, beyond which it was not observed. This 
would imply a previous depression, increasing in depth 
with the south-easterly and easterly sides of Lake Ontario, 
and would show that its waters, now deeper towards the 
south-eastern end, were relatively more so in certain pre- 
vious periods of the lake’s history. The present levels have, 
as indicated, been largely influenced by the greater eleva- 
tion on the northern than on the southern side, causing the 
waters to be thrown more towards the southern side. 

At this period the outlet of the lake at the Thousand 
Islands was undoubtedly crossed by the Adirondack Moun- 
tains in a broad, rugged, irregular ridge, now partly de- 
pressed under the water to a maximum depth of about 250 
feet. Some sand deposits occur towards Rockport, near 
Brockville, and in rear of Kingston, and may indicate the 


20 


280 Canadian Record of Science. 


eastern and western sides of the ridge, but this is, presently, 
mere conjecture. The height of the marine terraces on 
Montreal Mountain and elsewhere, as compared with the 
level of Lake Ontario, the absence of the Leda clays with 
their marine shells and fish farther west than Packenham, 
and the direction of the ice grooves which have a trend to 
the west of south on the Lake Ontario side, and, generally 
speaking, to the east of north or of south, on the St. Lawrence 
and Ottawa River sides, all tend to suggest this former 
higher altitude of the Laurentian ridge at the Thousand 
Islands. In this connection it may be noted that whilst it is 
usual to refer to the direction of the ice grooves as being 
either to the east or west of south, it is quite in consonance 
with the direction of the St. Lawrence Valley that these 
grooves should sometimes be referred to as having a course 
to the east of north. 

With the elevation of the Niagara escarpment came the 
first record we have in the history of Lakes Ontario, Huron 
and Michigan as independent basins with the contours of 
to-day. Previous to and after this elevation, the present 
basins of these lakes were the seat of a great river system, 
with probably lake expansions smaller and different in out- 
line from those now existing. Profs. Spencer and Claypole 
suggest that Lakes Ontario and Erie in part formed the 
valleys of a great pre-glacial river which, Spencer thinks, 
crossed from Lake Huron through the counties of Lambton, 
Middlesex and Elgin, and swerving around Long Point to 
the deepest portion of Lake Erie, trended thence northward 
to the Dundas Valley. Through this valley it entered the 
present basin of Lake Ontario, the line of deepest depression 
in which it formed by cutting down into the Hudson River 
shales, along the escarpment of which it flowed. There is 
much in the features of the lake floors and of the superficial 
deposits to support some such view, if more recent local 
warpings in the strata are considered. The great fracture 
in the strata at Dundas would give the required direction to 
the river there, and would be greatly enlarged by its eroding 
action. The outlet of this river by way of the Mohawk 


- 


_ Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. 281 


Valley, is considered by some to be debatable ground, but 
it is difficult to now predicate what the levels were in the 
land surrounding these ancient rivers and seas. There have 
since been general changes in elevation extending over large 
areas, and there have also been local warpings within re- 
stricted areas which have completely altered within these 
areas the former levels in their relations to each other. 

Prof. Spencer’s view of this ancient river was limited to 
a connection between the southern end of Lake Huron and 
the eastern end of Lake Ontario by way of Port Stanley, 
Long Point and the Dundas Valley. Itseems most probable, 
however, that the subaqueous escarpment which diagonally 
crosses Lake Huron from opposite Kincardine in the direc- 
tion of the Straits of Mackinac, and which parallels the 
deepest depression there, may have been the south-western 
boundary of an npper section or expansion of this pre-glacial 
river valley. The hard Corniferous rocks would form an 
effective protecting side for such a river valley. Allusion has 
already been made to the probably earlier northward direc- 
tion of this river in the line of depression toward Cape 
Hurd and over the subaqueous ridge there. The sub- 
aqueous river channels, already referred to, on each side of 
the Straits of Mackinac and in Whitefish Bay, in Lake 
Superior, also indicate higher sections of this preglacial 
river, and if the view be accepted that Lake Superior had 
its outlet in these older times across the upper peninsula of 
Michigan, it is most in consonance with facts that the 
waters of this great and ancient inland sea found their 
course to the ocean at, at least, one period of its history, by 
way of these broad rivers of Tertiary and antecedent 
times, though the St. Croix valley has, probably, at another 
time, also formed an outlet. 

At what time, however, was this Niagara escarpment 
elevated? ‘This is a question difficult of answer. And yet 
the facts already given would indicate that it was prior in 
time to the deposit of the clays, sands and gravels against 
the escarpment in the Dundas Valley, at the Bruce 
Peninsula and elsewhere; prior to the deposit of the 


282 Canadian Record of Science. 


Artemesia gravels, which for long distances crown the sum- 
mit of the escarpment parallel to its face, and are largely 
derived from its debris; prior to the elevation of the ridge 
or anticlinal which lies between Lake Huron and the Trent 
Valley, and gives to the escarpment its highest elevations 
above the lakes; prior to the Niagara Falls; and prior to 
the erosion which widened the fractures in the escarpment 
at the Dundas Valley and at the points of meeting of the 
waters of the Georgian Bay with those of Lake Huron 
proper, as well as the waters of Green Bay with those of 
Lake Michigan. On the other hand, this period of eleva- 
tion of the escarpment was contemporaneous with the ap- 
pearance in their present outlines of Grand Manitoulin, 
Cockburn and Drummond Islands in Lake Huron, and 
viewing all the facts was undoubtedly pre-glacial. Whilst the 
elevation of the escarpment gave in general terms the 
outlines of the basin of the three lakes, it is not to be in- 
ferred that these basins were at once filled with water to 
present levels. The country surrounding the lakes must 
have been higher than now to enable the pre-glacial river 
to cut the deep channels in Lakes Ontario and Huron 


_ which now exist. 


Lakes Erie Anp St. Crate. 


These two lakes have undoubtedly been within a very 
recent period more intimately united than now, and are 
probably the most recent in origin of the St. Lawrence 
Great Lakes. They lie in a Devonian basin with the 
Silurian rocks forming the portion of the rim of Lake Hrie 
between Sandusky and Toledo. This basin is, however, over- 
laid with superficial deposits to such an extent that both 
lakes really fill shallow depressions on the surface of these 
deposits, and appear rather to be overflows caused by the 
restricted passage now of the waters over the Niagara 
escarpment in the one case, and through the Detroit River 
in the other, than to be due to physical forces which 
operating in past ages excavated preparatory basins. 


= 


- 


Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. 283 


Lake St. Clair has an average depth of about 12 feet and 
a& maximum depth of 22 feet. The floor, except some 
limited areas of mud and clay in the centre, is overlaid 
everywhere with sand. The coast lines are low and often 
marshy, and, along the Canadian side fronting the counties 
of Essex and Kent, the land is barely elevated above the 
lake surface. The whole country here has quite the char- 
acteristics of the modern prairie, and its formation is un- 
undoubtedly due to similar causes which are still in opera- 
tion. Centuries of growth and decay of tall grasses, 
rushes and sedges in the extensive shallow marshes border- 
ing the lake gradually contributed a black loamy soil 
which even now is not much above the level of Lake St, 
Clair. And not only has there been a more intimate con- 
nection with Lake Hrie, but that the lake has at one time 
been somewhat deeper and is gradually filling up, is shown 
by the character of the deposits on its floor and by the ex- 
tensive, progressive delta of the St. Clair River. The 
heavier sediments in the waters coming from Lake Huron 
have been deposited in this lake, whilst the lighter silt 
appears to have been carried onwards towards and to Lake 
Hrie. 

The Detroit River, which now connects Lakes St. Clair 
and Hrie, flows through a flat prairie-like country, but 
slightly elevated in most of its course above the water 
level. At the outlet of the river, on the Michigan side, 
extensive marshes prevail for some distance along the lake 
coast. The soil, however, is a fine yellow or drab-coloured 
silt containing minute grains of sand—the filterings no 
doubt from the coarser material deposited in Lake St. 
Clair. 

For a lake of such wide area, Lake Erie is remarkably 
shallow, A line drawn from the City of Erie in Pennsylvania 
to Port Rowan, near Long Point, would have on its western 
side more than two-thirds of the lake area, and yet the 
maximum depth there does not exceed 84 feet. Again, a 
line from Pt. Pelée to Sandusky would form the eastern 
boundary of a large section, the greatest depth of which, 


284 Canadian Record of Science. 


except in one isolated spot, is only 48 feet, and the average 
is only about 30 feet. Whilst thus shallow, the main body 
of the lake east of Pt. Pelée is remarkably level. The 
general depth is between 60 and 84 feet to within four or 
five miles of the shore on each side. 

The deepest point in the lake lies in its eastern third 
about ten miles south-east of Long Point, and registers 210 
feet. Here, parallel with the axis of the lake, there isa 
depression about twenty-seven miles in length by a width 
of from five to six miles, the depth everywhere in which 
exceeds 180 feet. Surrounding this and about forty miles 
long by twenty-five miles wide is an irregular area which 
has a minimum depth of 120 feet. This wider depression 
approaches within six miles of the south shore and thirty- 
five miles of Buffalo, towards which city it gradually shoals 
to 24 feet at the entrance to the Niagara River. The level 
plateau on which the main body of the lake rests is gener- 
ally clay, whilst for the ten miles adjoining the United 
States side, the lake bottom is sand or sand and clay, with, 
occasionally, gravel, and, near the shore, rock. In the 
deeper parts off Long Point, which evidently included a 
wider area in preglacial times, the bottom is clay or mud. 
This is frequently replaced by sand towards the Niagara 
River, whilst near the shore there on both sides the bottom 
is rock. 

The currents of the lake have, in the past, played an im- 
portant part in shaping the contour of the Canadian side. The 
American coast line has a uniformity which the Canadian 
has not. The direction of these currents is seen in the out- 
lines of Point Pelée, Rondeau Harbour and Long Point and 
in the arched contour of the long coast line fronting the 
County of Elgin, whose high clay cliffs have been worn 
gradually backward through great distances to their pre- 
sent position by the eroding action of waves, frosts and 
rains, and have supplied material for shallowing the lake 
in front and building up Long Point. This process is still 
going on. Within the barriers created by Point Pelée, 
Rondeau Harbour and Long Point it is, however, being 


Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence. 285 


supplemented by the shallows becoming marshes which in 
time will fill up with mould arising from the annual growth 
and decay of the reeds, rushes and grasses which flourish 
in profusion there. 

Leaving out of view the above subsequent changes in 
parts of its area, Lake Erie probably dates the outlining in 
a general way of its present limits back to the time when 
the Ontario Lake ridges were being formed, and when the 
clays and gravels were being piled up against the Niagara 
escarpment and had blocked the Dundas valley. The entire 
Ontario peninsula had been under water for a long period, 
and by the deposition of the clays over it, the courses of 
the pre-glacial rivers had been partly filled up. The united 
lakes, as their terraces show, had at first a high level, and 
their waters found here, as Newberry has shown, outlets 
to the southward through the gaps furnished by the river 
‘valleys in Ohio. On the elevation of the land, new drain- 
age channels had to be cut by the water. It was then that 
the outflow from Lake Huron began by the St. Clair and 
Detroit Rivers and of Lake Erie by the Niagara River, the 
channels of the old glacial river having been blocked and 
the waters being kept back, not merely by the superficial 
deposits, but probably by warpings of the strata beneath as 
well. It may be that the lake level was at first retained at 
a higher point than now, the escarpment at Lewiston being 
38 feet above Lake Erie. This would have prevented a 
separation then between that lake and Lake Huron. It is 
most probable, however, that the Niagara did not fall over 
the escarpment at Lewiston but found at this point, as at 
St. David’s, a great fracture in the cliff, affording it a 
natural gorge down which its waters ran, and which they 
gradually further eroded. Other such fractures are found 
in the escarpment both south of Lake Ontario and between 
it and the Georgian Bay, some of them forming great 
ravines several miles in length, and presently, in some cases, 
the beds of streams, Such fractures were a necessary con- 
sequence of the elevation of the escarpment and of the direc- 
tions which this elevation followed. 


286 Canadian Record of Science. 


CONCLUSIONS. 


In summing up the conclusions of this paper it may be 
said : 

That glaciers, whilst contributing some results, had not 
much effect in eroding the lake basins proper, or in shaping 
the present general outlines. 

That the superficial deposits are the accumulations of 
denudation during immense periods of time since the Car- 
boniferous and earlier eras, and are not to be specially 
credited to the operation of glaciers. 

That Lake Superior is the most ancient of the lakes, dating 
its origin as far back as Cambrian, Keweenawan and 
Huronian times; that it is, in part at least, a synclinal 
trough, that volcanic action has had most to do with its 
origin and the shaping of its coasts; that its early outlet 
was through the depression in Whitefish Bay and that its 
waters joined the great pre-glacial river system at or near 
the Straits of Mackinac. 

That Lakes Michigan, Huron and Ontario were originally 
the bed of a pre-glacial river which first crossed the Ontario 
peninsula along the Niagara escarpment, and afterwards was 
diverted to a course by way of Long Point, on Lake Hrie and 
the Dundas valley ; that their basins were largely defined by 
the elevation of the Niagara and Hudson River escarpments, 
and in more recent times by warping of the strata and deposit 
of superficial sands and clays which blocked the old river 
channels and resulted in the lake basins retaining their 
water on the final elevation of the land to its present 
general levels. 

That the pre-glacial river system expanded in time into 
smaller lakes in each of the present basins of Lakes Michi- 
gan, Huron, Erie and Ontario. 

That Lakes Erie and St. Clair are the most recent of 
the lakes, and have at one time been more closely united, 
and that the formation of this united lake was due to the 
blocking of the old outlets both by superficial deposits and 
warping of the strata, and to the water being thus retained 


Note on Balanus Hamer. 287 


in the basin on the final elevation of the land to the levels 
of to-day. 

That great fractures at or near the outcrops of the strata 
occasioned by the directions of the forces which elevated 
the strata, originated, in many instances, the deep bays and 
inlets which indent the Niagara and Hudson River escarp- 
ments and rocky coast lines of Lakes Michigan and Huron, 
these effects being afterwards supplemented by the action 
of waves, currents, atmospheric causes and probably local 
glaciers. 

That since the elevation of the land to the levels of to- 
day, the action of waves and currents on the clay cliffs and 
sand deposits has, in many places, greatly rounded off the 
general outlines of the coast, and the material from this and 
other sources has been spread over the lakes, or has served 
to create new features in the coast line elsewhere. 


NoTE ON BALANUS HAMERI IN THE PLEISTOCENE AT 
RIVIERE BEAUDETTE, AND ON THE OCCURRENCE 
OF PECULIAR VARIETIES OF MYA ARENARIA AND 
M. TRUNCATA IN THE MODERN SEA AND IN THE 
PLEISTOCENE. 


By Sr Wiui1aAm Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S. 
(1.) Balanus Hamon. 


The fine species of Balanus above named, which is still 
living in somewhat deep water on our coasts, was first de- 
scribed as a Pleistocene fossil of Canada by Sir C. Lyell, in 
his paper on “ Fossils and Recent Shells collected by Capt. 

sayfield.”' Bayfield found it in the Pleistocene at Beau- 
port, near Quebec. It was subsequently found by me in 
the Pleistocene at Riviere du Loup, St. Nicholas, and Mont- 
real.’ From the loose attachment of its radial plates, it is 
' Philos. Trans. 1859. 
*“ Notes on Post Pliocene of Canada.” Canad. Nat. 1872. 


288 Canadian Record of Science. 


usually found in fragments, but entire specimens occur 
attached to stones and boulders at R. du Loup. 

B. Hameri is at present extensively distributed as a living 
species in the North Atlantic and the Arctic Sea. I have 
specimens collected by Mr. A. Downes of Halifax, Nova 
Scotia, in a living state, near Halifax harbour. As a Pleis- 
tocene fossil, it occurs at Uddevalla in Sweden, and was 
named by Linnaeus Balanus Uddevalensis. The name 
B. Hameri, given by Ascanius in 1767, is that now recog- 
nized. It has also been found in Pleistocene clays in Green- 
land (Spengler), and in the Pleistocene of Russia 
(Murchison). 

The specimens new under consideration are interesting, 
as being found farther west than previously; River Beau- 
dette being on the line of the Grand Trunk Railway, 34 
miles west of Montreal, and the locality being near its en- 
trance into Lake St. Francis. They are also interesting 
from their remarkable perfection and the large masses 
which they form, some of which contain as many as a dozen 
individuals attached to each other. The specimens were 
collected by Mr. A. W. McNown, of Riviére Beaudette, and 
by Mr. Stanton, C.E., of Lancaster, and much credit is due 
to these gentlemen for their care in collecting and preserv- 
ing these interesting fossils. 

The animals seem to have been covered, when living, 
with an irruption of sand, for the opercular valves of many 
of them are still in place, and owing to a slight infiltration 
of calcareous matter, the radial plates and opercular valves 
have been cemented together, which accounts for their per- 
fect preservation. Jt is to be observed, however, that the 
sheils of Balani are composed of a remarkably dense and in- 
destructible calcium carbonate, much less perishable than 
the shells of most mollusks. 

The original attachments of the animals, so far as ob- 
served, have been on pebbles on the surface of clay, and as 
these afforded space only for one or two individuals, the 
young were obliged to attach themselves to the old in suc- 
cessive generations, forming most grotesque groups, which 
still remain entire. 


Note on Balanus Hameri. 289 


In the same deposits were found shells of Saxicava Arctica. 
Tellina (Macoma) Groenlandica and Mya arenaria of a small 
variety. These shells would indicate cold and not very deep 
water; and although B. Hameri is at present a deep-water 
species, it is probable that in cold water it lives, like some 
other species, nearer the surface than in the warmer seas. 

The specimens were found in an excavation near the rail- 
way, and so far as appears from the descriptions, in beds 
which belong to the top of the Leda clay and base of the 
Saxicayva sand, a position which is usually the most produc- 
tive part of our Pleistocene deposits in fossil shells. 

From a note and sketch kindly furnished to me bv Mr. 
Stanton, it appears that the shells occur about 27 feet below 
the surface, and about 11 feet above the level of Lake St. 
Francis. The containing beds are clay and sand, and above 
these are alternations of clay, sand and gravel, the top being 
gravel, with boulders immediately under the surface soil. 
The position of the shells would thus appear to be in what I 
have called the Upper Leda clay, or the base of the Saxicava 
sand, and under the newer gravel and boulder deposit which 
often caps the latter. 


(2.) Species of Mya, and Varietal Forms. 


In my Notes on the Post Pliocene of Canada,’ I have re- 
marked on the small size, peculiar forms and comparative 
rarity of Mya arenaria in the Pleistocene, as compared with 
the modern Gulf and River St. Lawrence, and on the abun- 
dance of Mya truncata, and especially of the short variety 
(M. Uddevalensie), while Mya truncata is comparatively 
rare in the modern waters of our coast, and the short 
variety especially so. I had last summer an opportunity at 
Little Metis to see both species and their different varieties 
living together in such a manner as to illustrate better the 
causes Of the difference of the Pleistocene forms. 

At the head of Little Metis Buy, where the water is shal- 


' Canadian Naturalist, 1872. 


290 Canadian Record of Science. 


low and warm, and the bottom is soft mud and sand, 
a large variety of Mya arenaria is very plentiful in the flats 
bare at low tide; so much so that the place is resorted to 
by fishermen from localities lower on the coast for bait. It 
sometimes attains the length of 4} inches, and has a thick, 
dense shell, without perceptible epidermis, and often with 
radiating bands. So far as I] am aware, neither Mya trun- 
cata nor the peculiar variety of MM. arenaria referred to 
below, occurs on this part of the coast. 

I have not infrequently dredged Mya truncata, usually 
the long variety, but sometimes the short Uddevalensis 
variety, in deep water outside the bay, but have not seen it 
above low-water mark, though it occurs not far from this 
line; and, on the opposite side of the River St. Lawrence, I 
have found it at Tadoussac, where the water is still colder, 
close to low-water mark. I was not aware that Mya are- 
naria occurred on the comparatively steep and stony shore 
outside the bay, and it is certainly not found there inside of 
the low-water limit. 

Last summer, however, after a heavy easterly gale, great 
numbers of Mya arenaria, in a living state, and a few speci- 
mens of M. truncata, were thrown up on the beach, and 
must have been derived from the mud disturbed by the 
breakers at no great distance outside of low-water mark, 
or on a slight bank a little further seaward. These 
shells were all of small or moderate size, somewhat round 
and flat in form, much wrinkled and covered with a thick 
brown epidermis which extended a little way beyond 
the posterior end of the shell, which was, however, rounded 
and not truncated, and destitute of the corneous tube of 
M. truncata. Still, many of the specimens might, at first 
sight have been mistaken for M. truncata, with the tube 
partly broken off. This enabled me, for the first time, to 
understand the remark of Fabricius, that in Greenland the 
two species are so similar, that but for the hinge and the 
tube they might be confounded. With these were thrown 
up specimens of M. truncata, which must have lived with 
the others, the inner limit of MM. truncata probably overlap- 


Note on Balanus Hamert. 291 


ping the outer limit of M arenaria. The short or Uddevalen- 
sis variety of truncata was, however, very rare, only a few 
shells in a perfectly recent state having been found, and they 
probably lived in somewhat deeper and colder water than 
the others. The water, I may add, on this coast is so far 
affected by the Arctic current as to be quite cold, except 
near the shore and in shallow bays, and the species dredged 
in 10 to 15 fathoms are, in general, similar to those of the 
Labrador coast, belonging rather to the boreal than to the 
Acadian fauna. With the Myas were cast up shells of 
Solen ensis, var. Americanus of Carpenter, and of Machaera 
Costata, the latter sometimes of large size, though it is more 
abundant in the warmer water at the head of the bay, 
where Purpura Lapillus, a rare shell on this coast, also 
occurs on the reefs. 

It is evident that though there is no passage from one 
‘species into the other, the long variety of Mya truncata 
represents the extreme limit of modification of that species 
for a shallow and warm-water habitat, while the small epi- 
dermis-clad variety of MW. arenaria represents its extreme 
modification for deeper and colder water than usual; and 
along the coast at Metis these two varieties meet. 

The coldness of the Pleistocene seas thus explains the 
occurrence, in the Upper Leda clay, of the peculiar small 
and epidermis-clad variety of M. arenario and of the short 
form of Mya truncata. The conditions in the colder parts 
of the River St. Lawrence approach in these respects to 
those of the Pleistocene, though they are no doubt more 
fully realized in the Arctic seas. 

As | have remarked in my notes on the Post Pliocene, 
the brown wrinkled epidermis-clad variety of M. arenaria 
occurs plentifully along with M. Uddevalensis in the Upper 
Leda clay at Riviére du Loup. 

From the accounts of Arctic collectors from Fabricius 
downwards, it would appear that in Greenland, as in Pleis- 
tocene Canada, M. truncata is very abundant, and occurs at 
low water in the sands, as M. arenaria does further south. 


It would seem also that it forms a large part of the food of 


292 Canadian Record of Science. 


the walrus and other animals, and is much used by the in- 
habitants. It also appears that a small variety of W. are- 
naria, with brown epidermis, is most common in Greenland, 
and occurs with Mya truncata, which is, however, more 
plentiful. The description given by Fabricius of MW. arena- 
ria obviously agrees with that of my small and brown 
variety from Metis. 

It is interesting to note the companionship of these allied 
species in the North Atlantic throughout the Pleistocene 
and Modern periods, and their range of varietal forms ap- 
plicable to each, according to the conditions to which they 
they have been exposed, along with their continued specific 
distinctness, and the preference of each for certain kinds of 
environment, so that in some places one, and in others the 
other, predominates, while this relative predominance, as 
well as the prevalence of certain varietal forms, might no 
doubt be reversed by change of climate or of depth. 


On MopERN CONCRETIONS FROM THE St. LAWRENCE. 
By Rev. Pror. Kavanaau, 8. J. 


With REMARKS ON CYLINDERS FOUND IN THE PoTsDAM 
SANDSTONE. 


The modern concretions referred to were collected on the 
the rush-covered shores of the St. Lawrence near Boucher- 
ville, and may be thus described :— 

They resemble small radishes, like these, varying much 
in shape, are symmetrical, perforated axially, the more or 
less perfect bore or perforation often containing vegetable 
fibres. 

Their production seems to be due to the action of the 
rush roots upon the soft, plastic clay, so indurating it that 
it can resist the wash of the waves; the receding of the 
water during the summer leaves these concretions standing 
out in relief, like fossils on a weathered surface. 


Modern Concretions from the St. Lawrence. 2938 


The phenomenon seems to be analogous to that formation 
of nodules around organic nuclei within masses of soft mate- 
rial, which occurs in many geological formations. 

These little bodies are evidently clay concretions forined 
around vegetable fibres, and hardened by a small percentage 
of calcium carbonate, since when treated with hydrochloric 
acid they effervesce feebly and become disintegrated. They 
probably originate in the molecular aggregation of the cal- 
careous matter in the clay around any foreign body in- 
cluded in it. They are about half an inch in diameter, and 
the largest may have been two inches in length, with ronnded 
ends. When broken, they show a small central canal con- 
taining a little sand and strips of epidermal tissue, the re- 
mains of a root or stem. One shows three branches appa- 
rently proceeding in a verticillate manner from a central 
stem. In the centre, the light, reddish-brown colour of the 
clay has assumed a greenish hue, owing to deoxidation of 
the Peroxide of Iron by decay of the vegetable nucleus. 


REMARKS BY THE PRESIDENT ON CERTAIN ANCIENT CONCRE- 
TIONS, IN CONNECTION WITH THE ABOVE. 


On a small scale these modern concretions are similar to 
those so often found to enclose vegetable remains in the 
carboniferous system; and in the Pleistocene at Green’s 
Creek, on the Ottawa, vegetable stems are sometimes found 
enclosed in similar, but larger and harder concretions. 

Coneretions of this kind appear to throw light on those 
remarkable trunk-like cylinders which have been found in 
the Potsdam sandstone. These attracted the attention of 
Sir Wm, Logan many years ago ; but as they showed no struc- 
ture, external markings, or carbonaceous matter, they were 
not regarded by him as true fossils. More recently they 
have been studied by Dr. Selwyn in exposures on the bank 
of the Rideau canal, near Kingston, Dr, Selwyn has kindly 
sent photographs of these specimens, to be exhibited to the 
Society. Mr. A. Young, a student in applied science in 
McGill University, as also presented fine specimens to the 


294 Canadian Record of Science. 


Peter Redpath Museum, one of which is on the table. In 
their entirely arenaceous character, their concentric lines of 
growth, as well as in traces of a central axis or canal of 
small dimensions, and, in one instance, in a regularly 
rounded end, they resemble concretions, but I have been 
unable to find any central organic matter. This may, how- 
ever, have perished, leaving a mere cavity, as in the modern 
concretions above described, which would become filled with 
sand, like that of the enclosing cylinder. This at least ap- 
pears to me at present the most probable explanation of 
these puzzling forms. It would be confirmed if any distinct 
vegetable or zophytic axis could be found in any of the 
specimens, or any carbonaceous matter representing such 
an axis. In the meantime, it may be regarded as a more 
or less probable conjecture as to their origin. 


THE INFLUENCE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ON CELL 
LIFE (METABOLISM).* 


By T. Westry Mitis, M.A., M.D., Professor of Physiology, McGill 
University, Montreal. 


In a paper entitled “A Physiological Basis for an Im- 
proved Cardiac Pathology,” read in abstract in August, 
1887, before the Canada Medical Association, I endeavoured 
to show the relation of the cardiac nerves to the nutrition 
of the heart; but the subject grew as I proceeded with its 
study, so that I perceived that the theory I applied to the 
heart was equally true of the other organs and tissues. In 
that paper, which was published in the New York Medical 
Record of October 22nd, 1887, I advanced a large number of - 
facts derived from common experience, physiological ex- 
periment, pathology, and clinical medicine, in favor of what 
I termed a theory of constant neuro-trophic infiuence. 


* Read before the section in Physiology of the Congress of Amer- 
ican Physicians and Surgeons, at its first annual meeting, Septem- 
ber, 1888. : 


Influence of Nervous System on Cell life. 295 


Briefly this theory was to the effect that in mammals, if 
not also in some lower groups of vertebrates, the nutritive 
processes are all under a constant regulative influence by 
the nervous system, in the sense that they are so dependent 
upon this influence, that they do not, and would not, go on 
without it. It was also pointed out that function was not a 
thing totally distinct and alone regulated by the nervous 
system, but that function was only one phase of a general 
metabolism, and was no more under the influence of the 
nervous centres than the other less recognized phases, 

A year’s additional study of the subject has convinced me 
more than ever of the necessity of widening our views of 
the relation of the various organic processes, so that instead 
of terming the theory, I would offer for your considera- 
tion one setting forth a constant neuro-trophic influence, I 
would replace it by the expression constant neuro-metabolic 
influence, as it implies a wider and truer conception of the 
subject, as I view it; and I am not sure but that it would 
be well to abandon the term “nutrition ” altogether, or, if 
not, certainly to define it afresh. 

The following, then, is a brief pr esentation of the subject 
in a form largely free ant technicalities. 

This subject is of the utmost importance, and has not re- 
ceived the attention hitherto in works on physiology to 
which we believe it is entitled. We may first mention a 
number facts on which to base conclusions :— 


1. Section of the nerves of bones is said to be followed by a 
diminution of their constituents, indicating an altera- 
tion in their metabolism. 

2. Section of the nerves supplying a cock’s comb interferes 
with the growth of that appendage. 

3. Section of the spermatic nerve is followed by degenera- 
tion of the testicle. 

4. After injury to a nerve, or its centre in the brain or 
spinal cord, certain affections of the skin may appear 
in regions corresponding to the distribution of that 
nerve, thus, herpes zoster is an eruption that follows 
frequently the distribution of the intercostal nerve, 


21 


296 Canadian Record of Science. 


5. When the motor cells of the anterior horn of the spinal 
cord, or certain cells in the pons, medulla, or crus cere- 
bri, are disordered, there is aform of muscular atrophy 
which has been termed “active,” inasmuch as the 
muscle does not waste merely, but the dwindling is ac- 
companied by proliferation of the muscle nuclei. 

6. In acute decubitus, bed sores form within a few hours or 
days of the appearance of the cerebral or spinal lesion, 
and this with every precaution to prevent pressure, or 
the other conditions that favor the formation of such 
sores. 

7. After section of both vagi, death results after a period 
varying in time, as do also the symptoms, with the 
animal. 

In some animals pneumonia seems to account for death, 
since it is found that if this disease be prevented, life may 
at all events be greatly prolonged. 

The pneumonia has been attributed to paralyses of the 
muscles of the larynx, together with loss of sensibility of 
the larynx, trachea, bronchi,and the lungs, so that the glottis 
is not closed during deglutition, and the food finding its 
way into the lungs has excited the disease by irritation. 
The possibility of vaso-motor changes is not to be over- 
looked. In birds, death may be subsequent to pneumonia 
or to inanition from paralysis of the csophagus, food not 
being swallowed. It is noticed that in these creatures there 
is fatty (and sometimes other) degeneration of the heart, 
liver, stomach and muscles. 

8. Section of the trigeminus nerve within the skull has led 
to disease of the corresponding eye. This operation 
renders the whole eye insensible, so that the presence 
of offending bodies is not recognized, and it has been 
both asserted and denied that protection of the eye from 
such irritation prevents the destructive inflammation. 

With the loss of sensibility there is also vaso-motor par- 
alysis; the intra-ocular tension is diminished, and the rela- 
tions of the nutritive lymph to the ocular tissues is altered. 
But all disturbances of the eye, in which there are vaso- 
motor alterations, are not followed by degenerative changes. 


Influence of Nervous System on Cell life. 29% 


9. Degeneration of the salivary glands follows section of 
their nerves. 

10. After suture of long-divided nerves, indolent ulcers 
have been known to heal with great rapidity. 

This last fact, especially, calls for explanation. It will 
be observed, when one comes to examine nearly all such in- 
stances as those referred to above, that they are complex. 
Undoubtedly. in such a case as the trigeminus or the vagi, 
many factors contribute to the destructive issue, but the 
fact that many symptoms and lesions are concomitants does 
not of itself negative the view that there may be lesions 
directly dependent on the absence of the functional influ- 
ence of nerve fibres over the metabolism. 

We prefer, however, to discuss the subject on a broader 
basis, and to found opinions on a wider survey of the facts 

_ of physiology. 

After a little time (a few hours), when the nerves of the 
submaxillary gland have been divided, a flow of saliva 
begins, and is continuous till the secreting cells become 
altered in a way visible by the microscope. 

Now, we have learned that protoplasm can discharge all 
its functions in the lowest forms of animals and in plants, 
independently of nerves altogether. 

What, then, is the explanation of this so-called “ paralytic 
secretion” of saliva? The evidence that the various func- 
tions of the body, as a whole, are discharged as individual 
acts, or series of acts, correlated to other functions, has been 
abundantly shown; and looking at the matter closely, it 
must seem unreasonsble to suppose that this would be the 
the case if there was not a close supervision by the nervous 
system over even the details of the processes. We should 
ask that the contrary be proved rather than that the burthen 
of proof should rest on the other side. Let us assume that 
such is the case ; that the entire behavior of every cell of the 
body is directly or indirectly controlled by the nervous sys- 
tem in the higher animals, especially mammals, and ask, 
What facts, if any, are opposed to such a view ? 

We must suppose that a secretory cell is one that has been, 


298 Canadian Record of Science. 


in the course of evolution, specialized for this end. What- 
ever may have been the case with protoplasm in its un- 
specialized form, it has been shown that gland cells can 
secrete independently of blood supply, when the nerves 
going to the gland are stimulated. Now, if these cells have 
learned, in the course of evolution, to secrete, then, in order 
that they shall remain natural—not degenerate—they must, 
of necessity, secrete, which means that they must be the 
subject of a series of metabolic processes, the final of which 
only is expulsion uf formed products. Too much attention 
was at one time directed to the latter. It was forgotten, or 
rather, perhaps, unknown, that the so-called “secretion ” 
was only the last of a long series of acts of the cell. True, 
when the cells are left to themselves, when no influences 
reach them from the stimulating nervous centres, their 
metabolism does not at once cease. As we view it, they 
revert to an original ancestral state when they performed 
their work, lived their peculiar individual life as less special- 
ized forms, wholly or partially independent of a nervous 
system. Butsuch divorced cells fail; they do not produce 
normal saliva; their molecular condition goes wrong at 
once, and this is soon followed by departures visible by 
means of the microscope. But just as secretion is usually 
accompanied by excess of blood, so most functional condi- 
tions, if not all, demand an unusual supply of pabulum. 
This is, however, no more a cause of the functional condi- 
tion than food is a cause of a man’s working. It may hamper 
if not digested and assimilated. 

It becomes, then, apparent that the essential for metabol- 
ism is a vital connection with the dominant nervous 
system. 

It has been objected that the nervous system has a meta- 
bolism of its own, independent of other regulative influence, 
but in this objection it seems to be forgotten that the ner- 
vous system is itself made up of parts which are related as 
higher and lower, or, at all events, which intercommunicate 
and energize one another. 

We have learned that one muscle cell has power to rouse 


- 


Influence of Nervous System on* Cell life. 299 


another to activity, when an impulse has reached it from a 
nervous centre. 

Doubtless this phenomenon has many parallels in the 
body, and explains how remotely a nervous centre may 
exert its power. It enables one to understand, to some ex- 
tent, many of those wonderful co-ordinations (obscure in 
detail) which are constantly taking place in the body. 

We think the facts, as they accumulate, will more and 
more show, as has been already urged, that the influence of 
blood pressure on the matabolic (nutritive) processes has 
been much over-estimated. They are not essential, but con- 
comitant in the highest animals. 

Turning to the case of muscle, we find that when a skeletal 
muscle is tetanized, the essential chemical and electrical 
phenomena are to be regarded as changes differing in degree 
only from those of the so-called resting state. 

There is more oxygen used, more carbonic anhydride ex- 
creted, etc. The change in form seems to be the least im- 
portant from a physiological point of view. Now, while all 
this can go on in the absence of blood, or even of oxygen, it 
cannot take place without nerve influence or something sim- 
ulating it. F 

Cut the nerve of a muscle, ard it undergoes fatty degen- 
eration*and atrophy. True, this may be deferred, but not 
indefinitely, by the use of electricity, acting somewhat like 
a nerve itself, and inducing the approximately normal series 
of metabolic changes. If, then, the condition when not in 
contraction (rest) differs from the latter in all the essential 
metabolic changes in rate or degree only, and if the func- 
tional condition or accelerated metabolism is dependent on 
nerve influence, it seems reasonable to believe that in the 
resting condition the latter is not withheld. 

Certain forms of paralysis (e. g., hysterical) are not fol- 
lowed by atrophy. Why? Because in this form the meta- 
bolic nerve influence is still exerted. 

The recent investigations on the heart make such views 
as we are urging Clearer still. It is known that section of 
the vagi leads to degeneration of the cardiac structure. We 


300 Canadian Record of Science. 


now know that this nerve contains fibres which have a 
diverse action on the metabolism of the heart, and that ac- 
cording as the one or the other set is stimulated, so does 
the electrical condition vary; and everywhere, so far as 
known, a difference in electrical condition seems to be as- 
sociated with a difference in metabolism, which may be one 
of degree only, perhaps, in many instances, still a differ- 
ence. The facts, as brought to light by experimental stim- 
ulation, harmonize with the facts of degeneration ,by the 
cardiac tissue on section of the vagi; but this is only clear 
on the view we are now presenting that the action of the 
nervous system is not only universal, but that it is constant ; 
that function is not an isolated and independent condition 
of an organ or tissue, but a part of a long series of meta- 
bolic changes. It is true that one or more of such changes 
may be arrested just as all of them may go on at a lessrate, 
thus, actual outpouring of pancreatic secretion is not con- 
stant; but secretion is not summed up in discharge merely, 
and on the other hand it would seem that in some animals 
the granules of the digestive glands are being renewed 
while they are being used up in secreting cells. The pro- 
cesses may be simultaneous or successive. Nor do we wish 
to imply that the nervous system merely holds in check, or, 
in a very general sense, co-ordinates processes that go on 
unoriginated by it. We think the facts warrant the view 
that they are in the highest mammals, either directly (most) 
or indirectly originated by it; that they would not take 
place in the absence of this constant nervous influence. 

The facts of common observation, as well as the facts of 
disease, point in the strongest way to such a conclusion. 

Everyone has experienced the influence on, not one, but 
many, functions of the body, we might say the entire meta- 
bolism of depressing or exalting emotions. The failure of 
appetite, loss of flesh and mental power under the influence 
of grief or worry, tell a plain story. Such broad facts are 
of infinitely more value in settling such a question as that 
now discussed than any single experiment. 

The best test of any theory is the extent to which it will 


- 


Influence of Nervoas System on Cell life. 301 


explain the whole round of facts. Take another instance of 
the influence over metabolism of the nervous system. 

Every athlete knows that he may overstrain, 7. e., he may 
use his muscles so much as to disturb the balance of his 
powers somewhere, very frequently his digestion, but often 
there seems to be a general break—the whole metabolism 
of the body seems to be out of gear. If we assume a con- 
stant nervous influence over the metabolic processes, this is 
comprehensible. The centres can produce so much only of 
what we may cail nervous force, using the term in the sense 
of directive power, and if this be unduly diverted to the 
muscles, other parts must suffer. The same holds of exces- 
sive mental application. 

On this view, also, the value of rest or change of occupa- 
tion becomes clear. The nervous centres are not without 
some resemblance to a battery; at most the latter can gen- 
erate only a definite quantity of electricity, and if a portion 
of this be diverted along one conductor, less must remain to 
pass by any other. 

It is of practical importance to recognize that, under 
great excitement, unusual discharges from a nerve centre 
may lead to unwonted functional activity ; thus, under the 
stimulus of the occasion, a man may in a boat-race originate 
muscular contractions he could not by the strongest efforts 
of his will cause under other circumstances. Such are 
always dangerous. We might speak ofa reserve or residual 
nerve force, the expenditure of which results in serious dis- 
ability. It also applies tomental and emotional effects, as 
well as muscular, and seems to us to throw light upon many 
of the failures and successes (so-called) of life. 

It seems that our past views of secretion and nutrition 
have been partial rather than erroneous in themselves, and 
it is a question whether it would not be well to substitute 
some other terms for them, or, at least, to recognize them 
more clearly as phases of a universal metabolism. We ap- 
pear to be warranted in making a wider generalization. 

To regard processes concerned in building up a tissue, as 
apart from those that are recognized as constituting ite 


302 Canadian Record of Science. 


function, seems to betillogical and unwise, with the know- 
ledge we at present possess. 

Whether, in the course of evolution, certain nerves, or, as 
seems more likely, certain nerve fibres in the body of nerve 
trunks have become the medium of impulses that are re- 
stricted to regulating certain phases of metabolism, as, e. g.. 
expulsion of formed products in gland cells, is not, from a 
general point of view, improbable, and is a fitting subject 
for further investigation. But it will be seen that we 
should regard all nerves as “trophic,” in the wider sense. 
What is most needed, apparently, is a more just estimation 
of the relative parts played by blood and blood-pressure, 
and the direct influence of the nervous system on the life- 
work of the cell. 

These views are greatly strengthened by the facts well 
known to every observer of disease in the human subject. 
The preponderating development of the cerebrum in man 
must be taken into account in the working of every organ. 
To have a normal stomach, liver, kidneys, etc., is not 
enough; for real health, all the parts of that great complex 
of organs we call the brain must not only work, but work 
in concert. We must regard the nervous centres as the 
source of ceaseless impulses that operate upon all parts ori- 
ginating and controlling the entire metabolism, of which 
what we term functions are but certain phases, parts of a 
whole, but essential for the health or normal condition of 
the tissues. 

Against such a view we know no facts, either of the 
healthy or disordered organism. 


Classification of Cambrian Rocks. 303 


ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE CAMBRIAN Rocks 
IN ACADIA. 


No. 2. 
By G. F. MattTuew, M.A., F.R.S.C. 


1. Comparison of Species with Description of a new Species 
of Obolus. 


When in Vol. III, No. 2, of this journal, the writer sug- 
gested a provisional arrangement of the members of the 
Cambrian System in Acadia, he did not anticipate that the 
doubt then resting upon the proper position of the Olenel- 
lus beds, (or Georgian Series), would so soon be removed. 

Karly in the past summer, he received from Dr. F. 
Schmidt, of St. Petersburg, his pamphlet “On a newly 
discovered, Lower Cambrian fauna in Hastland,’’ wherein is 
‘described, under the name of Olenellus Mickwitzi, a trilo- 
bite in all respects similar, in generic characters, to Mr. C. 
D, Walcott’s Mesonacis. This trilobite is found in company 
with Mickwitzia monilifera (=Lingula (?) monilifera, Linrs.) 
a brachiopod of the Kophyton Sandstone. The Eophyton 
Sandstone is at the base of the Cambrian System in Swe- 
den, below the Paradoxides bed, and this trilobite (O. Mick- 
witzi), therefore, is of greater antiquity than Paradoxides. 
This view of the comparative age of the Paradoxides beds 
is supported by the discovery (communicated to me by 
Mr. Walcott) of Ollenelus (?) Kjerulfi in the Cambrian 
beds of the State of New York. Thisspecies is well-known 
as being below the Paradoxides beds in Europe. 

So there was, in the discovery of these two species in 
the situations designated, sufficient evidence to show that 
the Olenellus beds, or those containing the Georgian fauna, 
were below the Paradoxides, and not above, as I suggested 
in my former paper to be the more probable alternative. 

Mr. Walcott has since made the position of these beds cer- 
tain by visiting Newfoundland, and examining the district 
where, many years ago, Mr. A. Murray found the Georgian 


304 Canadian Record of Science. 


fauna in this relation: although it was not recognized by 
him as such, because, neither the assemblage of species col- 
jected by Mr. Murray, and determined by Mr. Billings, nor 
those of Georgia, Vt., had been sufficiently compared to 
show that they were of one fauna. Mr. Walcott states 
that this fauna is unquestionably beneath the Paradoxides 
beds in Newfoundland, at a depth of about 200 feet. There 
ean be, therefore, no longer any doubt that the Olenellus- 
Doryphyge phase of the Olenellus fauna, which is the 
Olenellus fauna of Hastern North America, is older than 
the Paradoxides beds of the same region. 

Though this fauna is found north, east, and west of 
New Brunswick, having been recognized in Quebec, Cape 
Breton, and Massachusetts, it has not been found in the 
first named Province, notwithstanding that there are there 
no less than 1,600 feet of Cambrian measures beneath the 
Paradoxides beds. But, though this fauna has not been 
found in New Brunswick, the writer proposes to point out 
where, from our present knowledge of the subject, it is 
likely to be found. 

There is, in all the Cambrian basins of this Province, just 
beneath the oldest beds in which the Paradoxides are known 
to occur, a peculiar bed of shales, of considerable thickness, 
which, though apparently no coarser or harder than the 
beds below it, stands out in the sections with peculiar mas- 
siveness, and on examination is seen to be cut in all direc. 
tions by the burrows of large marine worms. Here the 
brachiopods lie at all angles in the shale, and in the worm- 
burrows, as though the worms, in their search for food, 
had disturbed all the successive layers of the sea-bottom, 
and kneaded the mud into a continuous pasty mass. 

This bed is at the top of Band 6., and marks the close of 
a period of disturbed physical conditions, that ushered in 
the tranquil time of the Paradoxides. In and below this 
bed, the remains of trilobites are rare; and except as re- 
gards the brachiopods, the known fauna differs entirely from 
that in the beds above. In the middle of Band b., we have 
been able to recognize an Agraulos, and at the base an 


Classification of Cambrian Rocks 305 


Ellipsocephalus, both recalling forms which, in Europe, are 
associated with Olenellus (?) Kjerulji. 

In the most northerly basin of Cambrian Rocks, in the 
southern part of this Province, (New Brunswick), the 
writer, during the past summer, collected an Obolus near 
the base of Band b., which may serve to link the fauna of 
this band with that of the Fucoid Sandstone, in Sweden, 
The shell in question is remarkable for the change in form 
which it underwent during growth, and for a peculiar radu- 
lar ornamentation. 

This variety of sculpture is not infrequent in the brachio- 

pods, which are found in company with the Olenelloid trilo- 
bites. Such a form is known in the Fucoidal Sandstone, 
under the name of Lingula (?) favosa Linrs. Another simi- 
lar one is Lingulella celata, Hall, and a third is Kutorgina 
pannula, White, of the Olenellus fauna of Nevada. 
. Dr. Hicks also figures and describes an organism from 
the Caerfai Group in Wales, as a doubtful Leperditia (L.? 
Cambrensis) which may be a brachiopod with cancellated 
ornamentation, it is represented as of oval or semi-circular 
form, and is said to show a “reticulate ornamentation. * 
Possibly this, which is found in sandy beds with Ligulella, 
may alse be a brachiopod, with radular sculpture, but on 
the other hand it may be a fragment of a Olenelloid trilo- 
bite, as in this sub-family the surface has reticulate orna- 
mentation. 

Kutorgina pannula is a similar, but smaller form, in 
which the cancellation is raised as in some examples of 
our Obolus ; and the possible outgrowths of the latter form 
may be seen by comparing its embryonic shell with Kutor- 
gna pannula. 

The following are the characters of the Obolus referred to 
above :— 


’ Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., London, 1871, Vol. 27, p. 401. 


306 Canadian Record of Science. 


OBOLUS PULCHER, N. sp. 


Fig. 1. Ventral valve. Natural size. 
“2. Same, mag. 23, to show the surface markings. The dotted line near 
the top of the figure indicates the outline of the dorsal valve at that part. 


Fig. 3. Embryonic shell, Dorsal valve, mag. +5. 


** 4. Same, seen from behind. 
«“ 5. Same, seen from the side. 


‘** 6, Embryonic shell, Ventral valve, mag: 4°. 
“7. Same, seen from behind.! 
““ 8. Same, seen from the side. 


General outline nearly orbicular; the valves gently, but 
rather flatly and evenly arched down from the centre all 
around, except that the dorsal is flatter at the back than 
elsewhere, and the ventral valve runs out into a short acu- 
minate umbo. 

Dorsal valve somewhat wider than long; more strongly 
arched towards the front than elsewhere ; somewhat elevat- 
ed at each end of the hinge line. 

Ventral valve about as wide as long, sides and front even- 
ly rounded ; back produced into a short pointed beak, angle 
of incidence of the two sides, 110° to 120°. 

Sculpture of the posterior half of the valves, consisting 
of minute tubercles, sloping forward, and arranged in rows, 
which arch forward across the mesian line from each late- 


1 The angle at each side is an error of the engraver. 


Classification of Cambrian Rocks. 307 


ral margin, giving to the surface a cancellated appearance. 
In a few examples, the tubercles are connected, so as to 
give the surface a pitted appearance, like that of Lingula(?) 
favosa and Kutorgina pannula. 

Sculpture of the anterior part on the front and sides in 
the adult consisting of concentric lines of growth, with 
faint, interrupted, radiating striee. 


2. Comparison of Sections in Sweden and New Brunswick. 


The relation of the Paradoxides beds to those beneath 
will be better understood by a comparison of the Acadian 
measures at several localities with the typical Cambrian 
series of Sweden. So nearly alike were the physical con- 
ditions, during this early period of Cambrian time, in those 
{wo countries, that the symbols originally used in New 
Brunswick, to designate the groups of beds, have served to 
distinguish nearly similar sub-divisions in Sweden and Nor- 
way. 

In these sections the base of the Paradoxides beds has 
been taken as the datum-line, and the thickness of the beds 
above and below this horizon, indicated on a scale of 100 
feet to an inch. 

In Sweden, the beds which belong to the lower part of 
the column, and are marked D., are the “ Olenellus beds” of 
that country: those marked a. are the Fucoid and Kophyton 
Sandstones which, by the discovery of I. Schmidt, in Hast- 
ern Russia, are also to be counted as a part of the Olenellus 
beds, since, as already observed, the corresponding beds in 
Russia contain a Mesonacis. The brachiopod (Lingula(?) 
or) Mickwitzia monilifera, which is found with this trilobite, 
and is common to the Cambrian of Russia and Sweden, oc- 
curs in the latter country at the base of the Kophyton sand- 
stone, and this sandstone appears to correspond in position 
to the white weathering sandstone, a, at the base of St. 
John Group in New Brunswick. 


308 Tapp I. 


SWEDEN. NEW BRUNSWICK, 
ST. JOHN CO. KINGS CO. ST. JOHN CO. 
| Andrarum  Port- Rad- Caton’s Hanford’s Brook, 
& Lugnas. land. cliffs. Island. St. Martin’s. 


no fossils 
known. 


Agnostus fissus. 


Paradox. A benacus 
ef. P. Tessini. 


Paradox, Eteminic. 
ef. P. rugulosus. 


Paradox. lamellatus 
ef. P Oelandicus. 


Acrothele, &c. 


Agraulos 


Ellipsocephalus 
Hip) onicharion 
Leperditia, 3 sp. 
Acrothele, Acrotreta. 


Obolus 
xjpulcher 


SECTIONS 
of LOWER 
CAMBRIAN 
STRATA in 


no fossils 
known. 


| SWEDEN 
and NEW 
| 
| BRUNSWICK. 
~~ < 


Scale 100 Feet 


to an Inch. 


Classification of Cambrian Rocks. 309 


Of the sections of Cambrian Rocks in Acadia exhibited 
on the Table I, page 308, three are from theSt. John Basin, 
and the fourth from the northern basin in Kings Co., and 
they show clearly the varying thickness of the deposits of 
Division or Stage 1. in the different districts; this feature 
is much more noticeable in the lower bands (a and b) than 
in the upper ¢ and @). 

The most continuous and complete section found, is that 
on Hanford Brook, where the Cambrian measures are now 
separated from the rest of the St. John Basin by a low 
ridge of pre-Cambrian rocks ; and from the differences that 
are observable in the details of the sections on the two 
sides of this ridge, it is probable that it existed in Cam- 
brian times (compare the 3rd and 5th sections). Band 6 has 
its greatest thickness in the more distant basin in King’s 
Co., (see fourth section), but does not show so much variety 
in the sedimentation as at the easterly exposures in the 
St. John Basin. 

In this district at Hanford Brook, the fauna of 1 6 pre- 
sents itself in considerable variety. At the base, forty feet 
of the dark gray sandstone contains Ellipsocephalus and 
fragments of other trilobites; four entomostracans, viz., 
Hipponicharion and three species of Leperditia, which 
latter are remarkable for their thick tests, and pitted sur- 
faces, and six species of brachiopods of the genera Acrothele, 
Acrotreta, Linnarssonia and Lingulella. 

These sandstones are followed by fifty feet of compara- 
tively barren, dark grey, sandy shales; and they by thirty 
feet of hard, purple-streaked sandstones, in which occurs an 
Agraulos of the form of A. (Arionellus) primevus of the bed 
b in Sweden, and the peculiar Hyalithoid shell Diplotheca, 
as well as numerous tracks of Psammichnites. 

The olive grey shale, thirty feet thick, above this sand- 
stone, is comparatively barren, but has yielded the two 
species of Beyrichona, a genus which has points of resem- 
blance to Aristoze of Barrande. 

The upper bed of b, twenty feet thick, is that already 
described as being cut up by worm burrows. In it the 


310 Canadian Record of Science. 


brachiopodous genera Acrothele, Lingulella and Linnarssonia, 
are not uncommon, and the species are the same as found 
in the Paradoxides beds above. 

There is thus, in Band b, an entomostracan fauna of six 
species, as well as two trilobites which resemble those of 
the Olenellus beds in Sweden, but so far, no example of 
Olenellus itself or its kindred genera. Band 6 has a thick- 
ness of 170 feet, and Band a of 200 feet, s0 we may suppose 
these measures at the base of the St. John Group, are very 
near the horizon of Olenellus. 

If we were to be guided by the indications given by the 
Scandinavian faunas, we would place the Olenellus beds as 
a stage only, below the Paradoxides beds, and would not 
consider them worthy to rank as a series: but if we regard 
the great development of the measures containing Olenel- 
lus on the Pacific slope of the continent, we cannot refuse 
to accord to them the latter grade. It is a series which ap- 
pears to overlap that containing Paradoxides, but which in 
its commencement assuredly had a higher antiquity. 

The author would, therefore, now arrange the Cambrian 
System, as it occurs in Acadia, as follows :— 


Localities. 
D.—Upper Cambrian System (Potsdam series)... Unknown. 
Ge iiddle ns Acadian Series,......... St. John, &e. 
B.—Lower Cambrian, Georgian Series,.......... C. Breton. 
A.—Basal Cambrian, Etcheminian Series,....... St. John, &e. 


The relation of the two latter series has not been clearly 
shown, but the observations thus far made in New Bruns- 
wick, and Newfoundland, agree with the scheme above pre- 
sented. 


3. On the relations of the Olenellus faunas of the Pacific 
Slope in North America. 


The Olenellus fauna which we have been considering is 
not the full development of this fauna as known in the 
West. 


Tasty IT. 811 


SECTIONS of CAMBRIAN WESTERN NORTH AMERICA. 


ROCKS in EUROPE, Navaton Taeniain. 


and in NORTH AMERICA. 


350 


~~ 


Seale 2000 Feet to an Inch. 


1200 


In these columns, Div. 2 & 3 in 
New Brunswick, are equivalent 
to Stage 2 in Sweden. 


1600 =... 


Highland 
| Range and 
| Eureka, 

EASTERN 
| N. AMERICA. 
| New 
/ Brunswick. 


3050 


EUROPE, 


NO FOSSILS. 


1500 
11.750 


CAMBRIAN IN RUSSIA. 


8 Glauconite Sand,......... 10 feet. 
jiety e > bd ren . 
2} Pe eee 8" Air ae ; =Divisions 2 and 3 in N.B. A 
§ Blue Olay...... oe J —Soeri i 
j Lron Sandstone..,. ud —Berlcs A, in N.B, 


CAMERIAN IN SWEDEN. 


8 Ocratopyge Beds........,, 12 feet. 
§ Peltura Bedss..4:...sse000 84 *S =Div. 8in N.B. 
/Olenus Beds.,,.... ee yh feed 1 =Div. 2in N.B. 
jh sradoxides Beds ........ 90 
| 14¥uacoid Sandstone.,....... 60 *6 =Div. 1 in N.B. 
| Kophyton Sandstone,.,... 20 $6 
266 


312 Canadian Record of Sctence. 


In that region there are two phases of the Olenellus fauna 
found at different levels in the measures of the Cambrian 
System, which may be distinguished as the Olenellus- 
Dorypyge phase, and the Olenellus-Bathyuriscus (cf. Ogygia) 
phase: it is the former only which is known in Hastern 
North America. 

According to Mr. Walcott’s sections, of which an outline 
is given on Table II, page 311, these two phases are separ- 
ated by about 1,200 feet of measures, and the older is found 
some 1,500 feet or more above the base of the Cambrian 
system. 

I have attempted to trace, by dotted lines, the respective 
horizons marked by these two phases of the Olenellus 
fauna, and for comparison, the position also of the Upper 
Cambrian fauna in the same region. 

The basal measures of the Cambrian System, which in 
these sections are indicated by the letter A, are found in 
Norway, Russia, Newfoundland, New Brunswick and West- 
ern America, and probably also in Wales. As for the Cam- 
brian measures which are above these, when they can be 
indicated with sufficient certainty, the Lower Cambrian is 
marked by 1, the Middle Cambrian by 2, and the Upper 
Cambrian, by 3, to show the range of the faunas in the 
several sections. 

Mr. Walcott takes the Nevada section as the typical one 
for the West. In this the Upper Olenellus fauna extends 
3,050 feet above the lower ; and beyond this, for 1,600 feet, 
its forms are mingled with those of the Upper Cambrian or 
Potsdam fauna,’ which, from its position, may be con- 
sidered equivalent to the Ceratopye beds of Sweden. If there 
is this mingling of the species of the Olenellus beds with 
those of the Upper Cambrian, no place remains in Western 
America for the great North Atlantic faunas of the Para- 
doxides beds, and of the Lower and Upper Olenus beds. 
The only inference we can draw from this is, that the 
Upper Olenellus fauna and the Passage beds above were 
cotemporary with the three North Atlantic faunas above 
named. 


1 See Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 30, p. 32. 


\ 


Classification of Cambrian Rocks. 313 


Tt has been stated in the notice of the meetings of the 
Geological Congress in London (1888) that Mr. Walcott’s 
fauna of Olenellus, of forty-two genera, and 113 species,’ 
is of earlier date than the Paradoxides bed, but from Mr. 
Walcott’s own observations in the West, it is evident that 
this fauna should be divided, as only the Olenellus-Dorypyge 
phase can with certainty be placed below the Paradoxides 
zone. 

In order to show the characteristic species of the Olenellus 
Bathyuriscus or later fauna of Olenellus, the writer has 
selected the following species, which, according to Mr. 
Walcott, belong to this horizon. 

The genera marked with an asterisk, are found in the 
Paradoxides beds. 


* Protospongia fenestra. O. spinosus. 

* Eocystites (2?) longidactylus. O. typicalis. 

*Tingulella Ella. * Ptychoparia Housensis. 

*Kutorgina pannula. *P. Kingi, (Anomocare.) 

* Acrotreta gemma. *P. prospectensis (**) 

* Acrothele subsidua. *P. quadrans _(‘*) 

*Orthis Highlandensis. Crepicephalus Augusta. 

*Stenotheca elongata. C. Liliana. 

* Hyolithes Billingsi. Protypus senectus, (cf. Ellipso- 

*Leperditia Argenta. cephalus.) 

* Agnostus intercinctus. Bathyriscus Howelli, (cf. Ogygia.) 
Olenellus Gilberti. B. producta, C=): 
Olenoides levis. Asaphiscus Wheeleri, (cf. Niobe.) 


O. Nevadensis. 


Among these species, Acrotreta gemma and Acrothele sub- 
sidua are similar to species of the Paradoxides beds. Ag- 
nostus intercinctus is a good example of the group of the 
Longifrontes, which has many species in the Upper Para- 
doxides beds, and some in the Lower. Protospongia fenes- 
trata is a species of the Lower Paradoxides beds. Of the 
four species of Ptychoparia, three would by Swedish geolo- 
gists be included in the same genus with Anomocare microp- 
thalmum, also of the Paradoxides beds, and there are other 


' See Bull. U. 8. Geol. Survey, No. 30, p. 45. 


: 
: 
| 


314 Canadian Record of Science. 


Ptychopariz which I do not make out clearly, from Mr. 
Walcott’s notes, as of this horizon, but which probably be- 
long here (P. Piochensis, and P. coronata) and these have 
a still closer resemblance to Anomocare. Olenellus and 
Olenoides may be considered as the representives of the 
Paradoxides family at this horizon, but the two last genera 
on the list find their representatives in Europe at a higher 
horizon than the Paradoxides zone, even as high as the 
summit of the Cambrian. 

This remarkable grouping of genera, which it is stated 
gradually gave place to the Upper Cambrian fauna, would 
lead one to suppose that the introduction and removal of 
successive groups Of marine forms in the West, during the 
Cambrian age, was governed by other conditions than those 
which prevailed in the better known regions around the 
North Atlantic Ocean. 

In his former paper on the classification of the Acadian 
Cambrian Rocks, the writer considered the Olenellus fauna 
as a whole, but when the later phase of this fauna ig re- 
moved, the evidence for the rest, i.e., the Olenellus-Dorypyge 
phase, is in favour of its greater antiquity than the Parad- 
oxides beds. 

The great range of Olenellus in the west, as shown by Mr. 
Walcott’s work, is unusual for a trilobite, but is parallelled 
by that of Calymene Blumenbachii in the Ordovician and Silur- 
ian and by other trilobites.* It is quite compatible with 
this feature, that the Olenellus-Dorypyge or older phase of 
the Olenellus fauna should also have a wide geographical 
range: accordingly, we find it spread all across the Ameri- 
can continent, and although we do not know of the occur- 
rence of Olenellus in Asia, its companion, Dorypyge, has 
been found in Northern China. Dr. F. Schmidt has de- 
scribed from a limestone on the Jenisei river, in Siberia, a 
trilobite which, by its form, agrees with the genus Dorypyge. 
Other Cambrian fossils are described in the same paper. 

1 Protypus senectus is also credited with a wide vertical range, but 


the examples figured are so defective that more than one genus 
may be included under the name. 


Classificutton of Cambrian Rocks. 315 


In Europe, Olenelloid trilobites are again met with, but 
here, apparently, Dorypyge has not been found. 

Taking this older phase of the Olenellus fauna as a basis, 
the two parellel series of trilobites may be represented in 
the following diagram :— 


North Pacific Basin. | North Atlantic Basin. 
3. Upper Cambrian-Dikellocephalus-Ctenopyge fauna, 3. 
2 Middle Passage beds to elite fav ain ese ere ole : \ x 
(Gepeacnees Upper Cambrian. f Olenus fauna......... ra 


1 OlenelleusBathyuriscus fauna. Paradoxides fauna...... hi 
Lower Cambrian....... Olenellus—Dorypyge fauna 


This diagram is to be taken only as a suggestion of the 
possible relations of the Cambrian faunas on the two sides 
of the American continent, and is based upon our present 
knowledge. Paradoxides has been reported from Minnesota 
and from the Rocky Mountains on the line of the Canadian 
Pacific Railway; but imperfect examples of Olenellus and 
its allied genera so nearly resemble Paradoxides, that they 
are easily mistaken for it. They are distinguishable from 
Paradoxides by a decidedly reticulate ornamentation of 
raised lines on the surface of the crust, for in Paradoxides 
the lines are more or less parallel to each other. 


Norges ON THE FLORA OF MONTEBELLO, QUEBEC, 
ESTATE OF THE Hon. Mr. PAPINEAU. 


By Henry R,. Amt, M.A., Cor. Mem. Torrey Botan. Club. 


At the Annual Field-day, held under the auspices of the 
Natural History Society of Montreal, on the 16th day of 
June, 1888, at Montebello, the various members of that 
Society had an excellent opportunity offered them, of ex- 
amining the more salient characteristics of the natural 
phenomena existing in that locality. In and around the 
spacious grounds and estates of the Hon. Mr, L. J. Papineau, 


316 Canadian Record of Science. 


kindly thrown open to the excursionists on that occasion, 
as also on a previous one (1881), the diversity of the soil 
and region, afforded quite a diversity of flora, as well as of 
fauna. 

For example, Cypripedium parviflorun, Habenaria dilatata ? 
Arisema triphyllum, Gaultheria procumbens, Linnea borealis, 
Thuja occidentalis, Impatiens fulva, Oxcalis Acetosella, Good- 
yera pubescens, Pyrola elliptica, Thalictrum Cornuti and other 
plants were noticed in the low-lying grounds, between the 
“manor” and the Canadian Pacific Railway traek, whilst 
such species as Comandra umbellata, Saxifraga Virginiensis, 
Prunus Pennsylvanica, Vaccinium vacillans, Asclepias Cornuti, 
Quercus rubra, Adiantum pedatum, Aquilegia Canadensis and 
Rubus odoratus occupied the higher and dryer levels along 
the hill slopes and tops. It was a delight to meet with 
Cypripedium acaul2 in such numbers as were noted along 
the bluff of micaceous gneiss, close to the R. R. track, 
associated with Chimaphila umbellata, Rubus villosus, Prunus 
Pennsylvanica. The beautiful little “ blue-eyed grass ”— 
Sisyrhynchium mucronatum, noted for the rapidity with 
which it ripens or produces its fruit—was also observed 
in large numbers; this species is found skirting the edge 
of the Laurentides from north of Montreal westward to 
Ottawa and farther west. Besides the above, Polygala 
paucifolia, Lathyrus ochroleucus, Geum rivale, Dirca palustris, 
Lycopus Virginicus, Cypripedium parviflorum, Symphoricarpus 
racemosus, var. pauciflorus are amongst those species which 
are of usual occurrence, and of general interest along the 
Ottawa valley. 

A few plants have escaped cultivation and are spreading, 
viz. :—Arabis hesperidoides, Allium Schenoprasum and Conval- 
laria majalis.’ 

In order to ascertain in general, what the flora of the 
grounds surrounding the “ manor” was—a list of the 
species was made on the spot, subsequently systematized, 
and hereto appended :— 


1 Vide Trans. Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club, No. 3, 1882, p. 23. 


Notes on the Flora of Montebello, Que. 


317 


List of species found growing within the grounds of Mr. L. J. 
Papineau, and in the village of Montebello adjoining. 


P. represents the Papineau Estates; M. Montebello, for locality. 


Clematis Virginiana, L. P. 
Anemone dichotoma, L. P.M. 
Anemone Hepatica, L. P. 
Thalictrum Cornuti, L. P. 
Ranunculus abortivus, L. P. 

> acris, L. M. 

s recurvatus, Poir. P. 
Coptis trifolia, Salisb. P. 
Aquilegia Canadensis, L. P. 
Actxa alba, Bigelow, P. 

= spicata,jL. var. rubra, Ait. 


Chelidonium majus, L. P. 
Cardamine pratensis, L. P. 
Arabis hesperidoides, Gray. P. 
Brassica alba, Gray. M. 

“ Sinapistrum, Boiss. M. 
Capsella bursa-pastoris, Mench. 
eee 


Thlaspi arvense, L. M. 

Viola cucullata, Ait. P. 
Cerastium vulgatum, L. M.P. 
Tilia Americana, L. P. 
Geranium Robertianum, L.  P. 
Impatiens fulva, Nutt.  P. 
Oxalis Acetosella, L.  P. 

“ corniculata, L. var stricta, 

rR. 

Rhus Toxicodendron, L. P. 
Rhus typhina, L. P. 
Ampelopsis quinquefolia, Michxz.P. 
Acer Pennsylvanicum, L. 

“ rubrum, L. P. 

“ saccharinum, L. P. 

“ spicatum, Lam. P. 
Polygala paveifolia, Willd. P. 
Trifolium repens, L. P.M. 

“ pratense, L. P.M. 
Medicago Lupulina, L. P.M. 
Lathyrus ochroleucus, Hook. P. 
Robinia viscosa, Vent. P. 
Prunus Pennsylvanica, L. P. 

“ Virginiana, L. P. 
Geum rivale, L. P. 
Fragaria vesca, L. P. 

“  Virginiana, Ehrh, P.M. 
Rulus odoratus, L. P. 

“strigosus, Micha. P.M. 

“  triflorus, Tich. P. 

“  villosus, Ait. P. 


Pyrus Americana, D.C. P. 
Amelanchier Canadensis, 

longifolia, T. & G. 
Ribes Cynosbati, L. P. 

“lacustris, Poir. P: 
Saxifraga Virginiensis, Michx.P. 
Mitella diphylla, L. P. 

pla by IP 
Tiarella cordifolia, L. P. 
Epilobium spicatum, L. P. 
Sanicula Marilandica, L. P. 
Osmorrhiza brevistylis, D.C. P. 
Aralia nudicaulis, I. P. 
Cornus Canadensis, I. P. 

ES CURCLILONO Ta -ICT mab. 

«  stolonifera, Michx. P.M. 
Linnexa borealis, Gronov. P. 
Symphoricarpus racemosus, Mia, 

var., pauciflorus, Robbins, M. 
Lonicera ciliata, Muhl. P. 
Diervilla trifida, Meench. P. 
Sambucus Canadensis, L. P. 
Viburnum acerifolium, L. P. 

Oy 1Opuiisy li ke 
Galium asprellum, Micha. P. 

Fo Tanti opr Tis IE” VES 
Aster cordifolius, L.  P. 

Aster macrophyllus, L. P. 
Erigeron Philadelphicum, L. P. 

strigosum, L. P. 
Bidens frondosa, L. P. 
Anthemis Cotula, L. M. 
Achillza millefolium, I. P.M. 
er Lecanthemum, L. 


v Ob- 


Artemisia vulgaris, L. M. 
Antennaria plantaginifolia, 

spss) Med 
Onicus arvensis, Scop. M.P. 
Lappa officinalis, All. M. 
Cuchorium Intybus, L. M. 
Nabalus sp. P. 
Taraxacum officinale, Weber, M.P. 
Vaccinium Pennsylvanicum, L. P. 
Vaccinium vacillans Solander. P. 
Gaultheria procumbens, L. PP. 
Pyrola elliptica, Nutt. P. 

oh secunda, L. P. 

Chimaphila umbellata, Nutt. P. 
Plantago major, L. P.M. 


318 


Plantago Rugellii, Decaisne. P. 
Trientalis Americana, Pursh. P. 
Veronica serpyllifolia, L. P.M. 
Lycopus Virginicus, L. M. 
Leonurus Cardiaca, I. M. 
Cynoglossum, officinale, I. M. 
fe Virginicum, L. P. 


Apocynun androsemifolium, L. P. 


Asclepias Cornuti, Decaisne. P. 
Fraxinus pubescens, Lam. P.M. 
Chenopodium album, L. P.M. 
Atriplex patula, I. P.M. 
Polygonum aviculare, L. M. 

= cilinode. Micha. P. 

“ hydropiper,L. P.&M. 
Rumex Acetosella, L. P.M. 


oS verticillatus, I. P.M. 
Dirca palustris, L. P.M. 
Comandra umbellata, Nutt 
Ulmus Americana, [L. P.M. 


“ fulva, Micha. M. 
Juglans cinerea, L. 
Quercus alba, L. M. 
Ti Polo Ib; Ve 
Fagus ferruginea, Ait. P. 
Corylus rostrata, Ait. P. 
Carpinus Americana,Michx. P. 
Betula papyracea, Ait. 1 
SS Ueno, Thy OE 
Alnus incana, Willd.  P. 
Salix (several species). DP. & M. 
Populus balsamifera, L. P. 
“  tremuloides, Michxz. P. 
Pinus Strobus, L. P.M. 
“ resinosa, Ait. P. 
Picea alba, Link.  P. 
Abies balsamea, I. iP. 


Pseudotsuga Canad ensis, Michx: 
PB 


Larix Americana, Michz. P. 
Thuja occidentalis, L.  P. 
Juniperus communis, L. 
Arisema triphyllum, Torrey P. 
Typha latifolia, L.  P. 


Orrawa, June 20th, 1888. 


grandidentata,Micha, P. 


Canadian Record of Science. 


Alisma plantago, L. var. Ameri- 
cana, Gray. : 
Habenaria dilatata, Gray. P. 
Goodyera pubescens, R. Br. P. 
Cypripedium acaule, Ait. P. 
we parviflorum, Salisb. 
P. (1881.) 
Tris versicolor, L. P. 
Sisyrhynchium mucronatum, 
Michx. L. P.M. 
Smilax herbacea, I. P.M. 
Trillium grandiflorum, Salis. 
P 


Medeola Virginica, L.  P. 
Streptopus roseus, Michz. P. 
Uvularia sessilifolia, L.  P. 
Clintonia borealis, Raf. P. 
Smilacina racemosa, L. Desf. P. 
Mianthemum Canadense, Desf. 
P.M. 
Ge Americanum, Smith. 


Allium Schenoprasum, L. P. 
Convallaria majalis, L. P. 
Scirpus atrovirens, Muhl.  P. 
Carex intumescens, Rudge. 

“ laxiflora, Lam.  P. 

“riparia, Curtis.  P. 

SER SLCLLUG GLC ame 
Agrostis vulgaris, With. 
Calamagrostis Canadensis, 

Beaw. P. 

Phleum pratense, L. P.M. 
Equisetum hyemale, L. M. 

sylvaticum, L. P. 
Pieris aquilina, L. P.M. 
Adiantum pedatum, L.  P. 
Phegopteris Dryopteris, Feé. P. 
Aspidium Thelypteris, Swz. P. 
Onoclea sensibilis, L. 

“ Struthiopteris, Hoff'm. 
Botrychium Virginicum, Swz. P. 
Lycopodium clavatum, L. iP. 

ce complanatum, L. dee 


METHOROLOGICAL ABSTRACT FOR THE YRAWR 1888. 


Observations made at McGill College Observatory, Montreal, Canada. — Height above sea level 187 ft. Latitude N. 45° 30'17”. Longitude 4" 54™ 18°55 W. 
C. H. McLEOD, Superintendent. 


ae eG =a) 2 (cme (a ee las 
THERMOMETER. * BAROMETER. eh |) eeu Winp- Gabe a pa) 6 ae E OS e8 
ey |e e | ag S O15: gq |Sa |ug 2a a] 
aS Sh] & ee a4 pst RES a Ce] oa3) Bas | bas 
‘T Devia- | Be | es | 3 M Be) Gel © | see) 6 |e | sus |ses | ses 
1 : pers | 5 5 Gy || ees g Mean a) ra a br] a= & 
Monra. © |tion from) = g>& g 3 BS) st | 28) 25] Resultant | velocity}! ©2| Sa 3 EI ee 8 |Se./5 2g cls SEE Monta. 
S | l4year| & = | Sas 6 a 2 | see] se | 82) 88] direction. |in miles] S| 22) 8 | ae] 3 das | 888) sae ars 
= |ameas.| = | S | ese Ss =] a |ASel So jatls perhour| #™| S8) 4 3 El We | B egee yee 
—— : = ok _ = ss 
January . — 7-24 | 40.0 —20.5| 15.09 | 30.1413 | 30.865 | 29.538 | .333 | .0446 | 78.8 |-1.8} S. 77° W. 18.68 | 50.4 41.2 0.08 2 33.6 V7 2.81 2 17 
February — 3.15 | 38.6 | — 24.4} 20.28 | 30-0971 | 30.617 | 29.514 | .314 | .0737 | 79.6) 7.1} S. 44° W. 17.19 | 5t2 45.3 0.55, 2 30.0 16 2.71 2 16 
Mareh — UT | 44.2 | — 2.9) 13.21 | 29.9866 | 30.563 | 29.173) .250 1077 | 76.8 | 16-8} S. 64° W. 22.26 179.6 31.4 1.17 6 25.2 14 3.45 3 i 
April — 2:46) 76:0} 11-4) 13-6 -217 | .1493 | 67.0 | 26.17 S. 81° W. 16.28 7 60.6 44.1 0.80 11 ail 12 1.54 6 17 
May . —1.07 | 79.8} .31.1)} -145 | .2631 | 63.4 | 40-1} S. 46° W. 13.24 | 67 8 45.0 1.97 16 Inapp. 1 | 1.97 1 16 
June. : + 1.24 | 88.1 (46.5 161 | -4319 | 67.0 | 53.7} S. 59° W. 13.47 | 59 6 58.9 3.12 19 Se 50 3.12 oo 19 
July . d —217) 871} 47.4 161 -4190 | 62.2 | 53.74 S. 73° W. 13.31 9 52.1 69.2 1:32 13 50 on 1.32 oe 13 
August 4 — _.07 | 85.8 47.6) 29.8849 188] 4562 | 75 5 | 55.5) S, 70° W. 12.5% | 65.4 43.4 7.89 19 0 +“ 7.89 : 19 
September J — 3.03 | 74.0 33.2 30.0342 1s7 | .3556 | 78.9 | 48.5 1S. 66° W. 11.46 | 60.8 48.2 3.69 16 90 Ox 3.69 5 16 
October... . 39.51 | — 5.84 | 58.0 | 98.5 | 29.9184 215 | -1913 | 77.9 | 32.8 W- 15.85 | 69.8 35.3 3.82 22 7.8 ) 4.55 2 25 
November - 33.25 | + 1.33 | 68.0 1.0 30.0876 291 | -1761 | 80.5 | 27.71 N. 6h°e W. 17.65 | 74.0 33.2 5.14 16 11.0 10 6.40 4 22 
December 2 + 3.70 | 45.8 ;—10 5| 29.9220 266 } .1128 | 80.8 | 17.21 N.81° W. 18.33 | 74.4 25.1 1.57 8 17.6 17 3.12 2 23 |December. 
Sums for 1888...] mee ese wallaers Iles eam eee lass. ieee at Sanemel (ashy 31.08] 150 | 132.8] 92 | 42157; 2 | 920 [Sums for 1888... 
Means for 1888. | 39.88 | —1.74||.... | ..:. | 15.42 |/a9.9gs9] <23) | .... | 1293 | 2318 | 74.0] 31.4]'S. 4° Ww. | 15185 |éld | 443] 7... | 3:55 : 18.3 |Means for 1888... 
Means for 14) | | | | Means for 14 
years ending ¢ | 41.58 doco opao | 0000 || coo || BOAR |] ao00 ten. seve | 2489 | 74.3 61.2 |§46.4 | 27.20} 182 125.8 85 39.66 15 202 years ending 
Dec. 31, 1888.) | _ =a £. ac Ss bee l| S| Dec. 31, 1888. 


* Barometer readings reduced to 32° Fah., and to sea level. + Inches of mercury. { Saturation, 100. § For7 years only.  ‘ +” indicates that the temperature has been higher; “—” that it has been lower than the ayerage 
for 14 years, inclusive of 1888. The monthly means are derived from readings taken every 4th hour, beginning with 3h. 0m, Hastern Standard time. The anemometer and wind vane are on the summit of Mount Royal, 57 feet 
above the ground, and 810 feet above sea level. 

The greatest heat was 88.1 on June 22nd; greatest cold 2-4 below zero on February 10th; extreme range of temperature was therefore 112.5. Greatest range of the thermometer in one day was 50-1 on Jan. 13th; least 

2.3 0n Noy. 28th. The warmest day was June 24nd, when the mean temperature was 77.52. The coldest day Feb. 10th, when the mean temperature was 15.90 below zero. The highest barometer reading was 30.865 
on January 16th, the lowest was 29.173 on March 2st, giving arange of 1.692 forthe year. The lowest relative humid was 230n May 26th. The greatest mileage of wind recorded in one hour was 62 on November 26th, and 
the greatest velocity in gusts was at the rate of 90in. p. h. for 3 miles, and 110m. p. h. for] mile, on March 18th. ‘Lhe total mileage of wind was 139,303. The resultant direction of the wind forthe year-is S. 748 W., and the 
resultant mileage 60,750, Auroras were observed on 2] nights. Fogs on 31 days. Hoar-frost on 15 days. Thunder storms on 20 days, and lightning without thunder on 8 days. Lunar halos on 9 nights. Lunar coronas on 7 
nights. The sleighing of the winter closed, in the city, on April 7th. The first appreciable snowfall of the autumn was on October 3rd. The first sleighing of the winter was on December 18th. 

The mean temperatures for January and December are the lowest on the records for the 14 years over which the present series of observations extends. ‘The rainfall for August is the greatest recorded in 14 years, There 


was an earthquake rumble on July Ist. 


range was 


ta Se ne 


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ey. 


VENA Le Sema tat | 


THE 


fee LAN, ROO R D 


OF SCLIN CE: 


‘ et 
VOL. III. APRIL, 1889. NG, 6. 


GLACIATION OF HASTERN CANADA. 


By Ropprr CHALMERs, 


Of the Geological Survey of Canada. 


The investigations hitherto made in regard to the 
glaciation of Eastern Canada show that, instead of its 
having been caused by a continental ice-sheet moving over 
the region from north to south, as has been supposed, local 
glaciers upon the higher grounds, and icebergs or floating 
ice striating the lower coastal and estuarine tracts, during 
a period of submergence, were agents sufficiently powerful 
to produce all the phenomena observed. The latter 
theory, with some modifications, is the one so long main- 
tained by Sir William Dawson, who has studied the 
glaciation of this country for forty years or more.’ A 
number of other observers have, of late years, been at 
work, however, and Sir William’s views are now, it would 
seem, about to receive abundant confirmation, The large 


! Acadian Geology, 2nd and 8rd eds., Chap. on Post-Pliocene ; 
Notes on the Post-Pliocene Geology of Canada, Canadian Naturalist, 
1872; Geological Magazine, March, 1883, and numerous addresses 
and papers in Canadian Naturalist, &e. 


320 Canadian Record of Science. 


mass of new evidence obtained, and now available for 
co-ordination and study is, however, so scattered through 
the reports of the Geological Survey and various scientific 
periodicals, as to be somewhat difficult of access. A good 
deal of unpublished material, too, relating to this subject, is 
now in the hands of the Geological Survey staff. My object 
in this paper therefore is simply to collect and correlate all 
the main facts within reach relating to this important 
question, briefly summarizing the results, and referring the 
student for fuller details to the reports and publications 
alluded to. 

Commencing in the extreme eastern part of Canada I 
shall give a brief statement of the facts observed in each 
province, correlating those pertaining to each of the larger 
centres of dispersion for local glaciers, such as the Cobequid 
Mountains in Nova Scotia, the main central water-shed in 
New Brunswick, the Notre Dame or Shickshock Mountains 
in the province of Quebec, etc. Each of these centres 
formed a gathering ground for its own glaciers, discharging 
them on either side, or in various directions according to 
the slopes of the land. 

It is, perhaps, necessary at the outset to define the term 
“local glacier,” as I understand it. By a local glacier I 
mean an ice-sheet limited in extent, that is, confined to one 
valley or hydrographic basin, whether large or small, and 
influenced in its movement by local topographic features, 
such as mountains, water-sheds, hills, or river valleys. 


Nova Scortta. 


In Nova Seotia it is found that ice moved in different 
directions in different lccalities, the slopes of the country 
having largely controlled it. The Cobequid Mountains 
shed ice from their summits on either side, that is, north- 
ward and southward; and the South Mountain likewise 
discharged glaciers off its slopes. Observations on the 
glaciation of that province by Sir William Dawson show a 
wide divergence in the courses of stris met with in a 
number of different places. This seems explicable only on 


Glaciation of Eastern Canada. 321 


the theory of local glaciers and icebergs as held by him.’ 
Dr. Honeyman gives several lists of striz also, from various 
parts of the province, and discusses the phenomena per- 
taining thereto, adhering however, to the view of a 
continental glaciation. He notes however the northward 
transportation of boulders from the South Mountain at 
Nictaux, Berwick, etc.2 Mr. Chas. Robb,’ and Mr. Hugh 
Fletcher, especially the latter gentleman, have made 
numerous observations on striz, etc., in Cape Breton and 
in the eastern and north-eastern part of the peninsula. Mr. 
Fletcher’s lists are given independent of any theoretical 
views, which makes them, perhaps, all the more valuable. 
They show that ice moved down the slopes from the higher 
grounds everywhere, usually following river valleys.* Dr. 
R. W. Ells investigated the glacial phenomena of Cumber- 
‘land county to some extent.’ Between River Herbert and 
South Joggins he found striz in the direction of 8 63° W, 
the ice producing these having apparently come from the 
higher grounds north-east of Maccan and flowed towards 
Chiegnecto Bay. In the pass in the Cobequids, through 
which the Spring Hill and Parrsboro’ Railway runs, strize 
indicating the passage of ice through it and flowing 
towards Minas Basin were observed. On the south slope of 
these mountains, at New Mines, an escarpment of rock 
has its face striated by ice which flowed towards the out- 
let of Minas Basin. At New Annan, on the north side, 
grooves and stri# were seen with a course of N. 10° E., 
showing that ice flowed northward from their summits 
down the French River valley towards Tatamagouche Bay. 
Mr, E. R. Faribault of the Geological Survey, who has been 
studying the gold regions in eastern Nova Scotia, also 


’ Acadian Geology, 2nd ed., p. 62. 

? Nova Scotia Institute of Natural Science, Proceedings of, Vols. 
IV., V., Vi. and VIL. 

* Report of Progress, Geol. Surv. of Canada, 1874-75. 

* Reports of Progress, Geol. Surv. of Canada, from 1875-76 to 
1882-83-84, aleo Annual Report, 1886, Vol. II., p. 104 P. 

* Annual Report, Geol. Surv. of Can., 1885, Vol. I, 63-64 FE. 


B22 Canadian Record of Science. 


informs me that he finds the strie, generally, running down 
hill towards the coast. 

From all the data before us, therefore, it would appear 
that ice which accumulated on the surface of the province 
moved from the higher grounds down the slopes in the 
nearest direction to the sea. This certainly is not the 
action of other than local glaciers. Some of the coastal 
tracts have, no doubt, been glaciated by icebergs or floating 
ice, however, similarly to the sea and estuarine borders in 
New Brunswick and Quebec, as shown by Sir William 
Dawson." 


New Brunswick. 


The glacial phenomena of New Brunswick have been 
studied, perhaps, in greater aetail than those of any other 
part of Hastern Canada. A number of observers have, 
from time to time, published lists of strie, among whom 
may be mentioned the late Prof. James Robb,’ G. F. 
Matthew,’ Prof. H. Y. Hind,* Dr. R. W. Ells,’ and the writer,® 
The greater number of strie recorded in the publications 
referred to, however, occur on the southern slope of the 
main central water-shed traversing the province from 
north-west to south-east, and were supposed to lend support 
to the theory of a continental, or very large ice-sheet, 
passing over the country south-eastwardly, that being the 
average trend of the strice in that part of New Brunswick. 
My own investigations, continued for more than fifteen 
years, and extending to all parts of the province, have, 
however, led me to a different conclusion. North of the 


1 Notes on the Post-Pliocene Geology of Canada, Canadian 
Naturalist, 1872. 

* Proceedings of the Am. Ass. for Advancement of Science, 1850. 

3 Report of Progress, Geol. Surv. of Can., 1877-78, part EE. 

* Preliminary Report on the Geology of New Brunswick, 1864. 

° See list of Strize, Annual Report, Geol, Surv. of Canada, 1885, 
Vol. I, part GG. 

® Report of Progress, Geol. Surv. of Canada, 1882-84, part GG; 
Annual Report, 1885, Vol. I, part GG; Annual Report, 1886, Vol. 
IL., part M; Canadian Naturalist, Vol. X, Nos. 1 and 4. 


- 


Glaciation of Eastern Canada. 323 


principal water-shed referred to, it was found the striz had 
an entirely different course from those south of it, indicating 
ice-movement eastwardly and north-eastwardly towards the 
Gulf of St Lawrence. This was especially noticeable in the 
Baie des Chaleurs and Miramichi basins, on the south and 
south-western sides of which strie occur trending towards 
all points of the compass between north and east. Hence I 
inferred that the chief water-shed of the province referred 
to shed the ice in both directions as indicated by the striz." 
The strie follow the river valleys, however, to a large 
extent, the ice producing them having been influenced 
more or less also by the minor topographic features of 
the slopes. . 

Considerable areas in the interior and also upon the 
Carboniferous plain are found to be unglaciated. In the 
former, no ice action whatever was apparent, the rocks 
standing up with jagged, broken surfaces, and covered with 
their own debris, while nothing like boulder-clay can be 
seen. On the coastal area of the Carboniferous plain I 
observed boulder-clay and transported blocks overlying 
decomposed rock in situ. 

From these facts I conclude that the ice-covering of the 
province during the glacial period consisted of local glaciers 
only, the central area being mainly a gathering ground for 
the snow and ice, which sent off glaciers in opposite 
directions. Some of these glaciers, however, must have 
been quite large. The western end of the Baie des 
Chaleurs basin appears to have been occupied with one 
which drew its supplies from the west, north and east, 7. e. 
from the Restigouche, Nouvelle and Cascapedia valleys, 
etc.’ But the largest local glaciers were, undoubtedly, those 
which occupied the southern slope of the New Brunswick 
water-shed. They probably filled the St. John valley and 
spread over the minor water-shed, between it and the Bay 
of Fundy. Impinging against the coast hills of St. John 


' Annual Report Geol. Surv. of Canada, Vol. I, part GG. 
* Annual Report, Geol. Surv. of Canada, 1886, Vol. II, part M ; 
Canadian Naturalist, Vol. X, Nos. 1 and 4. 


324 Canadian Record of Science. 


and Charlotte counties they must have partly over-ridden 
some of these in their passage to the Bay of Fundy, and 
were, at least, two to four hundred feet in thickness. 
Striz are found on the north-west flanks of these hills three 
to four hundred feet above the general level of the district 
to the north, over which the ice approached them. This 
district, now nearly level, or but slightly undulating, and 
extending from the interior of the province, or the central 
water-shed, to the coast hills mentioned, forms an inclined 
plane, along which the moving glaciers must have acquired 
great momentum. Passes exist in these coast hills, through 
which the glaciers sought outlet to the bay, but some por- 
tions of them must have been shoved up on the northern 
flanks of the elevations between these passes to a height — 
nearly equal to its source on the upper slopes of the central 
water-shed. These facts and others, which cannot here be 
given in detail, go to show that the glaciers of this slope 
must have been quite large, at least in this particular area. 
The coast hills referred to broke them up, however, as the 
ice passed through these gaps, as is shown by the wide 
deviations in the courses of the strize before their final dis- 
appearance on the shores of the Bay of Fundy.* 

Numerous moraines exist in the western part of the 
province which could only be formed by local glaciers 
descending from the hilly tracts into the valleys, as, for 
example, into the basin of the Chiputnecticook Lakes, or 
the valley of the Magaguadavic River, etc.” Considerable 
deviations in the courses of strize occur in the hilly district 
further east.’ Near the lower St. John, and along the Kenne- 
beckasis valley, as well as in the highland region between 
the latter and the Bay of Fundy, strie are seen running in 
various directions. The glaciers here must have been 
small and apparently independent of each other. The 


1 These remarks are based on observations made by the Geol. 
Surv. staff, but not yet published. 

Report of Progress, Geol. Surv. of Can., 1882-84, part GG. 

* From data obtained in the field by the writer during the seasons 
of 1887 and 1888, not yet published. 


Glaciation of Eastern Canada. 325 
divergent courses of striz, often seen’ upon the same rock 


surface, are, however, sometimes explicable on the theory of 
their having been produced by successive portions of the 
diminishing glaciers conforming, in their motions, more 
closely to the surface features during the period of melting. 
Along valleys, which were under the sea during the latter 
part of that period, as, for instance, those of the Petitcodiac 
and Kennebeckasis rivers, the striz, which in some cases 
are parallel thereto, may have been produced by floating 
ice, and the same remark applies to strie met with on the 
isthmus of Chiegnecto.’ Certain fine ice markings, found 
also on the immediate coast of the Baie des Chaleurs, seem 
attributable to the same cause. _It is probable that during 
the ice age the eastern part of this bay, at least, was open, 
and that floating ice grated the rocks along its shores. 


. Princk Epwarp ISLAND. 


Prince Edward Island has probably been glaciated 
similarly to the coastal areas of New Brunswick and Nova 
Scotia. Sir William Dawson gives the courses of striz 
observed in two places; but it is an open question whether 
local glaciers of its own or icebergs produced them.’ Other 
phenomena noted by Sir William rather point to the latter 
as the probable cause of these. 


QUEBEC. 


The glaciation of the Province of Quebec presents much 
greater complexities than are to be found in that of the 
Maritime Provinces of Canada. It would seem that the 
estuarine portion of the St. Lawrence River, at least, was 
partially open during the period of extreme cold, similarly 
to the Baie des Chaleurs, as just stated. The Notre Dame 
range of mountains, or the water-shed adjacent thereto, shed 
the ice northward and southward, part of which debouched 
into these waters. Observations made by Dr. R. W. Ells 


‘Annual Report, Geol. Surv. of Can., 1885, Vol. I, part GG.; list of 
striz. 
*Supplement to Acadian Geology, p. 25. 


326 Canadian Record of Science. 


and the wriler abundantly prove this.’ In 1872 Sir 
William Dawson pointed out that “local glaciers had 
‘“¢ debouched into the St. Lawrence valley from the north 
“ following the valleys of the Saguenay and Murray Bay 
‘rivers, etc., and possibly also from the south.” But it was 
not until the year 1885 that positive evidence of a north- 
ward ice movement on the southern slope of the St. 
Lawrence valley was found by the writer.’ The following 
year Dr. Ells discovered similar evidence in the Hastern 
Townships confirming, beyond doubt, the above conclusion.* 
From a large number of facts adduced in the report referred 
to he infers that “local glaciers were shed on either side 
‘“ from the great mountain ridge along the Maine and New 
‘‘ Hampshire boundary. On the sonth-east slope of the 
‘“‘ boundary chain the striz are found to be about S. 65° E., 
‘““ while on the Quebec slope the general course is the 
“reverse, or N. 65° W. (true meridian.) About Lake 
‘‘Megantic and further south, in Ditton and Emberton, 
‘‘ however, a general N.-W. course was observed. Along 
‘the Chaudiere and Du Loup rivers, the strize, in general, 
“trend N. 55° W.”? During the two seasons since, Dr. 
Ells has obtained a large number of additional facts in this 
region, corroborating the foregoing conclusion and showing 
that local glaciers alone must have produced all the stria- 
tion from the summit of the Notre Dame or Appalachian 
mountain range to the St. Lawrence valley 

The grooves recorded in G'eology of Canada, 1863, pages - 
890-92, as occurring in this region, have also, it appears, 
been produced by northward moving ice.° 

‘Annual Report, Geol. Surv. of Can. 1886, Vol. II, 44-51 J; ibid., 


5-20 M; also Transactions Royal Soc. of Can., 1886, Sec. IV, Art. X. 


“Notes on the Post-Pliocene Geology of Canada, 1872. Canadian 
Naturalist, Vol. IV, No. 1, p. 30. 


"Transactions Royal Soc. of Canada, 1886, Sec. IV., Art. X. Geol. 
Surv. of Can. 1886, Vol. II, part M. 


‘Thid., part J. 
*Annual Report, Geol. Surv. of Can., 1886, Vol. II, 45 J. 
°Transactions Royal Soc. of Can., 1886, Vol. IV, Art. X. 


Glaciation of Eastern Canada. 327 


Further to the east, at Lake Temiscouata and vicinity, 
Prof. L. W. Bailey and Mr. W. McInnes, of the Geological 
Survey, found striz and transported blocks, evidencing 
north-westerly ice movement from the summits of the 
water-shed." 

On the south-east slope of the mountain range mentioned, 
abundant evidence has been obtained in Canadian territory 
showing a general south-eastward ice-flow. Besides the 
striz met with in the Temiscouata Lake valley,’ I found 
others in the Madawaska River valley,’ also on the Quata- 
wamkedgewick, a branch of the Restigouche River.’ Striz 
have been seen also near the Matapedia Lake,’ and further 
east, near the mouth of the Restigouche, as well as in 
numerous places along the north side of the Baie des 
Chaleurs,’ all of which have a general south-easterly course. 
There were local deflections, however, caused by hills and 
river valleys, and especially by the slopes of the Baie des 
Chaleurs district. 

In the St. Lawrence Valley, on ledges below the 350 to 
375 contour line, strize and polishing were observed, indicat- 
ing ice movement in the general direction of the valley, 
that is, about north-east and south-west. These must have 
been caused by drift ice, as shown by Sir William Dawson ’ 

Co-ordinating all the phenomena relating to the glaciation 
of that portion of Quebec lying south of St. Lawrence 
River, we find that local glaciers upon the higher grounds 
and slopes and drift ice on the lower are sufficient to 

‘Science, Vol. VIII, p. 412. 

*Geology of Canada, 1863, pages 890-92. 

*Annual Report, Geol. Surv. of Can., 1885, Vol. 1, list of striae, 
part GG. 

‘Annual Report, 1886, Vol. II, List of Strize, part M. 

*Geology of Canada, 1863, pages 890-92. 

"Annual Report, Geol. Surv. of Can., 1886, Vol. II, list of stris, 
part M. 

‘Acadian Geology, 3rd ed. Notes on the Post Pliocene Geology 
of Canada, 1872, Canadian Naturalist. Transactions Royal Soe: 
of Can., 1886, Sec. lV, Art. X. Annual Report Geol. Surv. of Can., 
1886, Vol. II, part M. 


328 * — Canadian” Record of Science. 


account for them. These local glaciers drew their supplies 
from large gathering grounds on the water-shed along the 
Notre Dame or Green Mountain Range. Generally speak- 
ing, they were shed on either side of the Appalachians, 
nearly at right angles to their axis, which accounts for the 
parallelism or correspondence in direction of the striz 
referred to by Dr. Ells." The river valleys and minor 
ridges and hills on the slopes, however, caused many local 
deviations from the normal course. On the south-east slope, 
their movements were, perhaps, subjected to greater local 
deflections than in the north-west, caused by the rugged 
topographic features which are upon it. For example, the 
chief water-shed of New Brunswick, already referred to as 
lying between the St. John valley and the Baie des Chaleurs 
and Gulf of St. Lawrence, shed the ice of the southern slope 
of the Notre Dame mountains once more in nearly opposite 
directions, or north-eastward and south-eastward.? On these 
minor slopes, local surface inequalities again swerved the ice- 
masses, in a greater or less degree, from the courses given 
to them by the New Brunswick water-shed, etc. For the 
most part, they followed the nearest slopes or river valleys, 
thus showing their essentially local character. During the 
period of melting or retirement of the glaciers, this became 
more and more apparent. 


THe LAURENTIAN OR ARCHHAN AREA. 


The glacial phenomena of the Archean Area north of 
the St. Lawrence and great lakes, have also undergone in- 
vestigation by the Geological Survey staff, and a large num- 
ber of facts collected relating thereto, in addition to those 
recorded in Geology of Canada, 1863, and in Sir William 
Dawson’s Notes on the Post-Pliocene, etc. Along the St. 
Lawrence valley, the general parallelism of the Laurentide 
slope to that of the Notre Dame Range opposite caused the 
strise to have nearly a similar south-east and north-west 


1[pid, part J. 
2Annual Report, 1885, Vol. I, part GG. 


Glaciation of Eastern Canada. 329 


course,’ the ice producing them having moved down the slopo 
mentioned in the St. Lawence valley from the north. But 
south of the water-shed, separating the waters of the 
Ottawa River from those of the great lakes, the striz 
are found to swerve more to the south and south-west. Im- 
mediately north of lakes Huron and Superior they have a 
south-westerly trend,’ and this appears to be the normal 
course along the border of the Archean Area to Lake of 
the Woods, and as far as Lake Winnipeg, in the latter 
region, perhaps, having a little more westing.’ On the 
east side of Hudson Bay, striz have been observed by Dr. 
R. Bell‘ and Mr, A. P. Low of the Geol. Survey (report of 
latter gentleman not yet published) to run westwardly into 
its basin mainly following the valleys. On islands in the 
northern part of Hudson Bay, Dr. Bell found strie indicating 
a northward fiow of ice ;’ while at Hudson Straits, the course 
appears to have been north-east and east.® 

On the east and south-east coast of Labrador there is evi- 
dence, according to Packard, that the ice followed the valleys 
and nearest slopes to the sea.’ 

It would seem therefore, that there was an outward flow 
of ice radially around the margin of the great Archean 
Area. Whether the whole area was occupied by glaciers 
moving from the centre towards the circumference, or the 
central portion was largely covered with masses of snow 


‘ Geolgy of Canada, 1863, pp. 890-92, Notes on the Post-Pliocene, 
&e. Can. Naturalist, 1872. 

* Geol. of Can., 1863, pp. 890-92. Dr. R. Bell, Report of Progress, 
Geol. Sury. Can. 1869; Report of Progress, 1873; Annual Report, 
1886, Vol. II, part G. 

* Dr. G. M. Dawson, Geology and Resources of the Forty-ninth 
Parallel; Dr. Bell, Report of Progress, 1877-78, part CC.; A. P. 
Low, Annual Report, 1886, Vol. II, part F. Dr. A. C. Lawson, 
Annual Report, Vol. I, part CC. 

‘Report of Progress, Geol. Surv. Can. 1877-78, part C. 

‘Annual Report Geol. Surv. Can., 1885, Vol. I, p. 14 DD. 

® Report of Progress, Geol. Surv. Can. 1882-83-84, p. 36 DD. 

'See paper by A. 8. Packard, Jr.,M.D. Silliman’s Journal, and 
re-published in Can. Naturalist, Vol. 11, 1865, p. 441. 


330 Canadian Record of Science. 


and ice only, and formed a gathering ground which sent 
out local glaciers in all directions, as seems more probable, 
is a question to be decided by future investigations. The 
southern or southwestern portions are intensely glaciated, 
especially in the Lake Superior and Lake of the Woods 
regions.. There seems no doubt that the glaciers there 
were large and probably became confluent. 


GENERAL CoNCLUSIONS. 


Summing up the data thus far obtained, I conclude that 
the glaciation of Kastern Canada has been effected by local 
glaciers on the higher grounds, and drift-ice or ice-bergs on 
the lower coastal areas. In their movements, the glaciers, 
generally speaking, followed the slopes of the land, or the 
drainage channels. They seem to have had extensive 
gathering grounds upon the more elevated parts of the 
country where snow-fields and nevé-ice existed. Whenever 
motion began, these became converted into glacier-ice. Upon 
those areas where the snow never underwent change into 
ice no striation of the rocks is found. Some of the glaciers 
appear to have been quite large, and those from adjacent 
drainage areas may have coalesced on the lower grounds 
and become confluent. At all events, the slopes and coastal 
tracts are, generally speaking, more glaciated than the in- 
terior and higher grounds. ach area or centre of disper- 
sion has, however, had its own glacier or glaciers. In Nova 
- Scotia there was a shedding of the ice from the Cobequid 
Mountains northward and southward; and probably the 
elevation known as the South Mountain likewise sent gla- 
ciers down its slopes on either side. In New Brunswick, 
the low water-shed running across it from north-west to 
south-east, sent off glaciers in opposite directions, or north- 
eastwardly on the northern slope and south-eastwardly on 
the southern, these courses being deviated from in a greater 
or less degree, however, according as the ice was influenced 
by local topographic features. The Shickshock or Notre 


1Dr. G. M. Dawson, Geology and Resources of the Forty-ninth 
Parallel. Annual Report Geol. Surv. of Canada, 1885, Vol. I, part 
CC. 


- 


Glaciation of Eastern Canada. 331 


Dame Range, in Quebec, and its continuation south-west- 
wardly along the International boundary, likewise shed the 
ice in both directions at about right angles to the main axis 
of the chain, that is, nearly south-eastward and north- 
westward ; while the Archean Area north of the St. 
Lawrence and great lakes sent sheets of ice down 
its slopes in all directions around its circumference. On 
the east side of Hudson Bay, the ice moved directly west- 
ward into its basin according to Dr. R. Bell and Mr. 
A. P. Low. 

Considerable areas of rock surface in the interior and 
more elevated portions of Hastern Canada, where gather- 
ing grounds for glaciers may be supposed to have existed, 
are without strie or other evidence of glaciation, the 
decomposed rock lying undisturbed, except from sub- 
erial action, and boulder-clay being absent. Occa- 
sional smaller patches of similar character are met with 
near the coast. These during the ice age were probably 
covered by snow only, or by ice which had little or no 
motion. 

The extent and thickness of the glaciers cannot as yet 
be satisfactorily determined from the data at hand. But it 
is evident some of them were quite large, and the larger 
ones appear to have been on the southern slopes of the Ap- 
palachians and Laurentides. The cause of this is not ap- 
parent, but as regards those of the former mountain range, 
it may be due, insome measure, to the difference in the 
steepness of the slopes on either side of it. The south-east- 
ern slope is long, much broken, and has numerous compara- 
tively level areas upon it. As the rate of motion would be 
slower on this slope, the ice would necessarily accumulate 
in Jarger sheets in the depressions and on level tracts. 
On the shorter and more abrupt slope of the St. Lawrence 
the motion of the glaciers would be more rapid, they 
would more readily debouch in the estuary or sea, and 
hence there would be less chance for accumulation in large 
sheets, 

The evidences of the action of icebergs or floating ice 


332 Canadian Record of Science. 


observed by Sir William Dawson' and the writer’ are chiefly 
in the St. Lawrence valley and on the Baie des Chaleurs 
coast. In the former the markings produced by these occur, 
so far as I have observed them, only on rock surfaces below 
the 350 to 375 contour line above sea level, while on 
the coast of the bay referred to they were not seen higher 
than 200 feet above its surface. 

Icebergs or drift-ice played an important part in striat- 
ing the ledges on these lower levels and in transporting 
boulders. On the isthmus of Chiegnecto the striation of 
some rock surfaces is attributable to them.” 

The facts briefly outlined in the foregoing pages will 
doubtless receive large additions within a few years ; and the 
inferences deduced therefrom may consequently undergo 
some modifications as the glacial phenomena of the region 
comes to be studied in detail. This remark has reference 
more especially to the glaciation of the great Laurention 
or Archean Area. I venture to think, however, that the 
main conclusions herein advanced will stand. 


NEWFOUNDLAND. 


Newfoundland, although not forming part of Canada 
is geographically connected with it and a passing reference 
may here be made to its glacial phenomena. According 
to the late Alex. Murray, C.M.G., Director of the Geological 
Survey of that Colony, its surface every where shows marks 
of glacier-ice.* These are well described in the paper re- 
ferred to below. Mr Murray held to the theory of a con- 
tinental glacier, however, but his facts indicate that ice 
movements have been quite variable, following river valleys, 


‘Acadian Geology, 2nd and 3rd eds. Notes on the Post Pliocene 
Geology of Can., 1872, Can. Naturalist, etc. 

Annual Report Geol. Surv. of Can., 1886, Vol. II., part M. Tran- 
sactions of the Royal Soc. of Canada, 1886, in a paper on The 
Glaciation and Pleistocene subsidence of Northern New Brunswick 
and South-Eastern Quebec. 

3Annual report, Geol. Surv. of Can. 1885, Vol. I, part G.G. 

‘Glaciation of Newfoundland. Transactions of Royal Soc. of 
Canada, 1882. 


The Food of Flanits. 333 


depressions, etc., in several directions. It seems probable 
therefore, that here, as in Hastern Canada, local glaciers de- 
scending from the higher gathering grounds towards the 
coast, as pointed out by the late Capt. Kerr, R. N.' were the 
principal agents at work. But from its insular position, 
and lying as itdoes in the track of the Arctic currents, the 
coastal areas, at least, must have been subjected to intense 
erosion from icebergs and floating ice. 


THE Foop oF PLANTS.” 
By D. P. PenHALiow. 


An old proverb informs us that one-half of the world 
continues in ignorance of how the other half lives. If we 
accept this in the broadest sense, as applying to all organic 
life, we have a present illustration of its correctness in the 
fact that, with few exceptions, man knows little or nothing 
of the vital processes upon which the growth of the 
members of the more humble vegetable kingdom depend ; 
and he thus fails to grasp a knowledge of those important 
laws by which plants are enabled to afford him an abun- 
dance of sustenance and raiment. It is in relation to 
purposes of nutrition, that plants may be considered to 
bear the greatest importance to man, and in this respect, 
they are to be regarded from a two-fold point of view. 

First, they convert the crude mineral constituents of the 
soil, which would otherwise be wholly unavailable, into 
forms which enable them to become of direct value for 
purposes of animal nutrition. They thus afford to man, his 
principal supply of food. But they also constitute the 
entire source of nourishment for those animals upon which 
man subsists, and through the medium of which they 
undergo further special modifications, by virtue of which 


' Ibid, p. 68. 
* Sommerville Lecture delivered March 28th, 1889. 


334 Canadian Record of Science. 


they become yet more fully adapted to special requirements 
of the human system. Man is therefore dependent upon 
plants as the great preparers of his food, both directly and 
indirectly. 

With a more thorough knowledge of animal nutrition, 
we have come to recognize more generally than in the 
past, that the quality of the food supply effects a pronounced 
and most important influence upon both the physical and 
mental condition, and this influence must be exerted both 
directly and indirectly by the vegetation upon which man 
feeds. We are therefore brought to yet another principle, 
that any improvement in the character of the food supply, 
must operate advantageously for man, in a corresponding 
systematic improvement. 

But the great biological laws are not adapted with sole 
reference to particular forms of life—they admit of general 
application, and, as we learn from vegetable physiology, the 
character of the plant is subject to the influence of variable 
nutrition, in a manner quite parallel to that which we 
observe in animals. In this, therefore, we discover the 
possibility of a means of making plants more perfectly 
adapted to the highest physical wants of man, and any 
study which tends to promote this end, cannot fail to be of 
the greatest interest, bringing us, as it inevitably must, 
into closer relationships with those forms of life upon which 
we are so largely dependent for health, comfort, and enjoy- 
ment. 

The subject we have chosen for discussion this even- 
ing, is one of considerable magnitude—embracing con- 
siderations of the greatest practical and scientific interest— 
and could readily be dealt with from several points of view. 
Perhaps many would consider that a mere statement of the 
articles which constitute plant food, together with the fact 
that the earth and air are the great sources of supply, 
would fully exhaust the subject, but an enlarged view 
discloses the fact that the sources of food supply; the 
preparation of food for the use of the plant; the general 
process of waste and repair; the selective power of plants 


The Food of Plants. 335 


in relation to food supply; the number, character and 
special functions of the elements appropriated; the re- 
Jations of food supply and nutrition to conditions of health 
and disease; the relations of food supply to improved 
qualities of plants for purposes of human food; the special 
capacity of the plant for digestion, and its relation to the 
character of food used, are all so intimately connected with 
the subject as a whole and with each other, that no com- 
plete statement can be made without taking some account 
of all these considerations. Concerning some of them, 
we are forced to admit that as yet, but little real progress 
has been made in the direction of their correct elucidation, 
nor can we look for a final solution until such time as 
chemistry shall make us more fully acquainted with the 
composition of plants in various stages of development, and 
,under widely different conditions of growth, and thus 
provide the key which shall unlock the door to those now 
mysterious physiological changes peculiar to nutrition. 

In the process of nutrition, certain substances enter 
directly into the composition of various parts of the plant, 
to the formation of which they are absolutely essential. 
There can, therefore, be no doubt that they are food sub- 
stances. Others, however, although taken into the plant, 
do not enter as an essential ingredient into the construction 
of parts. Nevertheless, it is found that their elimination 
from the food supply so disturbs the normal processes of 
growth, as to leave no doubt in our minds concerning their 
necessity in what are termed the metabolic processes, or 
the chemical changes incident to nutrition. It is therefore 
as proper to regard them as food substances as the former. 

In order to determine what elements may be properly 
regarded as plant food, we first of all resort to chemical 
analysis, and in the second place to special methods of 
cultivation. When a plant is burned, or when it suffers the 
slower oxidation of decay—the final results being the same 
in each case—we find that by far the greater part of the 
original structure disappears in the form of aqueous vapor, 
carbon dioxide gas and volatile acids, while a very small 


24 


336 Canadian Record of Science. 


proportion remains as an unoxidisable or incombustible 
residue—the ash. 

The relative proportions of combustible and ash con- 
stituents, are subject to wide variations, not only as 
between different species, but even in the same species 
under different conditions of growth and of food supply, 
An illustration of this law may serve to make our state- 
ment more clear. In the Tenth Census Report of the United 
States for 1880, Prof. Sargent gives the ash percentages for 
somewhat more than four hundred species of woods. Select- 


ing from these the extremes, we find the following :— 
Org. Mat Ash. 


WOE GENE oodG00 Bo0000 DOOD 00b6 coUOKe 90.72 9.28 
Pseudotsuga Douglassii.. HAD CIRCE HOES 99.98 0.02 


Again, between these and herbaceous plants, in which 
relatively less mineral matter is observed, the difference 
would be more striking, Another illustration of the law 
stated, is afforded by the results obtained by Arendt in his 
analysis of 1000 oat plants selected at different periods of 
growth, with intervals of about twelve days. His results 
were as follows :— 


June 18.) June 30. | July 10. | July 21. | July 31. 
3 leaves Heading. Blossom- Ripening.| Ripe. 


open. ing. 
Sra tae ew 1.06 2.71 2.68 4.83 5.84 
PROM con, 3.27 5.99 | 10.32 | 12.90 | 14.93 
Ke Ofori, cae 17.05 | 31.11 | 40.20 | 44.33 | 43.76 
CRORE ee ee 4.48 8.50 | 11.60 | 14.94 | 14.71 
Merona. wks: 1.53 2.71 3.71 5.42 6.45 
IMS, Omodauna wees 0-20 0.46 0.61 0.83 0.58 
SOM else wes. 6.39 | 15.82 | 25.45 | 34.66 | 36.32 
NaNO sees 0.86 1.28 1.47 1.12 0.87 
Clic cea ais ee 2.28 3.62 5.32 5.96 5.78 


Total grammes ....37.12 72.20 101.36 124.54 128.04 
Gain for each period........ 35 .08 29.16 23.18 3-50 


The Food of Plants. 337 


If we now turn our attention more particnlarly to the 
elements of the first group, or those which disappear in the 
process of combustion, we find them to be carbon, hydro- 
gen, sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen and chlorine. 
In the process of rapid combustion, the hydrogen is convert- 
ed into water and passes off as aqueous vapor. The carbon 
becomes changed into carbon dioxide—a gas prejudicial 
to animal life—and disappears in part into the surrounding 
atmosphere, the remainder being fixed in the ash residue, 
where we also find the acids of sulphur, nitrogen and 
phosphorus combined with the mineral constituents to 
form the corresponding salts. In decay or slow combus- 
tion, the same changes are finally accomplished, with the 
additional formation of volatile sulphur and ammonia com- 
pounds. The loss or diminution in volume which a plant 
‘suffers in the process of combustion, will thus be seen to cor- 
respond, in general terms, to the elimination of the organic 
matter, which consists almost wholly of carbon, hydrogen 
and oxygen, with very small quantities of the other ele- 
ments mentioned. 

If we next inquire into the composition of the second 
or incombustible group, we find it to contain potassium, 
sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron and silicon. These 
elements, as already stated, are found in combination with 
the acids derived from combustion of the elements of the 
first group. In exceptional cases, manganese, bromine 
and iodine, as well as arsenicum, copper and other metals 
may be found in the ash, but for various reasons which 
need not be dealt with at the present time, they are usually 
not regarded as constituting elements of plant food. It thus 
appears that of the sixty-seven chemical elements known to 
science, only thirteen are to be regarded as of importance 
in the economy of the plant. 

With these general facts before us, we are now pre- 
pared to inquire into the sources whence they are derived ; 
and in this respect we may again divide them into two 
groups, those derived from—l1st, the air, and 2nd, the soil. 


338 Canadian Record of Science. 


To the first group belong only two elements, carbon and 
oxygen. ‘These are presented to the plant and taken up 
in the form of carbon dioxide. Oxygen is also absorbed in 
the free state, but in this respect it is concerned in the 
process of respiration, and not of digestion, and therefore 
is not to be considered in the present connection. 

Carbon dioxide is, as we know, a peculiar product of 
organic combustion, including respiration of both plants 
and animals, and when produced in excess, is as prejudicial 
to one form of life as to the other. Its elimination from the 
atmosphere in the process of vegetable growth, constitutes 
one of the most iiaportant relations in which plants stand 
towards the higher forms of animal life. During the 
Carboniferous age, when life was of a much lower type than 
now generally exists, plants attained to a luxuriance 
of growth with which but few modern plants can compare, 
and while this was the direct result of the peculiar condi- 
tions under which they were placed, it also adapted them 
to the more rapid elimination of carbon dioxide—thereby 
causing a return of oxygen to the air, and a fixation of 
the carbon, which, in course of time, became transformed 
into coal and graphite as we find them to-day. Thus the 
atmosphere became adapted to an improved type of animal 
life; the plants themselves, being brought under new con- 
ditions of environment, suffered important changes, and man 
is now enabled to convert to his own needs the transform- 
ed energy derived from the sunbeams of that remote past. 

To the second group of elements, those derived from the 
soil, belong all the others that have been enumerated. It 
should be observed here, however, that oxygen is also de- 
rived from the soil, both as water and as acids in combina- 
tion with the earthy elemenis. 

The appropriation of food is provided for by means of 
specialized organs. The gaseous elements of the air are 
absorbed by the leaves, in which specialized openings or 
mouths, called stomata, are developed. Through these, the 
gases of the atmosphere penetrate the interior structure by 
a process of diffusion, and are there absorbed by the living 


~- 


The Food of Plants. 339 


cells. It is of interest to note, however, that the ability of 
plants to use the gases which have thus penetrated their 
structure, is dependent upon certain important conditions, 
viz :—1st, a favorable temperature, (2) the presence of the 
ordinary green coloring matter of plants—the chlorophyll— 
and (8) the direct influence of sunlight, or at least of its lumin- 
ous rays. Neglecting further consideration of temperature 
which is essential to all functional activity, it should be 
pointed out that plants devoid of chlorophyll, such as mush- 
rooms and other colorless plants, are incapable of obtaining 
carbon from the atmosphere. They are therefore forced to 
obtain their supply of this important element either from 
other plants upon which they feed as parasites, or from the 
organic products of decay, upon which they feed as 
saprophytes. Moreover, the power of green plants to 
appropriate carbon and liberate oxygen is arrested 
under conditions of darkness—as at .night—when the 
mode of growth is precisely the same as in colorless 
plants. 

The whole relation of light to the appropriation of car- 
bon, is one of the most interesting with which the physiologist 
has to deal, but it would lead us too far from our present 
purpose were we to consider it more in detail, though it 
may be as well to point out that, if ordinary white light be 
replaced by such luminous rays, as the orange and yellow, 
this function is not impeded in any way ; while on the other 
hand, the rays of higher refrangibility such as the blue, 
indigo and violet, arrest this function and thus bring 
ordinary green plants under abnormal conditions of growth, 
in which functional disturbance is the unavoidable result. 

In this particular connection, it only remains for us to 
indicate what changes take place when carbon dioxide is 
taken up by the leaves. Under the influence of chlorophyll 
this gas suffers decomposition. The liberated oxygen re- 
turns to the atmosphere, while the carbon, uniting with the 
elements of water already present, becomes transformed 
into starch, sugar and oils,—substances which not only pro- 
vide for the nutrition of growing parts, but, when formed in 


340 —--' Canadian%Record of Science. 


pans a my TT 
excess of the requirements of growth, supply a most im- 
portant item of food for man. 

Various observations have been made to determine the 
amount of carbon dioxide which plants are capable of ap- 
propriating. The results obtained by . Boussingault are 
among the most instructive, from which we quote the fol- 


lowing :— 
Decomp. of CO, 


Area of leaf. per hour. 
Cherry-laurel.... 109 sq. ¢.m. 3:0) Ge: 
lei\aooGoacseeer 204 so ie ileal « 
Oakie ese ceeer Dm Os iLa@ «6 
Holly 5o0000 D050 yw & 6 1.8 ‘ 
Mistletoe... SQ e 2.0 a 

or for equal areas 
Cherry-laurel.... 100 “ “ 2400s 
JEN) cog005 HoOS00 OOD is ice O.o8)) © 
Oak tieiciesicucves sicis MOON cence 0.714 “ 
ISIN coonso650 MOOV Geert: 3.460 « 
Mistletoe ...... a LOO nee tee 2.000 “ 


In this connection it should also be noted that the pres- 
ence of carbon dioxide in the air, beyond a certain limit, 
causes it to exert a deleterious effect. This limit is of 
necessity variable, but observation has shown that in those 
plants which are most nearly allied to the coal plants, 
e.g., ferns, ten per cent. is fatal, while for the majority of 
plants, a much smaller quantity will produce the same result. 
The general process thus described, constitutes one of the 
leading features of the so-called digestive function, and as 
this takes place in the leaves (chiefly), they are usually de- 
signated the digestive organs. 

All the elements enumerated, except carbon, enter the 
roots which are specially adapted to the purpose of taking 
up food in a liquid form, and may therefore be designated 
the special organs of absorption. The power of roots in 
this respect, is nevertheless extremely limited with refer- 
ence to their total area, being confined to a narrow tract 
near the extreme tips, and is accomplished chiefly through 
the medium of root hairs. 

The fluid thus absorbed by the roots, and containing various 


The Food of Plants. 341 


mineral substances in solution, now constitutes what is com- 
monly designated the crude sap, inasmuch as the substances 
held by it are not in such chemical condition as will enable 
them to directly participate in the nutrition of growing 
parts. This sap, however, passes upward through the outer 
layers of the woody tissue or sapwood, until it reaches the 
leaves, where it is distributed among the ramifications of 
the veins to the active, chlorophyll-containing cells, in 
which it becomes involved in the process of digestion. In 
the course of this process it suffers increase of density, due 
in part to the fact that a large portion of water is liberated 
as aqueous vapor into the surrounding air, while another 
volume is used up in the various chemical changes, and the 
fluid, now distributed from the leaves to the various centres 
of active growth, is said to be digested and capable of 
.directly promoting the formation of new structure. 

Although plants in general may be said to be the special 
agents whereby the crude material of the soil and air is 
converted into that which is of direct value in animal 
nutrition, yet we find the law subject to certain important 
exceptions, since in their power of appropriating and 
converting food, they exhibit a wide difference. 

We are all familiar with the fact that in the animal 
kingdom, certain forms live upon and draw their entire 
sustenance from other animals, in consequence of which 
they are termed parasites. Parasitism is also a common 
feature of plant life, and in each case the relations of 
supply and demand conform to the same general laws. 
The parasitic plant fastens itself upon its host and draws 
its nourishment from it. The latter is therefore forced to 
yield a portion of the food prepared for its own use, and 
in consequence of this unusual demand upon its resources, 
it sooner or later becomes diseased, exhibits malform- 
ations and may eventually be killed. Under these con- 
ditions of growth the parasite does not require to pro- 
duce its own food; we therefore find that it has no roots, 
its leaves are imperfectly formed, and it may contain 
no chlorophyll. Just in proportion, therefore, as the 


342 Canadian Record of Science. 


digestive function of such plants is reduced, do they 
become incapable of fixing carbon and forming the 
ordinary carbohydrate products such as starch and sugar. 
Some of the most notable of parasites are to be found in 
the celebrated banyans of India, which often begin their 
growth in the tops of lofty trees, upon which they feed 
until killed. 

We again find a very large class of plants feeding upon 
the products of organic decay. These contain no chloro- 
phyll, have no proper roots and no leaves, or at most mere 
rudiments of such organs. Like the parasites, they cannot 
appropriate carbon, except in the form of organic com- 
pounds; their existence thus implies their dependence upon 
previous life. They do not liberate oxygen, but eliminate 
carbon dioxide as one of their characteristic products. Such 
plants are designated by botanists saprophytes, and are rep- 
resented by the mold of stale bread and cheese, by the 
common mushroom and puff-ball, and also by the Indian 
pipe, one of our common wild flowers. 

We thus find that any extended consideration of the sub- 
ject with which we are now dealing, must recognise the 
special characteristics of plants in their relation to the 
appropriation of food, but as more detailed statement 
would lead us too far from our main purpose, we shall for 
the remainder of our discussion, confine ourselves to those 
plants in which the digestive function is fully developed, 
and with which we are more largely concerned as the pro- 
ducers of our food. 

The special functions of the various elements appropri- 
ated by the plant, are not at all well understood, but the re- 
sults of investigations so far made, indicate their value in a 
general way and show in what direction other inquiries 
should be made. For the purpose of determining how far 
each element present is essential to growth, we resort to 
special methods of culture, either in water or pure quartz 
sand, under such conditions that the number of elements 
and the exact quantity of each may be known and controlled. 

From such a series of investigations we learn that potash 


The Food of Plants. 343 


is absolutely indispensable; that under certain circum- 
stances, soda may be eliminated without injury ; that iron is 
essential to the formation of chlorophyll ; that calcium per- 
forms a function somewhat similar to that of the potash; that 
itmay to some extent replace it, and that it is possibly con- 
nected with the formation of tissues; that chlorine, and in 
some cases, sulphuric acid, is essential to the proper trans- 
fer of the substances digested in the leaves, to the parts 
where required by growth ; that magnesium is an element 
of uncertain value in the internal physiological processes, 
but that it has a definite value in the soil, where it aids in 
tbe distribution, and thus in the more complete appropria- 
tion of potash; that silica cannot be eliminated without ma- 
terially affecting the strength of the plant, and that phos- 
phorus bears an important relation to the various processes 
of ripening in the fruit. 

Another very important lesson to be derived from such 
special cultures, especially when combined with chemical 
analysis, is the fact that plants exercise a selective power 
with reference to the food supply; that is to say, if a plant 
were grown in a solution containing exactly the same pro- 
portions of all the elements entering into its composition, it 
would be found not to absorb them all in the same quantity, 
but some would be used much more largely than others. 
This becomes more obvious if we inspect the composition 
of the ash of different plants, or even of the same plant 
under different conditions or at different stages of growth. 

It thus appears that some plants are special potash 
feeders, others use more lime, yet others an excess of’ soda, 
and this fact constitutes the foundation on which the well 
known system of rotation of crops is based. This briefly 
stated, is as follows :—When plants are grown continuously 
upon the same piece of land for a number of years, those 
elements upon which that particular class most largely 
feeds, will be withdrawn in excess of the ability of the soil 
and the natural chemical processes there taking place, to 
restore them. The soil is therefore said to suffer special 
exhaustion, because it is deficient in one or two elements 


344 Canadian Record of Science. 


required for a particular crop, but contains an abundance 
of other elements required by other crops. If these latter 
are now planted, the soil, in course of time, suffers special 
exhaustion with reference to their requirements, while it 
regains its ability to produce the crop of the first kind. 
Thus, by a judicious system of rotation, land may be kept 
in a constant state of productiveness. It is only when food 
elements are so completely withdrawn that no one class of 
plants can be brought to perfection, that the soil is said to 
be generally exhausted. Therefore, when we speak of the 
fertility of a soil, or the exhausted condition of a soil, it 
must always be with direct reference to the particular 
requirements of the plants we wish to cultivate. And I 
cannot let this part of my subject pass without pointing 
out that a large part of the difficulty in successfully com- 
bating some of the most destructive diseases of the orchard 
and garden, arises from a failure to properly appreciate 
and apply the principles stated. 

It is impossible to give more detailed consideration to 
these aspects of our subject in the brief space allotted to us, 
important though they are. There are, nevertheless, two 
features of this question to which I would particularly draw 
your attention, and from their very important bearing upon 
the economic side of horticulture, I feel that their somewhat 
detailed statement will not be out of place. I refer, in the 
first place, to the relation of nutrition to conditions of 
health and disease ; and in the second place, to the relation 
of nutrition to improved qualities of fruits. 

For many years, the Germans have been among the fore- 
most investigators in efforts to determine the special 
functional value of the various food elements of plants. The 
method usually selected has been that of water culture 
already described, through the medium of which the effect of 
eliminating any given element, or of varying its proportion 
and particular chemical combination in the food supply, 
could be accurately ascertained. From a series of such 
experiments made as long ago as 1871, in which buckwheat 
was the particular plant employed, it was observed that in 


The Food of Plants. 345 


those plants from which potash was eliminated, there was a 
most marked deficiency in growth. This was traceable 
to the fact that in the absence of potash, the plant was 
incapable of fixing carbon, and therefore unable to produce 
the ordinary products of digestion, such as starch, sugar and 
oils, and hence was practically in a condition of starvation. 
In a second series of experiments, potash was supplied in 
the requisite quantity, but chlorine was eliminated from 
the food supply. A most curious result was found. While 
an abundance of starch was produccd in the first instance, 
it was unable to reach those parts where growth was most 
active, and thus became accumulated in unusual quantity in 
the leaves and other green tissues where formed. A 
secondary effect of this was a change of color from green 
to yellow, whereby the further formation of starch was 
anrested, and the final result was a general arrest of growth. 
So that there was established the anomalous condition of a 
plant containing an excess of tissue-forming material, but 
unable to use it for want of a certain element in the food 
supply, which would effect a transfer of that material to the 
centres of active growth. Further observations confirmed 
the view that chlorine was the particular element needed 
for this purpose. 

Acting upon the suggestions contained in these results, 
Dr. Goessmann, the foremost agricultural chemist in the 
United States, and Director of the Massachusetts Experi- 
ment Station, a few years since, in company with other 
investigators, undertook to apply these principles of 
nutrition to the treatment of certain diseases of plants, 
which, up to that time, had baffled all attempts at control, 
and which, in the seriousness of their operations, threatened 
to destroy some of the most important fruit interests of the 
country. 

It was found, in the first place, that in the common and 
destructive disease known as Peach Yellows, there were 
conditions of growth in all essential respects the same as 
those artificially produced in buckwheat by elimination of 
chlorine. It was therefore assumed for the purposes of’ ex- 


346 Canadian Record of Science. 


periment, that this element was exhausted from the soil and 
that potash might also be supplied in insufficient quantity. 
A number of trees were therefore carefully pruned to re- 
move as much as possible of the diseased structure, and 
muriate or chloride of potassium was supplied to the trees 
as a special food, together with other elements to make a 
complete fertilizer. It was now found that thenew growth 
was of a totally different character, and, so far as could be 
determined from mere external inspection, perfectly 
healthy. But more than this, the fruit, instead of being 
utterly worthless, as before, now became of high quality, 
and the life of the tree was so far prolonged that, instead of 
dying at the end of nine years, as was usually the case, the 
identical trees thus restored to health are bearing first 
quality fruit to this day, or twenty years after their period 
of first treatment. 

But this result alone, important as it is, does not fully 
answer the question from a scientific point of view, and we 
ure therefore called upon to see what changes, if any, were 
effected in the chemical constitution of the ash, and 
also in the cellular structure and distribution of the digested 
products. With reference to the first, the results are most 
significant, and tend to indicate that the supply of potash 
bears a direct relation to the normal condition. Thus 
Goessmann found the ashes to be constituted as follows: 


Fruit. Woon. 
: : Restored 
Diseased. Healthy. Diseased. ( ee 
Fe,O, 0.46 0.58 1.45 0.52 
CaO Bere ae 4.68 2.64 64.23 54.52 
WIEO}, Good casdoce 5.49 6.29 10.28 7-58 
KOascog 960060 00 18.07 16.02 8.37 11.37 
IE@oode0 vs90006 71.30 74.46 15.67 26.01 


From this it also appears that, with a deficiency of potash, 

lime increases, but does not replace it in functional value. 
Referring now to the internal structure, we also find 

most important changes accomplished. In the diseased 


The Food of Plants. 347 


tree, the general structure of the bark becomes altered in a 
conspicuous manner, while in both bark and leaves, the 
accumulation of starch is most unusual. These features are 
so characteristic of the disease, and appear so early in its 
development, that a correct diagnosis may be made through 
the aid of the microscope, even before the external 
evidences of disease are pronounced. In the new wood 
formed after treatment, the bark presents all the features 
of normal structure, both with reference to tissue and 
distribution of starch. 

We thus note certain important facts as the result of 
these experiments : 

Ist. That a specific disease is cured by a certain course 
of treatment. 

2nd. That potash and chlorine are essential to restored 
functional activity. 

3rd. The disease may be regarded as primarily due to 
deficiency of these elements in the food supply. 

But we should also point out that for this disease, any salt 
of potash will not answer, 7.e. the sulphate or the phosphate 
will not be equally efficacious with the muriate, but that does 
not permit us to infer that diseases of other plants may be 
similarly cured by the same salt of potash, for on the con- 
trary, the same investigations have shown that for different 
plants, different salts of potash must be used, so that while 
in some cases the chloride is best, in others it is the sulphate 
or nitrate. 

We have here, however, a definite fact established, 
namely, that the nutrition of the plant bears a most 
important relation to its normal condition, and while we do 
not wish to rashly assert that all diseases to which plants 
are subject may be cured in this way, yet we do feel con- 
fident that, when the bacteria craze has passed its fever heat, 
and the pulse of the investigator has once more returned to 
a normal rate, he will turn his attention more fully to the 
question of nutrition as affording a rational explanation of 
many of the vexed problems which now confront him. 

Before taking final leave of this part of our subject, I will 


348 Canadian Record of Science. 


point the general principles indicated by one more fact. 
The ravages of the Phylloxera have for many years proved 
a most serious obstacle to the successful cultivation of the 
vine in many parts of Hurope, and the French Government 
have at various times had their attention seriously drawn 
to the devastations of this insect; but the efforts thus far 
made, appear to have led to no very substantial results. 
In the course of investigations relative to the nutrition of the 
grape, Dr. Goessmann found that an abundant supply of 
food of an available form, served in a most marked degree 
to overcome the ravages of the Phylloxera. The results 


were of so striking a character as to attract the attention 


of the French Commissioner then inspecting the vineyards 
of the United States, and he freely expressed the opinion 
that, although the vines were fairly over-run with the pest, 
he had never seen more healthy looking foliage, better 
growth or finer looking fruit. The whole principle under- 
lying this result is that, if we can. feed the plant, and at the 
same time provide an abundance of food for the parasite in 
excess of what the plant needs for its own growth, the 
latter will be much less liable to suffer. 


In conclusion, I would direct attention to one more of the ' 


many interesting aspects which this subject presents, and 
that is the relation of nutrition to improvements in plants, 
and more particularly of their fruits or seed bearing parts— 
those products of the vegetable world which are of the 
highest value to man as articles of diet. 

We commonly speak of plants as cultivated and un- 
cultivated or wild, and in doing so we make a broad dis- 
tinction even between plants of exactly the same species. 
This distinction is that, under certain improved conditions 
of life, the plant has become so modified as to present pecu- 
liarities which it did not possess in the wild state, while it 
also has an increased capacity as a food producer. Such a 
change, under the ordinary conditions of cultivation, is in 
most cases avery slow process, but as an essential factor, 
- werecognise the supply of food of better quality and in 
more available form—in general terms, improved conditions 


The Food of Plants. 349 


of nutrition. Science has repeatedly shown that an increase 
of sugar percentage in the beet, or of starch in the potato, 
is directly related to the supply of potash to the plant and 
the condition of availability in which that element is pre- 
sented, and the question has therefore more than once been 
asked,—is it not possible by a judicious control of the food 
supply, to bring about, more quickly, those changes which 
are known to have taken place between the wild and culti- 
vated plants, and in the latter to still farther improve their 
qualities? I think the results so far obtained justify us in 
answering this question in the affirmative, but before so 
doing, I must briefly refer to the relative value of nitrogen- 
ous and non-nitrogenous food substances in the two phases 
of growth through which all plants pass, namely, the purely 
vegetative, or that period during which mere extension of 
parts, as stem and leaves, takes place; and the reproductive, 
or that period in which the flowers are produced and the 
seed is formed for the growth of succeeding gener- 
ations. The elaborate series of investigations conducted by 
the Germans for many years, as well as the very notable 
investigations of Lawes and Gilbert at Rothamstead, Eng- 
land, in which continuous observations have been made 
upon various field crops grown on the same land and under 
the same conditions since 1835—all these results establish 
the general law that those foods in which nitrogen is in re- 
lative excess, promote the mere extension of structure and 
tend to retard the reproductive function. While on the 
other hand, those foods in which the mineral substances 
are in relative excess, tend to retard vegetation, induce an 
earlier maturity, and thus hasten the formation of seed, 
Probably many of you have observed how a plant fed with 
ammonia makes a most vigorous growth of leaf and branch, 
and acquires a deeper and richer hue, and how also, trees 
are similarly influenced when located in exceptionally rich 
places. A notable illustration of this was brought to my 
notice a few years since. The ground in a small peach 
orchard was utilised as a kitchen garden, and for this pur- 
pose annually received a heavy dressing with nitrogenous 


350 Canadian Record of Science. 


manures. The effect upon the trees was most marked, 
The leaves were of an unusual size and depth of color, and 
the growth of each year was far in excess of any other 
trees. But, although twelve years old at the date of last 
observation, and thus nine years older than the age at which 
fruit should be formed, they had not produced a single 
peach, nor did there appear to be any likelihood of their 
doing so. In other words, under the special conditions of 
growth established, the fruit producing function had been 
wholly arrested, and the trees were therefore worthless. 
A remedy for this would be found in a reduction of the 
nitrogenous foods, and a greater supply of mineral foods. 
A still further application of this principle will probably 
permit us to bring fruits to maturity more perfectly than 
now, and also enable us to overcome the disastrous effects 
of early frost where trees tend to continue their growth too 
late in the season. These facts therefore suggest one im- 
portant direction in which these laws of nutrition may be 
applied. 

We will now turn our attention more particularly to a 
consideration of improved varieties and the relation of such 
improvement to the composition of the ash, and in doing so 
we shall make use of results obtained by the investigator 
already quoted. The fruit of the wild strawberry (Fragaria 
vesca) contains, according to the analysis of Richardson, 
0.41 per cent. of ash. In this we find 


LOUD SoG HOIBHOO Gres sto CIRO On TARTS: aac ioipy aan 22.06 
Sod aisles deeds Chauats ia toher stepocstela ls cxerare alae eictaracioneia 29.79 
f Bilas YOR ae lorie DBT DONT CE TCR ein ae a Heo emacs c 14.88 
IND GTeha os ooikd ao Ho NloDKOOod Dog bon OCOmen so DOCH ndos d traces 
DTOM ee BES wee ene eel e eae meee Leica Neral ee Rea keane 6.07 
phos plOricia cide eer erm eteireletleteloietereneta 14.47 
SiG a s/d, c ccvsre les ale otawe ovate nae eotemeyey alee late sum aileiteSroreneregete-cuees 12.62 


this calculation being made after deducting sulphuric acid 
and chlorine, for reasons which need not be specified at the 
present time. 

As determined by Goessmann, the fruit of the cultivated 


The Food of Plants. 351 


strawberry contains from 0.41—0.63 per cent. of ash, and 
this includes. 


DATA ROSS OE OS eee ES Cet San ote 40.24 
EL ca oclci ce Strela or siaieia aie aes ees biseretprers 2 3223 
PE RYTLE ee ISS cea o Ee weg whe Biree tere: clove Moya oN tersintovevereets 13.47 
WONG ti ld esha ess 2 ya eye ie spain va cvsn'e “ole a1 =.0|sieyb/e\ sais 8.12 
ERA eos «Al Ga hae SIS BES Se SO RA See Sane 1.74 
BOR ACT oan cc er ere late ietel cereale occielerlel slatelela stele craters 18.50 
STV SAY oyster fop sais be a eretazasss lavoro: Po ions mie ateteis “switche cibiedoysterer ete 5.66 


A comparison of these figures shows that under the ordin- 
ary conditions of cultivation, the plant utilises much less 
silica, iron and soda, but makes greatly increased demands 
upon potash, magnesia, and phosphoric acid. In view of 
these facts, it can hardly be doubted that these elements are 
essential to a higher state of development, more especially 
as we observe that when the conditions of cultivation are 
reduced and the supply of these elements is diminished, 
the plant reverts to its original condition, both with reference 
to its general characteristics and the chemical constitution of 
its ash. These changes may be regarded as effected slowly, 
as in the ordinary transition from the wild to the cultivated 
forms. Let us now see how the special application of food 
will influence a similar result. An exhaustive statement of 
the results obtained by Goessmann cannot be made here, 
but the following are the essential facts. 

Observations were made upon the Concord Grape as a 
cultivated variety, and upon the Vitis labrusca as the wild 
species from which the Concord originated. In each case 
certain plants were grown without special fertilisers, while 
others were treated with fertilisers of three separate com- 
binations. With these latter we will not deal separately, 
as we desire now to discuss only the general results. 

The ash of the Concord Grape was found to contain when 


unfertilised 
Sept. 13. 


PAOD IEA cig aiidie ale a iarigielsiy yrsidG lela Wage t cleaves 57.15 
POLS MEER Seite e ie cided cial de. ciele a) bial eissdiainta la aibie tidiere's 4.17 
DN RUE oe pilblats Here o ble cise ida sidtdidica slant setbiosilalne 11.30 
Rs OH ia dete otbeebr> eeiat ones wecdaess 3.10 
2 PRES ee pal Ni ne pe ia a 0.40 
Brie Eat g a tree ey oinis aieeiy ora'e siccalrim wane sels vne at) LOTT 
PAU TMID e Ease hie ch cbba boii piv dm cick ew ole dacsreda's 11.83 


25 


352 Canadian Record of Science. 


In the ash of the fertilised grape there were 


Oct. 3 
ROG AR ee ae ER ae ive lel eternal nie ier staverere isis 64.65 
Soda .-..-. 0 50000 coca0N 00000 SO GOO OD OOO OBICIO COlc 1.42 
APETV YN ee cu eer eieraieles Sreleeee tel aun eaters STAN Ree cami 9.13 
MiperneNA SG odabodivcas aro 9ods osbo dao acd 6am soo) BoB 
UOT ors eco bheleee BOOUCIO HOOid Hoo Und aDONmbO oo pootiEd 0.50 
IPMOSo YOK E>66 cao0a RELA A LUBY ere nica Tete aysticr’ evstene Tapia 14.87 
SHIGE 4 Codd boca GOoOOMOOSO ODO FOOD OadOn add 6d00 §©— Baisll 


But these changes in ash composition are found to be 
directly associated with an increase of sugar, a decrease of 
free acid and a general improvement in the quality of the 
berry. 

Turning now to the wild grape, we find at the end of 
four years growth, that changes in the ash, were accom- 
plished as indicated by a comparison with the ash consti- 
tuents of the uncultivated wild grape :— 


Unfertilized. Fertilized. 


Potash scecmsaentcomecte dO000C 50.93 62.65 
SOGareicdetanne Sete kwere res eas 0.15 0.85 
TAM Opec reece neelecaes 92.23 14.24 
Wives 65000 soe eaoaUcus 5-09 3.92 
Typon fee Sedese lasts isietete: Gahetetels ele 0.79 0.53 
PhosaANciditeieroe occas 17.40 13.18 
Silica .....0. See aioe 2.98 4.63 


While the organic matter stood in the following relation: 
Organic matter ..2-..c.coce 16.31 19.55 


and this striking increase was found to relate chiefly to an 
increased percentage of sugar and reduction of acid in the 
juice as follows :-— 


Sugar .-ceee eee S00 60090000 8.22 13.510 
ING nG500 505000 Go0006 0000 9.84 1.149 


Thus as the direct result of special feeding, the sugar per- 
centage of the wild fruit is increased from eight to thirteen 
per cent., a quantity nearly as great as that found in the 
cultivated Concord Grape at the same season. 

The significance of these results must be apparent to every 
intelligent cultivator, and to quote the words of the inves- 
tigator above cited, ‘“‘The ability to effect such decided 


Gypsum Deposits in Northern Manitoba. 3538 


changes in the composition of our fruits, cannot but be of 
the greatest importance to horticulturists in improving the 
the quality of the new cultivated varieties, and in produc- 
ing new varieties of a desired quality. If we can change 
the composition of our fruits in one or two elements, by the 
application of the proper food, why cannot we change the 
proportion of any element? In the seed is stored np the 
element of the new plant, and the varied compositions may 
be accompanied by certain physiological changes which 
shall determine the character of the variety.” 

My object for presenting the facts to which I have called 
your attention this evening has been, not to bring forward 
any detailed exposition of scientific observations, but rather 
to draw your attention more prominently to the general 
principles underlying the laws of growth and nutrition, 
and to show that our modern horticulture has entered upon 
an entirely new phase, in which scientific observation is 
the basis; and he who wishes to reap the large benefits to be 
derived from the intelligent pursuit of horticulture in any 
one of its important branches, must recognize the necessity 
of securing for himself, as a necessary preliminary to his 
work, an accurate, though general scientific culture. If my 
object in this respect be gained, even in a remote degree, 
the law of compensation may be considered as having found 
its application. 


GypsuM DEposits IN NORTHERN MANITOBA. 
By J. B. Tyrrent, B. A., F.G.S., of the Geological and 
Natural History Survey of Canada. 


On the Little Saskatchewan River, which carries the 
overflow of Lake Manitoba into the western side of Lake 
Winnipeg, there is a comparatively small shallow lake 
which has been known since the time of the early voyageurs 
as Lake St. Martin. It lies in latitude, 51° 30’, longitude, 
98° 40’, has an area of 115 square miles, a greatest depth 
of about fifteen feet, and an approximate elevation above 
the sea of 790 feet. 


354 Canadian Record of Science. 


Lying to the north-west of this lake, there is an area of 
level or very gently sloping country, which is now covered 
by extensive natural meadows, separated by groves of 
poplar and birch, as well as occasional forests of spruce and 
tamarac. This country is as yet in its native beauty, being 
entirely untouched, either by the woodman’s axe or the 
plough of the farmer; but the time cannot be far distant 
when a thriving agricultural population will occupy the dis- 
trict, reaping from the fertile soil bountiful and continuous 
harvests. 

In the early part of the past summer, the writer made a 
short journey on foot into this country, from the shore of 
the lake, in order to determine the question of the existence 
or non-existence of beds of gypsum in the vicinity. 

Starting from the north-west corner of the Indian Reserve 
at present held by the Saskatchewan Band of Saulteaux 
Indians, we travelled in a general north-westerly direction 
for five miles, till we reached a rounded gravel ridge, rising 
from fifteen to twenty feet above the general level of the 
country to the north-west of it, and along the foot of which, 
on the alluvial plain, are scattered numbers of rounded, 
weather-worn, gneissoid erratics. This ridge represents 
a beach of the extended Lake Winnipeg, called by Mr. 
Warren Upham Lake Agassiz, when it covered the whole 
of this area, and when the surrounding fertile alluvial 
deposits were being laid down near its gradually receding 
shore. The height of this ridge, as shown by aneroids 
read simultaneously on it and on the lake, is about 840 feet, 
being fifty feet above Lake St. Martin, and thirty feet above 
Lake Manitoba. Its chief interest, however, did not centre 
in the fact that it had once represented a lake-shore line, for 
these shore-lines are very commonly to be met with in all 
this apparently level Manitoba plain, but that in little holes 
and caves in it were to be seen small exposures of soft, 
compact, snow-white gypsum. 

Following the ridge, still in a north-westerly direction, 
for a mile, the surface becomes very rugged and irregular, 
being broken by deep pits with steeply sloping sides. In 


Gypsum Deposits in Northern Manitoba. 355 


this rough country, gypsum may be seen in numerous out- 
crops, being usually soft and crumbling from the effect of 
weathering, but in some cases it is still quite hard. The 
height of the tops of the knolls in this hilly area is about 
thirty-five feet above the eastern level plain, or sixty feet 
above Lake St. Martin. The breadth of the hilly country 
was not determined, but an Indian who accompanied us 
stated that it extended in a south-westerly direction, as 
far as a certain point on our journey of that day, which 
was about a mile and a half distant from where we were 
then standing, beyond which the level country began again. 

In a north-westerly direction the ridge was followed for 
two miles further, to a rather conspicuous hill a short dis- 
tance north of the Ninth Base Line in section 2, township 
33, range 9, west of the Principal Meridian. In this dis- 
tance it appeared to be broken through by considerable gaps 
in several places, but where it was well marked, it 
invariably showed the irregular surface so characteristic of 
country underlain by gypsum deposits. In many places, 
small caves would extend in from the bottoms or sides of 
the pits, some of which held beautifully clear, cold water, a 
luxury of which we were able to appreciate the value, after 
tramping for the greater part of a sweltering July day 
through meadows, forests and swamps, where the mosqui- 
toes and black flies did not attempt to treat us any the more 
tenderly because we were strangers. 

This country is a famous winter hunting-ground for the 
Indians, forin the autumn the bears retire to these caves, as 
being comfortable quarters in which to pass the time until 
the following spring,and many of them are killed every year. 
Around the mouths of several of the caves could be seen 
marks of the axe, where the hunter had been obliged to 
widen the entrances to the cave to be able to get into it to 
secure his prey. The thickness of the exposures of gypsum 
in these holes and caves was nowhere very great, ranging 
as a rule from three feet to six feet six inches, but in none 
of them was the total thickness of the deposit seen. 

The hill at the furthest point to which the ridge was fol- 


356 Canadian Record of Science. 


lowed, rises as a rounded knob, twenty feet above its general 
level. This hill, like the others, appears to be composed of 
gypsum, as on its sides are holes extending down twenty 
feet below its top in which beds of gypsum are well exposed, 

In the north-west corner of township 32, range 8, west of 
the Principal Meridian, is a rounded hill rising thirty-five 
feet above the plain, its greatest length being about 600 feet, 
and its greatest breadth 150 feet. Its surface is overgrown 
with small canoe-birch Two holes, each about eight feet 
deep, have been dug by prospectors in this hill. One at the 
top shows, below a foot of decomposed material, seven feet 
of hard, compact, white anhydrite or “bull plaster,” exhibit- 
ing a more or less nodular structure, and breaking on the 
surface into small irregular fragments. Very little bedding 
can be detected in the mass. The other hole is in the side 
of the hill fifteen feet lower down, and shows on top two 
and a half feet of white clay, consisting of decomposed 
anhydrite, below which is five and a half feet of white 
nodular anhydrite similar to that in the other hole. This 
gives a thickness, almost certainly, of twenty-two feet of 
this rock, and it is not improbable that the hill is composed 
entirely of it. 

Again, just north of the Ninth Base Line, and two miles 
east of the township corner, between ranges 8 and 9, is a 
poplar-covered hill or ridge, thirty feet high. In various 
places on this hill are exposures of snow-white gypsum, 
similar to what has been described above, showing in some 
cases a thickness of ten feet in one section. The most of it 
is massive or crypto-crystalline, and lies in regular beds 
which dip slightly towards the west. Some of the beds or 
layers, however, consist of beautifully crystalline, clear, 
colourless selenite, which is easily broken out in lamellar 
masses of considerable size. This is the mineral which in 
the west, has been so often mistaken for mica. 

The above is a brief statement of the known extent of 
the deposits of gypsum in this district, but it is highly 
probable that further investigation will prove them to 
extend over a much larger area. The Indians of the 


Gypsum Deposits in Northern Manitoba. 357 


Saskatchewan Band, who live on the western shore of 
Lake St. Martin, informed me that similar rock was to be 
found in several places further north, and they have named 
a lake on a tributary of Warpath River, which flows into 
Lake Winnipeg north of the mouth of the Little Saskatche- 
wan, Ka-ka-wusk Sa-ka-higan (translated in English as 
Mica Lake) from the alleged presence of selenite in its 
vicinity. 

Towards the south-west, at a distance of ninety miles in 
a straight line, in the bore that was sunk on the bank of 
Vermilion River by the Manitoba Oil Company, a bed of 
gypsum fifteen feet in thickness was struck between 550 
and 565 feet, at approximately the same geological horizon 
as that of the gypsum beds above described. Gypsum 
deposits are therefore in all probability very widely dis- 
tributed throughout Northern Manitoba. 

As far as examined they preserve a pretty constant 
character. Where they immediately underlie the surface 
the country is very rough and hilly, and the prevailing 
poplar of the region is mixed with birch, or the spruce of 
the adjoining low-lying land is replaced by Banksian pine. 
The gypsum itself is generally very pure, of adead white 
colour, and usually stratified in rather thin beds, which are 
either horizontal or dipping at a low angle. Among the 
massive beds, however, are many others, composed of 
crystals or crystal-masses, in which the crystals usually 
stand transverse to the plains of bedding. Some plates 
could doubtless be obtained from the crystal-masses 
sufficiently clear for optical purposes. No anhydrite was 
seen mixed with the gypsum, but one of the hills, as above 
stated, appeared to be composed entirely of it. It is much 
harder and tougher than the gypsum or hydrated sulphate 
of lime, is considerably heavier, has a roughly nodular, 
rather than a distinctly stratified structure, and is of a 
decidedly bluish tint. 

Of the exact geological age of the deposit it is difficult to 
speak as yet with certainty, as the strata have not been 
continuously traced into any others, and no beds im- 


358 Canadian Record of Science. 


mediately under or overlying them have been seen. There 
is little doubt, however, that they occupy either the summit 
of the Silurian or the base of the Devonian limestones. All 
the evidence that we have on the point has not as yet been 
perfectly elaborated, but it consists in the general horizon- 
tality of the beds wherever seen throughout the whole area, 
and in the existence of limestones holding fossils on Lake 
Manitoba, twelve miles distant in a south-westerly direction, 
and of limestones holding fossils on Lake St. Martin, eleven 
miles distant in a south-easterly direction. Also reference 
might be made to the above-mentioned bore on Vermilion 
River, where the gypsum was at the base of a bed of 
Devonian limestone one hundred and thirty feet in thick- 
ness. Thus these deposits are practically of about the age 
of the Onondaga Formation of New York and Western 
Ontario, in which rocks plaster-quarries have been worked 
for many years. This Formation also contains the great 
salt deposits of Ontario, and it is a significant fact, that a 
short distance to the west of the area under consideration, 
around the shores of lakes Manitoba and Winnipegosis, 
many brine springs are known to occur. In the State of 
Michigan, many of the plaster-quarries are also in rocks of 
about the same age. In Nova Scotia, the gypsum deposits 
are of lower Carboniferous age, and in Iowa they are stated 
to belong to a still higher horizon. 

The general hilly and irregular character of the surface 
underlain by the plaster beds, and the fact that isolated 
hills of gypsum rise above the surface of the otherwise 
level plain, make it appear probable that the deposits occur 
as lenticular masses in the beds of limestone wnich seem to 
compose the general floor of this whole area, though in 
most places the limestone is covered either by a mass of 
glacial till, or by the alluvial deposits laid down on the 
bottom of the ancient Lake Agassiz. The gypsum also 
resembles the limestone in being clearly stratified 
horizontally or at a very low angle. Besides this,some of 
the limestone of Northern Manitoba contains a large 
amount of sulphur scattered throughout its mass in the 


Gypsum Deposits in Northern Manitoba. 359 


form of very minute grains of iron pyrites. The iron 
pyrites readily oxidises into a sulphate or double sulphate 
of iron which combining with the carbonate of lime give 
as products of the double decomposition, sulphate of lime or 
gypsum, and carbonate or possibly sulphate of iron. In the 
Cretaceous shales of the Duck and Riding Mountains and of 
the Plains further west, this process is clearly seen to have 
gone on. Iron pyrites is constantly present, and the shells 
of Imocerami, Ammonites, Baculites, &c., furnish an 
abundant supply of carbonate of lime. This shale is 
therefore often filled with minute, or sometimes even large 
crystals of gypsum, and side by side with them are masses 
of ironstone or impure carbonate of iron, which, after being 
formed in the above-described way, has collected in rounded 
or lenticular nodules about a shell, fragment of a crayfish, 
or other nucleus. In the case of the Paleozoic limestones, 
however, no trace is found of the carbonate or other salt of 
iron which would have resulted from the double decomposi- 
tion, and if it was ever formed in the rock, it has since 
been dissolved away by water percolating through the 
strata. 

The gypsum may, however, have been formed in a 
different way. The whole of this country has undoubtedly 
suffered very considerable erosion since Cretaceous times, 
the shales and marls of the Duck and Riding Mountains 
having almost certainly extended much further east than 
Lake St. Martin. Many of the springs that now flow from 
these shales are strongly impregnated with sulphuretted 
hydrogen, which might readily be oxidized into sulphuric 
acid, This acid acting slowly on the beds of limestone 
would alter them into sulphate of lime without disturbing 
the stratification at all. 

Of the uses of gypsum it is unnecessary to speak. In 
the Western States, where the air is dry and atmospheric 
erosion is very small, it is used as a building stone, being 
very easily worked, and sufficiently durable and strong for 
residences and all ordinary buildings. 

sy roasting, its water of crystallization is driven off and 


360 Canadian Record of Science. 


it is reduced to the fine powder commonly known as 
Plaster of Paris. By grinding the crude gypsum as it 
comes from the quarries between ordinary burr-stones, land- 
plaster is obtained, a substance of which it is difficult to 
over-estimate the value in a country whose resources are 
almost entirely agricultural. The soil of Manitoba and the 
North-West Territories is very fertile now, but a time will 
come when having raised crop after crop it will need 
replenishing. The value of this extensive gypsum deposit 
will then be thoroughly realised. Lying as it does within 
twelve miles of Lake Manitoba, a navigable stretch of open 
water extending southward almost to the Manitoba and 
North-Western Railway, it can readily be brought to all 
parts of the province. It is also on the liue of the projected 
railway from Winnipeg, between Lakes Winnipeg and 
Manitoba, to Hudson’s Bay, and by this railway would be 
within one hundred and fifty miles from Winnipeg, and as 
the intervening country is very level, the cost of carrying 
it there would not be great. 


NoTES ON SHEPHERDIA CANADENSIS. 
By D. P. Paneattow. 


During the past summer I received from a correspondent 
—Dr. M.S. Wade, of British Columbia—some specimens of 
plants for identification. Among the number was Shepherdia 
Canadensis, the berries of which are used somewhat exten- 
sively as an article of food, and as they possess properties 
which do not appear to be generally recognized in published 
accounts of the plant, it seems desirable to make some state- 
ments of the facts brought to my notice. Dr. Wade writes 
as follows :— 

“The Shepherdia Canadensis is called Le Bron and also 
Sopolallie. The latter name is the Chinook word for it, 
sop meaning soap, and olallie berry. Thus it is termed the 
Soap-berry, from its property, when triturated, to form a 


Notes on Shepherdia Canadensis. 361 


mass of stiff foam or lather. The Indian name for it is 
Squazsham. The natives dry it on hay or straw, and thus 
preserve it for making the soap in the winter months. Sev- 
eral of the white residents, myself included, like the peculiar 
product from this berry. We preserve it with sugar as 
other fruits.” 

On referring to various publications, [ find but brief and 
unsatisfactory statements with reference to the properties and 
uses above indicated. 

Macoun ' refers to it as known locally as ‘ Soopoolalie,” 
and on the authority of Mr. James Fletcher, states that the 
Indians make a cooling drink from the berries. 

In answer to inquiries, Mr. Fletcher has kindly for- 
warded a letter from one of his correspondents, Mr. J. D. 
Tolmie, of Clovendale, B. C., who writes as follows :— 

» “ The Soapoolalie is not used as a drink that I know of. 

The berries are beaten with a little water in a basin until 
they froth up like the whites of eggs, and when the basin is 
quite full, the preparation is eaten with long sticks for 
spoons. These sticks are shaped something like an oar, are 
very light and highly polished. When the contents of the 
basin get low, they are again and again beaten until all the 
guests are satisfied. I believe the H. B. Co. people called 
this preparation La brue (?), why I know not. When it is 
sweetened, it resembles in taste and appearance rose or pink 
cream, and is not unpleasant to take. I have often, in my 
younger days, partaken of it, and one has the sensation of 
being quite bloated or puffed out after eating even a small 
quantity. A strange thing about this dish is that if the 
smatlest particle of cream, grease or fat gets into it, the 
foam, froth or fluff goes down and will not come up again, 
leaving only the seeds and a small quantity of reddish water 
in the basin.” 

Gray’ simply refers to the fruit as being yellowish-red 
and insipid. Bessey ° speaks of the plant as frequently 

' Cat. Can. Plants, 421. 

* Manual, p. 425. 

Text Book of Botany, p. 492. 


362 Canadian Record of Science. 


cultivated for its acid fruit. Provancher! says the jelly 
made from its fruit is often preferred to that made from the 
gooseberry. 

(“On fabrique avec leurs fruits des gelées que plusieurs 
préférent a celles des groseilles.”) 

We are indebted to Dr. Wade for a specimen of the jam 
made from these berries. His directions for the preparation 
of the soap from it are as follows :— 

“‘ Place the jam in a bowl and add an equal quantity of 
cold water. Take an egg-beater and very slowly agitate it 
for two or three minutes, and then beat more quickly. It 
will speedily froth up and become quite thick. When so 
stiff that it will keep its shape pretty well, add a table-spoon- 
ful of sugar, and then resume beating with the egg-beater, 
and continue until the substance is quite thick and firm. At 
first the preparation may not be liked, but the taste grows 
on one. ‘Two things must be carefully seen to, to ensure 
success: first, every article used must be quite free from 
even a suspicion of grease, and second, the beating must be 
very slowly done at first.” 

“The fruit is preserved either by drying in cakes or by 
boiling, like jam, when the seeds are sometimes removed. 
I have always seen it beaten up with the hand.” 

We find that the fresh jam is in appearance, about the 
color of currant jam, and possesses a somewhat astringent 
and well-pronounced bitter taste, the latter being rather 
persistent. Following the directions given above, we found 
five minutes ample time in which to convert the jam into a 
cream of the color of strawberries and of about the same 
texture and firmness as the whipped white of eggs. The 
most conspicuous feature of the cream is its pronounced 
bitter taste, which persists for some time. There is, how- 
ever, a secondary flavor of an agreeable nature and very 
similar to that of the high bush cranberry. As one becomes 
accustomed to its use, the bitter taste is rather lost sight of, 
and the more agreeable flavor becomes more conspicuous. 


' Flore Canadienne, p. 505. 


Notes on Shepherdia Canadensis. 363 


Nevertheless, we should hardly care to use the jam in large 
quantity, unless all other material failed. 

The dried berries also sent by Dr. Wade, were found to 
be very sticky and formed a compact mass. They closely 
resemble dried currants, though much more sticky. The 
mass contained leaves of the same plant and small frag- 
ments of straw; otherwise the material was very clean. To 
the taste, the berries are sweetish and acid like a currant,— 
the bitter taste being again most pronounced. 

As we have been unable to find an analysis of these ber- 
ries, we have, through the kind assistance of Dr. Harring- 
ton, made determinations of the bitter principle or saponin 
with the following result :— 


Water in air dried berries at 100° C = 23°46 p.c. 
Saponin in berries dried at 100° C = 0°74 p.c. 


‘ Both the bitter quality and saponification depend upon 
the saponin, which, though present in rather small quantity, 
is still ample to give an abundant froth, as copious saponiti- 
cation will occur with only 0.10 p. c.' 

The Shepherdia Canadensis is very widely distributed 
through Canada from New Brunswick to British Columbia, 
although it is nowhere locally abundant. Its congener the 
Buffalo-berry (Shepherdia argentea), possesses similar pro- 
perties, but is much more restricted in its distribution, 
occurring only in the Northwest, where its centre of distri- 
bution is found in the valley of the South Saskatchewan, 
extending thence along the tributary and adjacent streams. 


' Wittstein. Org. Constit. of Plants, p. 201. 


364 Canadian Record of Science. 


FORESTRY FOR CANADA. ' 
By H. G. Joy pE LoTBINIERE. 


The forest does not only supply the invaluable commodi- 
ties of fuel and lumber,.it exercises a great influence on the 
climate, and on agriculture. If science has not yet admitted 
that the presence of forests increases the rainfall (by con- 
densation of vapour held in the atmosphere, owing to the 
lower temperature of the forest land, or by other means), 
it is universally admitted that the forest regulates, through- 
out the year, the distribution of water in our streams, 
contributes to retain the moisture favourable to vegetation, 
retards evaporation and checks the effects of drying winds. 

Unfortunately, it is only after the forest is gone, that its 
value is truly appreciated, as in the South of France, Spain, 
Italy, Greece, and many other countries, once fertile, now 
barren and unproductive. ‘The two great extremes, long 
drought and disastrous inundations, are due to the same cause, 
viz: the wholesale destruction of the forests, especially on the 
mountains, the birthplace of the streams. The soil of 
many a fertile valley is now hidden under a thick bed of 
sand, gravel and boulders (as we often see in Switzerland) 
brought down by torrents from the mountain slopes, where 
the trees which once retained the ground with their roots, 
have been destroyed. The rain, instead of soaking gradu- 
ally through the moss, vegetable mould and roots, and 
feeding, by degrees, the springs and streams, as it did, while 
the forest lived, rushes down to the valleys below, as it falls, 
as from the sides of a roof, in irresistible torrents, carrying 
with it the ground that nothing now retains on the steep 
mountain side. 

It is most interesting to follow the work of re-afforesting 
carried on, principally in France, on the Landes for nearly 
a century, and on the barren mountain slopes, and to notice 
their beneficial results. The efforts of the ‘Ligue du 


1Sommerville lecture, delivered March 7th, 1889. 


Forestry for Canada. 365 


Reboisement de |’Algerie” to repair the harm done in 
Algeria, by the burning of the forests on the slopes of the 
Atlas, deserve the warm sympathy of all those who can 
appreciate perseverance and devotion to the public good. 

But the subject before us to-day, is “Forestry for Canada.” 
It is difficult to awaken any interest in the question among 
us. We are apt to consider Forestry as a superfluity, here, 
as if our forests were inexhaustible. They would be so 
(saving accidents by fire) with judicious management and 
sufficient protection. The aim of Forestry is not, as many 
believe, to preserve trees for ever, or until they decay and 
fall. Quite the reverse; it is to select and cut down every 
tree ripe for the axe, making room for the young growth, 
and thereby insuring a continued reproduction and a steady 
revenue. As it is, we are not only spending our revenue, 
we are drawing largely every year, upon our capital. 

‘ The pride of the Canadian forest, the white pine, is getting 
very scarce; the proportion of first.class wood is decreasing 
year by year, while the distance from which it is brought is 
increasing. How many mill owners, who would have 
scorned sawing spruce logs a few years ago, are only too 
glad to get them now, and though spruce reproduces itself 
much more readily than pine, we can foresee the time when 
it will get very scarce, at the present rate of cutting. 

The late James Little, of Montreal, who was the first to 
sound the alarm, deserves to be gratefully remembered by 
Canada. When every one treated our pine as if the supply 
were inexhaustible, he was the first to call attention to its 
rapid disappearance. His warnings were met, not only with 
indifference, but with ridicule. Now, the eyes of the most 
sceptical are opened, and they must admit that he was right; 
but it is sad to see them turn round now and affirm that it 
is no use devising means for the protection of our forests, 
because there is nothing left in them worth protecting. 
There is still a great deal left worth caring for and improv- 
ing. It is late, but not too late. 

The great American forester, F. B. Hough, in his Report 
to Congress, draws attention to the fact that: “although 


366 Canadian Record of Science. 


“« the system of management of the Canadian forests is crude 
“in its provisions, and destitute of any policy tending to 
“secure the growth of new forests, it has one redeeming 
“ feature, as the title to the land itself remains vested in 
““the Government, and, after the expiration of the first 
“‘ temporary leases, under which the native timber is cut, 
“it will be available for any course of management that 
“ experience may suggest. This last consideration prepares 
“the way for any system of Forestry that the wants and 
“resources of the country may, in future, demand, and, 
“ even without a system, the natural growth of a new forest, 
“where the old one has been cut away, especially where 
“the spruce timber prevailed, is, in many places, bringing 
‘“‘ forward a supply for future use, although much less effec- 
“ tually than under proper care would be obtained.” 

Mr. Hough was right to assume that the forests of Canada 
belong to the Crown, as the proportion in private hands is 
comparatively insignificant. The Government holds them 
in trust for the people and is answerable for their good 
management. 

Tt is a good sign to find in the Dominion Statute Book, 
47 Vict., cap. 25, sect. 5, proof that the importance of pre- 
serving the forests on the Rocky Mountains is well under- 
stood. The Governor-General-in-Council is empowered to 
make provisions “‘ for the preservation of forest trees on the 
“crests and slopes of the Rocky Mountains, and for the 
“ proper maintenance, throughout the year, of the volume 
‘‘ of water in the rivers and streams which have their 
“ sources in such mountains.” 

In the absence of a regular system of Forestry, there are 
practical means of protecting our public forests which I 
will now review as briefly as possible. 

First, and most important.—A careful classification of 
Public Lands, under two heads : Lands fit for agriculture, 
which alone ought to be opened to settlement—lands unfit 
for agriculture, which ought to be carefully closed against 
settlement and kept in forest. The best timber lands, 
especially the pineries, are generally totally unfit for agricul- 


Forestry for Canada. 367 


ture, it is a cruelty to decoy settlers there. How many hard 
working men have wasted the best part of their lives in try- 
ing to get a living out of such poor soil, and are tied down 
to it, for want of means to move away with their families ; 
the only result af their work being the ruin of a fine forest 
and their own ruin. The Quebec Legislature had enacted 
a wise law in 1883, the Timber Reserve Act, which, I regret 
to see, is on the point of being repealed. As to the rela- 
tions between the settler and the lumberman, where there 
is good faith on both sides, those relations ought to be of 
the most friendly nature. 

SEconDLY.—The Government ought not to force, every 
year, thousands of square miles of timber limits on the 
market in advance of the legitimate requirements of the 
trade, and with the unavoidable result of glutting the Kuro- 
pean market. The Province is interested in the successful 
carrying on of the timber trade, as it provides the whole of 
the raw material which keeps the trade going and ought to 
get returns for the value of that raw material, pro- 
portionate to the earnings of the trade. It will not come 
amiss here, to quote John Stuart Mill’s opinion of the 
status of our timber trade, from his Principles of Political 
Keonomy : “ The timber trade of Canada is one example of 
“an employment of capital, partaking so much of the 
“ nature of a lottery, as to make it an accredited opinion 
“ that, taking the adventurers in the aggregate, there is 
“more money lost by the trade than gained by it, in other 
“ words, that the average rate of profits is less than noth- 
“ing.” ven supposing the timber trade firmer now than 
when John Stuart Mill wrote, the Government is not justifi- 
able in encouraging over production, as it does, and it would 
appear wiser, not only for the sake of the forest, but for 
that of the Exchequer, if the Government kept the limits 
not actually required for the reasonable wants of the trade, 
so that the Province might hereafter benefit by the un- 
avoidable rise in the price of those limits. 

THiRpLy.—Strict regulations as to the minimum size of logs 
allowed to beycut, and encouragement to convert trees into 


26 


568 Canadian Record of Science. 


saw logs, instead of square timber, which wastes one-third 
of the tree in the squaring. 


FourtHiy.—Protection against fire which destroys more 
trees than the axe, precautions in lighting fires in the 
woods and in clearing lands by fire, for settlement; this last 
subject is closely connected with the question of the classifi- 
cation of lands and the keeping of settlers from lands unfit for 
agriculture. Fires are more to be apprehended in pineries 
and among resinous trees, where the soil is very often unfit 
for agriculture, than among hardwood trees where the 
quality of the soil is much better as a rule. Our Provincial 
Legislature is now considering.a good measure calling on 
the lessees of timber limits to contribute one-half of the 
costs of protecting their limits against fires, the Province 
paying the other half. Itis, I think, the law in Ontario. 

Firraty.—Export duty on saw logs, a most important 
question. Sir John Macdonald was asked, a few weeks ago, 
by an influential deputation of lumbermen to repeal the ex- 
port duty on round logs. He reminded them that in 1886 
that export duty had actually been increased at their own 
request, and told them that the Government would con- 
sider before all, the good of the country at large. 

We are striving to increase the numbers of our people; 
we deplore the large emigration from Canada to the United 
States. Shall we encourage that emigration, by sending 
away the logs which feed our saw-mills, so that they may 
get sawn by our neighbours? The sawyer will follow the 
logs, and we shall drive away thousands of industrious men 
who will follow the raw material in which they find their 
work. True, we are offered by the United States free entry 
for our sawn lumber (or rather there is a talk of its being 
offered) if we repeal our export duty on logs. On the other 
side, we are threatened with an addition to the present im- 
port duty on sawn lumber, equal to the amount of our ex- 
port duty on logs, if we persist in retaining it. 

Very likely that threat: will not be carried out; but what- 
ever happens, unless we give up forever all considera- 
tion for the welfare of our uwn country, we must retain our 


Forestry for Canada. 369 


export duty on logs, thereby protecting our forests and secur- 
ing work for our own people. 


CREATION or New Forssts. 


It is difficult to compress within the narrow limits of ona 
lecture all the branches of Forestry. After considering the 
preservation of existing forests, we cannot ignore the neces- 
sity for creating new ones, on the prairies of the North-West 
and our old settlements, denuded of trees, in the Hast. 

As for the North-West, what we want, first of all, is 
practical experience. Many theories have been propounded to 
explain the absence of trees on the prairies, and Mr. A. T. 
Drummond, of Montreal, a zealous worker in the cause of 
Forestry, has written some very interesting essays, on that 
subject. 

No use dwelling on the benefits to accrue from the plant- 
ing of trees on the North-West prairies. Let the Govern- 
ment make a beginning, by starting experimental Forestry 
stations, nurseries and plantations of trees, under the care 
of the Mounted Police, at every one of their permanent 
headquarters. It will be an example to the settlers; the 
young trees raised from seed, at a nominal cost in the 
nurseries, Can be given to them. The work will not inter- 
fere with the duties of the Mounted Police, and it will in- 
terest and improve the men, in every way. Practical ex- 
perience will soon indicate what trees to select, where and 
how to sow and plant. 

[ would recommend the Ash-leaved Maple, (Acer nequndo) 
to start with. The rapidity of its growth, its resistance to 
the drought, the value of its sap for sugar, which has been 
scientifically demonstrated by Doctor B. J. Harrington, in 
a series of experiments, the results of which have been com- 
municated by him to the Royal Society of Canada, ina most 
interesting paper; all these recommend its culture as a 
starting point. With that tree, plant cotton-wood, poplar 
willow, every kind of fast-growing tree, however inferior in 
quality, 80 as to start wind screens, behind which slower 


370 Canadian Record of Science. 


growing but more valuable trees can be cultivated, and fields 
of grain sheltered from the baneful effects of the drying 
winds. 

If, in the absence of any serious attempts at forest tree 
culture in the North-West, we are still puzzled how to pro- 
ceed there, here, in the Hast, we know beforehand that we 
are bound to succeed, with proper judgment and care. We 
know that every soil here, whatever its nature, can grow 
some kind or other of tree, and that, in many instances, the 
intrinsic value of the tree is quite out of proportion with 
the value of the soil: pines on sandy soil; sugar maples on 
rocky hill sides; ash, on cold, wet soil ; tamarac and cedar 
in swamps; white birch on the worst soil and under most 
unfavourable climate, and, of course, oak, elm, butternut, 
black birch, &¢., &¢., in good soil. 

It appears logical to choose the most valuable of trees 
for a new plantation, when the nature of the soil admits of 
it, though we often see valueless willows and poplars planted 
on the best soil and even in gardens. I have tried the black 
walnut, which sells for a dollar a cubic foot, in Quebec— 
nearly the price of mahogany. ‘Trees raised from the nut 
have given me nuts after twelve years growth, but, as my 
experiments do not extend over fourteen years, however 
satisfactory to myself, I cannot yet assert that the success 
is complete. Certainly it is very encouraging, and, I hope, 
will lead others to try the experiment, which is not an 
expensive one. 

It is impossible to enter into the details of tree planting 
now, but there are two points which ought not to be over- 
looked: in our climate, experience shows that it is better to 
plant trees in the Spring, especially if the soil is in the 
slightest degree wet or even retentive of humidity, and, 
secondly, it is useless to attempt tree culture without good 
fences, a8 cattle will destroy all the young trees. In fact, 
there are thousands of spots where the cultivation of the 
soil has been given up, which, in a few years, would be 
covered with a growth of self sown trees, if the cattle were 
only kept out by fences. 


Forestry for Canada. 371 


The results of Forestry are so far removed, and. at the 
same time, of such national importance, as to make it in- 
cumbent on the Government to encourage it by every 
means: experimental stations, especially in the North-West, 
in charge of the Mounted Police and the Indian Agents and 
teachers, nurseries of forest trees and gratuitous distribu- 
tion of the same, rewards in land grants or exemption from 
taxation, encouraging the observance of Arbor Day, a School 
of Forestry, or, until that point can be reached, sending 
some well qualified young men to study Forestry in the 
French and German schools, and last, but not least, educat- 
ing the people, beginning with the children, 

Teach, in all the schools, the elements of tree culture, 
joining practice with theory, whenever possible. No better 
way to develop in the child the qualities necessary to his 
success asa man. He will learn forethought, in choosing 
the proper season, the soil, the tree; care and patience, in 
digging up and transplanting that tree; perseverance in 
watching over it, watering it, supporting it, pruning it, 
cultivating the ground round it; unselfishness, in feeling 
that he works not only for himself, but that others will 
enjoy the fruits of his labour. 


SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE To ‘“ CLASSIFICATION OF 
CAMBRIAN Rocks IN ACADIA.” 


By G. F. Marrunw. 


In the diagram at page 315, showing the relation of the 
several Cambrian faunas of the Atlantic and of the Pacific 
slope of America, the word Ctenopyge has been printed in 
error for Ceratopyge. Ctenopyge in Kurope is an integral 
part of the Peltura fauna, and we have no reason to suppose 
that the vertical distribution of these trilobites differs on 
this side of the Atlantic from that in Europe. 

A vertical line intended to divide three faunas of the 
Atlantic basin from two of the Pacifie side of the American 


372 Canadian Record of Science. 


continent, has been omitted, and the brace which takes its 
place is misleading. The Olenelius-Bathyuriscus fauna 
should also be connected with No. 2, Middle Cambrian, 
rather than with No. 1, Lower Cambrian. 

Other changes that should be made in the article are the 
following :— 

Page 310, line 24, omit System. 

In the table on page 313, as well as in the text on the 
same page, for Agnostus intercinctus read Agnostus interstrictus, 

Page 314, line 8, after list, insert (Bathyuriscus and Asa- 
phiscus. 

Page 314, line 24, after great, insert vertical. 

In the first article of this series (see Vol. III., No. 1, this 
journal), certain worm-tracks and casts are referred to as 
being plentiful in the Basal or Etcheminian series. But far 
more abundant and generally distributed than these are the 
remains of sponges. The gleaming reflections from their 
skeletons are common on the surfaces of the finer shales, 
and their spicule are very generally distributed in coarse 
deposits as well as fine. 

Sponges are found in the first beds above the lowest cong- 
lomerate, a horizon which is about sixty feet from the base 
of the terrein, and about fifteen hundred feet below the 
Paradoxides beds. At various horizons in the Basal series 
have been found different kinds of sponges: some of the 
basket-sponge group; others of the ordinary silicious 
kinds. The latter present several varieties of form, some 
are tubular, others-branching with a solid axis, and others 
again are amorphous with numerous orifices (cloaca) of ir- 
regular form. 

Even the sandstones are replete with the debris of sponges, 
both silicious granules and fragments of the sponge cuticle 
and of spicule are plentiful among the sand grains, of which 
these beds are composed. So we may see that sponges have 
played an important part in the building up of sedimentary 
deposits at the very dawn of Palzozoic Time. 


Archeocyathus, and other Genera. 373 


On ARCH2ZOCYATHUS, BILLINGS, AND ON OTHER 
GENERA ALLIED THERETO, OR ASSOCIATED THERE- 
WITH FROM THE CAMBRIAN STRATA OF NORTH 
AMERICA, SPAIN, SARDINIA AND SCOTLAND. 


By Dr G. J. Hrnpp, F.GS. 
( Abstract.) 


A revision of the type specimens of the three species in- 
cluded by Mr. Billings in the genus Archeocyathus shows that 
each of the species represents a distinct genus. <Archwo- 
cyathus profundus, having been selected by Mr. Billings in 
1865 as the typical species, was retained as such, and the 
characters of the genus, as shown in this species were 
defined ; Arch. atlanticus, Bill., was made the type of a new 
genus, Spirocyathus ; and the third species, Arch. minganensis, 
which proves to be a siliceous sponge, was included in a new 
genus, Archwoscyphia. 

Including the genera allied to Archwocyathus, described by 
Meek and Bornemann, the following constitute the family 
ARCH ZOCYATHIN”, proposed by this last-named author ; 
Archeocyathus, Bill. ; Hihmophyllum, Meek ; Coscinocyathus, 
Born.; Anthomorpha, Born.; Protopharetra, Born.; and 
Spirocyathus, gn. 

The genera of this family are characterized for the most 
part by turbinate or subcylindrical forms with stout walls 
enclosing an interior tubular or cup-shaded cavity. Their 
skeletons are carbonate of lime in a minutely granular con- 
dition. The walls in the first four of the above-named 
genera consist of an outer and inner lamina connected by 
vertical and radial septa ; dissepiments are generally pre- 
sent between the septa; save in the genus Anthomorpha, the 
outer lamina of the wall is regularly and minutely perforate, 
and the inner lamina and septa are likewise cribriform ; 
Lthmophylum is particularly distinguished by oblique canals 
connecting the interspaces of the wall with the central 
cavity, CVoscinocyathus by transverse, perforate tabule, and 
Anthomorpha by the apparently imperforate character of the 
surface-laminw and septa. Protopharetra and Spirocyathus 


374 Canadian Record of Science. 


are either non-septate, or very obscurely septate; their 
skeleton consists of anastomosing lamin and fibres; in the 
latter genus the lamine are remarkably thickened by suc- 
cessive secondary deposits of calcareous material. 

The Archeocyathine are regarded as a special family of 
the Zoantharia sclerodermata, in some features allied to the 
group of perforate corals. The family is restricted, so far 
as is known at present, to the lowest fossiliferous zone of 
the Cambrian strata, that characterized by the genus Ole- 
nellus, Hall, and it occurs at Anse-au-loup, Labrador ; Troy, 
New York State; Nevada; in the Sierra Morena, Spain, 
and in the south-west of the Island of Sardinia. 

The genus Archeoscyphia, based on Archceeocyathus minga- 
nensis, Bill., is shown to be a lithistid sponge, and Mipterella, 
g.n., based on Calathium (?) paradoxicum, Bill., belongs like- 
wise to the same group of sponges. The genera Calathium, 
Bill., and Trichospongia, Bill., are also undoubted siliceous 
sponges. These various sponges, which were either included 
in Archeocyathus by Mr. Billings, or regarded as allied 
thereto, have no relation whatever to the genus, or to any 
member of the family in which it is included. They come 
from a higher geological horizon, the Calciferous formation 
of the Canadian geologists, which is probably the summit 
of the Cambrian. They occur in the Mingan Islands and 
in Newfoundland. Archeoscyphia and Calathium are present 
in the Durness limestones.—(Proc. Geol. Soc., Lond., Dec. 
9th, 1888.) 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 
MONTREAL. 


The first monthly meeting of the Session was held on the 
evening of October 29th, 1888, at 20 o’clock 

Attendance: 21 members. 

On motion of Prof. Penhallow, seconded by J. S. 
Brown, Prof. Mills took the Chair in the absence of the 
President. 

The Minutes of the April monthly meeting were read 


Proceedings of Natural History Society. 375 


and approved, also those of the Council meetings held since 
that date. 

Moved by J. 8. Brown, seconded by 8. Finley, that Mr. 
Brown’s motion, re collection of fees as recommended by 
Council, be adopted. Carried. 

The following donations were reported :—‘ Milk Snake,” 
from Mr. James Ferrier; and the “Geological History of 
Plants,” from Sir Wm. Dawson. 

On motion of EK. T. Cuampers, seconded by Prof. Pen- 
hallow, the thanks of the Society were tendered to the 
donors. 

Members proposed :—Edgar Jadge, Prof. H. T. Bovey, 
Chas. Patton, E. L. Bond, Dr. Stirling, as ordinary members ; 
and Master H. J. M. Smith and Miss Annie Louise Smith as 
associate members. 

On motion of Prof. Penhallow, seconded by R. W. 
McLachlan, the Rules were suspended and the above named 
ballotted for and elected. 

A letter of resignation, from Mr. F. L. Wanklyn, was 
read and the resignation accepted. 

Prof, Penhallow read a Paper entitled “ Notes on Ringed 
Trees,” by Prof. W. L. Goodwin, of Kingston, to which he 
added some very interesting and instructive remarks, which 
he also explained by diagrams. 

The Paper was fully discussed by Prof. Mills, Dr. Wanless 
and other members, 

In the absence of Mr, F, Adams, Prof. Penhallow read 
extracts from his Paper “On some Canadian Rocks contain- 
ing Scapolite, and a few Notes on some Rocks associated 
with the Apatite deposits.” 

The thanks of the Society were tendered to Prof. Pen- 
hallow and the contributors of the above Papers. 


(Signed, ) J. W. Dawson, Pres. 


The second monthly meeting was held on the evening of 
November 26th, 1888, at 20 o’clock. 
Present :—Sir Wm. Dawson (in the Chair), Prof. Pen- 


346 Canadian Record of Science. 


hallow, J.S. Shearer, J. A. U. Beaudry, Rev. J. G. Baylis, 
Dr. Harrington, R. W. McLachlan, Prof. Mills, J. H. R. 
Molson, P. S. Ross, and a number of visitors. 

In the absence of the Secretary, Mr. J. S. Brown acted. 

The Minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed. 
The Minutes of last Council meeting were also read. 

It was moved by Mr. Shearer, seconded by Mr. Beaudry, 
that a Conversazione be held in January, and that a special 
meeting of Council be called for Monday, 3rd December, 
for the purpose of organizing a Committee to carry out the 
same. 
Sir Wm. Dawson presented for the Library a copy of his 
pamphlet, “ Notes on Specimens of Hozoon Canadense,” and 
Mr. Shearer presented a very fine specimen of Star Fish, 
Astrophyton Agassizii, for the Museum. 

A vote of thanks was tendered to the donors. 

The following names were proposed for membership :— 
Dr. Lovejoy, Alexander Henderson, Horace T. Martin. 

On motion of Mr. Beaudry, seconded by Prof. Penhallow, 
the by-laws and ballot were suspended, and the above 
named gentlemen were elected by acclamation. 

Rev. Prof. Kavanagh then read a very interesting Paper 
on “‘ Modern Concretions from Boucherville,” &c., illustrat- 
ing his subject by specimens gathered from localities referred 
to. 

The subject provoked considerable discussion by members 
present. A warm vote of thanks was tendered the author, 
with the request that he would again favour the Society on 
some future occasion. 

Sir Wm. Dawson then addressed the Society, first upon 
“‘ Pleistocene Fossils from River Beaudette,” and afterwards 
upon ‘‘ Recent and Fossil Species of Mya.” The speaker 
was listened to with marked interest, and a general discus- 
sion followed these subjects. 

At the close of his remarks, Sir William presented to the 
Museum, on behalf of Messrs. H. G. Stanton and A. W. 
McGoun, the specimens of Balanus Hameri, with which he 
had illustrated the first of his subjects, remarking that the 


Proceedings of Natural History Society. ot 


thanks of the Society were due to these gentlemen for 
having brought to its notice an extremely interesting 
subject. 

A formal and cordial vote of thanks was passed to the 
donors. 

Mr. J. S. Shearer occupied the Chair while the President 
addressed the meeting. 

Meeting adjourned. 

(Signed, ) J. W. Dawson, Pres. 


MontreAL, 17th Dec., 1888. 


The third monthly meeting was held on the evening of 
December 17th, 1888, at 20 o'clock. 

Present :—Sir Wm. Dawson in the chair. 

Minutes of last meeting were read and approved. The 
Minutes of the Council meeting were also read. 

Mr. J. S. Brown reported the proceedings of the Conver- 
sazione Committee. 

The Honorary Corresponding Secretary reported new 
exchanges received. 

Mr. E. T. Chambers read his Paper, ‘‘ Notes on Lake St. 
John District,” giving a very interesting account of this 
region, and also exhibited specimens collected by him. 
He referred particularly to the natural history and geolo- 
gical formations of the country. 

The President made some remarks on a fine specimen 
collected by Mr. Chambers at Lake St. John, which seemed 
to be a new species of Cryptozoon, 

A cordial yote of thanks was tendered to Mr. Chambers 
for his interesting Paper. 

Dr, Harrington was requested to ask Mr, Low to read a 
Paper before the Society on his trip to Lake Mistassini. 

The President also made some remarks on a Paper on 
“The Classification of the Cambrian Rocks in Acadia,” by 
G. I, Matthew, referring to new discoveries in the Lower 


378 Canadian Record of Science. 


Cambrian of New Brunswick. The Paper was taken as 
read, as it will appear in the next number of the Record of 
Science. 

In the absence of Mr. H. M. Ami, his paper on the “ Flora 
of Montebello” was read by Prof. Penhallow. It referred to 
the collection made there by him on the “ Field Day” of the 
Society in June last. One hundred and seventy-nine species 
in all were found in the vicinity, of which 163 were obtained 
in the Manor Grounds. The Paper called forth an interesting 
discussion on the laws of distribution of plants, and the 
relation of soil composition and geological formation to 
distribution and disease. 

As the above Paper is to be published in the Record of 
Science, the Chairman of the Editing Committee was re- 
quested to send copies to Mr. Ami and the Hon. Mr. 
Papineau. A hearty vote of thanks was tendered to Mr. 
Ami and Mr. Matthew. 


The fourth monthly meeting of the Society was held on 
the evening of January 28th, at 20 0’clock, Sir Wm. Dawson 
in the Chair. 

The Minutes of last meeting were read and approved. 
The Minutes of Council meeting of 21st inst. were also read. 

Dr. Harrington reported that all arrangements for the 
Sommerville Course of Lectures had been made, and that 
the first would be given on the 21st of February. 

The Hon. Curator announced the following donations :— 
Tamais striata, Albino variety, from W. H. Rintoul. 
Specimens of Lepidoptera, Coleoptera. &c., from P. M. 
Dawson. 

The following gentlemen were proposed: James 
Coristine, Wm. Euard, E. A. Small, J. H. Jones, EH. F. 
Carter as ordinary members, and EH. H. Carter as associate 
member, by J. S. Brown, seconded by J. 8. Shearer. 

Mr. Shearer proposed, seconded by Mr. Brown, the follow- 


Proceedings of Natural History Society. 379 


ing as ordinary members:—J. C. Holden, S. Wentworth 
Hill, Wm. Minto, W. A. Stephenson, C. 8. J. Phillips, Wm. 
Notman, Geo. Phelps. 

Moved by Mr. Brown, seconded by P. 8. Ross, that the 
rules be suspended and the above named be balloted for. 
Carried. 

Mr. J. 8. Brown reported favourably on the progress of 
the Conversazione Committee, stating that an invitation 
had been sent to the Governor-General aud Lady Stanley. 

The Hon. Librarian reported the donation of a Paper on 
“The Eozoie and Paleozoic Rocks of the Atlantic Coast of 
Canada,” by Sir Wm. Dawson. 

The thanks of the Society were tendered to the above 
donor. 

Prof. T. Wesley Mills gave a very interesting address on 
“The Influence of the Nervous System on Cell Life.” 

Prof. Penhallow read ‘‘Some Notes on the Fruit of the 
Sheperdia Canadensis, which is largely used in the North- 
West as an Article of Food.” 

The President read a letter from Mr. K. Cuthbert, of 
Berthier, describing a remarkable land-slip which occurred 
in December on the River Bayonne. 

A hearty vote of thanks was tendered the above gentle- 
men. 

Mr, P. 5S. Ross showed some specimens of Limonite col- 
lected at Hopewell, N.S, 

(Signed, ) J. H. Josepa, 


(Signed, ) A. H. Houpen, 
Rec.-Sec. 


The fifth monthly meeting was held on the evening of 
February 25th, 1889, at 20 o’clock., 

In the absence of the President, Mr. J. H. Joseph was 
elected Chairman. 

The Minutes of the last monthly meeting were read and 
approved, also the Minutes of Council meeting of 18th Feb. 


380 Canadian Record of Science. 


The Hon. Curator reported the following donations: From 
Mr. Romeo Stephens, stone-gouges, &c., and from Mr. Van 
Horne a mounted Cariboo. 

On motion of Prof. Penhallow, seconded by Dr. Harring- 
ton, the thanks of the Society were tendered these gentlemen. 

The following were proposed for membership :—Leslie D. 
Skelton, T. E. Vasey, Percy M. Dawson, H. D. Lacey, W. 
A. Dyer, James Morgan, Jr., Hugh Paton, George Knowlton, 
Jas. Y. Gilmour, H. M. Belcher. 

On motion of Mr. Brown, seconded by Mr. Sumner, the 
rules were suspended and the above gentlemen were duly 
elected. 

Dr. Harrington gave a very interesting address on Coals 
from the North-West, illustrating his remarks by samples 
from a namber of mines. 

A vote of thanks was moved by Mr. J.S. Brown, seconded 
by Prof. Mills. Carried. 

In the absence of Sir Wm. Dawson, Prof. Penhallow read 
a note by the President (Sir Wm. Dawson), on a new 
Devonian plant, Dictyocordaites Lacoi, which had been dis- 
covered by Mr. R. D. Lacoe, of Pittston, Pennsylvania, and 
appeared to be intermediate in characters between the 
ancient Gymnospermous genera known as Cordaites and 
Noeggerathia. A photograph of the plant was exhibited. 
It will be described more at length in a future number. 

Prof. Penhallow also read ‘‘Supplementary Notes to 
Paper on Cambrian,” by Mr. G. F. Matthew. 

On motion of Mr. Sumner, seconded by Mr. Chambers, a 
vote of thanks was tendered to Sir Wm. Dawson and Mr. 
Matthew for these papers, and to Prof. Penhallow for his 
interesting remarks on the same. 

Moved by Prof. T. Wesley Mills, seconded by Prof. D. P. 
Penhallow, that a special vote of thanks of the Society be 
tendered to Mr. Matthew for the above paper and for former 
contributions. 

Meeting adjourned. 

(Signed, ) J. W. Dawson, Pres. 


Proceedings of Natural History Society. 381 


The sixth monthly meeting of the Society was held on 
the evening of March 25th, 1889, at 20 o’clock. Sir 
William Dawson in the chair. 

The minutes of last meeting, as well as the minutes of 
Council meeting held on 18th March, were read and 
approved. 

Mr. J. S. Brown reported that owing to the absence of 
‘the gentleman who had made the offer to subscribe $1000 
on behalf of a Zoological Garden, he was unable to give any 
further information on the subject. 

The Treasurer of the Conversazione Committee made an 
informal report that all accounts had been paid, leaving a 
cash balance of $100.79. Report adopted. 

Moved by J. S. Brown, seconded by J.8. Shearer, that 
the thanks of the Society be tendered to the different con- 
tributors of exhibits to the Conversazione. Carried. 

Mr. John Murphy was proposed for membership, and the 
rules being suspended, he was elected by acclamation. 

Prof. T. Wesley Mills gave a very interesting ‘‘ exhibition 
and explanation ‘of specimens, bearing on reproduction in 
birds.” 

Dr. Harrington, in the absence of Mr. J. B. Tyrrell, and 
Mr. Robert Chalmers, read the following papers, “ Gypsum 
deposits of Northern Manitoba” by the former, and ‘ The 
Glaciation of Hastern Canada” by the latter. The latter 
paper went to show that the views laid down by Sir Wm. 
Dawson thirty years ago, had received ample confirmation by 
new discoveries, 

The President made some very interesting remarks on 
the above papers, and the thanks of the Society were tendered 
to the contributors. 

Mr. F, B, Caulfield announced that his paper for next 
meeting would be ‘On some birds observed at Montreal.” 


382 Canadian Record of Science. 
MISCELLANEOUS. 


SPERRYLITH, A NBW CANADIAN Minprau.—This remarkable mineral ° 
has recently been described by Professors Welis and Penfield, of 
the Sheffield Scientific School, New Haven, who received it from 
Mr. Francis L. Sperry, of Sudbury, Ontario, Chemist to the Cana- 
dian Copper Company. The mineral occurs at the Vermilion mine, 
Algoma, twenty-two miles west of Sudbury, and is associated with 
chalcopyrite, pyrrhotine, minute grains of cassiterite, &c. It con- 
sists of minute, brilliant grains and crystals from =3, to +, inch in 
diameter, of nearly tin-white colour, and specific gravity 10.602. 
The following analysis by Prof. Wells show that it is an Arsenide 
of Platinum and that its composition may be represented by the 
formula PtAs, :— 


if, II. Mean. 

IIS ibvelaveiave logujersiate MET IONE AN: 40.91 41.05 40.98 
Slhiderscicsiecme lester eb wien 0.42 0.59 0.50 
THis oo600, 600960 00000 °-| 52-58 52.60 52.57 
Euler teicvoroie siciete Se kserciseis 0.75 0.68 0.72 
Ge aie ses: sleeetol ete ete veers trace trace trace 
Wooo so0000 9000 0000¢ 0.08 0.07 0.07 
Sin Ossdoe cocdoa conden . 4.69 4.54 4.62 
99.38 99.53 99.46 


The mineral decrepitates slightly when heated. In the closed 
tube it remains unchanged at the fusing point of glass. In the 
open tube it gives very readily a sublimate of arsenic trioxide and 
does not fuse if slowly roasted, but if rapidly heated it melts very 
easily after losing a part of the arsenic. According to the investi- 
gations of Professor Penfield, the crystals of Sperrylite show the 
combination of cube, octahedron, pyritohedron and very rarely 
dodecahedron. The hardness of the mineral is between 6 and 7. 

The above details are taken from the papers of Professors Wells 
and Penfield in the American Journal of Science for January, 1889. 

Budevee 


ABSTRACT FOR THE MONTH OF. JANUARY, 


Meteorological Observations, McGill College Observatory, Montreal, Canada, Height aboye sea level, 187 feet. 


1889. 


C. H. McLEOD, Superintendent. 


‘ Sky Croupep] . E 
THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. WIND. In Tentus. [3 § Ba q g 
——— ——. ———- — -—__——. — a | =o A. a: 
Hella 828] Gs | 32 | 28 
DAY. f |bumia. gS 1x| g/ofs] #2 | oe | ss DAY. 
Mean.| Max. | Min. |Rangel *Mt sMax. | §Min. | SRange.| vaponr.| ity. General e|/s\sie27| 2a | s# | 28 
Mean.| Max. in. |Range} *Mean. ax. in. mge. | vapour. inaction 3 SS las i E | 
a — L, — —— ft ptt) — || 
I 28.83 31-0 26.7 43 29.8358 29.885 29.771 114 1302 S.W. 10.0 | 10 | 10 00 0.2 I 
2] 24 78] 30-7 18.4 12.3] 29.9133 | 30-046 29-791 +255 1148 8. 10.0 | 10 | 10 00 2 
3] 17:98] 24.1 15.0 9-1] 29.9955 | 30.063 29.937 126 0933 Ss. 7-0} 10] 0 21 3 
4| 26.20} 30.7 18 4 12.3] 30.1632 30.262 30.050 203 1245 Ws 10.0 | 10 | 10 oo . 4 
5 | 27-13; 30.0(?)} 25.0(?) 5.0} 30-3035 | 30-372 30.211 . 161 1275 N. 7-3 | 10 re 12 as 5 
SunpDav.......- 6 30.1 21-7 tl b Babin daca lmnscn aon Hmeooe aes 00 poo N. ono |} 24) Nl 90 00 | 0.15 oao0: |} Gbh5||| Geese soaud SUNDAY 
7 33-1 29 7 3.4] 29.5900} 29 684 29-534 150 1640 N. 10.0 | 10] 10 00} 0 46 3-3 |0-78| 7 
8 34.0 29.7 4.3} 29.843 29.946 29.659 +287 1605 S.W.. 6.8} 10| o EBilll ooo 03 | 0.03] 8 
9 39 5 28.7 10.8} 29.4490} 29.810 29.064 .746 1702 S.E. 1o.0| 10} 2 00 | 0.99 |Inapp. | 0-99 | 9 
10 34.5 22.0 12.5} 29.3807 29.790 29.115 -675 1488 S.W. 8.0| 10] o 00 9000 1.6 | 0.16 | 10 
Ir 27.0 20.8 6.2] 29.9467 | 30 038 29-853 185 1057 W. 7-8 | 10| 0 co 0.2 | 0.02} rr 
12 23.3 160 7-3] 30 2653 | 30.364 30-113 251 0730 W. 2.2] 10] o 66 Hane aoe || 72 
SUNDAY........ 5} || ‘oa0a0 19.0 10.8 8.2 lll) eBineas 900009 eocd 06 oe Ww. 8 38 00 51 oa || £5} cecaosoced SuNDay 
14 | 11.92] 16.7 7-0 9-71 30 4423 | 30-481 30.408 -073 0625 -0 S.W. 3 2.7| 10] o 50 0.00 | 14 
15 17-18 | 22.2 9.6 12.6} 30.3902 30.447 30.322 125 0775 3 S.W. 6 4.7| 10} 0 83 vere | 15 
16} 25 80] 37-0 18.0 19.0} 30.0513 | 30.293 29.678 -615 1182 3 S.E. “5 9-5] 10] 7 Qo} .... ° 0-01 | 16 
17| 38.68] 44.0 34-6 9-4} 29 4798 | 29.62 29 347 280 1935 a) S.W. 7 8.7 | 10] 2 51 | o.or see. | 0.22 | 17 
18 | 29.53] 35-2 20-3 14.9} 29 8403 | 30.040 29 688 -352 1212 12 S.W. 6 | 10.0} 10] 10 13 | 0.22 |Inapp. | 0.00 | 18 
19 3-13] 21-0 -2-4 23 4) 30 5333 | 30.685 30.253 +432 0337 8 W. 8 2.0] 10} o 95 © 2 | 0.02} 19 
SUNDAY........ 20 eae 12.0 -3-0 15.0 Oa c00900 |! soocee 200 aoe N.E- 15.0 |... 2 54 0-13 | 20 ....... +»+SUNDAY 
21 13.45 | 17.9 9-4 85 29.6650 | 29 836 29-493 +343 0718 N.E. 19.0 } 10.0] 10} 10 00 0.92 | ar 
22 9.98 | 15.1 4.0 11.1 30.2880 | 30.471 30.024 -447 0503 W. 260 1.2| 7| of 100 0.00 | 22 
23 8.83 155 48 10.7} 30.4482 | 30 513 30-353 160 0545 8. 14.9 I.5|/ 6] o 67 2900 3 23 
24 | 26.85] 36.3 7.6 28 74 30-1128 30.268 29.991 +277 1273 Ss 22.7 7-8} 10] 0 00 | 0 03 0.2 | 0.05 | 24 
25| 31.05] 37-0 25.8 11.2] 30.0572] 30.130 29.988 142 1302 SW 260 4.2] 9] o 60 ; ea pou || Bs 
26) 23.35 | 32.1 14.8 17-3] 30.0185 | 30.046 29.995 O51 1042 N.W. 23 3 8.3 | 10] 0 00 26 
SuNDAyY........ 27 5 160 11.1 £%@]| cocadce || onoa00 66-0 oO a60 N.E. 27-1 00,1} che |-po 00 “A538 || OKI] EY) cousnouce .SUNDAY 
28| 16 72] 20.7 12.7 8.0] 29.2380 | 29.326 29.120 «206 0793 N.W. 17.3 .0| 10 | Io oo 5.0 | 0.36 | 28 
29 | 11.17] 17.1 6.0 11-1] 29.5748 | 29 858 29-347 +511 0567 W. 21.8 1.8|10| 0 67 1.8 | 0.13 | 29 
30 0.13 6.5 -4.3 To.8 | 30.1172 | 30.252 29.943 +309 0275 N. 10.6 0.3] 1] 0 96 200 +e. | 30 
31} 11.97.| 33-3 6.5 39-8 | 29.8685 | 30.171 29.613 +558 0805 N.E. 17-2 | 10.0 | 10 | 10 00 wee 2.4 | 0.16 | 3r 
-Means| 21.23 | 26.54| 14.59 | 11.94] 29.9560] ...... -298 1039 eam | O25 )0n | en O- Ol | err telcte 18.5 | 6.73]. - | 30-5] 1.88 
15 nase means for & | 15 years means for and 
including this mo,) 11.59 | 20.20 3.34 | 16.85 | 30.0610 o 6.34 133.5 0.79 30.3 | 3 64 lincluding this month 


Direction..... 
— 


Miles, 


peer ine a ae | ce | ee | ee dees eee te : 

Duration in hrs..| 106 10 I o 62 20 I 2 Mi Hight years only. 

= — Pier hae x — Z Le | | ae The Brenvee heat TES a 0 on the 17th; the great- 

Mean velocity...| 17. 17. 17. 13. ‘ 23. pik 13.8 lest cold—6.f on the 3lst, giving a range of tem- 
y: a8 3, Bit Zi a BY 2 perature of 40.5 degrees. Warmest day was the 

SS ee |e ——__—__—_—_—____.—___-—________li7th. Coldest day was the 30th. Highest barometer 


Greatest mileage in one hour was 52 on the 10th 
Greateat velocity in gusts 60 miles per hour on 


ANALYSIS OF WIND RECORD. 


Resultant mileage, 5063 
Resultant direction, S 70° W. 
Total mileage, 13,797. 


*Barometer readings reduced to sea-level and 
temperature of 32° Fahr. 


§ Observed. 
+ Pressure of vapour in inches of mercury. 
{ Humidity relative, saturation being 106. 


ee 


reading was 30.708 on the 20th; lowest barometer 
was 29.064 on the 9th, giving a range of 1.644inches. 
Maximum relative humidity was 100 on the 8rd und 

ist. Minimum relative humidity was 48 on the 30th. 


_ The mean temperature is the highest for January 
in 15 years, except that for 1880, which was 22.45 
degrees. The average minimum is 5 degrees in 
excess of the highest, and the average range of 
temperature is the least for January in 15 years. 


Rain fell on 7 days. 

Snow fell on 19 days. 

Rain or snow fell on 22 days. 
Hoar frost on two days. 

Lunar halo on the 15th and 16th. 
Fog on six days. 

Solar halo on the 27th. 


i 
ne 
: hah uf 


115 dalek epee cmal dvd 


5 Si 


aye 


Bi. 
SDA, 


Ay 
Wits 
ne a ig 


whet 


ABSTRACT FOR THE MONTH oF FEBRUARY, 1889. 


Meteorological Observations, McGill College Observatory, Montreal, Canada, 


Height above sea level, 187 feet. 


C. H. McLEOD, Superintendent. 


SKY CLoupen| E 
THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. WIND. Iy Tentas. [3 3 Se q 5 
Cc" Ee jar ei =| — ew oA = o a Dey 
gos] 33 ae | vs 
ae poi anon (ee EN elses Bel | Ge | Ge DAY. 
" in. n *Mean. ax. i zeneral |velocity Sioa? | .88 
Mean.} Max. | Min. |Range} *Mean. | §M §Min direction. lin mile] & | 3 |S Ee a $ EI 
perhour, ce Fa 
I 9-35] 30-5 =1.1 | 316] 29.8675 | 29.995 29.618 : 4.0 Ww. 32.5 4-5|10| 0 82 Sette ull Sereteiees| a 
2 6.55] 16.9 -4.6 | 21.5] 29.7192 | 29.964 29.561 2.2 N.W. 19.8 55 ]20] of 33 F 0.4 | 0.02] 2 
SuNDAV. ....-> 3 anoon|| Bios AGA |) Bsc)! sco500¢ |} caps0e . ae N. 10.8 osobly| 6 ao 63 O58 OWE | 2) coedcus +». SUNDAY 
4] -9-33| 0.4 | -22-6| 23.0] 29.9747 | 30.057 :0 es 10.7 | 8.2]10] 4] 27 Becta Pocoe er 
5 13.40 221 0.4 21.7 29.5753 29.768 7) N.E. 17-7. 10.0} 10 | 10 (oJ) II.2 1.06 5 
6) -0.12] 23.0 8.0} 310} 29.5065 | 29.539 7 S.W. 45 1 9.7| 10] 8 00 48 |0.48] 6 
7 | -0:78 || 94.4 -7-9| 12-3] 29.7347 | 29.963 5 W. | 333 | 6.7| 10] of 00 1.3 | 0.13] 7 
8] 11.55 19.1 2.0 17.1 29.9952 | 30.037 oF S.W. 14.0 6.8] 10| o 19 0 1.2 |0.12] 8 
9} 1603] 19.9 8.4] 1-5] 29.9437 | 29.982 oe) N. 7.7 | 10.0] 10 | 10 re) 000 0.6 |0.05| 9 
SUNDAY.- .....10 17-8 10.9 6.9 nado x. || scone 6 O00 S.W. 10.3 eoal|| oo 86 OA || CHB |) £9 connodoon . SUNDAY 
11 26.5 13-0 | 13.5} 29.8540 | 29.993 7 S.E. 14.0 8.8] 10 | 3 51 o.r | o.or | rr 
12 25-5 9-0} 16.5] 29.6560 | 29.683 ae) S.W. 13.6 8.5] 10] 1 28 5.0 | 0.40 | 12 
13 10.0 20 8.0} 29 5505 29.601 8 S.W. 34.5 g.2 | 10 5 (ole} 1.6 | 0.16] 13 
14 16 6 2.0) 146] 29.8760} 30.117 m7, W. 30.2 8.0] 10} o 45 0000 coon |} is 
15 17-3 47 | 12.6] 30.3523 | 30.424 8 S.W. 13-5 0.0/ 0} of 100 0010 0 ooo || 53 
16 33-6 2-2 | 31.4 } 30.1633 | 30 422 3 S.E. 14-8 | 5.3] 10] of 53] o.12 0.12 | 16 
SUNDAY........17 39.5 32.7 6.8 6000506 990000 oan S.W. PEt ll onaalll © 60 oo | 0.18 anon 0.18 | 17 .-+-+++e+eSUNDAY 
18 337 20-7] 13.0] 29.6227 | 29.903 +5 N.E. 20.1 | 10.0] 10] ro (cle) nae 3.3 | 0.33 | 18 
19 28.0 11.6} 16.4] 29.6877 | 30.033 8 Wi 30.9 67] 10] 1 55 0.6 | 0.06 | 19 
20 16.5(?) 35 | 13.0] 30.3162} 30.426 28 W. 19.5 Oil x] © 79 Inapp. | 9-00 | 20 
21 23.0 7-0 | 16.0] 30.4488 | 30.556 3 SW. 19-1 4.8)| 10] o 75 009) || ood0 || 52 
22 34.0 7-4 | 41-4] 30.0848 | 30.329 7 S.W. 24 9 8.7] 10} 2 00 1.4 | 0.14 | 22 
23 -6.8 -169}) 101} 30.4585 | 30.614 a) W. 21.9 All Cl) © 93 an see 23 
SUNDAY........24 OG 6.6 -13.0] 19 6] ....... 90000 Bite S.W. 17-1 S60 splliegs 9S EY\ sagaaobo . SUNDAY 
25 6.57 11-0 o 8 10.2} 30.7022 | 30.807 8 S.W. 11.7 2.7|10| o 87 25 
26 5.60) 13-1 -7-0| 20-1] 30.7842 | 30.885 0 E. 8.2 4.8] 10] o 83 «| 26 
27 | 16734 24-1 5-9} 18 2} 30.5728 | 30 636 ols EH. 7-7 | 10.0] 10} 10 00 0.04 | 27 
28) 27-68] 33.7 23.3 10 4] 30.4378 | 30.581 py} || caocn as 3-8] 10] o 65 Q see | 28 
. Means 10.59 19.70 2.19 | 17.51 30.0410 e00000 EB || soooce 6.45 43-6 32.2 3 33 |Sums .. 
15 yrs. means for &| 15 years means for and 
including this mo,) 15.24 | 23.79 6.62 | 17.17] 30-0430| ...... 00 5.81 141.3 0.76 22.3 | 2.98 |including this month 


Direction........ N. | we. | # | se. | s. |s.w.| w. |». w.| cam. 
Miles.. ...... 360 1046 | 200 | 725 975 4679 3551 1190 
Duration in hr: 40 71 24 | 53 63 216 158 43 4 
Mean velocity...| 9.0 147 8.3 13.7 15.5 21.7 22.5 27.7 
noe ee = BL Se eee pee en Te 
Greatest mileage in one hour was 56 on the 6th:) Resultant direction, S 65° W. 
G@ 


the 6th, 


R 


ANALYSIS OF WIND RECORD. 


teatest velocity in gusts 56 miles per hour on| Total mileage, 12,726, 


*Barometer readings reduced to sea-level and 
temperature of 32° Fahr. 


esultant mileage, 6,875. 


§ Observed. | 
t Pressure of vapour in inches of mercury. 

t Humidity relative, saturation being 100. 

1 Hight years only. | 


The greatest heat was 39. 
lest cold was 22.6 below zero on the 4th, giving a 
range of temperature of 62.1 degrees. x 
day was the 17th. Coldest day was the 23rd. High- 
lest barometer reading 
lest_ barometer was 29.222 on the 18th, giving a range 
lof 1.663 inches. 
100 on the two 
Wwas 51 on the 3rd. | 


Rain fell on 2 days. | 
Snow fell on 16 days. | 


5 on the 17th; the great- 
Warmest 
was 30.885 on the 26th ; low- 


Maximum relative humidity. was 
days. Minimum relative) humidity 


Rain or snow fell on 18 days. 
Auroras were observed on two nights. 
Hoar frost on two days. 

Lunar halo on two nights. 

Lunar corona on one night. 

Fog on four days. 

Solar halo on one day. 


Small portion of a contact arc. was visible on the 
21st. 


ABSTRACT FOR THE MONTH OF MARCH, 1889. 


Meteorological Observations, McGill College Observatory, Montreal, Canada, Height above sea level, 187 feet. 


C. H. McLEOD, Superintendent, 


SKY CLoupep) E 
THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. WIND. Iy Tentas. [3 9 Aa q g 
ee me = Se Teee ae 7) | 1 Mean |tMean e25| 33 ia | os 
E S =| 35 
res-  jrelative} A ala) & eo a2 q 
DAY. sure of |bumid, point, “yl 2 | 4) aleeel 22 | ees ss DAY. 
i * i 5 ity- Fi 5 By rf aq IF = 
Mean.| Max. | Min. |Range} *Mean. §Max. §Min. | §Range. | vapour. ity disaetional tateacec g s/s is g fe iE | 3 
as — — —! lo — —<—— et ———— 
I} 28.75 | 34-0 22.5 11. 30.4200 | 30.503 30.315 «188 +1358 86.2 25.0 S.W. 12.6 60 I 
2) 28.32] 34.5 16.9] 17. 30.2053 | 30.295 30-122 -173 +1342 85.8 24.5 S-E. 3-4 2 
Sunpay. ...... 3| ......| 39.6 28.0) ||' 3209711 sovcaae |! vo0000. || voos00 tees 0009 000 S.W. Hof {] cao! oo: |} oo .. SUNDAY 
4] 32.10] 38.9 21.3 17.6} 29.8930 | 30.000 29.779 +1418 73.8 26.0 E. 4.2 2.0] 10] o 
5| 35-45 | 38.9 31-7 7.2} 29.6623 | 29.749 29.540 «1623 78.3 29.2 N. 2.8 100 | 10 | 10 
6} 34.93] 38.5 32.7 5-8] 29.2978 | 29.451 29.107 - 1800 88.8 31-7 N-W. 12.2 | 10.0] 10} 10 
7 | 30.90} 35.9 25.0] 10.9} 29.0348 | 29.122 28.982 - 1667 96.2 29.8 WwW. 21.7 | 10.0] 10] 10 
8) 22.17] 25.8 19-9 5-9] 29.2843 | 29-327 29.220 - 1052 88.3 19-2 W. 38.1 10.0 | 10 | Io 
9| 20.78] 22.8 17-9 4:9] 29.4317 | 29.578 29.291 +0953 86.0 17.2 W..| 36.2 | 10.0] 10} 10 
Sunpay....... |) ssaoe 25.0 18.3 6.7 000000 Bn000 9000 0600 000 W. 27.0 od hee 
II} 21.93| 27.0 16.8} 10.2] 29.9402 29.907 -0803 68.2 13.5 W. 18.8 5-3| 10] o 
12 | 26.80] 32.9 17-9 15.0] 29.9125 29.874 +1227 83.7 22.7 S.W. 12.7 9.3] 10] o 
13] 31.58] 41.3 22.8] 18.5] 29.8095 29.612 +1230 68.0 22.0 S.W. 28.7 8.0] 10] o 
14 | 16.92] 24.5 II.5| 13.0] 30.3260] 30.383 30-200 +0552 58.7 5:0 W. 14.5 2.2/10| o 
15 | 25.70] 32.3 17-8 | 14.5] 30.1990] 30-295 30.121 +1035 73-3 18.5 N.E. II-t 4.7| 10] 0 
16 | 30.43 | 39.0 20.8] 18.2] 30.0972 | 30.137 30.066 +1245 74-7 23.0 N.E. 18.4 2.5| 8] o 
SUNDAY....... a9) \| coon || gy 27.6 @4|| scocoec po6005 Reis Bepd ano eit N.E. ABE |} ovod || 00 || oc |] GBI @cB | ae llasell pp ccocesnce «SUNDAY 
[ 18 | 32.45 | 35.6 30-7 4-9] 29.9307 29-908 +049 +1592 86.7 29.0 N-E. 13-4 } 10.0} 10] 10 
19 | 33-58] 37-3 29-8| 7.5] 29.9093 29.875 o71 +1518 79-5 | 27-5 N. 5-5 | 10.0} 10] Io 
20 | 34.27| 39.3 30.4 8.9} 30.0033 29.962 077 +1557 79-2 28.3 N-E. 23-7 9-5| 10] 2 
au] 31.43] 37-4 25.8| 11.6] 30.0748 | 30.146 30.032 114 «1102 63.2 20.3 N.E. 29-5 4.7| 10] 0 
22 | 35.40] 43.9 25-8] 18.1 30.1947 | 30.258 30.128 130 . 1107 54-3 20.5 N.E. 13-5 3-7] 10] 0 
23 | 38.25 | 42.6 32.8 9-8} 29.9353 | 30.070 29.773 .297 +1518 65-5 27-7 S.W. 29.5 2.8] 8] 0 
Sunpay...... 0X4] o2000 39.0 29.7 9-3 a0 cee -+s on00 S.W. 24-5 Jew]. |. 07 | 0.07 0.07 | 24 .... SUNDAY 
25| 22.12 | 31.1 15.9 | 15.2 262 +0703 59: 10.3 N. E. 13-7 o2| 1| 0 98 25 
26) 18.80] 25.9 7.8) 18.1 110 -0687 64. 8.8 E. 94 7-5] 10] o 36 seve | 26 
27 | 33.53 40.0 20.8] 19.2 +279 +1472 75. 26.5 8. E 15-6 | 6.7/ 10] o 21 0.10 | 27 
28 | 32.62] 39.2 29.0| 10.2 +144 +1453 78. 26.5 5.W. 21.6 6.3] 10] o 15 .. | 0.03 | 28 
29| 28.78 | 36.2 19.7| 16.5 257 .1207 75- 22.2 S.-W. 19.2 8.2] 10] 0 27 1.1 | 0.11 | 29 
30] 18.13] 23.0 9.7| 13.3 -196 +0615 62. D7 SW. | 17.3 | 1.5] 7] of 96 s bono || 59 
SUNDAY .. ....31 Ss. m)|l oo vs | 3% eseeee.++sSUNDAY 
Bp -++.5-Means. 2178 1224 75. 49.0] 0.62 15.3 | 2.11 [Sums . 
aeIes| Pen ueeeal| is Ey pe | eee 
15 yrs. means for & 15 years means for and 
including this mo, 23.69] 31.06 | 16.00] 15.06 29.9573! .....« 500 266 -1062 | 75.9 M45.5/ 0.88 | 26.5 | 3.53 lincluding this month 
ANALYSIS OF WIND RECORD. *Barometer peau reduced to sea-level and Rain fell on 9 days. 
—_ Se ee ee aie ee ‘ j 
ees c. ea | Snow fell on 12 days. 
N. | N.E. E. | S.E. Ss. | S.W. W. | N. W.| Calm. S Observed. g Fafidioa ae Rain or snow fell on 14 days. 
ale ea pss ei ae mee t Pressure o Caveat Sree a mercury: Auroras were observed on three nights. 
5 Bese | S| ES ean oee || 72920) SO EN ey re ce Saturation being 100. Hoar frost on five days. 
urationin hrs..| 66 16 22 ° 6 176 140 52 37 HEN EEE) OLN Solar halo on two day. 
a Wesesty _||__ 32 ||_ 8 7 4 1] The greatest heat was 48-9 on the 22nd; the great-| Tunar halo on twomiehts 
Mean velocity... 11.4 18.2 6.3 8.5 12.5 22.7 24.3 12.7 lest cold was 7.8 on the 26th, giving ‘» range of eo, 
temperature of 36.1 degrees. Warmest day was| Lunar corona on one night. 
ee — —- the 23rd. Coldest day was the 14th. Highest baro- 


Greatest mileage in one hour was 45 on the 8th- 
morpatest velocity in gusts 52 miles per‘ hour on 


Resultant mileage, 4,265. 


Resultant direction, $ 85° W. 
Total mileage, 12,910. 


meter reading was 30.503 on the Ist; lowest baro- 


meter was 28.982 on the 7th, givinga rangeof 1.521 


inches. Maximum relative humidity was 100 on 
the 7th. Minimum relative humidity was 41 on 
the 22nd. 


Fog on three days. 


SPONGES FROM THE TRENTON LIMESTONE AT OTTAWA. 


THE 
CANADIAN RECORD pemustiig, 
zd ACAD by 

OF SCLENCE. LIRRARY 


VOL. III. JULY, 1889. NO. 7. 


‘ 


ON THE CAMBRIAN ORGANISMS IN ACADIA. * 


By G. F. Marruew, M.A., F.R.S.C. 
[ Abstract.] 


The earlier papers describing the Cambrian animals of 
Eastern Canada, read by the writer, before this Society, have 
related to the fauna of the St. John (or Acadian) group, 
but having lately made examinations of the measures which 
underlie the Paradoxides beds, he has found evidence of a 
physical break below these beds, and that the underlying 
beds carry a different fauna, This fauna is very imperfectly 
exhibited, but is sufficiently developed to show that this 
lower, or basal series is the equivalent of the blue clay of 
Russia and the Kophyton sandstone, &c. of Sweden. 

Late developments in the palwontology of the oldest 
Cambrian beds, show that the Olenellus beds of the State of 
New York and elsewhere, are of about the same age as 
these old Acadian beds, and indications of the Olenellus 
fauna have been found by me from the middle of this basal 
series upward to the Paradoxides beds, 


° on | the Royal Society of Canada, May, 1889, 


384 Canadian Record of Science. 


In the lower part of the Basal or Georgian series have 
been found worm tracks, casts'and burrows, referred to in a 
communication to this journal. Of lower organisms, sponges 
are well represented. Remains of basket sponges (Ku- 
plectellide) are quite common in the finer beds. Of these, 
beside the sponges with regular transverse bars, there are 
others which possess an irregular mesh with diagonal and 
forked spicules. Another family of sponges is represented 
by forms with a thick parenchyma and numerous irregular 
loculi; the oscules in these sponges are sometimes arranged 
with an approach to a regular order, but more frequently 
they are irregular. A third family (probably) of sponges 
has left skeletons of small rods in which no spicules have 
been found, these are studded with minute elevations 
marking the place of denser globular masses in the body. 

Certain minute bodies with the sponges appear to be 
Radiolarians, some are club-shaped, others globular, and 
one is Oval with a raised hexagonal ornamentation. 

The flora of this series consists of sea-weeds. One of the 
oldest of these, a Paleeochorda, is found in the lowest sand- 
stone beds, where it is associated with the remains of 
sponges; although a plant of such great antiquity, it is 
comparatively highly organized in the structure of the 
stem, to which large jointed setz were attached. 

In the arrangement of its barren fronds, another interest- 
ing species recalls the Fucoides circinnatus of Brongniart, 
but in the Acadian species, the branches are fiat, and not 
round, as those of that species are said to be. The 
Acadian species had narrow, fertile fronds, bearing spikelets 
(stichidia) after the manner of some of the red sea-weeds. 

Brachiopods so far, appear to be rare in this series of 
beds; there is however, near the middle of the series, a 
large one having the appearance of an Obolus, and re-. 
sembling the Mickwitzia monilifera, Schmidt, (Lingula? or 
Obolus? monilifera Linrs.), but apparently distinct. 

Undoubted examples of Platysolenites of Pander, a 
crinoidal genus of the Blue Clay of Russia, have been found 
with this brachiopod. 


‘ 


Cambrian Organisms. 385 


ORGANISMS OF THE St. JOHN OR ACADIAN GROUP (SERIES), 


Fauna and Flora of Division (Stage) 1,—(Paradoxides Beds). 


The fauna of Band } of this stage, resembles in many re- 
spects that of the series just described. There is the same 
prevalence of sponges. The basket sponges and the rod- 
like sponges (?) are common to both, but the latter here 
attain a much larger size, and are more plentiful. In all 
the fine layers of this band, traces of Protospongiade may 
be found, but no examples of the typical Protospongias of 
the Paradoxides beds have been observed. The Protos- 
pongiade of this band have either a minute rectangular 
reticulation, or the mesh is coarser, and crossed by large 
diagonal and branching spicules. Even the sandstone beds 
of this band exhibit numerous fragments of spicules. 

The brachiopods are represented in this band by several 
genera, some of which have been already described. This 
paper contains descriptions of additional species—an Obolus, 
a Lingulella, and three species of Leperditia. 

The Algze are present in several different types, among 
which are a Buthotrephis, and a microscopic form parasitic 
on the larger organisms. This little thing spread itself in 
a minute network over the mud of the sea bottom, by 
jointed filaments, which at their intersection formed en- 
larged nodes. There are also some quite small oval forms of 
dark color resembling Hydrocystium, which may have 
been algoid. 

Among the new species of the Paradoxides beds is a 
little Platyceras. New facts have been obtained, relative 
to the smaller Stenotheca, to Lepidella anomala and to two 
species of the Paradoxides that have been described: 
P. pontificalis is found to be a narrow, and P. Micmac 
a broad form of P. Hicksii. 


Fauna of Division (Stage) 2.—(Olenus Beds). 


Abundant remains of large Protospongia are found in 
these beds, Among them are Protospongia fenestrata, Salt, 


386 Canadian Record of Sctence. 


Protospongia (?) cf. major Hicks and another large species, 
whose branches or cups were ten inches or more in length. 
These large sponges must have lived in quite shallow water, 
as they are found bedded between ripple marked sandy 
layers. 

Many of the beds of this division abound with the tracks, 
burrows and casts of worms, among which are a Mono- 
craterion, whose straight ray-like tracks spread from the 
burrow, a distance of eight or ten inches. Two species of 
Arenicolites are common, one quite small, another larger 
with a space of one to one and a half inches between the 
burrows. The cast of the gallery of this species, seen from 
below, greatly resembles Mr. Billings Arthraria, as the 
gallery is enlarged a little at each extremity; and short 
examples thus look somewhat like dumb-bells. 

Among fossils which appear to have their place in the 
upper part of Division 2, are some that have been found in 
the Kennebecasis basin of Cambrian rocks. These are Lep- 
toplasti one allied to L. stenotus, Ang. Agnostus pisiformis, 
var. and Agnostus Nathorsti, var. The association of these 
trilobites would indicate a horizon at the top of this divi- 
sion. 


Fauna of Division (Stage) 3.—(Peltura Beds). 


The species which indicate this horizon are two species 
of C. tenopyge (cf. C. flagillifer and C. spectabilis,) Orthis 
lenticularis and a Kutorgina, these occur in the middle of this 
division. At the bottom of the division Lingulella lepis is 
found, and another larger species (i. ampla, var ?) 

Beds in Cape Breton corresponding to this stage, have 
Peltura scarabeoides, Spherophthalmus alatus, and Orthis 
lenticularis. 


Fauna of Arenig Group (Ordovician). 


This horizon is indicated by certain fossils lately discover- 
ed in the St. John basin, at the summit of the Cambrian 
measures. 


Cambrian Organisms. 387 


They consist of graptolites of the genera Bryograptus, 
Tetragraptus and Dichograptus, with a large Orthis and a 
Cyclognathus 


The physical history of this part of Canada, in Cambrian 
times as shown by the Cambrian terreins in southern New 
Brunswick, was briefly as follows : 

The basal series is marked throughout by the waning 
effects on its sediments of the eruptive activities of the pre- 
ceding age. The series is variable in thickness, the con- 
glomerates have some closely cemented breccias as well as 
the ordinary rubbly conglomerates of sedimentary origin. 
Occasional thin beds of felsite and petrosilex are found, 
and the finer sediments have a strong green or red tint, 
.and are more or less charged with iron. 

In the St. John group, the rocks of Division 1 show a 
gradual deepening of the sea without disturbance; and 
without any trace of eruptive activities after the first few 
bands were laid down. 

When the second division of the St. John group was being 
deposited, the sea-bottom again came up to the surface, and 
was awash, or was under a thin covering of sea-water 
throughout this stage. 

At the beginning of the third stage, the land again sank, 
and continued under a considerable depth of water through- 
out the whole of this age, as we see from the great body of 
fine dark grey slates, which form the bulk of the measures 
of this division. 

Finally the sea-bottom sank deeper still, and in tranquil 
waters, comparatively free from currents, lived the grap- 
tolites which we now find buried in the soft carbonaceous 
mud (now changed to slate) found to have been deposited in 
this region after the close of Cambrian time. 


388 Canadian Record of Science. 


NOTES oN THE LAKE St. JOHN COUNTRY, 
By EK. T. CHampnrs. 


The Lake St. John region is about one hundred miles 
north of the city of Quebec, and has for the last two years 
been the subject of much attention, from the fact that it 
contains a large amount of very fertile land, and has a 
climate remarkably mild for such a northern situation,—a 
fertility and temperature much better than is enjoyed by 
the settlers around the old fortress city, and nearly equal to 
that of Montreal. Separated from Quebec by the Laurentian 
Mountains, the tedious journey was a great hindrance to its 
settlement, but during the last five or six years a first-class 
railway has been constructed from the old capital to the 
very borders of the lake. This, after running some forty 
miles westward to the pretty town of St. Raymond, in the 
fertile valley of the St. Anne river, turns to the north, 
boldly making its way through the midst of the mountains, 
and after a course of 137 miles more, reaches the town of 
Chambord near the Lake St. John. A branch line of five 
miles goes to the mouth of the Metabetchouan where a 
steamboat is able to come close to the shore. A few notes 
on this somewhat remarkable route and on the lake itself 
may be, perhaps, of some interest. 

After leaving the alluvial clay of the river St. Charles at 
Quebec, the track has a somewhat steep incline of 132 feet 
in the mile. At St. Ambroise, about ten miles from Quebec, 
it passes through the post-pleiocene in a cutting, and two 
or three years ago, before they were overgrown with 
herbage, the banks on each side exhibited a large deposit of 
shells of Saxicava rugosa and Mya truncata, chiefly of the 
former, and in such quantities that the banks were quite 
white. JI am told by the railway people that the elevation 
here is 533 feet above the St. Lawrence. Soon after this 
the line passes through a marshy country, but a few miles 
after leaving St. Raymond, comes upon the grey Laurentian 
gneiss, which appears to form the mass of the mountains 
till we reach Lake Bouchette, about twenty miles from 
Lake St. John. This gneiss varies much in the size and 


Notes on the Lake St. John Country. 389 


arrangement of its constituents. Here it is seen with the 
ingredients pretty equally mixed, forming a granite; in 
another place, the components are in regular layers, again 
these layers are bent and contorted in every possible way. 
In many places the mountains are much shattered, broken 
into larger and smaller masses as if by some violent 
explosion; sometimes these large masses present a very 
threatening appearance as the train rushes along under 
them, so slightly do they appear to be supported. 

At about sixty-five miles from Quebec, the line of rail- 
way comes to the east side of the River Batiscan, and 
continues its course along the sides of the mountains 
forming its bank for nearly thirty miles. The scenery 
along this river is singularly beautiful. The Batiscan, 
about 150 yards wide, in this part of its course is an 
alternation of foaming rapids, some of them cascades, and 
stretches of less boisterous, beautifully clear water run- 
ning between high mountains, clothed, except where too 
steep, with arborescent verdure from the river to the 
summit. As the track rises—and there are some very 
steep grades in this part—the mountains increase in 
elevation, some of the highest rising to the height of 1500 
or 1600 feet (perhaps more) above us. Towards the south 
their shape is a sort of elliptical curve, on the north side 
they are nearly perpendicular and show bare surfaces of 
rock some hundreds of square feet in extent. 

The whole of the country abounds in lakes. It is said 
that in a rectangle reaching in length from Quebec to Lake 
St. John, and twenty miles wide, 500 lakes have been 
counted by the railway surveyors. Several of these are 
large. Lake Edward, or Lac des grandes iles, is twenty-one 
miles long, and seven and a half miles wide, and contains 
many large islands, which, with the hills which encircle 
the lake, are covered with forest, healthy trees, in no place 
disfigured by the black half-burned stumps which so often 
spoil the beauty of our woodlands, 

Near Lake Kiskisink or Cedar Lake, the railway crosses 
the height of land between Quebee and Lake St. John, its 


390 Canadian Record of Science. 


elevation being 1504 feet above the St. Lawrence. The 
land here is very sandy, so exceedingly fine and white 
in some places that I think it might be employed in glass 
manufacture. Around this lake the country is so covered 
with blocks of gneiss, that nothing grows under the trees 
but ferns, lichens and mosses; I looked in vain while here 
for a blade of grass. 

Lake Kiskisink is about four and a half miles long, and is 
the source of the River Bostonnais, a tributary of the St. 
Maurice. About a mile and a half east of the lake is the 
Metabetchouan river, which, rising a few miles to the south 
east, flows into Lake St. John. Most of the journey north- 
ward from Cedar Lake is down a steep incline. As the 
Lake (St. John) is approached, the larger size of the trees, 
the more healthy vegetation and signs of successful culti- 
vation give evidence of a more genial and fertile region. 
Near the lake we may perceive in the railway cuttings, the 
same grey gneiss, but here and there is red gneiss, the 
crystals of red orthoclase of large size, and in some places 
boulders of Labradorite. 

From Chambord to the western extremity of the lake, and 
apparently extending under its bed, filling up a depression 
in the Laurentian, are beds of Silurian limestone. These 
beds appear to have been but little disturbed, and lie in a 
nearly horizontal position, the bed of the lake having a very 
gentle slope from the shore. The limestones appear to be 
formed entirely of fossil-shells. These are scarcely discern- 
ible in freshly broken pieces, but in places on the borders 
of the lake, especially in front of the town of Roberval, 
south of the River Ouiatchouanish, the weathered surfaces 
of the limestone forming the beach exhibit very fair ex- 
amples of Trenton fossils, among them Murchisonia, Pleuro- 
tomaria, Halysites and others, characteristic of this formation. 
These fossils are protruding from the upper surfaces of 
slabs, generally two or three inches in thickness. So plenti- 
ful are they that the difficulty lies not in the finding, but 
in the selection of the most perfect or most characteristic 
specimens. This exposure seems to extend about two and 


Notes on the Lake St. John Country. 391 


a half miles. Among the specimens I collected here were 
the following :— 


Columnaria Alveolata. Murchisonia bicincta. 
Petraia. Murchisonia gracilis. 
Rhynconella. Murchisonia holopae. 
Maclurea Logani. Metoptoma erata. 
Straparollus (2) Bellerophon Argo. 
Pleurotomaria. Orthoceras. 


The most interesting however, was a large fossil some 
twelve inches long and eight inches in diameter, spheroidal 
in form, apparently consisting of a number of concentrically 
laminated masses, and somewhat resembling Stromatopora. 
It lay near the bank, and might have been washed up from 
the lake by the storms of winter, or had perhaps been left 
near its original position; its great weight, and hard im- 
perishable nature having resisted the forces by which the 
more perishable rock-bed was washed away. Sir William 
Dawson has come to the conclusion that this is a new 
species of Cryptozoon and has named it Cryptozoon boreale. 

It is probable that a description of this will be given by 
Sir William Dawson in a future number of the Record, 

The dip of the strata is toward the lake, At Point 
Bleu, the limestone has a rough crystalline form, is in 
layers from an inch to nearly a foot in thickness, and forms 
a cliff ten to twelve feet high. ‘The shore is strewn with 
large slabs, but weathered fossils do not appear as at 

toberval. At Snake Island towards the south-west of the 
lake, characteristic fossils of the Hudson River group are 
said to have been obtained, 

In a paper read in 1882 before the Royal Society of 
Canada, the Rev. Abbé Laflamme stated that he had found 
the Trenton limestone well developed upon the shore of the 
Saguenay River, from St. Anne to the upper side of the 
junction of the two discharges. He had also discovered 
some beds of the same south-east of the mouth of the 
Metabetchouan, reposing on the Laurentian, and showing 
signs of being the remains of larger deposits of which 


392 Canadian Record of Science. 


the greater part; had been removed by glaciation. He 
noticed that these limestones are rich in petroleum; 
this has been observed by others also, for in answer to en- 
quiries recently made, I find that a gentleman of Buffalo 
has purchased land near Chambord with the intention of 
bringing the petroleum there into use. 

hake St. John is 300 feet above the level of the Gulf of 
St. Lawrence, it is not, except towards the centre, very deep, 
and having sandbanks in some parts, navigation near the 
Shore is difficult. In shape it is almost circular. Its 
greatest diameter from the Metabetchouan to the Peribonca 
is twenty-eight miles, and from the grand discharge at the 
head of the Saguenay to the Ouiatchouanish twenty miles. 
It is the recipient of several rivers, large and small, 
draining a great extent of country. On the north it 
receives the Peribonca, said to be nearly 400 miles long, 
and navigable for nearly twenty miles. The Mistassini 
and the Ashuapmouchouan navigable for eight miles 
coming from the north-west. On the south of the lake are 
the Ouiatchouan, leaping over and down the mountain side 
in magnificent and beautiful falls, which give the name to 
the river, and which are 236 feet in height, and the 
Metabetchouan from Lake aux Rognons, a few miles south- 
east of Cedar Lake. This river is said to have a fair 
amount of good land, suitable for settlement on its borders. 

As is well known, Lake St. John discharges its surplus 
waters by the Saguenay river into the St. Lawrence. 

It would appear as if Lake St. John occupies a hollow 
formed by the elevation of the Laurentian hills in this part. 
That in the Paleozoic times it was, with the country around, 
covered by the Silurian seas. After these retired, this part 
of the country was not much disturbed by the various 
movements which occurred in many other regions. In the 
glacial period, it was with the rest of this part of the 
continent again submerged, and much of the limestone 
carried away. The bottom of the lake and parts of the 
country around have retained the covering of Silurian lime- 
stone and the decay of this, mixed with the disintegrated 


Notes on the Lake St. John Country. 398 


constituents of the Laurentian rocks, forms the fertile soil 
which makes this district of so much importance to the 
province. About twenty years ago, one of the largest bush 
fires on record devastated the whole country on the south 
of the lake from the Descharge to Point Bleu. Many poor 
habitants lost their lives in this conflagration. The burnt 
country soon attracted fresh settlers, and being now more 
easily cleared, and possessing such good soil, this part is 
the most thickly populated. From the comfortable ap- 
pearance of the people and their homes, the well-fenced 
fields and fine crops of wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, &c., it 
is evident that the praise bestowed on this region is no more 
than it deserves. There is said to be another flourishing 
settlement on the western side of the lake on Ashuapmou- 
chuan. At the Indian reserve at Point Bleu there is a 
settlement of Montagnais Indians, pure Indians, veritable 
hunters. Houses have been erected for them, but they 
prefer living in their tents, using the houses as repositories 
for their various belongings. ‘They go into the woods in 
the winter, seeking furs, and are said to endure great hard- 
ships being often in want of food when game is scarce. 
Indeed, it is said, many have died of starvation. The young 
people are, as a rule, healthy looking and round faced, but 
the older people carry signs of their hard life in their bent 
forms and hollow cheeks. It may be noticed that very few 
old men are seen among them. 

As a consequence of the great fire, the trees on the south 
side of the lake are but small. On the north side and in 
the country around the Saguenay, lumbering operations 
have been for many years carried on by the Messrs. Price, 
Brothers, of Quebec, and most of the valuable timber taken 
out. The principal trees are spruce, balsam, white and 
yellow birch. 

Leaving Lake St. John and turning southward, with the 
exception of some good land on the Metabetchouan river, 
there appears to be little to entice the settler till you 
approach St. Raymond, Other fertile spots may be found 
when the country is better known, but at present the 


394 Canadian Record of Science. 


chief wealth of the district seems to be in its white and 
yellow birch, spruce and balsam, and in the more southern 
parts, elm and maple. Mills have been erected on some of 
the streams, and quite an extensive business is done by the 
railway in conveying the sawn lumber, as well as immense 
quantities of cordwood to Quebec. 

There seems to be but little chance of minerals of any 
value being found there. It is said that copper and iron 
have been reported at Beaudet Station, and at Valcartier 
is a deposit of foraminiferous earth. I have before spoken 
of the petroleum at Lake St. John. The granite or gneiss 
in some parts, is fine in grain and hard. It makes a good 
polish, and is not affected by the weather. It is to be used 
for the monument to Jacques Cartier to be erected at 
Quebec. 

Large animals are scarce throughout the whole of the 
district. Bears may sometimes be seen near settlements. 
The beaver, otter, musk rat, fisher and mink are found. It 
is the fish which make the country so interesting to the 
sportsman, and which is drawing the attention of our 
neighbours to this part of our province. In this region of 
mountain streams, lakes and rivers, there is scarcely a 
piece of water but abounds with fish. In Lake St. John 
is found the famous Ouinaniche or land-locked salmon, 
weighing from 4 to 14 lbs. It is a beautiful fish, fine 
eating, and said to give excellent sport to the angler. 
Other kinds of fish of good size are found here also. In 
other streams and lakes are the forked tail and speckled 
trout, the former weighing up to nearly 30 lbs., the latter 
to 7 or 8 lbs. Fine fish of 3 lbs. or 4 lbs. are quite common 
in Lake Edward. Other fish found there are bass, doré, 
whitefish, pike and perch. 


New Genus of Siliceous Sponges. 395 


On A New GENUuS OF SILICEOUS SPONGES FROM 
THE TRENTON FORMATION AT OTTAWA. 


By GmorGe Jennincs Hinpp, Pu.D. 


[Plate D.] 


The Canadian Geological Survey, through Mr. J. F. 
Whiteaves, F.G.S., has lately forwarded to me, for examina- 
tion and description, a small collection of fossil sponges 
which has been obtained by Mr. W. R. Billings from the 
Trenton Formation at Ottawa. The rarity of these organ- 
isms in this geological horizon renders a special interest to 
their study. The forms obtained are, for the most part, un- 
attractive in outward aspect, showing little more than their 
cylindrical or compressed outlines; and their real charac- 
ters, whether sponges or mere inorganic nodules, cannot in 
all cases be known until sections have been made. These 
show that the sponges are now completely filled up by 
the dark limestone matrix of the rocks in which they occur, 
which renders it very difficult to make out the direction of 
the canals which traversed their walls. Sometimes, how- 
ever, transparent calcite has partially occupied the canals. 
The delicate spicular network of which the sponge-skeleton 
is composed, has also been largely destroyed in the fossili- 
zation, and the portions which remain have quite lost their 
original siliceous structure, and are now replaced by crys- 
talline calcite. The effect of this change has been that the 
definite form of the individual spicules and their mode of 
union with each other, can no longer be recognized, and 
thus render their determination somewhat uncertain. In 
spite of these hindrances to a precise diagnosis, I venture 
to describe these forms as a new genus of Lithiotid sponges, 
for which I propose the name Steliella’, 


STELIELLA, g. n. 


Generic characters. —Sponges simple, subeylindrical, com- 
pressed, club-shaped or occasionally funnel-shaped, appar- 


' ornty, an upright stone or post, dimin. 


596 Canadian Record of Science. 


ently free. Walls thick, a cloacal depression at the sum- 
mit, which may be extended downwards as an open tube. The 
outer surface of the wall with circular canal apertures dis- 
posed in longitudinal rows. There are two series of canals ; 
a larger which traverses the walls in a generally vertical 
or oblique direction ; and a smaller which extends from the 
surface in an arched direction to the interior of the sponge 
wall. The skeleton consists of a connected spicular mesh- 
work, apparently of the Anomocladina type, in which there 
is a relatively small central node with a variable number of 
rays which connect with adjoining nodes. No distinctive 
dermal layer is present. 

The spicular structure of this genus is nearest allied to 
that of Astylospongia, F. Roemer, but the nodes are less de 
veloped, and the network is much less regular. Owing to 
the manner in which the spicules are replaced, and their 
coalescence, it is impossible to make a close comparison 
with other sponges, and, in fact, it is difficult to state posi- 
tively whether the spicules are uniformly of the Anomocla- 
dina type. The canal apertures of the surface, and the 
shape of the sponges as well, resemble some forms of Cala- 
thium, Bill., such as O. Anstedi’ and C. Fittoni,” but the spicu- 
lar structure in these latter is as yet unknown, and there- 
fore they cannot properly be compared with Steliella. 


STELIELLA BILLINGs!I, sp. n., pl. Figs. 1-4. 


Sponges subcylindrical or compressed so as to be nearly - 
elliptical in transverse section, or club-shaped ; the basal end 
obtusely rounded and apparently free. Thespecimens vary 
from 28 to 64 mm. in length, and from 14 to 34 mm. in 
thickness. The vertical rows of canal apertures are about 
1mm. apart, the apertures themselves, in the single 
specimen in which they are clearly shown, are circular or 
ovate and about 1 mm. in width. The larger canals, as 
shown in transverse sections, are from 0.5 to 1 mm. in 
width, those of the smaller series are from 0.2 to 0.3 mm, 


1 Pal. Fos., vol. 1. p. 210. 
2 Tb., p. 211. 


New Genus of Siliceous Sponges. 397 


wide. The skeleton of the sponges has the appearance in 
thin sections of a minute stellate network, the central nodes 
rounded or slightly elongate, from 0,11 to 0.17 mm. in thick- 
ness ; the spicular rays are about 0.3 mm. in length and 0.03 
in thickness; there are from three to six radiating from 
each node, but they cannot in all cases be traced to their 
union with the proximate nodes. In some cases the spicu- 
lar rays radiate from a non-inflated centre and are thus of 
a tetracladine type; such forms however appear to be ex- 
ceptional. 

This species appears to be not uncommon. The speci- 
mens are all alike in their unfavourable condition of preser- 
vation. In several, the cloaca and main canals have been 
partly filled with microscopic crinoidal joints. 

Distribution. Trenton Limestone, Ottawa. Collected by 
Mr. W. R. Billings, after whom the species is named. 


STELIELLA CRASSA, sp. n., pl. Figs. 5-6. 


The single specimen referred to this species is funnel- 
shaped, with an oblique summit and thick rounded margins. 
The basal extremity is obtusely rounded. The cloacal de- 
pression appears to be shallow. There are only a few traces 
of canal apertures on the outer surface, they are about 1 
mm. in width, their arrangement cannot be ascertained. 
The specimen is 65 mm. in height, and 30 mm. in thickness. 
The large canals are about 1 mm. in width, those of the 
smaller series vary from 0°25 to0.5 mm. wide. The spicular 
structure is of the same character as in the preceding species, 
but the rays of the spicules are decidedly larger, ranging 
up to 0.5 mm. in length, and the spicular mesh is thus of a 
more open character. 

The specimen is in the same state of preservation as tho 
forms described above. 

Distribution. Trenton Formation, Ottawa, Collected by 
Mr. W. R. Billings. 


398 Canadian Record of Science. 


REFERENCE TO FIGURES. 


Figs. 1-4 Steliella Billingsi. 


Fig. 1. Showing the form of the sponge and traces of the vertical 


ridges between the canal apertures. 

Fig. 2. A transverse section from the centre of the same specimen 
showing the arrangement (in section) of the large canals. 
Natural size. 

Fig. 3. The outer surface of another specimen showing the canal 
apertures. Natural size. 

Fig, 4. A portion of the spicular mesh, as seen in a thin micro- 
scopic section. Enlarged sixty diametres. 


Figs. 5-6. Steliella crassa. 


Fig. 5. The sponge, natural size. 
Fig. 6. A fragment of the spicular mesh, enlarged sixty diameters. 


ON THE ACADIAN AND St. LAWRENCE WATER-SHED. 
By L. W. Barney. 
Read before the Nat. Hist. Society of New Brunswick, April, 1889. 


The tract of land which constitutes the great divide 
between the basin of the St. Lawrence on the one hand, and 
shore of the upper St. John and Baie Chaleur on the other, 
is one of much interest for several reasons. Geographically 
it corresponds very nearly to the line separating the 
Provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec; politically, it has 
had great significance in connection with the various inter- 
national and inter-provincial boundary disputes, as it still 
marks in a general way the line of separation between 
races of different language, customs and descent ; physically, 
its character is such that, until a comparatively recent 
period, it has acted as a very serious barrier to inter-pro- 
vincial communication ; and finally, from a geological point 
of view, it is of interest as forming a portion of one of the 
great cordilleras of the continent, the eastern extremity of 
the great Appalachian mountain-system. It is proposed in 
the present paper, to give a brief summary of some of its 
characteristics, as viewed in the last two aspects, 


Acadian and St. Lawrence Water-shed. 399 


Regarding the Gaspé peninsula and its direct extension 
westward, as properly marking the limits of the area under 
discussion, this may be said to have the general form of a 
broadly curving belt convex to the northward of which the 
sides are nearly parallel and at a distance from each other 
of about ninety miles, while its length from Cape Gaspé to 
the Little St. Francis river, is 250 miles. While on the 
northern side it forms the south shore of the St. Lawrence, 
and is of very regular outline, it is on the southern side less 
clearly defined by the valley of the St. John river above 
Edmunston, and farther east by that of the Restigouche 
river and the Bay Chaleur. 

Though everywhere hilly, the district in question can 
only at comparatively few points be properly described as 
mountainous. Its true character is rather that of an 
elevated plateau, having in the Gaspé peninsula an average 
elevation of 1000 feet, but declining to the westward, upon 
which are held up, along certain lines, somewhat more 
prominent ridges, while the sides have been broken up and 
made hilly by the effects of deep and irregular erosion. Of 
the ridges referred to, the most considerable are those 
forming the Shickshock Mountains, included wholly within 
the Gaspé peninsula, and having a length of about sixty-five 
miles with a breadth of from two to six miles, at a distance 
of about twelve miles from the St. Lawrence. Their maxi- 
mum elevation is from three to four thousand feet, and the 
district which they form is one of an exceedingly rugged 
but picturesque character. From the summit of Mount 
Albert, nearly 4000 feet high, not less than (158) one hun- 
dred and fifty-eight distinct peaks were observed and trian- 
gulated by Mr. A. P. Low, who also describes the inter- 
vening valleys as having often the character of deep cafions, 
traversed by narrow but deep streams with numerous rapids 
and falls. Inaddition to the main chain of the Shicksocks, a 
second range, of less elevation, but still including some lofty 
peaks, is found between the latter and the coast, while here 
and there, on either side of the axis, are isolated granite hills, 
such as Table Top Mountain, rising fully 2000 feet above 

24 


400 Canadian Record of Science. 


the general level of the surrounding country, and nearly 
bare of vegetation. Towards Lake Metapedia and the line 
of the Intercolonial Railway, the great ridges of the Gaspé 
peninsula become much less prominent, but a little to the 
westward of the lake, another range, that of the Notre Dame 
Hills, rises somewhat abruptly from the surrounding plateau, 
and stretches away in the direction of the head-waters of 
the Grand Metis and Patapedia rivers. It does not, how- 
ever, quite reach these latter, and to the westward of these 
streams no ridges of a well defined or continuous character 
are to be met with. 

The rivers which drain as well as owe their origin to the 
great belt of high land here described, present many in- 
teresting features. They are quite numerous, including, in 
the Gaspé peninsula proper, the St. Anne des Monts, the 
Dartmouth, York and St. John at the eastern end of the 
peninsula, with the Grand Pabos, Bonaventure, Big and 
Little Cascapedia, tributary to the Bay Chaleur. Farther 
west we have, on the north or St. Lawrence side, the Little 
and grand Metis, the Rimouski, the Trois Pistoles, Riviére 
Verte and Riviére du Loup; while on the southern side, 
besides the Metapedia, there are the Restigouche, with its 
tributaries the Patapedia and Quatawamkedgwick, the 
Madawaska, the St. Francis, the Big Black and Little 
Black rivers, with others of minor importance. As might 
be expected, the streams flowing northward into the St. 
Lawrence are, as a rule, much smaller than those flowing in 
the opposite direction, but if we include the entire distance 
of the latter to the sea, the contrast is in some instances 
quite remarkable. Thus while few of the streams tributary 
to the St. Lawrence show a greater length than thirty 
miles, the length of the Metapedia, including the lake, is 
nearly sixty miles, that of the Restigouche from the source 
of the Kedgewick nearly ninety miles, and the St. John, 
measured in the direct line from Temiscouata to the Bay of 
Fundy, 260 miles, or from the source of the St. Francis, 
over 300 miles. The streams on the north shore also differ 
in being usually more irregular in course, with more 


Acadian and St. Lawrence Water-shed. 401 


numerous and larger falls and rapids, being sometimes in- 
accessible for considerable distances. A more curious and 
more interesting feature is the fact that many of the 
streams, on either side of the general water-shed seem to 
have been but little affected by the position of the latter, 
having their source upon one side of this and their discharge 
upon the other. Thus in the Gaspé peninsula, as described 
by Richardson and. others, the Matane, the Ste. Anne des 
Monts and the Chatte all take their sources south of the 
general height of land, and have cut deep gorges through 
the latter on their way to the St. Lawrence, while one 
branch of the Matane, rising north of the axis, flows across 
the latter to its junction with the main stream, and thus has 
its waters twice intersect the principal range of elevations. 
On the other hand the St. Francis, rising in a lake of the 
Same name, is only twelve miles distant from the St. 
Lawrence, and several miles north of the sources of the 
Trois Pistoles, and yet flows southward across the range to 
its junction with the St. John. 

Another noticeable feature is the number, size and depth 
of the lakes connected with the streams draining the 
southern side of the water-shed. Of these, Lake Temis- 
couata is the largest, being about thirty miles in length, 
with a breadth varying from one to two miles, and a depth 
(which is nearly uniform through a large part of its length) 
of 220 feet, its elevation above the sea being 467 feet. Lake 
Metapedia has an area of twelve square miles, about half that 
of Temiscouata, and an elevation of 480 feet, but has much 
less depth. Near Temiscouata, and in connection with it, are 
the Squatook Lake and Cabano Lake, both remarkable for 
their depth, while farther west, on the line of the St. 
Francis, are Pohenagamook or Boundary Lake, Glazier’s and 
Beau Lake. It is noticeable that most of these lakes occupy 
long narrow troughs having a nearly north and south 
course, or transverse to the trend of the hills in which they 
lie, and that this course is extended in nearly the same 
direction by the streams to which they give origin. The 
valleys of these streams, as in the case of the Metapedia 


402 Canadian Record of Science. 


and the Madawaska, are now largely filled with drift, and 
there can be but little doubt that all of them mark old 
channels of sub-aerial erosion, the partial damming of 
which has originated the lake-basins which now characterize 
them. 

The climatic features of the region under review may be 
readily inferred from its position and physical aspects. 
While its comparatively high latitude determines great 
inequality in the length of the seasons, a long winter and a 
very short summer, its altitude further tends to reduce the 
mean temperature of the latter. The temperature of the 
coastal waters, these being a part of the great southward 
flow from the Arectics, being also very low, leads to a further 
chilling in the air above them, and the effects of this are 
readily recognizable in the prevailing winds. Fogs are not 
uncommon, even over the higher portions of the district, 
and the rain and snow fall both excessive, Ice sometimes 
remains in wake Metapedia as late as the 24th of May, and 
upon the adjacent hill tops, as well as in ravines and gullies, 
great banks of snow often linger far into June.  Frosts 
come early in autumn, and may come, even with severity, 
at any time of the year. Long continued and excessive 
heats are of rare occurrence. 

The climatic features of the region are reflected in its 
vegetation and animal life, although the former is also 
largely influenced by the character of the soils and drain- 
age, as these in turn are by the nature and structure of the 
rocks beneath. The larger portion of the district is forest- 
clad, the clearings being for the most part confined to a 
narrow belt, five to fifteen miles wide, skirting the St. 
Lawrence, to isolated settlements around the shores of the 
Gaspé peninsula, to the immediate neighbourhood of the 
Temiscouata Portage Road, and to the more recently opened 
line of the Intercolonial Railway. The trees most commonly 
met with are spruce, fir, hackmatac and white birch, but in 
favorable situations and on lands of moderate elevation 
yellow birch and sugar-maple are also not uncommon, and 
along the river valleys, groves of black ash and poplar. 


Acadian and St. Lawrence Water-shed. 403 


The immediate banks of streams are bordered by the 
ubiquitous alder, amid which in autumn glow the rich 
berries of the mountain ash. On the higher summits the 
vegation is of course more scanty, and in the Shickshocks, 
as already described, these are often quite bare of trees. Of 
herbaceous plants there is, of course, in the district as a 
whole, a considerable variety, but little has yet been done 
in working out the details of their distribution. Of those 
occurring in the vicinity of Lake Temisconata a pretty full 
list has been published by Mr. J. J. Northrop (Bull. Torr. 
Bot. Club, Noy., 1887), and supplemented by another pre- 
pared by Mr. Ami of the Geological staff. With few ex- 
ceptions the species named are the same as those found in 
the valley of the St. John river, but many forms, both of 
trees and herbs, common in the latter have not yet been 
noted in the hilly district to the north. The following list 
embraces a few forms observed by the author on the banks 
of the upper St. John, near Fort Kent, Parnassia Caroliniana 
Tanacetum Huronense, Oxytropus Campestris, Veratrum viride 
Hedysarum boreale, Allium Shoenoprasum, Heracleum lanatum, 
Rosa blanda, Lilium Canadense, Potentilla fruticosa, Anemone 
Pennsylvanica, Thalictrum dioicum, Castilleia pallida, Silene 
inflata, Diervilla trifida, Lysimachia stricta, Brunella vulgaris, 
Pyrola secunda, P. elliptica, 

As to animal life, the same forms are found as occur in 
the less inhabited parts of our uwn province. Bears are 
very common, and red-deer and caribou but little less so, 
while moose are comparatively rare. Both birds and 
insects present considerable variety, but as yet have been 
but little studied. The remarkable clearness and coolness 
of the streams, and the depth of the lakes, are especially 
favorable for the development of fishes, and few regions in 
the world can excel in attractions for the sportsman, those 
afforded by the waters of the Restigouche and its tributaries, 
the Cascapedia, the Matane and the Grand Metis. In the 
larger lakes, in addition to trout, are found the white fish, 
the toque and the tuladi. ‘Turtles, sometimes of large size, 
were often seen basking on the muddy banks of streams, 


404 Canadian Record of Science. 


and at some points, specimens of cray-fish were also 
observed. The soils of the region under discussion can be 
best considered in connection with the geological formations 
which have determined them. 

The oldest rocks of the Gaspé Peninsula proper, are, 
according to Mr. Hlls, those which make up the mass of the 
Shickshock Mountains, and consist chiefly of epidosite, 
garnetiferous gneiss, horneblendic, chloritic and micaceous 
schists, together with large masses of serpentine, portions 
of which are distinctly stratified, while others suggest an 
eruptive origin. These rocks were described in the 
Geology of Canada, by Richardson and Logan, as being an 
altered portion of the Quebec group (Sillery), but are 
referred by Hills, chiefly upon lithological grounds, to the 
Pre-Cambrian. The only point where the belt of rocks so 
referred has been observed by the present writer is on the 
eastern shore of Lake Metapedia. They here consist of 
heavy masses of grey, greenish and purplish amygdaioid, 
holding considerable quantities of epidote, and bear some 
resemblance to the Huronian of southern New Brunswick, 
but not more than they also do to similar masses occurring 
in connection both with the Cambro-Silurian and Silurian 
formations. ‘To the north of these volcanic rocks, upon the 
same lake, the rocks are chiefly hard massive sandstones of 
a greenish (or rarely purplish) color and distinctly bedded, 
but with these, at two points, are beds in which the sand- 
stones, by the enclosure of limestone pebbles, become a 
coarse, gritty conglomerate. These rocks have also been 
referred to the Quebec group (Sillery) but they have as yet 
yielded no fossils, and further investigation of their re- 
lations is required. At the extreme northern end of the 
jake, the rocks are undoubtedly those of this latter group, 
and from near Sayabec Station on the Intercolonial Rail- 
way io St. Flavie, are exposed in a very remarkable and 
almost continuous section, showing repeated alternations of 
bright red, green, grey and black slates, with beds of 
massive grey or whitish sandstone. The former resemble 
the strata which at other points along the south shore of 


Acadian and St. Lawrence Water-shed. 405 


the St. Lawrence have been described under the name of 
the Levis rocks, and the latter bear a similar resemblance 
to the so-called Sillery, but it may well be doubted how far 
these and the numerous other sub-divisions adopted by 
Richardson in his report on the geology of southeastern 
Quebec, are capable of being sustained by actual facts. A 
new and good opportunity for the study of these rocks has 
recently been furnished by the line of the newly opened 
Temiscouata railway, and was availed of by the writer and 
Mr. W. McInnes during the past summer; but with the 
result of showing that along this line at least no good 
reasons exist for the adoption of such sub-divisions. It has 
been supposed by Richardson that in addition to the several 
members of the Quebec group proper (Sillery, Lauzon and 
Levis) a portion of the sandstones found at St. Antoine and 
Frazerville (Riviére du Loup) are of Potsdam age, but it is 
‘impossible to see in what respects the rocks thus referred to 
differ either in character or relations, from those elsewhere 
referred to the Sillery sandstone. The topography of the 
country underlaid by these Quebec rocks is exceedingly 
broken and rugged, the repeated alternations of hard and 
soft strata, together with excessive folding, having been 
especially favorable to the formation of steep and bold 
ridges scparated by narrow and deep valleys. ‘The massive 
sandstones, from their peculiar whiteness and absence of 
vegetation, are especially conspicuous, but are exceeded in 
elevation, as well as in the craggy character of the scenery 
which they determine, by the hard and glossy slates which 
at various points rise from beneath them. Near the axis 
of the divide the land is, as has been stated, somewhat 
flatter, but here large tracts are so thickly strewed with 
blocks of the dark grey Sillery sandstones that little else is 
visible. In all parts, except where intervales occur, the 
soils are of the most meagre character, and the settlements, 
chiefly French, of the poorest description. 

The transition from the Quebec or Cambro-Silurian rocks 
to those of the Silurian system, is everywhere well marked, 
being seen alike in the character and attitude of the beds. 


406 Canadian Record of Science. 


The contrast in the latter respectjis especially noticeable, 
for while the strata of the older series are everywhere 
highly inclined and sharply folded, those of the younger, 
along the line of contact, are very generally nearly flat. 
While, too, the former are largely made up of slates, often 
brilliantly or variously colored, and without conspicuous - 
fossils, the latter are usually grey or dark grey in colour, 
consist largely of limestones, and abound in corals and other 
organic remains, often of large size. The contrast in many 
places has been made still more striking by the effects of 
erosion. Thus along a large part of its northern edge, the 
Silurian presents the appearance of a bold or even precipi- 
tous escarpment, separated only by a deep and narrow 
valley from the irregular and usually lower tract to the 
north occupied by the inferior group. This feature is very 
strongly marked between the Grand Métis river and the 
Rimouski, determining in part the eminence of Mount 
Commis and wholly that of the Bois Brulé, and though to 
the westward of the Rimouski it becomes less evident, it 
re-appears with special prominence at Temiscouata Lake, 
here originating the remarkable eminence known as Mount 
Wissick, Mount Lennox or the Big Mountain. 

The order of succession and the equivalency of different 
members of the Silurian system in northern New Bruns- 
wick and adjacent portions of Quebec and Maine, have long 
been wrapped in much obscurity, the difficulty of their 
determination arising partly from the great sameness of 
the formation over large areas, the excessive folding and 
strong slaty cleavage by which it is generally characterized, 
and finally from the comparative paucity of fossils. An 
examination however of the section afforded by Lake Temis- 
couata and its vicinity has recently done much to remove 
this obscurity and to afford a key whereby the geology of 
the districts named may be more satisfactorily correlated 
not only with each other, but with more distant parts of 
the continent. 

It will not be possible in this place to dwell at length on 
the details of this section (which will be fully described in 


Acadian and St. Lawrence Water-shed. 404 


a forthcoming report, by the writer and Mr. Wm. McInnes, 
to the Director of the Geological Survey), but the following 
brief summary embodying the more important results, will 
probably be of interest. 

The strata in question naturally fall into three groups, 
Of these, the first are those which directly constitute the 
eminence of Mount Wissick. At their base they exhibit 
a considerable thickness of a pure and nearly white highly 
vitreous sandstone, with thin beds of conglomerate, followed 
by a mass of shales partly grey and partly bright green 
and red, above which, forming the principal mass of the 
mountain, are thick beds of grey limestone, the whole 
having a thickness of about 600—1000 feet. Their dip is 
for the most part at a low angle and at the northern base 
of the mountain, where it rises precipitously from the lake, 
their unconformity to the Quebec group, consisting here of 
black and green slates which are highly disturbed and 
altered, may be readily witnessed. In the shales and 
limestones the fossils are abundant and large collections 
recently made show that with the possible exception of the 
sandstones at the base, the strata are newer than the 
Niagara formation, the lowest fossiliferous shales being 
about the equivalent of the Guelph formation of Ontario, 
above the Wenlock, but below the Ludlow group of 
England, while the higher range through this last named 
group to and possibly through the Lower Helderberg. A 
similar but less complete succession has been observed by 
the writer on the Rimouski river, in Bois Brulé Mountain 
at St. Blondine, in the valley of the Neigette, on Taché 
toad at St. Gabriel, on the Grand Metis, and finally on Lake 
Metapedia, and from each of these, fossils of similar character 
have been collected. On Lake Metapedia, the basal sand- 
stones were: also found to be fossiliferous, including among 
other forms that of Pentamerus oblongus, a Murchisonia and 
Oriostoma. 

The second series of rocks shown in the Temiscouata 
section is separated from the last by an interval of about 
800 yards without exposures, and differs greatly both in 


408 Canadian Record of Science. 


character and attitude. The lowest beds are conglomerates 
of very coarse character, and attain a thickness of not less 
than 1000 feet, with a nearly uniform south-easterly dip of 
50°. The pebbles in the conglomerates include many of 
limestone, and have apparently been derived from the 
disintegration of the slates and limestones of the Quebec 
group, but are not at present known to contain any fossils. 
Above the conglomerates is a considerable breadth of slates, 
also usually inclined southwards at high angles and includ- 
ing some beds of limestone, above which we finally have a 
great body of sandstone rock, peculiar, in addition to its 
hard and massive character, in being often of greenish or 
purplish color, with veins and blotches of epidote and 
bands of purple jasper. These rocks which form upon the 
lake the promontory of Point aux Trembles, and thence 
extend up the Tuladi river to Squatook Peak, which is 
composed of them, have been in earlier publications sup- 
posed to be younger than those of Mount Wissick and to be 
possibly Devonian. But collections of fossils recently 
made from both the slates and sandstones, and examined 
by Mr. Ami of the Geological Survey, would seem to show 
that they are really the older of the two, representing pro- 
bably the lower part of the Niagara formation, and per- 
haps the Medina or Clinton group. From this it would 
also follow that we have here a great physical break in the 
Silurian system, its upper members being not only uncon- 
formable to the lower, -but spreading beyond the limits of 
the latter, and thus made to rest directly upon the rocks of 
the inferior Quebec group. 

The third and last group of rocks found at Temiscouata 
Lake consists of fine grained slates, with some sandstones 
of grey and dark grey colors, all of which are more or less 
calcareous, and are further noticeable for their repeated 
and complicated corrugations and the general presence of 
a very strong slaty cleavage. The direct contact of tlie 
slates with the sandstones of Point aux Trembles has not 
been observed, but from their general position in relation 
to the latter and from such fossils as have elsewhere been 


Acadian and St. Lawrence Water-shed. 409 


obtained in them, it is conjectured that they are more recent 
than the latter. In this case they can not be far removed 
in age from the rocks of Mount Wissick, and are perhaps 
to be regarded as the equivalents of the latter, deposited 
under somewhat different conditions. 

Applying now the key thus afforded, we find that the 
succession of rocks constituting the first of the above 
divisions, that of Mount Wissick, is but repeated, with 
eventually the same character and fossils, and with th® 
same low dip all around the northern margin of the Silurian 
tract, from Rimouski to Lake Metapedia, and eastward into 
the interior of the Gaspé peninsula. So, similarly, to the 
southward of these strata, we find the country drained by 
the Restigouche and its tributaries, the Quatawamkedge- 
wick, the Patapedia and the Metapedia, everywhere occu- 
pied by slates similar to those of the lower part of Lake 
Temiscouata and the Madawaska. At no point, however, 
distant from the lake, has anything been observed corres- 
ponding to any portion of the intermediate division, which 
must accordingly either be wholly wanting or concealed 
from view by the superposition of the higher and uncon- 
formable members of the system. In New Brunswick the 
slates are also predominant, being the prevailing rock 
through all the northern counties, though sometimes be- 
coming so calcareous as to constitute true limestones, but 
with these, at a few points, are also found beds which 
appear to represent the inferior group. Thus on the Siegas 
River, in Victoria county, where the beds are nearly vertical, 
the slates are accompanied, first, by a coarse and very 
peculiar conglomerate (holding elongated, curved and dis- 
rupted pebbles of limestone, mingled with others of serpen- 
tine), and, secondly, by beds of sandstone not unlike 
those of Point aux Trembles, and carrying fossils indicative 
of a similar horizon, Again, on the Beccaguimee River in 
Carleton county, on the extreme southern edge of the 
Silurian tract, the succession of beds bears much resem- 
blance to that observed near its northern edge, and again 
holds similar organic remains, while, finally, it is possible 


410 Canadian Record of Science. 


that still another such area exists near the mouth of the 
Shiktehawk. In the State of Maine, the three groups of 
strata described are still more clearly represented, for while 
there, as in the province, the slates are the most commonly 
occurring rocks, comprising all the country drained by the 
upper St. John, as well as large areas about Presquile 
and Houlton, we have, in the Fish River Lakes, and again 
at Ashland, beds of limestone, abounding in fossils which 
are nearly parallel with those of Mount Wissick, while 
finally, in the valley of the Aroostook and covering large 
areas, are conglomerates and sandstones, which are the 
evident continuation of those of the Siegas River, presenting 
precisely similar characters and associations, and carrying 
the same fossils. In northern Maine, however, there are 
with these undoubted Silurian strata, great masses of 
volcanic rock, felsites, quartz-porphyries and amygdaloids, 
as well as fine silicious slates and purple micaceous and 
eneissic sandstones, the relations of which are not yet fully 
known. Beds of Devonian (Oriskany) age also occur, as 
they do both in New Brunswick and in the Gaspé peninsula, 
but are much less widely distributed than has been 
previously supposed. Finally, the slates are at a few points 
unconformably covered by bright red sandstones and con- 
glomerates similar to those of the Tobique valley in New 
Brunswick, and the Bonaventure district of Quebec, which 
are referable to the Lower Carboniferous formation. 

Thus the succession of events indicated by the rocks in 
the early history of the region under discussion would 
appear to be as follows. The great period of upheaval, 
mountain-making and metamorphism which brought 
Archaean time to a close, having served to determine and 
to some extent to limit the great St. Lawrence or Acadian 
basin, by lifting above the sea the ridges which still border 
it,—the Laurentides north of the St. Lawrence valley, 
ridges of similar rock along the New England coast, some 
of our own southern hills and similarly some of those of 
Nova Scotia, Cape Breton and Newfoundland—we find in 
the Cambrian and Cambro-Silurian periods which succeed, 


Acadian and St. Lawrence Water-shed. 411 


that over the intervening seas were in process of accumu- 
lation a vast thickness of sedimentary beds, pebble, sand, 
mud and lime-beds, spread horizontally over the sea-floor, 
and receiving from time to time the more durable relics of 
the life-—Brachiopods, Crinoids, Graptolites, &c.,—with 
which those seas were filled. Another period of upheaval 
then ensued, and, through pressure brought to bear upon 
the same sea-floor, portions of its surface became crumpled 
up into folds and ridges, and its materials more or less 
altered in character. At the same time, along the south 
side of the St. Lawrence, where the foldings are most 
numerous and excessive, the ridges thus produced were 
thrust above the sea level, thus defining that great estuary 
upon the southern as well as on the northern side, and em- 
bracing the system of heights (the Notre Dame Mts., &c.) 
already described as extending through the Gaspé peninsula 
and forming the great divide between the St. Lawrence 
and the Bay Chaleur. Along the southern side of the 
Lower Silurian rocks thus folded, we have seen that the 
Upper Silurian rocks meet them unconformably, and from 
their northern edge, in some places not more than nine 
miles from the shores of the St. Lawrence, spread south- 
ward to the Bay Chaleurs and upper St. John, as well as 
farther, over all the northern portions of New Brunswick 
and Maine. From the absence, or slight representation, 
through most of the Gaspé peninsula, of the inferior 
portions of the system (Niagara group) we may infer that, 
for some time after the opening of the Silurian era, this 
district still remained too elevated to be reached by oceanic 
waters: but the occurrence of limestones of this age at 
_ Cape Gaspé, as well as on Anticosti, filled with marine 
organisms, shows that in these localities at least the great 
St. Lawrence Gulf was still in existence. At the same 
time, the occurrence of the heavy beds of conglomerate, 
fully 1000 feet in thickness, with the succeeding shales and 
sandstones, carrying Niagara fossils, on Lake Temiscouata, 
would seem to indicate that these waters of the Gulf spread 
westward, at least as far as that point, though of diminished 


412 Canadian Record of Science. 


depth, and (to judge from the coarseness of many of the 
beds,) with currents of considerable power. Similar strata 
occurring on the Siegas River in New Brunswick, on the 
Beccaquimec River in the same province, and on the 
Aroostook River in Maine, indicate that these also were 
regions of similar shallow waters, with similar powerful 
and variable currents, and, as it would seem, subject at 
times to sub-marine volcanic ejections. Connected with 
these accumulations, and possibly in part determined by 
them, the floor of the gulf underwent frequent oscillations 
of level, and along certain tracts even more marked move- 
ments occurred, tilting (as at Burnt Point and Point aux 
Trembles) the heavy beds, and giving them their present 
steep inclination, while at others only gentle undulations 
were the result. Finally, over the irregular floor thus pro- 
duced were deposited the later beds of the Silurian sea, 
mostly in the form of fine calcareous muds, now hardened 
into slates, but in places in the form of pure limestones (like 
those of Dalhousie, Mount Wissick, Square Lake, Ashland, 
&c.) now filled with the relics of their ancient populations. 
These too have since felt the force of the great earth move- 
ments which have in all ages operated so widely and so 
powerfully in the history of our globe, and their effects are 
readily witnessed in the tilted and crumpled character of 
many of the beds, more particularly about the Grand Falls 
of the St. John, but never since have they been submerged 
to anything like their former extent, the later beds of the 
Devonian and Lower Carboniferous being much more 
limited in this distribution, and as regards the latter at least, 
found in what must have been very shallow and isolated 
basins. 

Of the still later chapters in the history of the region we 
have been discussing, two only can here be referred to, and 
these but briefly. verywhere over the district are to be 
seen evidences of a former extensive glaciation in the 
smoothing, polishing and striation of rock surfaces, in the 
occurrence of travelled boulders, and in the existence of 
drift-dammed pond and lakes, kames, &c., some of which 


Acadian and St. Lawrence Water-shed. 413 


are quite remarkable. The depth of some of the lakes like 
the Temiscouata, the Squatook and the Cabano, occupying 
as they do north and south depressions and with nearly 
fiat bottoms, would seem to point to ice-movements as 
having been closely connected with their position and 
character. But what is of still greater interest is the 
evidence which the district everywhere affords, of a 
northern as well as a southern driftage at some time during 
the ice period, the great ridge becoming itself a centre or 
axis of ice distribution as it is now of the rivers which 
drain it. This fact is strikingly seen in the occurrence of 
great boulders of fossiliferous Silurian limestone strewed 
over the Quebec rocks at the upper end of Lake Temis- 
couata, and which have been derived from Mount Wissick 
to the south, again in the similar occurrence of such boulders 
at the northern end of Lake Metapedia, and finally their 
occurrence, in large numbers, along the St. Lawrence shore, 
as noticed about the Grand Métis river and Rimouski. 
Similar facts have elsewhere been observed by Mr. Chalmers, 
and are referred to in his reports on the Superficial Geology 
of the district. 

Of the early human period, but few relics, so far as known 
to the writer, have yet been found in the region here con- 
sidered. None were observed by us around the shores of 
Temiscouata Lake, but near the outlet of the First Tuladi 
Lake, are numerous fragments of chipped flint, together 
with a few sherds of pottery, indicating the former presence 
here of the early Pre-Historic races. So also we have 
failed to find any relics of this character on the St. John 
river above Edmunston, although below that point, and 
especially about Grand Falls and Aroostook Falls, they are 
not uncommon, 


414 Canadian Record of Science. 
NOTES ON SOME BIRDS OBSERVED AT MONTREAL. 


By F. B. CAuLFipip. 


The vicinity of a large and busy city like Montreal, with 
its well-travelled roads, noisy railway trains and steamboats, 
is not a favorable locality for studying bird life, yet, quite a 
number of species can be found within easy walking dis- 
tance of the city ; about 175 species of birds are now known 
to occur on the island of Montreal, and no doubt, continued 
research will extend the list. Our knowledge of the life 
history of many species is yet very limited, many interest- 
ing problems regarding their migration, nesting and distri- 
bution being yet unsolved. 

I observed last summer, a remarkable instance, showing 
how birds of a naturally shy and retiring disposition, will, 
even under most adverse circumstances, cling to a place 
suited to their habits. Just east of the village of Cote St. 
Paul and close to the public road and the Lachine Canal, 
there is a large pond, partly surrounded by a thick fringe 
of water flags and other aquatic plants. During the summer 
months the rattle of carts and blowing of steamboat whistles 
is almost incessant upon one side, while on the other a gun 
club has its quarters, and on Saturdays at least, keeps up a 
constant fire, the shot frequently striking the water with a 
sharp splash. 

Passing by this pond on the 24th of last May, I was sur- 
prised to see several red-winged black birds, Agelaius phe- 
niceus, rise from the reeds and circle around, uttering cries 
of alarm. This habit of flying up from the cover when 
alarmed, probably prevented their raising a brood, as on 
visiting the place a little later in the season, none were 
observed. I was pleased to find here a bird I had not pre- 
viously met with, the Long-billed marsh wren, Cistothorus 
palustris, numbers of which were singing in the reeds, their 
harsh, guttural notes making the place quite lively. Owing 
to their habit of hiding in the reeds, just above the surface 
of the water, only showing themselves for an instant, I 
failed to secure specimens, which I particularly wished to 


Birds observed at Montreal. 415 


do, as the species is not represented in our collections. In- 
deed I have not seen it on any Montreal list, although I 
believe it has been observed on Nun’s Island by Mr. Dunlop. 
Quite a number of rails were heard and seen in the pond, 
one of which was secured and proved to be the Virginia 
Rail, Rallus Virginianus. As both these species frequented 
the pond until the summer was well advanced, they no 
doubt, reared at least one brood, their hiding habits enabling 
them to escape the dangers by which they were surrounded, 
while the blackbirds, not availing themselves of this pro- 
tection, were, early in the season, either killed or driven 
away. 

The important question of the food habits of birds, and 
their influence upon the insect world, has not yet received 
the attention which it deserves ; and with the exception of 
the few who have investigated the matter, the general 
opinion is, | think, that birds are, with very few exceptions, 
highly beneficial, and that insects are, with equally few ex- 
ceptions, exceedingly injurious, or in other words, that if the 
birds did not eat the insects and thus reduce their numbers, 
they would multiply to such an extent as to entirely destroy 
all vegetation, 

While freely admitting the charm which the beauty and 
melody of the birds gives to the summer, and fully endors- 
ing the laws enacted for their protection, I incline to the 
opinion that their practical value has been over-estimated. 

It is obvious to any one who has given the subject a little 
attention that there are some kinds of insects that birds do 
not care to eat, for example,the hairy caterpillars, prominent 
amongst which are the Tent caterpillars, Clisiocampa Ameri- 
cana, and ©, Silvatica. These troublesome insects are more 
or less common every summer, and during some years 
become excessively numerous. When first hatched they 
conceal themselves beneath a web, but when about half: 
vrown, scatter over the trees, and may be seen resting in 
groups on the trunks and larger limbs. I have seen 
thousands thus exposed, but have never seen a bird eat one, 
or indeed notice them in any way. I have, however, on two 


25 


416 Canadian Record of Science. 


occasions observed a large species of ground beetle, Calosoma 
frigidum, killing them, seizing a caterpillar in its powerful 
jaws and shaking it just as a terrier doesarat. Professor 
Saunders, in his Presidential address to the Entomological 
Society of Ontario, for 1880, speaking on this subject, says : 
‘““When the cut worms were so common with us, this spring, 
that any bird, with very little effort, might have its fill of 
them, the contents of a number of stomachs were examined, 
especially those of the robin, and not a single specimen of 
this larve was found inany of them. It has been urged that 
some birds devour the larve of the plum curculio, by pick- 
ing them out of the fallen fruit, but I have failed to find any 
confirmation of this statement, indeed never found a curculio 
larvee in the stomach of any bird, excepting once in that of 
a robin, who had evidently swallowed it by accident when 
bolting a whole cherry. 

As for the robin having any claims upon the sympathies 
of man for the good he does, I fear that but a very slight 
case can be made out in his favour. Of fruit he is a thief 
of the very worst kind, stealing early and late, from the time 
of strawberries until the last grapes are gathered, not con- 
tent to eat entirely the fruit he attacks, but biting a piece 
out here and there from the finest specimens, and thus de- 
stroying a far greater quantity than would suffice to fill him 
to his utmost capacity. At the time of writing, flocks of 
the most pertinacious specimens are destroying the best of 
my grapes, while alongside is a patch of cabbages almost 
eaten up with the larve of the cabbage butterfly, nice, fat, 
smooth grubs, easily swallowed, but no such thing will Mr. 
Robin look at as long as good fruit can be had.” . 

I have myself, during the past year and up to the present, 
so far as my opportunities would permit, examined the 
stomachs of birds, with the following results :— 

1888. 
May 14th—Baltimore Oriole. Jcterus galbulu. Ground 
beetles belonging to the genera Platynus and 
Pterostichus. 
These are predacious insects, and are classed as beneficial. 


Birds observed at Montreal. 417 


Of three summer warblers obtained on the same date, the 
stomach of one contained specimens of Syneta triplax, a leaf- 
eating beetle, and although not sufficiently numerous to do 
much harm, is certainly to be classed as injurious. The 
second had been eating a species of Paria, also injurious. 
The third contained some triplax, same as first, also some 
of a species of Aphodius, a beetle living in cattle droppings, 
and may be set down as neutral. 


May 19th—Scarlet Tanager, Piranga erythromelas. May 
beetle, Lachnosterna fusca. 
This injurious insect was very abundant last season, many 
birds eating it. 


May 21st—Baltimore Oriole, Jcterus galbula. Predacious 
ground beetles, belonging to Platynus and 
‘ Pterostichus. 


May 22nd—Purple Grackle. Quiscalus aeneus. Platynus, 
Pterostichus, one Hlater and Lachnosterna fusca, 
four species. 


Two injurious, and two beneficial. 


May 24th—Baltimore oriole, [cterus galbula. Lachnosterna 
fusca. 

A second specimen had eaten an hymenopterous insect, 

but it was too much broken to be determined. 

Red-eyed Fly-catcher. Verio olivaceus. Some species of 
bug, Hemiptera. Blue bird. Sialis Sialis. Lachnosterna 
fusca, swallowed entire, wing-cases, legs and all, an 
immense mouthful for a small bird. 

Bobolink, Dolichonyz orizivorus. Wheat and a few small 
Carabidae. 


May 25th—Cat-bird, Galeoscoptes Carolinensis. May bectle, 
Lachnosterna fusca. 


May 28th—Purple Grackle. Quiscalus aeneus. May beetle, 
Lachnosterna fusca. 


eee ew 


418 Canadian Record of Science. 


June 9th—Tyrant Fly-catcher. Tyrannus Tyrannus. Apho- 
dius fosser. Ichneumon, too much broken for 
determination. 


Some blue jays, Cyanocitta cristata, obtained in the fall, 
had been feeding on beech-mast, one specimen haying swal- 
lowed no less than ten of these sharp-pointed nuts. 


1889. 


March 9th—Blue bird, Sialis Sialis. Carabide, and one Lepi- 
dopterous larvee. 


March 16th—Blue bird. Sialis Sialis. Sumach seed, an 
Orthopteron, Tetigidea polymorpha, and one 
Lepidopterous larve. 


April 5th—White rumped Shrike. Lanius ludovicianus 
excubitorides. Caribidee. 


April 6th—Northern Shrike. Lanius borealis. Carabide. 


April 19th—Cow-bunting. Molothrus ater. Dung beetles. 
Aphodius. Varied wood-pecker. Sphyrapicus 
varius. Small carabide. 

Golden-winged wood-pecker. Colaptes aura- 
tus, Ants. Formica. 


These notes, although by no means as full as I wonld 
wish, are sufficient, I think, to show that the birds did not 
confine themselves to any particular kind of insect, but 
took what they happened to meet with, and would, therefore, 
be as likely to destroy the useful species as those that are 
injurious, and this objection, I think, applies to all animals 
that eat insects, such as toads and frogs, and many of the 
smaller mammals. All of these take the good and bad 
together, and can only be useful in so far as they may be a 
check on the whole race of insects. 

The true check upon injurious insects is the host of para- 
sitic species with which the larve of nearly all butterflies 
and moths and many other noxious species are infested. 

Let us take two well-known species as illustrations: 


Birds observed at Montreal. 419 


The Cabbage Butterfly, Pieris Rapae, was by some means 
brought to this country from Europe some twenty-five or 
thirty years ago, and as its principle food plant was plenti- 
ful, and the summer long and warm, it soon became exces- 
sively abundant.. Of late years, however, its numbers have 
been greatly reduced by a small hymenopterous insect, 
Pteromalus puparum. which, piercing the caterpillar with its 
ovipositor, deposits anumber of eggs in its body. The cater- 
pillar thus attacked, continues to feed, and in due time 
changes to a chrysalis, but never reaches the perfect or 
butterfly state. The parasites now finish their work, and 
transforming within the chrysalis, cut their way out, to de- 
stroy in their turn another brood of caterpillars, 

The May beetle is another instance. The larva of 
this insect passes its preparatory stages in the earth where 
it feeds on the roots of grasses and other plants, never 
‘appearing above ground until it emerges as a beetle, but 
even this concealment does not save it from its enemy, a 
large black ichneumon fly, Typhia inorata, which, by some 
wonderful instinct finds it and deposits an egg in it, after 
which its death is only a question of time. The thorough- 
ness of the work done by the parasitic insects is no doubt 
largely owing to the fact that as a rule they restrict their 
attacks to a single species, or to species belonging to the same 
genus. Moreover, the life of the perfect insect is generally 
brief and almost entirely occupied in providing for the con- 
tinuance of the species, hence these parasitic insects are con- 
stantly occupied in searching for the particular kind of 
larvee to which their instinct teaches them to commit their 
eggs. The bird might eat the caterpillar if it came in its 
way, the parasite must find and destroy it, or fail to accom- 
plish the chief end of its existence. But the question may 
he asked, how is it that with this army of parasitic insects 
to help us, we are ever troubled by injurious species ? Well, 
Nature’s plan is not to exterminate any species, but to keep 
all within proper bounds, we, however, are continually vio- 
lating her laws, covering acres of ground with wheat, 
cotton, or some other crop to the entire exclusion of all 


420 Canadian Record of Science. 


others. Nature, protesting against this, multiplies the 
insects that feed upon it, and when these in their turn 
become too numerous, the parasitic species come. We can- 
not however always afford to wait until these get the mas- 
tery, as their work though sure, is often slow, and so we 
have to battle with the bugs for our potatoes, and with 
paris green murder both friend and foe. 

In a circular on the protection of North American birds, 
issued by the American Ornithologists’ Union, the following 
statement is made: “With the decrease of birds at any 
point, is noted an increase of insects, especially of kinds 
injurious to agriculture. The relation of birds to agriculture 
has been studied as yet but imperfectly, but results could 
be cited which go far to substantiate the above statement of 
their general utility.” 

I have seen similar statements in other publications, and 
also, some to the effect that when the birds were again allowed 
to increase, the insects decreased in a corresponding degree. 
These views may be perfectly correct, and are certainly 
very generally held. I have, however, so far failed to find 
anything showing that they are the result of careful investi- 
gation, and it is worthy of notice in this connection, that 
many kinds of insects do at times suddenly increase to an 
enormous extent, and just as quickly die off again, apart 
altogether from any unusual increase or decrease in the 
numbers of the birds. In 1884, the clover fields in the 
Ottawa district were seriously injured by a caterpillar 
which suddenly appeared in immense numbers, it proved to 
be the larvee of Agrotis fenica, a moth which had previously 
been quite a rarity, and probably unknown, except to ento- 
mologists. When almost full-grown they were attackel by 
a fungoid disease which quickly destroyed them, but very 
few producing the moth, nor have they since occurred in 
such unusual numbers. 

In 1881, the pasture fields of Northern New York were 
attaeked by an immense array of caterpillars, entire fields 
being laid waste in ten or twelve days, and in some places 
they were so numerous that they could have been scooped 


Birds observed at Montreal. 4921 


up by the handful. The insect, when it reached maturity, 
proved to be a small Grass moth, Crambus vulgivagellus, well 
known to entomologists, but had not before been observed 
to be at all injurious. 

The same insect was quite common at Montreal during 
that season, but I have not since observed it. 

A word in conclusion regarding the Kuropean sparrow 
Passer domesticus, introduced to America, I believe, with the 
expectation of its proving a check upon injurious insects. 
It is now conceded by almost all our leading American or- 
nithologists that the experiment has been a failure, and the 
serious charge is made, that, owing to its noisy and quarrel- 
some habits, it drives away our native birds. Nothing that 
is eatable seems to come amiss to the sparrow, although its 
favourite food is grain of all kinds, as its robust form and 
strong beak indicate. In the town its principal food is the 
partially digested oats which it finds in the horse droppings, 
and this with the addition of crumbs and odd scraps is its 
only food during the winter months. During the summer 
it no doubt eats insects. These are, however, mostly the 
smaller dung-beetles, Aphodii, which it finds about cattle 
droppings and in the roads. It probably does eat a few 
caterpillars, but is just as likely to destroy a parasitized 
larva as a healthy specimen. 

They are expert spider-catchers, hovering in front of the 
webs and picking them out with great dexterity, but Ihave 
no reason to think that they destroy many injurious insects. 
I have watched them scolding and fighting in a garden 
where that pest to the fruit-grower, the currant saw-fly, 
Nematus ventricosus, was to be seen in scores about the 
bushes, but so far as I could see, they did not take the 
slightest notice of them, Last summer, the conspicuous 
black and white caterpillars of the hickory Tussock moth, 
Helesidota cary, weve very plentiful on Montreal mountain, 
but so far as I could learn were not touched by the 
sparrows, 


Later in the season I saw a flock busily engaged in a field 


422 Canadian Record of Science. 


of oats at Cote St. Paul, and judging by their numbers they 
must have done considerable damage. 

Before the advent of the sparrow, the tree, or white- 
bellied swallow, Tachycineta bicolor, was common in the city, 
nesting in boxes put up for their benefit. Now, when they 
arrive in spring, they find the sparrows in possession of the 
boxes, and are forced to return to their original habit of 
nesting in holes in trees. <A few years ago a large colony 
of cliff swallows, Petrochelidon lunifrons, nested beneath the 
eaves of a farmhouse at Céte St. Luc, but I learn that the 
sparrows have ejected these also, and they probably harass 
and annoy the yellow warblers and song sparrows, which 
certainly are not nearly so frequently heard within the city 
as in former years. 


ON A SPECIES OF GONIOGRAPTUS FROM THE LEVIS 
FORMATION, LEVIS, QUEBEC.’ 


By Henry M. Amt, M.A., F.G\S. (London and America). 


In Vol. XVIII of the Annals and Magazine of Natural 
History, 1876, p. 128 et seg., Prof. F. McCoy recorded the 
discovery of a “new Victorian graptolite” from “the 
black and red slates of the Llandeilo flags age of the 
Bendigo goldfield, Sandhurst, Victoria, Australia.” 

In this communication Prof. McCoy describes and figures 
this new graptolite under the name of Didymograpsus 
Thureani and concludes by proposing the genus ‘ Gonio- 
graptus,” which as he says: ‘‘might be suggested for such 
types as the present, in which the branches of the funicle 
(for which I would suggest the name stolons) are angularly 
bent at the points of budding into the celluliferous stems.” 

One year later, the same author described and figured 
more elaborately the same species in Decade V, of the 
“ Geological Survey of Victoria”—Prodromus of the 
Palxontology of Victoria, pp. 39 and 40 where the species 


"Published by permission of the Director of the Geological 
Survey of Canada. 


On a Species of Goniograptus. 423 


isreferred to Graptotites (Didymograpsus) Thureani (McCoy) 
with the same note and suggestion regarding the genus 
Goniograptus as given above. 

In vol. ILI, section 5, of the Annals and Magazine of Natural 
History, Prof. Charles Lapworth recognises the validity of 
the genus Goniograptus, and refers the Victorian form to 
that genus, viz.: Goniograptus Thureani, McCoy; (see 
“the Geological distribution of the Rhabdophora” p. 80) 
in the table shewing the vertical range of British Rhab- 
dophora. 

The following is the description given of Goniograptus 
Thureani, by Prof. McCoy. 

“ DescripTion.—Radicle conical, minute, in the middle of 
a short straight funicle, one and a half lines long, which 
bifurcates equally at each end, giving rise to four equal 
main branches or stolons of the complete polypidom ; each 
branch about one inch long, bent regularly in zigzag angles 
of about 135° alternately giving off at intervals of about 
one line, on both sides from the salient angles, the regular, 
straight, simple stems, five or six in number on each side, 
and about one inch in length (more or less, as they are 
nearer the base or the apex), each with a row of broad 
acutely angular cell-denticles, seven in the space of three 
lines; the upper edge of each cell slightly convex, and 
nearly at right angles with the back; and rather longer 
than the undivided portion, the lower edge two-thirds un- 
covered by the next cell, and making an angle of about 
45° with the back; from the point of one cell to the next 
about equal to the width from the same point to the back, 
The whole polypidom, of about forty stems forms a slightly 
quadrate circle or rounded square about two inches in 
diameter.” 

In 1886, Mr. 'T. C. Weston of the Canadian Geological 
Survey, obtained the first American example of the typical 
genus Goniograptus from the black graptolitie and linguli- 
ferous beds, in the cutting on the Intercolonial Railway, 
1560 paces below the Lower Levis and Quebec Ferry, Levis 
Quebec, This specimen measures about seven inches 


424 Canadian Record of Science. 


diagonally across the flattened and expanded polypary from 
tip to tip, and is presented on a slab of shale nearly five 
inches square. 

The affinity and close relationship of this Canadian 
Goniograptus to the Australian one was noticed at a glance, 
and as the individual was comparatively large, and. pre- 
sented other characters (the disc, &c.) not seen nor 
described in the Australian form, it was at first doubtfully 
referred to Prof. McCoy’s species Goniograptus Thureani 
and probably new. 

In 1887, Dr. Selwyn, accompanied by Messrs. Weston 
and Lambe of the Canadian Survey, examined numerous 
graptolitic and other fossiliferous localities along the south 
shore of the St. Lawrence, and in the collections made by 
the two last named gentlemen were found three additional 
specimens of the genus Goniograptus from the same locality. 

All of these are evidently referable to the same genus 
and species, although three of them have a disc preserved 
which is developed around and clasps the funicle as well as 
the non-celluliferous branches or stolons, from the sicula or 
initial point of the polypary to the base of the last bifur- 
cation of the last branch or stolon into the celluliferous 
stipe. 

When compared with the admirable figures and des- 
cription given by Prof. McCoy of its Australian congener, 
the American form is found to be so nearly identical and 
clearly co-specific that it is not deemed advisable to give it 
a new specific designation. The presence of a disc around 
the funicle ,and the pterate, or winged margin along both 
sides of the non-celluliferous branches, the large number of 
stipes originating at the goniate portion of the polypary are 
the main points of distinction, between these two geo- 
graphically remote representatives of the species. 

The disc and winged margin, however, are characters of 
generic importance, whilst the number of celluliferous 
branches originating at the angles of the non-celluliferous 
branches or extremity of the stolons are merely characters 
of age and size of specific value. 


On a Species of Goniograptus. 425 


Both the Australian and the American specimens clearly 
belong to the family of the Dichograptide, which rank as 
the “earliest siculate graptotites” known. They belong to 
section “b”’ of Prof. Capworth’s “ Analytical table of the 
genera of graptotites” under “ Fam. III” (see Geol. Mag. 
1873, vol. X, table I), where the polypary is described as 
compound, and where the major extremity of the sicula 
gives origin to a funicle, falling under division ‘“II,” where 
the funicle is said to be “once divided giving origin to four 
main polypiferous branches which form the complete poly- 
pary.” Then the genus Goniograptus naturally comes in 
this sub-division, from the manner in which its simple 
celluliferous branches are disposed, would fall under a new 
generic head between “I” and “TI,” or between genera 
Nos. 16 and 17 of the “table of genera, &e.,” as the “four 
main polypiferous branches” “form the complete polypary ”’ 
by giving off simple ceiluliferous branches from both 
margins, giving four generic heads under division IT, ag 
follows :— 

I By continued dichosomous sub-divisions. 
If By giving off simple branches from one margin only. 

III By giving off simple branches from both margins at 
regular intervals. 

[VY By giving off compound branches from both margins. 

The following are amonvst the most salient characters: 
Dimensions are taken from the American form: Sp. No, 1— 
Collected by Mr. Weston in 1886 at Levis, Quebec. 

Length of the funicle : .125 inch. 

Diameter of disc, in the direction of the funicle: .125 inch. 

Breadth of margin of disc, from extremity of the funicle 
to the outer edge or margin: .0625 inch. 

Diameter of disc, in the direction at right angles to the 
funicle: .1 inch, 

Dise with outer margin, concave and produced along the 
non-celluliferous branches or stolons, clasping them, forming 
a winged or alate margin which gradually diminishes in 
breadth from the dise proper, towards the distal extremity 


of the branches. 


426 Canadian Record of Science. 


One other specimen is quite free from, or destitute of a 
disc—the stolons and fupicle being quite naked. The 
funicle is straight and narrowly cylindrical. forked at each 
extremity, each fork making an angle of 135°—a right 
angle and a half. The fow branches or stolons thus 
produced, give rise to the four zigzag or goniate arms of the 
polypary by a continued process of gemmation and bifur- 
cation at regular intervals. The angles formed by the 
zigzag or goniate stolons become more obtuse as the distal 
extremity of the polypary is reached, where they form 
a nearly right line. 

At each one of the re-entrant angles, there arises one 
simple celluliferous stipe of greater or less length, according 
to the size and age of the polypary, and according to the 
proximity to, or distance from the funicle. These fossili- 
ferous stipes are disposed in alternating manner on each 
side of the arm, and making right angles one set with the 
other. In the specimen under examination, these celluli- 
ferous stipes vary from a little over one inch in length, at 
the distal extremity of the arm, to more than three inches 
near the proximal end of the same. 

The arm itself is a little in excess of two inches in length, 
and all four are sub-equal, disposed regularly and symmetri- 
eally so as to form a large + shaped figure, or cross with 
equal (sub-equal) arms, but bearing celluliferous stipes in 
such a manner that they form two similar series of parallel 
lines occupying two vertically or diagonally opposite areas. 

The angles which these celluliferous stipes make with 
the general direction of the arm is generally 450°, but in’ 
most of the examples the angle diminishes gradually 
towards the distal extremity where they make an angle of 
10° only. The most perfect arm contains twenty-one celluli- 
ferous stipes , tev on one side and eleven on the other side of 
the arm. The arm, diagonally opposite, exhibits nine 
celluliferous stipes on each side: eighteen in all. 

The third arm whose apex is twisted and somewhat 
crushed holds seventeen arms; eight on one side and nine on 
the other. This arm is somewhat shorter than the two 
preceding, whilst these first three are complete. 


On a Species of Goniograptus. 427 


The fourth and last arm is broken, and exhibits only six 
celluliferous stipes on one side, and five on the other, 

The whole polypary, about seven inches across, thus con- 
sists of sixty-seven celluliferous stipes, as preserved, which 
number would no doubt have been increased to about 
eighty, had the polypary been perfect. This number is 
greatly in excess of that obtained in the Australian 
specimens, just double. 

The thece are acutely pointed and triangular, and 
number from 30 to 32 inthe space ef one inch. They are 
inclined at an angle of from 30° to 50° to the axis of the 
stipe, this variation being probably due to the mode of 
preservation of the specimen. Only here and there is there 
a short row of thec visible in this fine specimen, the 
branches having been crushed in a direction opposite to and 
so as to hide the cell apertures and thece. 

‘As in Prof. McCoy’s species, the Canadian example 
“forms a slightly quadrate circle or rounded square” with a 
diameter of nearly seven inches (about cight inches when 
perfect). 

The presence of a disc or membrane clasping the sicula, 
funicle, &c., also extending upwards and outwards along 
the arms has already been noted, which feature was not 
preserved in the Australian specimens, which absence is 
evidently due to the mode of preservation and fossilization 
‘ather than to the mode of growth of the polypary. 

Of the disce-bearing graptolites known to the writer, we 
have the following:—Loganograptus Logani, Hall; L. 
Kjrulfi, Brégger; Dichograptus octobrachiatus, Hall; Tetra- 
grapius Headi, Wall; T. alatus, Hall; 7’. crucifer, Hall ; and 
Climacograptus bicornis, Hall. This dise which acted both 
as support and float in the genus Goniograptus, as well as 
in the other species just enumerated, would act also as a 
more or less rigid membrane in keeping the celluliferous 
stipes from entangling—causing them to lie more cr less 
evenly in one place, On Climacograptus bicornis, this use of 
the dise is not so evident. 

When compared together, the Australian and American 


428 Canadian Record of Science. 


representatives of the genus Goniograptus appear to be very 
nearly co-specific, and so identical are they, especially in 
their early or young stage, that it is not thought that a 
new specific designation is required. Should later investi- 
gations and the finding of additional material, both in 
Australia and Canada yield new facts, separating these 
widely separated forms (geographically speaking), other 
than those noted above—then I would suggest the varietal 
or specific designation Goniograptus Selwyni to include such 
forms as are included in the above description of the 
forms, merely adding that I have much pleasure in coupling 
Dr. Selwyn’s name with this interesting species, from the 
fact that to him “must be awarded the merit of finding 
the first graptotite (1856) which determined the age of 
the gold-reef-bearing slates of Victoria.” (See preface of 
Decade II, Pal. Victoria, 1875, p. 5). 

Locality and Formation: Fifteen hundred and sixty paces 
East of Lower Levis—Quebec ferry, in the black shales of 
the ‘‘Tetragraptus zone” met these in the I.C.R cutting, 
Levis, Quebec. 

Levis Formation (Cambro-Silurian or Ordovician) Col- 
lectors: Messrs. J. C. Weston and L. M. Lambe, 1886 and 


1887. 
Note—The affinities of this species with the forms 


described by Prof. Hall as Graptolithus Richardsoni, and 
G. ramulus are apparent, but the compound nature of the 
branching celluliferous stipes readily differentiate them. 

The figures (figs. 4 and 4a) of Decade I, Pal. Victoria— 
appear to answer weil to Hall’s G. ramulus which would 
evidently fall under some new generic designation whilst 
Prof. Hall’s specific name would include both forms. The 
remarkable identity of species occurring at localities so 
widely remote, geographically speaking, is pecularly note- 
worthy, Dr. Selwyn having collected many species precisely 
identical with Canadian forms. 


On Fossil Sponges. 429 


On Fosstn SPONGES FROM BEDS OF THE QUEBEC 
Group OF SIR WILLIAM LoGAN, AT LITTLE 
METISs.' 


By Sir J. W. Dawson, LL,D., F.R.S. 


(Abstract. ) 


The discovery of these sponges was made by Dr. B. J. 
Harrington in 1887, and as it was obviously of much 
interest, was followed up by further exploration in the beds 
containing the fossils. 

A preliminary note on the specimens was published in the 
“ Notes on Specimens ” of the Peter Redpath Museum last 
winter, and in the past session more thorough exploration 
of the beds was made by the employment of labourers to 
open up the more fertile layers. In this way a large amount 
of additional material was obtained, which has been ecare- 
fully studied, and the more important specimens submitted 
to Dr. G. J. Hinde, the author of the British Museum Cata- 
logue of Fossil Sponges. 

The present paper gives a detailed account of the contain- 
ing beds, with a map and sections, and describes the species 
found, which are about eleven in number, all siliceous 
sponges, and most of them Hexactinelid. Of these six 
belong to the genus Protospongia, one to the genus Cyatho- 
spongia, and five others belong to new genera which are 
described in the paper. There are remains indicating other 
species, but too imperfect for certain determination. The 
whole of these forms occur in two layers of black and gray 
shale only a few inches in thickness, in beds for the most 
part destitute of fossils. The specimens are all flattened 
and the spicules are in most cases pyritised. 

The beds appear to belong to the Levis division, and con- 
tain with the sponges a brachiopod of the genus Linnarssonia 
and of fucoid, Buthotrephis pergracilis. In beds of sandstone 
associated with shales are the Graptolites of the genus Retio- 
lites, probably Rensiformis of Hall. 


' Read before the Royal Society of Canada, May, 1889. 


430 Canadian Record of Science. 


The occurrence of so many species of siliceous sponges in 
great abundance in these beds is a new and interesting fact, 
and indicates that at certain times the floor of the Siluro- 
cambrian sea has been amply stocked with organisms of 
this kind, scattered spicules of which abound in layers in 
which specimens retaining their form have not been found. 

The paper will be illustrated with photographs and figures 
of the species. 


New Fossin PLANTS FROM THE NORTH WEsT. 
By the same Author. 


This paper is a continuation of those by the same author 
in previous volumes of the Transactions of the Society. It 
relates to an interesting collection made by Mr. R. C. 
McConnell, B. A., of the Geological Survey of Canada, 
on the McKenzie River, and to specimens obtained by 
Mr. T. C. Weston, of the same survey on the Bow River. 
The species all belong to the horizon of the Upper 
Laramie, and serve to show the similarity of the flora of 
this series in the McKenzie and Bow Districts with that 
of other parts of the N. W. Territorics, of the western parts 
of the United States, of the Hebrides, of Alaska, Spitzbergen 
and Greenland. The paper notices more especially the pre- 
vious publications of Heer, on the McKenzie flora, the addi- 
tional species obtained by Mr, McConnell, the geographical 
distribution of these species, and their Lower LHocene 
facies. 


Notes oN ERIAN (DEVONIAN) PLANTS. 
By D. P. PENHALLOW. 
(Abstract.) 
The Paper read under the above title gives a continuation 
of Studies on Nematophyton, which were presented to the 


Royal Society at its meeting in 1888. The author gives a 
few additional observations upon the principal species CV. 


Notes on Evian (Devonian) Plants. 431 


Dogan‘), all of which confirm his previous results. More 
special attention is given to WV. Hicksii and to three other 
plants previously described under the name of Nematoxyten 
crassum, Dn., Nemotoxyten tenne, Dn., and Cellutoxyten prime- 
vum, Dn., but all of which are here referred to the genus 
Nematophyton, thus making the whole number of probable 
species belonging to this genus of ancient Alge, five. 

The facts stated with reference to NV. Hicksii add nothing 
to what had been observed by others. The material is 
wholly in fragments and the structure is represented only 
by siliceous coats of the cells, 

Nematoxyten crassum is shown to present the same general 
structural features—museptate, tubular cells branching into 
a secondary system of intercellular filaments, as the species 
of Nematophyton previously described. NMematophyton tenne 
shows cells of a tubular character, but of very alternated 
Size, without any well marked intercellular filaments, and 
in its general structure approaching more nearly to the 
hyphal structure of Nematophyton laxum. 

Cellutoxyten primevum is shown to be a highly altered 
form of Nematophyton, the alteration having been effected 
through crystallization of silica and consequent redistribu- 
tion of the highly decayed organic matter; the result 
being the formation of an ill-defined cellular structure. 
Comparison is made with well authenticated specimens of 
NV. Logani, in which the same section, embracing variously 
altered structure, shows in one part normal cells, and in 
another part a false cellular tissue precisely similar to that 
of N. primevum. This latter is therefore referred, on 
geographical grounds as well as of probable structure, to WV. 
crassum, 

The Paper is illustrated by several photo-micrographs, 
showing the structure of the various species described. 

The author also drew attention to further examinations 
of the laminated fossil described in his communication of 
last year, and also to w certain resin-like material occurring 
abundantly in the Gaspé Sandstones and always associated 


with Nematophyton, That the laminated fossil represents 
26 


432 _ Canadian Record of Science. 


fragments of the fronds from Nematophyton is a view that 
has received much strength from the more recent investiga- 
tions, although in the absence of definite data connecting 
the line, must be regarded as largely hypothetical. The 
resin-like substance occurs in thin flakes, and is shown to 
be in many cases composed of a substance which presents 
many of the peculiarities belonging to the laminated fossil, 
of which it may be a more highly altered form. Attention 
was drawn to the desirability of a more careful examination 
of the beds of Gaspé Basin, with a view to collecting more 
representative specimens of these fossils than have yet been 
submitted to examination. 


ANNUAL FIELD Day. 


Saturday morning, June 8th, 1889, at 9.15, a special train 
left the Dalhousie depot, containing a large number of mem- 
bers and friends of the Natural History Society, who that 
day celebrated their annual picnic at St. Eustache. Among 
those who were present were: Sir J. W. Dawson, president; 
John §. Shearer. vice-president ; Prof. Penhallow, Dr. Black- 
ader, Messrs. J. H. R. Molson, Albert Holden, J.S. Brown, C. 
Gibb, Graham, Dunlop, Hollis Shorey, F. B. Benjamin, J. A. 
Robertson, W. D. Lighthall, Mrs. Molson, Miss Dawson, 
Miss Hill, Mrs. Holden, Miss Mercier, Mrs Garth, Misses 
Morgan, MissVan Horne and others. The visit of the society’s 
members had evidently been looked forward to with a great 
deal of pleasure by the inhabitants of St. Hustache. The 
village was decorated with flags and bunting, and huge 
streamers were stretched across the streets bearing the 
words : ‘“‘ Honour to Science,” ‘‘ Be they welcome,” ‘“ Wel- 
come Natural History Society,” etc. On the arrival of the 
train the depot was crowded with villagers to welcome the 
visitors. Mayor Paquin and J. D. Daoust, M. P., made short 
speeches in which they expressed their pleasure at seeing 
so large a number of Montrealers paying their village a visit. 
Waggons and carriages were waiting to convey the visitors 
to the different points of interest. Three classes were 


Annual Field Day. 433 


arranged as follows: Botany, in charge of Prof. Penhallow ; 
Geology, Sir J. W. Dawson; Entomology, Mr. Caulfield. 
Each class was driven to its respective points of interest in 
the suburbs of the village, where they spent several hours 
in search of specimens of their various hobbies. 

To those whose tastes are less scientific, St. Hustache is a 
very attractive place, as being the site of the old struggle 
for autonomy in 1837. And the Natural History Society 
has done well in inviting those societies which are interested 
in the history of Canada in its various phases to accompany 
them in their visit to such an historic place. The ancient 
church still bears signs of the fight of 1837, and like a vet- 
eran watrior, still shows the scars of combat. The old 
cemetery which formerly lay under the shadow of the 
church has been done away with, but otherwise the scene 
of the struggle has been little altered, and the twin towers 
to-day look down upon the excursionists as they did upon 
the fierce fight that raged there half a century ago. Inside, 
one sees the chancel window from which Dr. Chenier and 
his two companions jumped when the church was burning 
all over, and the only chance for life was to escape from the 
burning building. In the churchyard cutside, Dr. Chenier 
died, gallantly fighting to the last, and from there his body 
was taken to Addison’s Hotel, then known as the Bull, 
which still stands in all its original simplicity and which 
was then used as a hospital for the wounded. Among the 
participants in the fight was Captain Marryat, who achieved 
greater fame as a novelist than as a soldier, and who 
described the battle of St. Eustache for his English readers, 
The old seignioral mansion then owned by Mr. Dumont, 
now by the De Bellefeuille family, stands in very much the 
same condition as when Colonel Wetherall ordered the 
troops to clear it of the rebels who were using it as a fortress 
or rifle pit. The old Globensky House also still retains a 
good deal of its primitive simplicity. Almost opposite the 
station is a very old house, the date stone on its walls show- 
ing it to have weathered the storms of a century. 

Although the village has some touch of interest in its past 


454 Canadian Record of Science. 


history, it by no means depends upon its past to-day, but it 
is a live, thriving place, and on the point of cleanliness is a 
prilliant exception to the usual run of villages in this pro- 
vince. The streets are lined with trees, not branches ruth- 
lessly stuck in for a temporary féte but actually planted to 
beautify the village. The old houses supply antiquity, but 
the smart brick stores offer a type of modern civilization, 
and business has been of such a satisfactory nature that 
until last winter there had not been a failure for about a 
dozen years. 

About 2 o’clock those who, as Mr. J.S. Brown put it, were 
fortunate enough not to bring baskets, partook of an excel- 
lent dinner at Goulet’s Hotel. 

At four o’clock a meeting was held at the station, under 
the chairmanship of Mr. John S. Shearer. Addresses were 
delivered by Sir J. W. Dawson, Prof. Penhallow, and Mr, 
J.S. Brown. 

Sir J. W. Dawson, on behalf of the “knights of the 
hammer,” announced that the local formation is calciferous 
sandstone or lower silurian. It contains few fossils, the 
characteristic one being the Murchisonia Anna, so named 
by Billings, at Dr. Dawson’s suggestion, because first found 
at our own St. Anne’s, near Montreal. On the High street 
were two large stones of trap dyke. The inside of them 
having been softer than the outside, it had been so hollowed 
out by the weather as to form small drinking troughs. A 
large deposit of a variety of kaolin is found near St. 
Kustache. Attempts are being made to utilise it for paint, 
and this visit of the society to St. Hustache may result in 
its being used for pottery, as Dr. Dawson pronounces 
it ‘a most remarkable earth.” The Botanical prize was 
awarded to Dr. E. Blackader, for a collection of 34 species 
of plants in blossom. 

Votes of thanks were tendered to the Mayor, Mr. Daoust, 
and the villagers in general for their handsome treatment 
and entertainment of the visitors. In reply to this Mr. 
Daoust said that they needed no thanks. They were well 
repaid by the fact that the society had deigned to pay them 


Proceedings of Natural History Society. 435 


a visit, and he could only thank them and give them a 
hearty invitation to return. Cheers for the Village Council, 
the villagers and the Queen were given, and the train moved 
away from St. Eustache station arriving in Montreal at 6.30. 
The trip was a most enjoyable one and will be remembered 
with pleasure by those who attended. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 


The seventh monthly meeting of the Society was held on 
the evening of Monday, April 29th, at 8 o’clock, Sir J. W. 
Dawson in the Chair. 

After reading the minutes of the previous meeting, the 
Rey. Dr. Campbell was appointed a delegate to the meeting 
of the Royal Society of Canada. The Librarian reported 
the usual exchanges. 

The following donations were received from Mr. F. B. 
Caulfield : 

Two Prairie Horned Larks. 
One Cedar Waxwing. 
Two specimens of Spotted Proteus. 


From Mr. J. H. R. Molson: 


Two Stalactites from Bermuda. 


The thanks of the Society were tendered the donors. 

Dr. B. J. Harrington presented a paper entitled, “ Notes 
on Bibliography of Canadian Mineralogy,” and “On the 
Number of Mining Species known to occur in Canada.” 

Mr, F. B, Caulfield also presented a paper entitled, “Notes 
on some Birds observed at Montreal.” 

The thanks of the Society were tendered for the above 
papers, which were ordered to be printed, 


ANNUAL MEETING. 


The annual meeting of the Society was held on Monday, 
May 27th, at 8 o’clock, the President, Sir J. W. Dawson, in 
the Chair, ‘There were present: 

Mr. J. S. Shearer, Mr. C. Gibb, Prof. Penhallow, Dr. 'T. 


436 Canadian Record of Science. 


W. Mills, A. H. Holden, P.S. Ross, J. A. U. Beaudry, Dr. 
Campbell, J.S. Brown, E. T. Chambers, Geo. Sumner, H. T. 
Martin, Jas. Gardner, Dr. Stirling, Dr. Ruttan, J. H. R. 
Molson, J. H. Joseph, Rev. Dr. Campbell, F. B. Caulfield, 
Dr. J. B. Edwards. 


THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 


GENTLEMEN,—We have, I think, good reason to congra- 
tulate ourselves at the end of the session just closed that 
this oldest of Canadian scientific societies shows no sign of 
senility but rather of new life and energy. The improve- 
ments made in our building, museum and library, through 
the care and activity of the council, the house committee, 
the honorary curator, Mr, Stevenson Brown, and the libra- 
rian, Mr. Chambers, the additions to our list of members, 
the eminent specialists whose services were secured for the 
Sommerville course of lectures, the importance of that 
course with reference to the industrial interests of the pro- 
vince, the valuable papers read at our monthly meetings 
and published in our journal, the admirable excursions to 
Montebello and Abbotsford, so well planned and carried out 
through the kindness of our friends, Mr. Papineau and Mr. 
Gibb, the successful and brilliant Conversazione in which we 
were honored with the presence of their Excellencies Lord 
and Lady Stanley of Preston, are among the features of 
a most useful and prosperous year. They are noticed in 
other reports to be presented this evening, and it falls to 
me in this address rather to direct your attention to the 
more strictly scientific portions of our work, and more 
especially to the papers read before the Society and pub- 
lished in the Record of Science, and which may be considered, 
so far as they extend, as steps in advance in Canadian 
science. They were summarized by our delegate, the Rev, 
Dr. Campbell, at the recent meeting of the Royal Society in 
Ottawa, but they deserve a little more detailed notice here. 

According to the list, kindly prepared for me by the 
Recording Secretary, Mr. Holden, twenty original papers 


- 


Proceedings of Natural History Society. A437 


were read at our meetings and accepted for publication. Of 
these, the majority, thirteen in all, were on geological sub- 
jects, including mineralogy and paleontology, four were 
botanical and three on zoology and animal physiology. Of 
the geological papers, those by Dr. Harrington, Mr. Tyrrell 
and Mr. Adams related to rocks and minerals. By these 
gentlemen our attention was directed to the important and 
valuable coal deposits of the Northwest, embracing as we 
now know, all kinds of mineral fuel from anthracite to 
lignite, and to the curious and probably valuable deposits of 
gypsum recently discovered in the Northwest, as well as to 
the microscopic structure of some Canadian rocks. A new 
and interesting subject was also opened up by Dr. Harring- 
ton’s notes on the Bibliography of Canadian mineralogy, 
which brings before us some of those pioneers of our geology, 
who at a time when many parts of our country were difficult 
of access, and when little interest was taken here in such 
subjects, laboriously laid the foundations of our present 
magnificent accumulation of geological facts. In reading 
the memoirs left by these men, one is struck not by the 
paucity of facts and the difficulty experienced in their ex- 
planation, but by the skill and penetration and unwearied 
industry of the men, and the magnitude and accuracy of 
their results in comparison with the then crude condition of 
geological science and the inadequacy of the means at their 
disposal. In the fossils of the older formations, Mr. Matthews 
was kind enough to lay before us, in a condensed and clear 
manner, some of his latest results in the study of those 
Cambrian rocks of New Brunswick which have yielded so 
many new discoveries to his skilful and painstaking re- 
searches, and I had the pleasure of bringing under your 
notice some new fossil plants, which seem to throw much 
light on ancient vegetable forms hitherto greatly disputed, 
A good piece of local geology relating to a little explored 
and interesting region, was given us in the paper of Mr, 
Chambers on the Lake St. John district. In more recent 
geology the curious modern concretions found by Rev, Prof, 
Kavanagh near Boucherville helped us to explain those 


438 Canadian Record of Science. 


much larger and older cylindrical bodies of the Potsdam 
sandstone which have puzzled so many observers. The 
papers on Balanus Hameri, from River Beaudette, and on 
the varietal forms of the recent Mya, compared with those 
in the Pleistocene, were supplementary to papers formerly 
published on these subjects, and added to the mass. of 
material furnished by the St. Lawrence Valley in reference 
to the life of the so-called “Glacial” period. The contribu- 
tion of Mr. Chalmers I regard as much more important, and 
as illustrating by a large collection of facts the conclusion 
that we have to explain the Glacial phenomena of Western 
Canada not by an imaginary and physically impossible ice 
sheet, but by local glaciers, aided by floating ice. This 
view, which I have again and again endeavored to impress 
on geologists too much addicted in this matter to invoke 
the aid of portentous and improbable causes, has been amply 
vindicated by the careful observations of Mr. Chalmers in 
Eastern Quebec and New brunswick. We may also place 
among papers relating to recent geology those of Professor 
Spencer on the St. Lawrence Basin and the Great Lakes, 
and of Mr. Drummond on the Lake Basins of the St. Law- 
rence. Mr. Spencer, one of our younger Canadian geologists, 
now transferred to an important professorship in the United 
States, has for many years pursued an elaborate series of 
observations and measurements on the former levels of the 
lakes, and more especially as to the evidence of unequal 
lifting of the lake terraces depending on the warping of the 
earth’s crust in the elevation of the continent, These ob- 
servations when complete will form very important contri- 
butions to the Physical geography as well as geology of 
North America. Our botanical papers we owe to Prof. 
Penhallow, Prof. Goodwin and Mr. Ami. That on ringed 
trees was a curious contribution to vegetable physiology. 
Another directed our attention to the edible qualities of a 
fruit not hitherto regarded with much favor, that of Shep- 
herdia Canadensis, and the local flora of Montebello was 
connected with the excursions of the Society to that place, 
on the kind invitation of Mr. Papineau, and was an illustra- 


Proceedings of Natural History Society. 439 


tion of the varied assemblage of plants which characterizes 
the junction of the Laurentian and Palsozoic rocks, and the 
diverse kinds of soil and station which these afford, Our Zoo- 
logical papers were few, but not unimportant. Dr. Wesley 
Mills gave us some interesting contributions from the 
physiological work which he has so successfully pursued, and 
the observations of Mr. Caulfield on birds observed at Mont- 
real were of much interest, raising among other things the 
questions of the relations of the imported sparrow to our 
native birds, the services and misdeeds of the former, and 
the manner in which it is accommodating itself to the 
peculiar conditions of our climate. These questions were 
merely opened up by Mr. Caulfield, and I hope will be 
followed farther by him in the same earnest and observant 
manner. One fact to be noted in regard to the services of 
insectivorous birds, and which is often overlooked, is that 
the multiplication of certain species of insects which these 
birds do not relish or cannot easily destroy, is no proof that 
they do not deliver us from others which, but for their 
agency, would become equally abundant. Farther, we 
cannot expect birds lo annihilate the species on which they 
feed, but only to keep down their numbers. The amount of 
original worl: implied in these papers may not be large, in 
comparison with that done by stronger societies abroad ; 
but in so far as it goes, it is so much gained to science, so 
much of valuable fact and inference obtained and preserved 
for future use, and marking a perceptible advance in know- 
ledge. On this we may well congratulate ourselves, and 
take courage for the future, and I would again say here that 
our friends should remember that any facts or specimens 
throwing any new light on the geology or natural history 
of this country will not be despised by us, but are always 
welcome at our meetings. Every genuine and accurately 
observed fact in natural history is a gain, often a much 
greater gain than that which results from mere speculation 
and generalization, however brilliant. 

[ have now, in resigning the position of president with 
which this Society has honored me for a number of times, to 


440 Canadian Record of Science. 


ask that I may be permitted to see it transferred to younger 
and abler hands. I have arrived at a time of life when it 
has become necessary to husband my remaining powers, 
and there are so many unfinished departments of work in 
connection with the University and with the scientific 
studies which are dear to me, that I feel it necessary to 
retire from as many engagements as possible. I also feel 
that there is much to be done by your president for which 
I have not the time or strength, and that a new impulse 
might be given to our work by theselection of a younger man. 
I shall for my part be ready as formerly to contribute to 
the Society such results of my studies as may seem likely 
to be useful and acceptable, and shall be happy to do any- 
thing that I can as a private member to promote the interests 
of the Society. It will be a pleasure to me to lay down my 
official connection with it at a time when its condition and 
prospects are so good as at present, and when I hope it has 
entered on a new career of increasing prosperity and 
usefulness, 
The following reports of Committees were submitted : 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. 


The Council beg to submit the following report :— 

The session which this meeting brings toa close, has been 
one of much interest in every department. 

There have been seven meetings of the Society, and thir- 
teen of the Council, five of which were special, in connec- 
tion with the Autumn ‘“ Field Day,” and the “ Conversa- 
zione.” 

Thirty-five ordinary and three associate members, have 
been added to the Society during the year, as against 
twelve last year. 

The Library has received a good deal of attention from 
Mr. Chambers, the Chairman, and the other members of the 
Committee, but considerable work has yet to be done by 
the Committee to be appointed for the coming year. 

The Society’s building is now in better condition than for 
many years past. The Council authorized the Hon. Curator, 


Proceedings of Natural History Society. 441 


and the Chairman of the House Committee, to make some 
changes in the “ Aquarium Room,” re-arrange to some ex- 
tent the ‘‘ Museum,” and generally to improve the interior 
of the building. They had to find the means with which to 
do this, and have to thank members of the Society, as well 
as a number of citizens, who kindly contributed to this end, 
but the work is far from being completed, they recommend 
their successors in office to follow up what they have begun 
until the “ Museum,” and the entire building, be put into 
first class condition. 

We have received during the year for rent of Hall, 
Library, and Committee Rooms, about $1,200.00, being a 
large increase over any previous year. 

In the Superintendent’s report to the Chairman of the 
House Committee, there is the following memo. :— 


Received from Visitors to “ Museum,” 1887-88........ $27.00 
. Do ie fe f os 1888-89........ 76.90 
HTTCTE ASCiemisteisienereicieisrer steelers sieves) | 49.90) 


The yearly grant from the Provincial Government, Que- 
bec, of $400.00 was duly received and handed to the treasu- 
rer, Mr. P. S. Ross. 

The Editing Committee have done their work nobly. The 
thanks of the Society, are due and tendered to Prof. Pen- 
hallow, Dr. Harrington, and the other members. 

The Annnal “ Field Day ” was held at Montebello, on the 
grounds of the Hon, Mr, Papineau. The excursionists left 
Dalhousie Square Station punctually at 9am. The morn- 
ing was cloudy and looked like rain, but turned out fine, 
The train reached Montebello before noon, and was met at 
the station by a few scientists from Ottawa, amongst them 
were, Mr, J. F. Whiteaves, Mr. M. Ami, and others. The 
party proceeded at once to the residence of Mr. Papineau, 
and were received, and welcomed by him in a few well- 
chosen words, They were then conducted to his “ Mu- 
seum,” full of objects of interest, which were appreciated 
and admired by all, The excursionists here divided into 
sections, bent on Geological, Botanical, and Kntomological 
work, while quite a number enjoyed the beautics surround- 
ing the residence of our host. 


442 Canadian Record of Science. 


At 4.30 p.m., the party, by previous arrangement, met in 
front of the house, when Mr. J. H. R. Molson, proposed a 
hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Papineau, seconded by Prof. 
Bovey, to which Mr. Papineau responded, when cheers were 
given, and the excursionists said good-bye to their kind host, 
and his lovely grounds. 

On arrival at the station, the first business was to deoite 
who were the prize winners. Dr. Harrington, Mr. Whit- 
eaves, and Mr. M. Ami examined the various collections, 
and named the successful workers in the three departments 
for named and unnamed specimens. Then bidding ‘ good- 
bye” to their Ottawa friends, the party boarded the train 
for home, and found Mr. Burgess in charge of a car decorat- 
ed with flags and evergreens, when an elegant lunch was 
provided for the excursionists with the usual kind fore- 
thought, and hospitality of the Canadian Pacific Railway. 
A rapid run brought the party to Dalhousie Square Station 
at T p.m. On the platform a vote of thanks and three rous- 
ing cheers were given to the officers of the C. P. R. for their 
kindness. Home was next in order, and the excursionists 
separated, all delighted with the day’s outing. 

Mr. Chas. Gibb, of Abbotsford, tendered an invitation to 
the Society, for an Autumn “ Field Day,” which was ac- 
cepted for September 29th. Some one hundred and twenty 
(120) excursionists proceeded to Abbotsford by the Cana- 
dian Pacific Railway to enjoy Mr. Gibb’s hospitality at his 
lovely residence, and all found a hearty welcome, a splendid 
lunch was prepared to which the party did ample justice. 
The large, and beautiful orchards were open for inspection, 
and enjoyment of the whole party. The trees were loaded 
with apples of every description, amongst them a variety 
of Russian apples. Mr. Gibb has also a plantation of orna- 
mental and other trees from amongst which he is endeavour- 
ing to find out those best adapted to our Canadian climate. 
The excursionists divided up into parties, the most numer- 
ous led by Sir J. W. Dawson, went to the top of Yamaska 
Mountain, where a splendid view of the country (although 
a Snow storm intervened) was obtained, Sir J. W. Dawson 


Proceedings of Natural History Society. 443 


delivered an admirable address on the mountain top, upon 
the Geological features of the vicinity. The Botanical 
party worked upon the mountain, under the direction of 
Professor Penhallow. The collections made were princi- 
pally Geological, the Botanical specimens were not so 
numerous. 

The excursionists met at the house at 3.30 p.m,, when 
addresses were delivered by Sir Wm. Dawson, and Prof. 
Penhallow. A hearty vote of thanks was tendered to our 
host for this, another proof of his many kind acts to the 
‘Natural History Society.” The party left for the train 
when Mr. Gibb, with his kind thoughtfulness, had baskets 
full of his lovely apples waiting them. Good-bye was 
said and cheers given for Mr. Gibb, and the party started 
for the city, after a day of pleasure and profit. 

The Society decided to hold a “ Conversazione” on Feb- 
ruary the 28th, and invite Lord Stanley (the Patron of the 
Society) and Lady Stanley to be present. Committees 
were appointed for each department, and through our Pre- 
sident, Sir Wm. Dawson, the Governor General Lord Stan- 
ley and Lady Stanley accepted the invitation. The excel. 
lent work done by the several committees, and the pres- 
sence of Lord and Lady Stanley made the “ Conversazione ” 
a complete success, The thanks of the Society are due and 
hereby tendered to the “ Microscopic Society,” to the ladies 
who kindly assisted in decorating the “ Museum,” and also to 
the following gentlemen, Mr. J. Stevenson Brown, Prof. 
Penhallow, Dr. Harrington, Dr. Girdwood, A. Holden, Geo. 
Sumner, Horace T. Martin, Dr. McConnel, and to Mr, 
Armstrong for his splendid exhibits from the North West. 

The Sommerville course of lectures, six in number, de- 
livered last winter were of a high order, and attracted good 
audiences. The subjects and names of the lecturers are as 
follows :— 

Feb. 21st—‘ Agricultural Education.” By Sir J. W. Dawson, 
C.M.G., F.R.S. 

March 7th—‘ Vorestry for Canada.” By Hon. H. G. Jory Dn 
LorersIpre, 


444 Canadian Record of Science. 


March 14th—“Our Fruits, Past and Present.” By Cuaries Gps, 
Esq., B.A 

March 21st—“ Economic Entomology as a Branch of Agriculture.” 
By James Fiurcumre, Esq, F.R.S.C., Dominion En- 
tomologist. 

March 28th—“The Food of Plants.” By Prof. D. P. Pexnatnow, 
B.Sc., F-R.8.C. 

April 4th—‘ Sugar-producing Plants.” By W T Sxarrs, B.A. Se. 

The Society beg to tender to these gentlemen their 
thanks for their kindness in coming forward so generously 
and assisting by delivering those interesting and instruc- 
tive lectures. 

An important feature during the year, was a resolution 
passed by the Council, to open the “Museum” of the So- 
ciety, free to the colleges and schools of the city. A circu- 
lar was issued placing the “Museum” at their disposal 
every Saturday, which has been duly acknowledged. A 
large number with their teachers have already taken ad- 
vantage of the offer. 

During the year 1868, this Society required money for a 
special purpose. A number of citizens came forward and 
subscribed very liberally, fully supplying the needed funds. 
Such an example would be well worth imitating at the pre- 
sent time, and would materially assist the Society in the 
good work it is doing for the Province of Quebec, and we 
might say for the whole Dominion. About $10,000 is re- 
quired to put the Sommerville Course of Lectures upon a 
proper educational basis, and for enabling our scientific 
workers to prosecute their work thoroughly. This cannot 
possibly be done without adequate means, and it is to be 
hoped our citizens will come forward and subscribe liberal- 
ly to this end. 

We cannot close this report without mentioning the care- 
ful attention given to the building and its contents by the 
Superintendent, and the assistance he has rendered to the 
officers on all occasions. 

The “Field Day,” this year will be held at St. Hustache, 
on the 8th of June. 

Respectfully submitted, 
JOHN 8. SHEARER. 


Proceedings of Natural History Society. 445 


CURATOR’S REPORT, 1888-89. 


During the past year numerous changes have been made 
in the Museum, but it must be understood that, in this 
report, reference only is made to what has been accomp- 
lished since the present Curator took office, in October last. 

Owing to the insufficiency of light in the Aquarium Room 
since the building of the Victoria Rifles’ Armoury, it was 
deemed advisable to remove the specimens and convert it 
into a neat and comfortable Hall to be rented for evening 
meetings, or to be used by the Society when required. 

The fish case, which originally stood at the north end of 
this room, has been removed to the upper gallery, and its 
contents have been carefully dusted, cleaned and re- 
arranged, whilst the long case which stood at the east side 
has been taken away completely, part of the specimens 
have been placed in other parts of the Museum, and the 
balance has been carefully put away until such time as new 
cases can be provided. 

The cabinet of reptiles which also stood in this room, but 
which had fallen into a state verging upon ruin, has been 
repaired, and now stands upon a suitable table at the head 
of the gallery atair. 

A considerable amount of time was occupied in re- 
arranging this cabinet; the specimens, originally preserved 
in spirits and which had become dried up and useless, were 
culled out; the bottles and jars containing those yet good 
have been all washed and the stuffed specimens cleansed 
with turpentine and varnished where necessary. 

The alligator, crocodile and whale have been re-varnished ; 
a new stand has been provided for the old cannon, and the 
cases in the gallery have all been painted to correspond with 
those in other parts of the Museum, 

Special reference must be made to the gallery of the 
Museum, which through neglect had been allowed to fall 
into a deplorable state of dilapidation. Many of the 
specimens nailed upon the walls were inaccurately named 
or described, and the majority were without labels, others 


446 Canadian Record of Science. 


again had been seriously damaged through being attached 
to the walls by large and unsightly nails which, in many 
eases, had been driven right through the objects. A 
complete re-organization of this department was found 
necessary. The specimens were accordingly carefully 
removed from the walls and laid aside, while the slats upon 
which they should have hung were repaired, painted and 
varnished. Small brass hooks have been placed at intervals 
along these slats and the specimens attached thereto by 
means of fine copper wire. The specimens were first 
thoroughly cleaned, then classified according to locality, and 
afterwards hung in their respective groups. Fresh labels 
have been written in bold, clear characters and affixed to 
the various objects, so that each tells its own short history 
in few words. The work of re-arranging this department 
has been both irksome and laborious, and occupied very 
considerable time. In this connection your Curator 
wishes to testify to the very great assistance rendered him 
by Mr. Shearer, Mr. Holden, and Mr. Martin who, at con- 
siderable personal sacrifice, devoted between twenty and. 
thirty evenings to this work during the winter, working on 
several occasions till after midnight. Indeed, had it not 
been for the untiring energy of these gentlemen much that 
has been accomplished would remain undone, and the 
thanks of this Society is certainly due to them for their 
zeal in these matters. 

A large collection of war implements, mats, and other 
objects of interest fiom Samoa, presented to the Society 
some time since, but which had never been unpacked, are 
now labeled and placed in appropriate positions. 

There has been a large increase of visitors to the Museum 
this year as compared with last, as the following figures 
show: last year there were admitted 451; this year, 1192. 

The expenditure in connection with the various altera- 
tions, improvements and repairs referred to in this report 
has been met from a special fund provided for the purpose 
by a few friends, and this is probably the first year in the 
history of the Society in which the Treasurer has not been 


Proceedings of Natural History Society. 444 


called upon to foot the Curator’s bills. This fund, however, 
is now about exhausted, and there remains much work yet 
to be done. Surely it will not be discounting the future 
unduly to ask those who may be in charge of these matters 
in the ensuing year to continue the work already begun, in 
the hope that ere long some public-spirited citizen will come 
to their assistance in such a way as to enable them to make 
the Museum a credit to the Society as well as an honor to 
the city. 

This report would be incomplete did it not specially refer 
to the assistance rendered by the Superintendent in re- 
arranging the specimens and in keeping the Museum clean 
and free from dust, to the civility and attention shown to 
visitors, and the general interest he has taken in matters 
connected with the Museum. 

The following list comprises the donations to the Museum 
during the year :— 

Coluber eximus (Milk Snake). 
Balanus hameri, several specimens. 
Astrophyton Agassizzii (Sea Basket). 
Tamais striatus. Albino variety. (White Chipmunk.) 
Several specimens of Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Ambulatoria. 
Two Stone Gouges and a specimen of Fossil Wood. 
Woodland Caribou, mounted complete. 
Stalactites, 2 specimens. 
Octocoris alpestris praticola (Prairie Horned Larks), 2 specimens. 
Ampelis cedrorum (Cedar Waxwing). 
Manitoba Grouse, 2 specimens. 
Menobrancivus maculatus (Spotted Proteus). 

tespectfully submitted, 

J. Stevenson Brown, Hon. Curator. 


To the President and Council, Natural History Society of 
Montreal : 

GENTLEMBN,—In submitting the Annual Report of the 
Editing Committee, it is gratifying to be able to state that 
the past year has been one of general progress in all the 
work assigned to this Committee. The number of exchanges 
has steadily increased, and more than the usual number of 
requests for exchange have been made, As pointed out in 


previous reports, the Recorp or Sorenox is the most impor- 
27 


448 Canadian Record of Science. 


tant medium through which the work of this Society can 
be extended and made known, and it is felt that every 
effort should be made, not only to maintain the Recorp, 
but to promote its increased efficiency. With this end 
in view, we would submit the following recommendations: 

There should be appointed an Editor who shall have 
direct charge of and be responsible for the proper publica- 
tion of the Recorp, and four associate editors who will 
assist him in the proper selection of material and otherwise 
advise him. 

The sum of one hundred dollars should be appropriated 
to the employment of an assistant, who shall read the proofs 
and otherwise act under the supervision of the Editor. 

Provision should be made for increased illustration of 
articles where such is needed, and in the near future an 
increase in the size of the journal may be found desirable. 

We would also recommend that in future all books, perio- 
dical publications and works received in exchange, be 
acknowledged by the Librarian, to whom such duty properly 


belongs. 
Respectfully submitted, 
On behalf of the Editing Committee, 


D. P. PENHALLOW, Chairman. 


To the President and Council of the Natural History Society ; 


‘The Library Committee have to report that the following 
works have been presented to the Library during the past 
year, for which in the name of the Society, they desire to 
thank the donors : 


“ The Geological History of Plants,” by Sir Wm. Dawson. 

“ Notes on Specimens of Eozoon Canadense,” by Sir Wm. Daw- 
son. 

“ On Paleozoic Rocks of the Atlantic Coast,” by Sir Wm. Dawson. 

“ Report of the Royal Society of Canada.” 

“ Geology of Minnesota,” from the Geological and Natural History 
Survey of Minnesota. 

“ The Fishery Industries of the United States,” 4 vols., from the 
U.S. Fishery Commissioners. 

“ Report of the U. 8. Geological Survey.” 

“ Embryology of Insects, and Arachnids,”’ by J. Bruce, from the 
Johns Hopkins University. 


Proceedings of Natural History Society. 449 


The parts (as far as published) of the “ Prodomus of the Zoology 


Besides these, many parts of the proceedings of Scientific 
Societies have been received in exchange for your REcorD 
oF Screncr. Several volumes of these need binding, as, in 
the event of any parts being lost, it is sometimes impossible 
to complete the set. Your Committee have not asked for 
any appropriation from the Council, except for the stand 
for the exchanges, but would suggest the necessity of a 
sum, $50 at least, being placed annually in the hands of the 
Library Committee for binding these volumes, and prevent- 
ing the large accumulation of unbound works, such as is 
now to be found on your shelves. Much time has been 
spent during the year in an endeavour to arrange these, and 
your Committee trust that this important work may be 
completed in the ensuing year. 


The remainder of the books in the cases on the north side 
of the Library have been placed and noted in the Catalogue. 
Those in the cases on the south side will be placed as soon 
as arranged and classified. 

Your Committee trust that their efforts will make your 
valuable Library more accessible to the members, and regret 
that in consequence of the large number of unbound parts 
that have had to be looked over, the work of arranging and 
placing them could not be completed within the past year. 

Respectfully submitted, 
On behalf of the Library Committee, 
K. T. CaampBers, Chairman. 


TREASURER’S REPORT. 
SratemMpnt Narurau History Socrnry. 


Receipts. 
BOIS: pa). ccneaace AIDA RELI CEO RODEO $1,008 50 
Subscriptions....+..++. Beir apelatuin (ore eine isis 569 00 
Field Day Excursion, “Conversazione”.. 129 27 
Special Donations. ...:+60 cece vesscesccs 109 85 
Government GANG. .s0sc socvsece cevcee 400 00 
MUTANGE PGB csiscasecrccasccdens covers 76 90 


$2,293 52 


450 Canadian Record of Science. 


Disbursements. 
Balance due Treasurer. ..ss-.ceeeee cers 6 5 30 
Salaries and Commissions....+..eee+-ee 392 7 
Soil Temperatures....0---+ceseseereeee 67 70 
Sundry Expenses, Caretaker, &c......-- 469 22 
Buelvands Wielit.-jeieeteieneieeeebee ile. 376 5d 
Repairs Buildings—Museum, &c....-.-- 160 07 
TAXeS. ...0 iietalctete eye verse syopsueteinne ae ic alee & 144 20 
“Record of Science ”. .......2+e06- seem DOONOS 
NGG GEVUTOS! I< /acle cise ciesistenelae mucin sie isis a dueielbiens 115 538 
House Furnishing...... 5 Gon40 Paneecare 28 50 
Ibo ray ree ae Man MiGoo4OT.HO Oso God DOME ROO bc 12 96 
House Improvements......-+--+seeeceee 210 00 
Balance on hand ..... ccoces «--200 +00. 16 80 
- $2,293 52 
Balance onhand......-- eo cleveis $16 80 


The following officers were elected for the ensuing year : 


Naturat History Socrpry or Monrrnat, 
Officers—Session 1889-90. 

President—Sir William Dawson, LLD., F.R.S., F.R.S.C. 

Vice-Presidents—B. J, Harrington, Ph. D., F.R.S.C , J. H. R. Mol- 
son, Sir Donald A. Smith, John 8. Shearer, George Sumner, Edward 
Murphy, A. F. Gault, Rev. Robert Campbell, A.M., D. P. Penhallow, 
B. Sc., F-R.S.C. 

Members of Council—J. A. U. Beaudry, Chairman; P.S. Ross, John 
W. Stirling, M.B.,S. Finley, W. H. Rintoul, J. H. Joseph, Very Rev. 
Dean Carmichael, Rey. Canon Empson, R. F. Ruttan, B.A., M.D. 

Honorary Recording Secretary—Albert Holden. 

Honorary Corresponding Secretary—Horace T, Martin. 

Honorary Curator—J. Stevenson Brown. 

Honorary Treasurer—James Gardner. 

Editing Committee—D. P. Penhallow, Chairman; B. J. Harring- 
ton, Ph. D., Dr. T. Wesley Mills, J. F. Whiteaves, G. F. Matthew. 

LTibrary Committee—J. A. U. Beaudry, C.E., F. B. Caulfield, R. W. 
McLachlan, Joseph Fortier. 

Lecture Committee—Dr. J. B. Harrington, P.§. Ross, Rev. Robert 
Campbell. 

House Committee—J. S. Shearer, J. Brown, A. Holden. 

Membership Committ.e—A. Holden, P, 8. Ross, Dr. Stirling, H. T. 
Martin, J. S. Brown, S. Finley, J. A. U. Beaudry, Geo. Sumner, Dr. 
Ruttan. 

Superintendent—Alfred Griffin. 


List of Members of the N. H. Society. 


451 


List OF THE MEMBERS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY 
Socrety OF MONTREAL. 


Burland, J. H. 


Claxton, T. J. 
Claxton, J. F. 


Dawson, Sir J. W. 
Drummond, Geo. A. 


Ferrier, James 


Hingston, W. H., M.D. 


Hobbs, Wm. 
Hunt, Dr. T. 8. 


Joseph, J. H. 
Kay, W. F. 
Latour, Major L, A. H. 


Alexander, Chas. 
Allan, Andrew 
Angus, William 
Adams, R. C. 


Baker, M. C. 
Beattie, Jobn 
Bentley, D. 
Bethune, Strachan 
Blackader, A. D., Dr. 
Brainard, T. C. 
Brown, J. Stevenson 
Brissette, M. H. 
Buchanan, W. J. 
Bemrose, Jos. 
Beaudry, J. A. U., C.E. 
Baker, J. C. 

Barnes, Dr. F. W. 
Blaiklock, F. W. 
Bovey, Prof. H. T. 
Bond, W. P. 8. 
Baylis, Rev. I. G. 
Bond, FE. L. 


Beaudry, Dr. I. A., Inspector. 


Brown, Dr. A. 
Belcher, H. M, 


LIFH MEMBERS. 


Lyman, Henry 


McCulloch, F. 
Mitchell, James 
Molson, John 
Molson, J. H. R. 
Molson, J. T. 
Molson, J. W. 


Nivin, William 


Sutherland, Louis 
Sumner, George 


Watt, D. A. P. 
Winn, J. H. 


Workman, Thomas. 


ORDINARY MBPMBHERS. 


Campbell, Kenneth 
Campbell, Rey. Robert 
Caufield, F. B. 
Chambers, EH. T. 
Cheney, G. 
Costigan, W. T. 
Craik, Dr. Robt. 
Carsley, 8. 
Carnagie, J. 
Chapman, W. H. 
Carmichael, Dean 
Cassils, Chas. 
Coristine, James 
Carter, E. F. 
Carter, G. H. 


Drysdale, Wm. 
Donald, J. 8., Prof. 
Drummond, A. T. 
De Lamotte, A, W. 
Devine, Thos. 
Duncan, A. FE. 
Drake, W. 

Dyer, W. A. 
Dawson, Percy M. 


Edwards, Dr, J. Baker 


452 Canadian Record of Science. 


Evans, Wm. N. Lockerby, A. L. 
Ewing, A.S. Lawrence, Capt. J. 
Ewing, S. H. Lyman, R. C. 
Evans, F. W. Lovejoy, Dr. 
Euard, Wm. Lighthall, W. D. 
Empson, Rev. Canon Lacy, D. Edgar 
Lyman, H. 
Fortier, Jos. 
Finley, S. Mathewson, J. A. 
Fair, John Miller, Robt. 
Ferrier, W. J. Mills, J. W. 
Mitchell, Robt. 
Gardner, James Morrice, D. 
Garth, Charles Mills, T. Westley 
Girdwood, Dr. Murphy, Hon. Ed. 
Gibb, Charles Mussen, Thos. 
Godfrey, Dr. R. T. Martin, Horace | 
Goode, J. B. Minto, William 
Greene, E. K. Morgan, James, Jr. 
Graham, Hugh Murphy, John 
Greenshields, E. B. 
Grindley, R. R. McCallum, Dr. 
Gault, A. F. McDonald, W. C. 
Greene, G. A. McEachran, Dr. 
Gilmour, J. Y. McKenzie, Hector 
McLennan, Hugh 
Harrington, Dr. B. J. McLachlan, R. W. 
Henshaw, F. W. McGowan, A. 
Hickson, Jos. McShane, James, M.P:P. Hon. 
Hodgson, J. McGregor, James 
Holden, Albert 
Hutton, Jas. Nicholls Mr. Bertie 
Hope, John Notman, William 
Harvie, R. 
Harper, John Ostell, John 
Hart, Chas. T. 
Henderson, Alex. Penhallow, Prof. D. P. 
Holden, J. C. Prowse, G. R 
Hill, J. Wentworth Patton, Thos. 
Phillips, C. D. J. 
Inglis, Archibald | Phelps, Geo. 
Ives, H. R. Paton, Hugh 
Jamieson, R. C. Phillips, H. 
Johnston, J. R. 
Judge, Edgar Ryan, Hon. Thos. 
Jones, J. H. Rintoul, W. H. 
Robertson, And’w, Chair’n H C. 
Kennedy, W. Ross, Dr. Geo. 
Kerry, John Ross, P. S. 
King, Warden Radford, Ed., P.O. Box 1487. 
Knowlton, Geo. Roddick, Dr. T. 
Robertson, J. A. 
Linton Robt. Reford, Robt. 
Lightbound, Geo. Robertson, Alex. 


Little, Wm. Ruttan, Dr. 


List of Members of the N. H. Society. 


Stirling, John Stephenson, W. A. 
Shearer, James. Skelton, Leslie J. 
Shorey, H. 

Shearer, John S$. Thomas, F. W. 
Silvermann, S. Thomas, H. W. 
Smith, Sir D. A. Trimble, Thos. 
Smyth, W. J. 

Stevenson, R. R. Van Horne, W. C. 
Slessor, James Vasey, Prof. T. E. 
Smith, Dr. J. Lapthorn. 

Scott, Gilbert Wanless, Dr. John 
Smith, J. Murray Williamson, James 
Stirling, Dr. White, R. 

Smith, Master H. M., Assem Wood, C. 8. 

Smith, Miss AnnieL. ‘“ Williamson, Rey. J. 
Small, Ed. 


CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 
Hubbard, Prof. O. P., Hanover, N.H. 
Jowitt, A. A., Sheffield. 


Laberge, Chas., St. Johns, P.Q. 
Langevin, J., Rimouski, P.Q. 

Latour, Dr. C. H. Boucherville, P.Q. 
Lavalle, Rev. M., St Vincent de Paul, P.Q 
Leaycroft, J. W., Quebec, P.Q. 

Lee, Dr. J. C., London, P.O. 


Macoun, J., Ottawa, P.O. 

Marsh, Prof. J. W., Forest Grove, Oregon. 
Matthew, G. F., St John, N.B. 

McCantee, Dr. T. B., Boston. 

Mackay, A. H., Pictou, N.S. 

McDougall, P. L., Toronto, P.O. 
McFarlane, Thomas, Actonville, P.Q. 
McFarlane, Thomas, Ottawa. P.O. 


Nelson, Dr. Wolfred. 
Newcombe, Dr. W., Troy, N.Y. 
Niles, B. F., Washington, D.C. 


Osler, Dr., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. 


Packard, A. 8., Providence, R,1. 
Pilote, Rey. F., St. Anne de la Pocatiere, P.Q. 


453 


454 Canadian Record of Science. 


Robinson, Rev. P., Abbotsford, P.Q. 
Rose, H., Granby, P.Q. 


Salisbury, Dr. J. W., 9 West 29th Street, New York City. 
Saunders, W., London, P.O. 

Sicotte, Judge, St Hyacinthe, P.Q. 

Spence. J., Pointe Claire, P.Q. 


Taché, J. C., Quebec, P.Q. 
Thieleke, H., Quebec, P.Q. 
Turcot, Dr. M., S¢ Hyacinthe, P.Q. 


Westwood, Prof. J. O., Oxford, England. 

Wilson, Prof. D., Toronto, P.O. 

Winslow, W. C., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., 429 Beacon St., Boston. 
Wurtele, Rev. L., Actonville, P.Q. 


HONORARY MBPMBBHRS. 


Baldwin, Right Rey. M.S., Bishop of Huron, P.O. 
Beaubien, Hon. Louis, Montreal, P.Q. 


Hall, Prof. James, Albany, N.Y. 
Hunt, Dr. T. Sterry, Montreal, P.Q. 


Lefroy, General J. H., 82 Queen’s Gate, London, England. 
Montgomery, James, Toronto, P.O. 


Rae, Dr., 
Rogers, Charles, London, England. 


Selwyn, A. R. C., Geological Survey, Ottawa, P.O. 


Whiteaves, J. F., Geological Survey, Ottawa, P.O. 


—————————— ee 


ABSTRACT FOR THE MONTH OF APRIL, 1889. 
Meteorological Observations, McGill College Observatory, Montreal, Canada, Height above sea level, 187 feet. C. H. McLEOD, Superintendent. 
Sky CLoupepy E 
THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. WIND. In Tents. [5 3 Al q a. 
— aaa a4 re pe oe {Mean | { Meau aa a 2 z 8 a3 =a 38 
pres-_ |relative] Dew M Ss a28) 8 |] S82] g8 
a vapour. [HE] Poa | General lrstocts| ¢ | 4 | Alga] s° | ba |ae| PAY 
Mean.| Max. | Min. |Range] *Mean. | §Max. §Min. | §Range. | vapour. ] ity. dinectionelintmniley g s/a]s g ey Sr 5 
perhour, a 
a aay 1] 31.87 | 360 26.6 29.9243 | 29-984 29-854 +130 1365 76.7 25.2 N.E. 13-7 75|10| o 79 sae I 
2| 31.28 | 34.8 27.6 29.7595 | 29-8or 29.696 +105 +1543, 87.7 28.0 N.E. 8.0 | 10.0] 10 | 10 or) oor} 2 
3| 33-55 | 38-0 28.6 29.7618 | 29.838 29.697 «141 +1653 86.0 29.8 7-9 6.3] 10] o 16 0.09] 3 
4| 35.62] 40.1 31-7 5 29.8928 29-960 29-789 +171 +1303 62.5 24.0 S.W. 13-8 65|10] o 18 4 
5| 32-78] 40.0 27.3) 12. 39.0993 | 30.167 30.031 +136 +0997 53-7 18.0 N.E. 12 2 1.0] 5/0 96 5 
6| 32.68] 41.0 23.8) 17. 30-3353 | 30-407 30.219 +188 -0978 53.0 17.5 N. 130 | 03] 1] o 96 ae 6 
SUNDAY. ....-- 7 6000 47.0 24-8| 22. 0000002 2006000 505000 0000 sooo 6060 9000 S.E 1.6 so004 tool} ao 96 7 s+80 .eeeeSUNDAY 
8} 4098] 48.9 31-7 17. 30+2753 | 30° 412 30.077 +335 .1275 50.2 23-7 E. 3-3 2.5| 10/ o 97 8 
g| 41.52 52.0 34-3 17- 29.8972 30.019 29.788 ~231 +1647 62.0 29.3 S.W. 16.3 3-8] 10] o 44 9 
10} 37-95 44.2 sh4/ 13 29-9345 29.983 29-999) “O74 +1378 60.3 25.3 S.W. 16.8 rok} || 6 ° 96 10 
bad 47.40 58.0 36.2 2.. 29-7713 29.898 29 626 +272 +1693 53-0 30.2 S.W. 26.0 5-3 10 o 7o It 
12} 41.97 | 49-: 32.4) 16. 29.6357 | 29.702 29 595 +107 +2020 74-5 | 34-2 N. 12.3 | 7.3| 10] o 12 12 
13] 33-65] 39.3 26.8] 12. 29.8302 | 29.965 29 741 +224 +1175 61.2 21.8 N-.W. 14.8 8.2] 10] o 25 ; «| 13 
SUNDAY........14 | «+02. | 47-1 31-8 | 15.3 o90cde seeeee | ceraes ves an coe N.W. 13.6 5000 |} 00 vA 0000 0000 vee 14 . eeee++ +1. SUNDAY 
15 | 40.50) 49.1 31.7 | 17-4] 30 4110] 30 459 30.340 +0950 39.0 | 16.2 N. 115 | oo| of of os 15 
16 | 47-19] 59.4 34-6 | 24.8] 30.3438 | 30 437 32-243 +1448 46.8 26.7 i. 6.1 o8| 2] 0 92 16 
17 51.93 64.2 36.5 27.7 30.1102 30-227 30.015 .1693 46 2 30.2 Ss. 129 @3]| BI] © 95 +. | 17 
18 53-53 | 66.1 38-3 27.8 30.0438 30-075 30.016 ~2262 56.2 37-5 he: N. 6.8 4.0] 10| 0 73 oc |) 3 
19 | 59-40] 73.6 41.3] 32-3] 29-9535 | 30-096 29 813 - 2802 5353 42.5 5.1. 147 3-5| 10] o 89 © 02] 19 
20} 62 58] 69.8 57-5 | 123] 29.9210] 29 969 29-863 -3160 565 453 S.W. 250 4.3] 10]| o 74 0.04 | 20 
SUNDAY........26 ponon |) (yc) 32.6] 35.3 0000 an 900 coda S.W. 23.2 boo 00 74 | 0.02 600 0.02 | 24 ...+-++0+eSUNDAY. 
22] 33.88] 40.3 28.3) 12.0 +342 +0935 48.3 16.3 =, Wo 240 4.8 | 10] o 48 oO se | 22 
23 | 38-02] 46.2 26.6] 19.6 +208 +1312 56-7 23.5, SW. 82 7-2} 10] 0 53 tas see | 23 
24] 51.68 | 63.0 36.5 | 26.5 +265 +2575 67.2 407 §.E. 16.4 | 9.0} 10] 4 46 | oor O.01 | 24 
25 53 53 | 57-0 51.9 5.1 ) +023 «3603 87.0 498 S. 14.3 10.0/ 10] 10 00} 0.34 ° 34 | 25 
26] 51.12] 55-5 45-5 | 10.0 29-816 .094 +3583 95-2 49-7 N-B. 8.6 10 0} 10/ 10 00} 0.51 0.54 | 26 
27 | 49-92] 61.0 42.7] 18.3 29.401 .312 +3323 g2.2 47-7 N.E. 20.5 g-2] 10] 5 39 | 0.10 ooo |) Qs) |] 24 
SuNDAY........28 62.2 L549 || &5G)) connec |} coo000 |} coanc 9000 00 200 000 S. BE. 57768 1 oon0 06 | oss 0.58 | 28 .....00-..+SUNDAY 
29 51.9 44.6 7-3 29 377 +193 +2998 88.2 45.0 S.W. 21.7 10.0} 10 | 10 00 | 0.43 © 43 | 29 
30 50.8 40.5) 10-3 29 588 .139 +2143 714-2 30.2 Ww. 27-4 8.8] 10 oo |Inapp 0.03 | 30 
-Means| 43.34 51-78 | 34.97 | 16.82] 29.9554 1916 65.0 | 31 32 JS 72° W. | 14.55 [5.48] . .. 53-0] 2.14 o.r | 2 15 |Sums 
fi oo oe eae ae ee lees ig a eae es Peele oer 1 aa eae | Saas ae | eans for and 
15 yrs. means for & 5 |z5 years means 
fea tat this mo,! 39.58 47.6 31-7 || 15.9] 29.9359! .....5 600000 +199 1693 67-1 Beod sono cac0 4 GG |] 60H} oo LIGA Bo 6.7 | 2.25 including this month 
ANALYSIS OF WIND RECORD. “Barometer readings reduced to sea-level and| Rain fell on 11 days. 
Sa en a ei i temperature of 32° Fahr. Snow fell on 2 days. 
Direction... y. |nz.| e | se] s. |sw.| w- | N. W.| Calm. § Observed. ph Rain or snow fell on 13 days. 
——, | — | __ __}__ t Pressure of vapour in inches of mercury. Auroras were observed on three nights. 
Miles. ...+-+++++.| 7353, | 1472 367_| 507 | 1413 | 2674 | 2134 | 559 t Humidity relative, saturation being 100. Solar halo on three days. 
Duration in hrs..| 96 113 52 48 103 130 114 49 15 ‘1 Hight years only. Lunar corona on two nights. 
ea, ees | ae —| — | ; —_—__|_—__. The fapeasicay amt waste lon the 19th; the great-| Fog on two days. 
ean velocity...| 14.1 13.0 7-1 10.6 13.7 20.6 18.7 11.4 est cold was 23.8 on the 6th, giving a range ot 
temperature of 49.8 degrees.” Warmest day was Thunderstorm on the 27th. 
——— ——_. ——-——— the 20th. Coldest day was the 2nd. Highest baro- 
z P meter reading was 30.499 on the 7th; lowest baro- 
Greatest mileage in one hour was 48 on the2Ist.| Resultant direction, § 72° W. mete Wee ae on the zal giving pataneeoh ae 
ity i i ; 79, inches. aximum relative humidity was on 
Pee aea velocity in gusts 66 miles per hour on| Total mileage, 10,47 he 2th. IM niniumbra ag veya anna aes oe 
Resultant mileage, 2,790. the 15th. 


a ———— ———————  ———— ———————————— 


a 


ie 
i 
re 


Pe nese 
ela a ot ban 


Pima abit 2 


ee 


Hae 


ABSTRACT FOR THE MONTH OF MAY, 1889. 


Meteorological Observations, McGill College Observatory, Montreal, Canada, Height above sea level, 187 feet. 


C. H. McLEOD, Superintendent. 


Sky CLoupepy . Ee 
THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. WIND. In Tentus. |S § Bu a g 
ie a oe {Mean | {Mean Bod a8 Sy |) ope} 
res- relative) Dew = ols] Se ao | as 
DAY. ama [anime point. | General Enea! B14) a|eed £5 IG aie DAY. 
i * i i rs oi : r4 ope Xu oI 
Mean.} Max. | Min. |Range] *Mean. | SMax. §Min. | SRange. | vapour. | ity. divectionsllintmiles g S|) 5 |e g fi oA 3 
perhour] n 
1] 41.83 | 45-4 35-3 | 10-1] 29.8348 | 29.919 29.757 162 1798 68.0 3I- S.W. 24-1 97] 10) 8 24 | 0.01 oor} x 
2| 44.77) 49-6 39-6 | 10.0] 29.8943 | 29.937 29.855 082 2020 68.3 34.8 S.W. 13.2 | 10.0] 10 | 10 4 GG Seller 
3| 44.42 | 50.3 39.6 | 10.7} 29.8447 | 29-869 29.816 053 2070 79-5 35-3 W. 11-0 8.2| 10] o 10 | 0.03 0.03] 3 
4] 50.33 | 59-2 37-5 | 21-7] 29.8563 | 29.902 29.827 075 2295 63.2 37° S.W. 20.9 6.2| 10} o 67 nd is 4 
Sunpay..... 2 B|| e500 72.1 413.2 || 23.6]| ooono00 eee 000000 ae 000 apon 5000 S.W. 30.4 Jee] -. | es 94 se] 5 teeeeeees. SUNDAY 
6| 60.28 73.0 45-5 27.5 29.9842 30.042 29.946 .096 2735 54-3 42.3 S.W. 15-2 7-7| 19| 0 54 6 
7) 68.75 | 80.9 52-4] 28.5 29.9027 | 29.986 29 835 +151 3403 50.0 48.3 S.W. 13:0 Bt3i Gi} 2 85 7 
8 | 72.72 | 85.6 58.1 | 27.5] 29.8472 | 29 866 29-811 055 4392 54-7 54.8 S.W. 21.0 0.0/ 6] 0 gi 8 
9) 74.63 | 86.2 65.1 | 21.1] 29.7987 | 29.882 29-704 -178 4768 50.3 57:7 SHWE 26.7 2.0) 4] 0 87 9 
to| 69.30] 77.7 59-3] 18.4] 29.6282 | 29.697 29.567 130 4623 63.8 565 W. 20.9 Sal Gi] © 62 0.10 | 10 
ir} 56.42] 650 48.4 | 16.6] 29.7423 | 29.764 29.711 053 2725 60.2 42-5 N. 14.4 0.2/ 3] 0 88 te ve | Ir 
SuNDay.....-. 7A || on00c || FOO EB! 245631)" aonceda.|! ooncce S0000 So5 ode p00 od06 N.W. g-2 Juv]: 96 60 11£EX cencoos008 Sunpay 
13 | 60.90} 71.8 47-9 | 23-9] 29.8480] 29.959 29.732 227 2787 53-8 43.0 i. 10.4 5-5 | 10} o G5 || o000 cou || 5@} 
14 | 57-87 | 64.9 529] 12.0] 29.7048 | 29.805 29.658 147 3880 80.8 51.8 8. 10.2 | 10.0] 10] 10 00 | 0.27 0.27 | 14 
15 | 52-92| 60.2 45-3 | 14-9] 30.0135 | 30.059 29.906 153 2690 67.5 42.0 W. 8.0 6.7] 10} « 75 | -:- cad || 23 
16 | 47-60 | 52.1 42.6 9-5] 3°-0868 | 30.139 30.051 088 2932 89.3 44.3 N. 15.9 | 10 0/ 10] 10 00 | 0.23 0 23 | 16 
17 | 65.33 | 82.8 46.5 | 36.3] 30 0663 30 134 30.002 2132 4840 17-7 57-5 S. E. 13.9 4.7|10| 0 7° \Inapp. 0.00 | 17 
18 | 77-82] 88.0 jo-1| 17-9} 30.1488 | 30.216 30.111 105 6488 68.0 66.2 8. 15-77 25\|10| o 89 |) «a. ooo || 23 
SUNDAY....-... 7) || 9-2 83.9 G35} || 7336] sccceds |l! concoe || Soonee a one gove Bee Ss. 13.5 Jc---|- |e EY) seg 280: || 5) dooocaqead Sunpay 
20 | 63-77 | 68.0 60.3 7-7 29-9225 | 29.997 29.781 216 5417 QL-7 61.2 S. 7.6 | 10.0} 10} 10 20 | 0.76 0.76 | 20 
21 63 20] 72.8 56.3 16.5 29.6150 29.723 29.531 192 4897 85.2 58 3 W- 7-7 10.0} 10 | 10 33 | 0.91 o.gt | 21 
22 | 52.43] 57.0 48-5 8.5] 29.6930 | 29.830 29.557 +273 3013, 76.5 45.2 S.W. 24.4 8.5] 10) 4 6r | 0.03 0.03 | 22 
23 | 49°77 | 54-4 46.3 8.1] 29.9165 | 29.966 29.868 098, 2573 72.3 40.0 S.W. 12.0 8.5] 10} 1 21 500 so0 || 2B 
24| 52.28] 58.1 47.2 | 10.9] 29.7903] 29.857 29.734 +123 2938 75-2 44.2 S.W. 10.8 | 10.0} 10 | 10 15 | 0.15 0.15 | 24 
25 | 48 80) 55.2 406] 14.6] 29.9612 | 30.009 29.868 +141 1998 58.2 34.2 Ww. 13-7 0.5] 3] © 98 | 0.06 0.06 | 25 
SuNDAY........26 nosnad| CA 43-5 18.5 coe 8 ean 000 ape eles 2000 Ss. 8.4 cana || 00 |} 00 77 aco coon || 25 asdoono00e Sunpay 
27 | 53-58 | 62.2 45.2| 170] 29.8702 29.691 .306 2863 - 70.8 43-7 8... 14.6 7-5| 10} 0 45 | 0.10 o 10 | 27 
28 | 47-22] 515 | 41.5] 100] 29.6683 29-545 -327 2597 79.0 | 40.8 _ qo: | 24:3 | 9:7) 10) 8] 00} 0.25 0.25 | 28 
29 | 48.10] 55.7 39.5 | 16.2] 30.1127 29.955 214 2187 65.5 36-7 5.W. 15.3 6.2] 10} 1 86 |Inapp. 9.00 | 29 
39} 47-58 | 54.5 44.5 | 100] 30.1150 40.085 +063 2743 83-3 42.7 N.E. 24.8 8.3] 10] 1 41 | 0.05 0.05 | 30 
31} 65 05] 79-9 447 | 35-2] 30 0003 29 959 104 4448 73-3 | 55-2 S.E. | 17-2 | 7.3] 10) 2] 64] 0.02 0.02 | 31 
seoos ....-Means.| 56.95 | 66.13] 48.46 | 17.67] 29.8839 54.1 2.97 tees 2.97 
15 yrs. means for &' “| 15 years means for and 
including this mo,] 54.78! 63.96 | 45-79 | 18.17 29.9365 eancca eee 161 « M52.5| 2.86 0.1 | 2.87 including this month 
ANALYSIS OF WIND RECORD. é a 
a Se ee a eee = a *Barometer readings reduced to sea-level and|meter was 29.531 on the 21st, giving a range of 0,685 
i © Rah inches. laximum relatiye humidity was 98 on 
Direction........] N. | NE. BE. | S.2. S. | S.W W- | N. W.| Calm. temperature of 32° Fahr. Hine Hii iio relative humidity was 29 on 
— eS See ee ee ee eee ee = e and 12th. 
HUNTS ocoonao2009 axes 539) 274 59% are 5415 2222 393 2 Chere: 7 AA Rain fell on 16 days, 
RT = + Pressure of vapour in inches of mercury. 
Duration in hrs..| 86 23 31 54 144 273 95 37 I oa * : ; Fog on two days. 
M ; — — { Humidity relative, saturation being 106. yma Sto UTE 
Mean velocity... 8 2 y understorm on the and 21st. 
elocity 13 23 4 8.8 10.9 14.6 19.8 12.9 | 10.6 ‘| Hight years only. 


Greatest mileage in one hour was 42 on the 28th. 


Resultant mileage, 6,195. 


Resultant direction, 5 45° W. 
Total mileage, 11,722. 


The greatest heat was 88.0 on the 18th; the great- 
lest cold was 35.8 on the Ist, giving a range of 
temperature of 52.7 degrees. Warmest day was 
the 18th. Coldest day was the Ist. Highest baro- 


Solar halo on the 29th. 


Notr.—The maximum temperature for the month 


(88.0°) is the greatest observed here in May during 
the 15 years over which the present series of obser- 


meter reading was 20-216 on the 18th; lowest baro-|vations extends. 


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ABSTRACT FOR THE MONTH OF JUNE, 1889. 


Meteorological Observations, McGill College Observatory, Montreal, Canada, Height above sea level, 187 {eet. 3. H. McLEOD, Superintendent. 
= zs 5 Siy CLoupEp i a 
THERMOMITER. BAROMETER. WIND. Ty Tentas. |S a iS 
aa = ores 1 Mean | { Mean cae Ties —I} 2 ei betel 
pres-_ |relative| Dew M ; l 5) Bey Wis ‘. 
DAY. F sure of |bumid-| point. 1 Gonoral lvelocity) 2 | 2] a4 ee | ze DAY. 
Mean.| Max. | Min. |Range} *Mean. §Max. §Min. | SRange.} vapour. | ity- Minecivonel ities 3 s/S|2 or |e ‘=| 
perhour} an = 
1 | 63 08| 71.6 53-5] 18.1] 29.9365 | 39.cor 29.884 “17 4777 82.7 | 57-3 5.W 12.2 | 9:7) 19] 8 ° odo |} 
Sunpay-......- 2| ss0-- | 66.2 B2sh|| VERE) |) voosons || soso ences ogo BoOG ga00 W. 655 y a0 QD iveeercas .- SUNDAY 
3 60.95 68.0 55-4 12.6 29.9167 29-973 29.841 132 4053 76.7 53.0 S.B 6.0 8.5 | 10 5 3 
4| 6425] 73-9 56.4] 17.5] 29 6657 | 29.508 29-505 243 4505 752 | 550 SE. 6.4 || 8.0] 10] 2 A 
5 | 50.37 | 650 50-5] 145] 29.5152] 29 534 29.489 045 3813 84.5 51-5 S.W. 12.4 6.7} 10] © 5 
6} 51-87] 58.9 47-4 | 11-5] 29-5503 | 29-714 29.488 226 3097 Bo.0 | 45.7 W. 18-5 | 9.0] 10) 5 6 
7 | 58.87 | 68.0 46 3 | 21-7]| 29-7322 | 29 S23 29 658 165 3155 65.0 | 45.8 S.W 138 | 5.5| 10] © 7 
8| 56.22] 61.9 52.2 97] 29 7890 | 29.916 29 660 256 3748 83-0 Rey 1} Gosoan 10.7 77)\10| 0 oe 8 
Sunpav. ....- ‘Qi semeen|| 5724 50 3 7-1 3 |) bescos || Beacco oop 0. os cee N.E. 14.6 90 || oF 10) 0.97 ano || oo Giasarcten dd SuNDAY 
10 | 66.73] 7520 54.5 | 23-5} 29.9402) 29 974 29.901 +073 +5548 84.0 | 617 S.W. 13-4 7-3)\) 10) x 32 || 0.07 5 | 10 
11 | 62.70} 69.0 565] 12.5] 30.1097 | 30 089 29 956 133 4408 77-5 | 55-3 Siwe 18-9 | 8.5] 10] 3] 19 |fnapp. sai" iin 
12| 64.72) 74.0 55-4 | 18.6] 29.9900 | 30.038 30: 958 o80 4153 69.0 | 538 S.W. | 20:3 | 3-0) 9] of 83) |... note |] 1 
13 65-08 74.0 58-5 15-5 29 9332 30.051 29.866 185 4378 72-7 550 WwW. 20.8 52) |)0 |) 0 49 0.06 5 || 
14| 60.62] 69 0 49-6] 19.4] 30.1337 | 30-197. | 30.046 151 +3300 62.7 47-3 8.7 5-7] 10| o 95 608 ao |} 1 
15 | 65-79 | 73-3 60.2 TSoee 29 9137 29-992 29-829 163 5292 83-2 60.5 12-7 10.0] 10} 10 10 0.73 co || a 
SUNDAYs-eeeee Gi | eenet 74.0 os | Way |) cospoos See oD : tee S.W. 8.7 tee oo 65 | 0.07 000 Aono | toconoboaces «SUNDAY 
17 | 62.23 | 68.9 50.1 17-8] 29-8495 | 30-018 29.726 292 3087 54-7 44 0 N. 180 3-8 | 10] o gt 17 
18 56 77 | 66.0 45-1 20.9 | 30-0387 30-113 29-959 154 2575 57-0 40.5 N 10 2 72a ELO. | O 72 > ced het} 
1g | 64 58] 72.8 55 4| 17 4) 29-7673 | 29-943 29.582 361 3749 62.5 50.8 Dj 16. fo | eM] x 55 |\[napp. Bike 19 
20] 70 25) 779 62.3) 15.6] 29.6943 | 29-815 29-525 290 4715 64.7 57-3 SW 24-3 5-7 | 19) © 79 | 0-04 So soon || 29) 
21| 6803] 76-5 61.5 15-0] 29.7493 | 29-867 29.602 265 5552 81.3 61-7 SWE 13-5 88} 10} 3 23 | 0.20 z ee air 
22| 60.82] 67.3 52-4] 14-9] 29-7243 | 29.898 29.624 27 3887 72.5 51.5 S.W. 27-6 6.0} 10) 1 44 | o.o1 on00 |) cong || ee 
Sunpay.. . qo.0 496 || 20.4] -...... Boson Pe see 21-4 pone || ae 2 o008 bono’ |hiopod|texWacoatseded SuNDAY 
66.9 55-1 11.8 30 3822 30 411 30-304 ~107 3487 64.2 48.7 16.1 95| 10} 7 09 0 2 
72.0 52-3 19.7 3°. 3442 30.42 30.258 +165 4095 715 53-3 10.6 10 0/ 10} 10 49 6 | 25 
67.0 56.3 10.7 30 0977 30-224 29.939 285 5178 89-5 597 12-1 eS |} wer) % oo 6500 26 
77-2 63.3 13.9] 30-0150 | 30.055 29.932 +153 6233 83.3 65.2 13.6 6.7 | 10} 0 64 | . bond 44 
719 56-7 15:2] 30.162 30.200 30.137 -063 4743 79-3 57-2 9.8 €.3]| 10} o 57 n09 Q acon | as 
79.0 59-3 19-7 30.1280 30-195 30.068 127 5022 74.8 62 2 8.5 30/9 ° So és cnon |} Be) 
SUNDAY........ 84.9 On || Bog || soccoo : Boao || eoovsd 000 || pads 7-3 Joe 05 | sess o co09 || F® sco0ne cooSeSonn! 
— — = —— e — a a = I | al 
Saat aottine Means| 62.91 | 70.68 | 54 60| 16.09} 29.9194 9000 poco0 180 +4286 73-9 53-8 wae eee 711 45-5 | 4.73 sees = SUMS gee soe eee 
15 nS) means for & 15 years means for aud 
including this mo,! 64.46 | 73.12) 55.94! 17.17! 29-8970! ...... | —..... -155 4224 68.8 200n a0 sss 1 5-67 Miss 0! 3 19 tote + finciuding this month 


ANALYSIS OF WIND RECORD. 


*Burometer readings reduced to sea-leve] snd|meter was 29.488 on the 6th, giving a range of 0,935 


inches. Miaximum relative humidity was 99 on 

N. N.E. bh | SE. Ss. | S.W.- Ww. | N. W.| Calm. temperature of 32° Pahr. pee raa eal h. Minimum relative humidity was 
— a — é 27 on the 17th. 
WWITEED G conn nnou- 857 501 424 | 647 | 1133 | 3498 | 2538 | 342 § Observed. is i 

4 6 3 6 | t Pressure of yapour in inches of mercury, ain fell on 20 days. 
9 21 164 23 1 o 3 Roo . 
cae pee ee eee ———| a { Humidity relative, saturation being 106. Fog on 1 diy. 
135 94 or} ric LO) 15:5 | Gy) | ‘| Bight years only. Thunderstorm on the 4th, 9th and 13th. 


The greatest Inert eau oe ana the 30th; the great- Nein he nfall is nearly equal to the greut- 
: a . ABA 7 55) ; = . @ Ryo WT lest cold was 45.1 on the 18th, giving wa range oijestin June in 1879) during the past 15 years. 
Greatest mileage in one hour was 44 on the22nd.| Resultant direction, 8 57° W. temperature of 39.8 degrees. Warinest day war|Che depth of rainin June 1882, was the same us 
Resultant mileage, 4,795- Total mileage, 9,940. the 30th. Coldest day was the 1Sth. ighest this month. ‘The number of s ruin in June 

: meter reading was 30.423 on the 25th; lowest buro-|l879, was 21, and in June 1882 rain fell on 2) diys. 
the average number of wet days for June is 


er? arr res oe ree 


‘ 

x 
be: 
ne A Si 

« 


8 | | ; | 
a . <j SF: ees 
Zn 9 ne ; ame itt | 
i Ws | . 
ca . a 
oray bad ¥ ? 
| x 3 | at 
| ° s = eee 
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| A tae BY aeces | 4: i¢ 
| i ee eae s2% i 
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ae a ee ee “fr 2 é 
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| 


ABSTRACT FOR THE MONTH OF JUNE, 1889. 


Meteorological Observations, McGill College Observatory, Montreal, Canada, Height above sea level, 187 feet. 


». H. McLEOD, TS 


Sky CLoupEn 


1 E 
THERMOMUETER. BAROMETER. WIND. In Tentas. 15 § 2 2) 
= = Tha Se {Mean |f Men = ae =4 ae 
pres- |relative| Dew P 4 iO Sa Bis . 
DAY. sure of |bumid-| point. | general eee | eS ee Ee | 2s DAY. 
Mean.| Max. | Min. |Range] *Mean. §Max §Min. SRange. | vapour. | ity- Gkrcrataynnl fin matted S s/s {2 oF |e gq 
perhour} i) at 
x} 6308] 71.6 53-5| 18.1] 29.9365 | 39.cor 29.884 117 4777 82.7 57:3 S.W. 12.2 9:7} 10} 8 07 | -0 33 Soo fl capeullles 
SuNDAY.......- 66.2 50-3] 15-9 ‘ 00 se ssins Be06 Bete os06 W. 6.5 2 . 21 | 0.20 2 oG00en00 .. SUNDAY 
68.0 55-4] 12.6] 29.9167 | 29.973 29.841 -4053 79-7 53.0 Ss. Eb 6.0 BG |} |} ©0 | 0.08 
73-9 56.4 17-5] 29 6657 | 29.808 29-565 4505 76 2 550 S_E. 6.4 8.0] 10} 2 63 | 0.07 
650 50.5 14-5 29.5152 29-534 29.489 3813 84.5 51.5 Saws 12.4 6.7) 10] © 32 0.43 
58.9 47-4} 11.5] 29-5503 | 29-714 29. 488 3097 80.0 45-7 Wie 18-5 go} 10) 5 08 | 0 06 
68.0 463] 21-7] 29.7322 | 29 82 29 658 3155 65.0 45.8 S.W. 13.8 5.5|10] o 74 | om 
61.9 52.2 97] 29 7890 | 29.916 29.660 3748 83.0 51-0 aoa 10.7 77)\10| o 18 | 0.08 
SunpAy. ...... 9] --0+- 57-4. 50 3 7a och oD seene9 |} ‘sooace $0 Bp 5009 496 N.E. 14.6 g80 od 10 | 0.97 
to | 66.73 | 78.0 54.5 | 23-5] 20.9402 | 29 974 29.901 +073 5548 84.0 617 S.W. 13.4 7-3] 10) 1 2] 0.07 
11] 62.70) 69.0 565 | 12.5] 30.c097 | 30 089 29.956 +133 4405 77-5 55-3 S.W. 18-9 8.5] 10) 3 19 |[nupp. 
12 | 64.72 | 74.0 55-4 | 18.6] 29.9900 | 30.038 30-958 +080 4153 69.0 53 8 S.W. 20.3 3-0]/ 9] 0 5} | coon 
13 | 65-08} 74.0 58-5 15-5} 29 9332 | 30-051 29.866 «185 4378 72.7 55.0 WwW. 20.8 52] 10] o 49 | 0.06 
14 | 60.62} 690 49-6 | 19.4] 30-1337 | 30-197 30.046 +151 3300 62.7 47:3 N-W. 8.7 5-7] 10] 0 Ei] 2000 
15 | 65-70) 73-3 60.2 TS 29 9137 29.992 29.829 -163 5292 83.2 60.5 8. 12.7 10.0] 10} 10 10 0-73 
Sunpavy........ XOMN cena 74.0 H1oB || Hoey] soscace |} so000 3. ill! Sooo0o otto 30 3999 oc S.W. Bay || coc bo 65 | 0.07 18 csonspensd Sunpay 
17 | 62.23 68.9 5-1 17-8 29-8495 30.018 29-726 -292 3087 54-7 44.0 N. 18 0 3-8] 10] o gt 17 
18 | 5677] 66.0 45-1 | 20.9} 30-0387 | 30.113 29-959 154 f° -2575 57.0 40.8 N 10 2 7.2|10| o 79 ens 1s 
19 | 64 58] 72.8 55-4 | 17 44 29-7673 | 29-943 29.582 361 374° 62.5 | 50.8 _ Bho 16.1 6.5} 10] 1 55 |[napp. 19 
20| 7025] 77-9 62.3 15.6} 29.6943 | 29.815 29.525 290 4715 64.7 673 S.W 24-3 5-7] 19] o 79 | 0.04 20 
21 68 03 76.5 61.5 15.0 29-7493 29.867 29.602 265 5552 81.3 61-7 S.W. 13-8 8.8 | 10 3 23 0.20 2 
22| 60.82] 67.3 2-4 | 14-9] 29-7243 | 29.898 29.624 274 3887 70-5 51.5 S.W. 27.6 6.0] 10] 1 44 | 0.01 22 
Sunpay.. .....23 70.0 4G) (|| ZO-2t\| snasoos || anoaco fone op oats dD Ja00 = Wh 2 4 a008' [loci fess 72 23 eer SIND AW, 
24 66.9 55-1 11.8 | 30 3822 | 30 411 30-304 107 3487 64.2 48.7 S.W. 16 1 95] 10] 7 9°02 24 
25 72.9 52-3 19-7] 3°-3442 | 30.423 30.258 +165 4995 71-5 53-3 S.W.- 10.6 10 0} 10] 10 49 so9 | 25 
26 67.0 56.3 | 10-7] 30.0977 | 30-224 29-939 285 5178 89.5 597 , tee 12-1 g-5 | 10] 7 oo | 0.86 26 
27 772 63-3] 13.9] 30-0150 | 30.085 29.932 +153 6233 833 65.2 Sh, Wo 13.6 6.7} 10] 0 64 | 0.36 2' 
28 119 56-7] 15-2} 30-1623 | 30 200 30.137 +063 4743 79-3 57-2 N. i. 9.8 €.3] 10] o 57 28 
29 79.0 59-3) 19-7] 30.1280] 30.195 30.068 -127 5022 74-8 62.2 5. W. 8.5 3019 ° 80 29 
SuNDAyY..... +430 : 84.9 OZ |) Bea ]] acocv0m |] s50090° |}  cneoo 0 no || coaos p00 nooo 5. W. Jo |\| o000 4 95 a |lo 30 a Sun say 
| 
Sna090 Means} 62.91 | 70.68 4 60 | 16.09} 29.9194 Q 180 -4286 73-9 53.8 snes 7-10 45-5] 4.73 a Sums - 
15 yrs. means for & 15 years means for and 
including: this mo, 64.46 | 73.12) 55.94! 17-171 29.8970 00. eaona6 155 4224 68.8 5:67 Isso 3 19 | eae including this month 
ANALYSIS OF WIND RECORD. 
*Barometer readings reduced to sea-leve] and|meter was 29.488 on the 6th, giving a range of 0,935 
£ 32° Fat inches. Maximum relative humidity was 99” on 
Direction.-...... | N. N.E. | K. | S.E. Ss. | S.W W. | N. W. | Calm temperature of 62° Nahr. ets eat i h. Minimum relative humidity was 
=| — ——-— | ————_ |__| _—_- ae 47 on the 17th, 
Miles........... | 857 501 424 | 647 1133 3498 2538 342 § Observed. ae : 
———'— —. = — — == = => + Pressure of vapour in inches of mercury. ain fell on 20 days. 
Durationin hrs..| 72 37 45 63 97 218 164 23 bt ; a B Bog on 1 day. 
= — | —— ——=— — == = { Humidity relative, saturation being 106. BROMUS 
Mean velocity 11.9 135 9-4 10.3 11.7 16.0 15-5 14.9 | Thunderstorm on the 4th, 9th and 13th. 


Greatest mileage in one hour was 34 on the 22nd.| Resultant direction, 847° W. 


Resultant mileage, 4,795- Total mileage, 9,40. 


1 Hight years only. 


The greatest heat was 84 9 on the 380th; the great- 
lest cold was 45.1 on the 18th, giving a ringe of 
cemperature of 39.8 degrees. Jurmest diy was 
the 30th. Coldest day the 18th. Wighest baro 
meter reading was 30. 


est in June (4.8 


on the 25th; lowest buro-|8 


Nore.—Vhe rainfall is nearly equal to the greu t- 
in 1879) during the past 
Che depth of rainin June 18! 
this month. ‘The number of diy Tain in Dae 
, wis 21, wnd in June 1882 rain fell on 2) days 


Che average number of wet days for June is If. 


THE 


PANADIAN RECORD 


OF SCIENCE. 


VOL. ITT. OCTOBER, 1889. 


SuGAR PropucinG PuLANts. ! 
By Wirrip Sxkarrs, B.A. So 


I have to speak of the manufacture of sugar and the 
plants from which it is extracted. Of all the chemical 
industries properly so called, this is probably the oldest, 
and it is now the greatest, both as regards the capital in- 
volved and the general importance to all classes of mankind. 
It is said that the march of civilisation in a country is marked 
by an increase in the consumption of sugar and of soap, and 
this is certainly supported by present statistics. The world 
seems to have got on very well with little or no sugar until 
the 16th century of our era, when the introduction of tea and 
coffee into Europe increased the demand an hundred-fold 
and more, and refineries were established in Holland and 
England. 

The origin of the sugar industry is naturally shrouded in 
the darkness .of a time very far past. We consider the 
word sugar to be derived from the Persian shukkar which, 
with the Arabic name of the same pronunciation, comes 
from the Sanskit sarkara, It is, however, impossible to tell 
from ancient writers whether the substance frequently 


1 Sommerville Lecture delivered April, 1889, 


456 Canadian Record of Science. 


alluded to as resembling honey and used in medicine was 
sugar or not. Most probably it was, but in the form of syrup 
and not at first in crystals. 

Galen and Pliny, in the beginning of our era, spoke of a 
- substance called saccharum found in Arabia Felix, and only 
used in medicine, and in the Bible we all know of the men- 
tion of sweet calamus and cinnamon in Solomon’s song, and 
of sweet cane in Isaiah and Jeremiah. Herodotus speaks of 
manufactured honey, and Nearchus, one of Alexander’s 
admirals, tells of a reed which gave honey without bees. 

Moses Chorenensis, however, is the first writer to mention 
the boiling of plants, in this case sugar-canes, for the ex- 
traction of sugar, and the first Kuropean home of the sugar 
industry was in Sicily where Frederick Barbarossa found 
many factories when he invaded Italy in 1121. From Sicily 
the culture of the cane gradually spread into Spain, and 
from thence was carried by the Spaniards into the West 
Indian Islands and Brazil. Here it found a congenial cli- 
mate similar to the Indian one, from whence it came, and 
soon it became a source of great wealth, there being no less 
than twenty-eight sugar factories in San Domingo in 1518. 
It became apparent that the cane was meant to flourish in 
tropical countries and the cultivation in Europe died out, so 
that for over 300 years sugar came to Europe over the 
sea from equatorial countries and was produced almost 
entirely from the sugar-cane, which had come to be looked 
upon as the only practical source of sugar. 

In the year 1747, however, a German chemist named Mark- 
graf announced the discovery of 6 per cent. of sugar in cer- 
tain sorts of roots which grew in northern Europe. This 
was looked upon as a botanical fact of small value to the 
world at large, until another German named Achard erected 
a little factory on his farm at Cunern near Breslau, and began 
actually to produce fine white sugar from Markgraf’s roots. 
Furthermore, he made money at the same time, which was 
vastly more important, and drew the attention of all thinking 
men to the fact that a new source of wealth had arisen in 
Europe. From that moment, in fact, a mighty rival to the 


Sugar Producing Plants. 457 


veteran sugar cane appeared. It might have been long, 
however, before it could have coped successfully with foreign 
sugar, had not the first Napoleon, whose eye was as keen in 
peace as it was in war, lent his mighty help to thestruggling 
industry in France, where Crespel Delisseand a few others, 
recognizing the value of Achard’s results, were striving to 
establish the new industry on a firm footing. The result 
was in accordance with the Emperor’s favorite maxim that 
God favours the heaviest battalions, other things being 
equal, and beet sugar rose steadily in France. Germany 
followed the good example, and then Holland, Belgium, 
Austria and Russia took it up. To-day out of five million 
tons of sugar consumed in the world per annum, more 
than half is made from the sugar beet. The rest is made 
from the sugar-cane principally, and some from the date- 
palm, the sugar-maple with which we are familiar, and the 
sorghum or bastard sugar-cane. The only plants which 
deserve any extended notice are the cane and the beet, for 
they alone are of commercial importance. The sorghum 
is capable doubtless of great things, although, up to now 
the costly and valuable experiments of the United States 
Government with it, have not resulted in much progress 
among the growers of the plant, 

I will speak first of the sugar-beet, as it now occupies 
first place as a sugar-producing plant in the world, and bids 
fair to hold its own against all comers. 

The sugar beet is a hardy biennial plant, indigenous to 
the south of Europe. We are all familiar with the shape 
of the ordinary mangel wurzel, and it resembles this more 
than any other, being white in the flesh and not red as 
many suppose. It is smaller than the mangel and much 
heavier in proportion. When from good seed and properly 
cultivated, it grows entirely beneath the ground, only the 
collar, from which the leaves spring, showing. Extensive 
experiments and cultivation have produced an immense 
number of varieties, but the origin of the rich sugar beet is 
the old root known to botanists as the Beta alba. Only 
the part which grows below the ground is valuable to the 


458 Canadian Record of Science. 


sugar-maker, but the leaves and collars make first rate cattle 
food. Sugar beets are propagated from seed entirely, which 
is-produced by the plant in the second year of its growth. 
The seed is sown early in the spring, in long drills, and 
now almost entirely by machinery. The drills are usually 
about eighteen inches apart and every year efforts are made 
to sow them closer, for the farmer as well as the manufactu- 
rer likes small and heavy beets rather than large and porous 
ones. 

In about a week’s time the small plants show themselves 
above the ground and all attention is paid to the thinning 
out. This is a delicate process which must be done by hand 
and on the proper performance of it everything depends. 
The plants are taken out so as to leave only one by itself, 
every eight or nine inches in the row, and children are found 
to be best adapted for the work. In the bect districts there 
is a continual struggle between the school authorities and 
the farmers as to who shall have the children in the spring 
time, and the school inspector usually has a hard time, for 
he has to contend with the parents and the children them- 
selves, as well. I have seen as many as fifty boys and girls 
working slowly across the fields in a long row, and in 
Bohemia often three times as many, all of whom ought by 
law to have been in school. And often have I seen a sudden 
stampede from the fields, led by the overseer himself, at the 
sight of a gendarme in the distance. In fact in my appren- 
ticeship days, I have several times found it very advisable 
to depart from the fields with more rapidity than dignity 
and to let the youngsters take care of themselves, which 
Bohemian children are well qualified to do. After the beets 
are thinned out the fields are left alone for afew days to 
allow the young plants to gather strength, and then the 
weeding and hoeing begin. This is done now almost en- 
tirely with machines drawn by horses, which keep turning 
up the ground and destroying the weeds between the rows, 
until the leaves of the beets get to be large and begin to 
cover the ground completely. Then they are left to them- 
selves till the fall, when in the latter end of September they 


Ce ee ee 


ae ee 


Sugar Producing Plants. 459 


are taken out. At this time the leaves are yellowish and 
the root firm and heavy, the growth being ended for the 
first year, while in the root is a store of sugar, which it has 
accumulated for further use, as bees do honey. But before 
it can get a chance to use the sugar in the second year’s 
growth, the manufacturer takes it out of the ground and 
carries it off to the factory. The harvesting is done either 
by hand, loosening the roots with a narrow spade and then 
pulling them out, or by special plows for the purpose. 
The leaves and heads are cut off on the field and the roots 
transported to the factory for immediate use, or put into 
what are called silos. These are large piles of beets covered 
over with eight or ten inches of earth to keep out the frost. 
It is a simple and good way of keeping any roots, and now 
universally adopted instead of the costly buildings or cellars 
of former years. In these the beets may be kept safely 
until they begin to grow again, which time depends much 
on the weather and the country. In France it is difficult to 
keep them after New Year’s day, while in Germany they 
may still be in good condition in February. In Russia and 
Canada they are perfectly inactive as late as the end of 
April, owing to the continuous cold. Once the sprouting 
begins, a series of chemical changes takes place inthe root, 
the principal one being the transformation of the crystalli- 
zable sugar into another form which is useless to the manu- 
facturer. On the other hand the beets may be frozen with- 
out damage, always supposing that they are worked up 
while still frozen, for, inasmuch as the freezing kills them, 
they rot as soon as they thaw, and the process of putrefac- 
tion partially destroys the sugar as well as makes the work 
in the factory well nigh impossible. 

In the culture of the sugar beet, the two primary consid- 
erations are, first the seed and then the soil. On the kind 
of seed depends, entirely, the richness of the beet and, the 
soils being the same, the size of the beet. Small beets are 
usually rich, large ones poor in sugar, and the great object 
of the manufacturer is to get as much sugar as possible per 
acre. The different kinds of beets are crossed and re-crossed 


460 Canadian Record of Science. 


until finally the proper beet for the particular country is 
got at. It is remarkable, indeed, to note how the roots have 
increased in richness in the past twenty years. Then six 
to eight per cent. was common in Germany, but now 
they will not have anything under 15 per cent. with an 
ordinary crop, and plant seed beets which contain over 
20 per cent. The man to whom the honour of this im- 
provement is due is Vilmorin, of Paris. He took the old 
Silesian beet and by long and careful cultivation produced 
a small beet containing a great deal of sugar, and also very 
pure. Every year the German, Austrian and Russian seed 
growers buy from him at whatever price he likes to ask, and 
keep improving their stock until now they export seed back 
to France, for all this time the Frenchman could not appre- 
ciate their countryman’s efforts, and continued to grow the 
old cattle beet until the Germans got so far ahead that they 
exported sugar into France. In 1884 came a terrible crisis, 
and all turned their eyes to Germany to find that they were 
far behind, and all on account of bad seed. 

The nature of the soil has a double effect on the beet. It 
affects the size of the crop and also its quality. Beets may 
be considered as consisting of five to six per cent. of what is 
called mark or insoluble fibrous matter, and 94 to 95 per 
cent. of juice. In this juice the sugar is dissolved and 
also, unfortunately, a number of other substances, which are 
salts of lime and potash joined to organic acids, and various 
complicated gummy matters. The presence of these is the 
cause of molasses. That is to say, the more of them, the 
more molasses, and the less pure sugar results from the 
process of manufacture. It is, therefore, of great impor- 
tance that there be as little as possible of them, and their 
presence is determined greatly by the nature of the soil and 
the manure which is used. It is practically true that the 
only substances a plant derives from the soil, are phosphoric 
acid, nitrogen, and potash, and, therefore, manures are only 
of value inasmuch as they contain these substances. Of 
these, the one we wish most to avoid is potash, and it is a fact 
that this is a substance for which a beet has a most unrea- 


Sugar Producing Plants. 461 


sonable fondness. It will absorb potash just as a child will 
eat candy, and grow large and coarse, yielding an impure 
salty juice of small value. Wherefore potash is used very 
sparingly, only in fact, where the absence of it in the ori- 
ginal soil is so marked as to render an addition absolutely 
necessary for the life of the plant. Again nitrogen is an 
element to be avoided in excess, for its use results in large 
spongy beets, which will not keep and yield impure 
juices which are very difficult to handle. The chemically 
inclined readers of this paper will be interested in hearing 
that a strong odour of nitrogen peroxide is frequently 
observed in the factory where the beets are obtained from 
dark rich soils, or those on which a Chili saltpetre is used 
in excess. And when such beets are decomposed by heat- 
ing in the silos, they give out in the process of manufacture, 
inflammable gases which often cause violent explosions. 

: The remaining element of nutrition which the plant 
requires, phosphoric acid, is the greatest friend the sugar- 
maker has. It counteracts the alkalies in the juice, forming 
a harmless combination, and has also a ripening action 
which is most valuable in backward seasons. Therefore, 
when manuring, we add to the soil plenty of phosphoric 
acid and a little nitrogen, while potash is generally for- 
bidden; and in selecting a soil we avoid very rich ones, or 
alkaline ones, and select a light, warm one if possible. 
But really, the only way to tell whether a certain soil is 
fitted for the culture of the beet as a general rule, is to sow 
some seed and see what will come of it. Chemical and 
physical considerations are wonderfully helpful in agricul- 
ture and have revolutionised that science, but up to now no 
chemist can tell what a given soil is best adapted for by 
analysing it, unless of course there be certain very marked 
characteristics. Asa rule, however, beets will grow almost 
anywhere, and will stand more rough usage from the 
weather than any other crop. Their greatest enemy is 
water in the subsoil, which kills the young roots as soon as 
they reach it. Deep and thorough cultivation with plow 
and grubber is absolutely necessary, and this fact, and the 


f 
462 Canadian Record of Science. 


one that nothing repays care so well us a beet, have caused 

a revolution in the state of agriculture wherever beets are 

grown in any quantity. It is the only crop grown by man 
on whose quality everything depends, and the only one 

which is subject to severe scrutiny. It is true that barley is 

also carefully examined by the maltsters, but we do not hear 
of careful chemical analysis of barley, or hundreds of 
thousands of dollars spent in the mere propagation of the 

seed. When a farmer grows a crop of beets, and knows 
that the more sugar they contain the better for him, he 
takes care to find out the best way to manage his soil. And 
this care produces a great effect on all other crops. Instead 
of ploughing three or four inches deep, he goes down to four- 
teen inches, and he keeps his land clean. He also begins 

to understand about manures. In this country, for instance, 

the farmer will buy anything that looks black and smells 

bad, or will take any artificial manure you may offer him 

on trust. But the beet grower calmly offers so much per 

pound for potash or nitrogen or phosphoric acid, and cares 

not a bit whether these elements are in guano, or Chili 

saltpetre, or sulphate of ammonia, or anything else. Of 
course there are enlightened farmers in all countries, but in 

beet districts such accurate knowledge is universal. 

Beets are most extensively cultivated now in the tract of 
land extending from Paris and Prague on the south, to the 
Baltic Sea on the north, and between the German Ocean on 
the west and the Russian boundary on theeast. In Russia, 
the beet fields extend from Kiew to Moscow principally. 
Several attempts have been made in Italy without success, 
and in Spain as well; the ignorance and backwardness of 
the farmers in these countries was the greatest difficulty. 
In California, beets are now grown extensively, but experts 
seem agreed that, of all countries, Canada is the best adapted 
to this industry. Let us hope that this opinion will be 
justified in times to come. 

So much for the beet. Now let us turn to the sugar- 
cane, the other great source of sugar to the world. It is 
still, I may say, looked upon by many as the only source, so 


Canadian Record of Science. 463 


little do we often know about the commonest things in life. 
The cane has now been cultivated for nearly a thousand years, 
but almost entirely in tropical countries, and, therefore, 
under the management of tropical peoples. Genius, we are 
told, lights her lamps in northern latitudes, and the way in 
which northern nations have succeeded in competing in 
the sugar markets of the world, through the sugar-beet with 
the sugar-cane, is certainly a most pointed instance of the 
truth of the old proverb. For it is only in the last few 
years that intelligent work is keing done in the cane sugar 
countries, and that under the stimulus of German and 
English engineers. Buteven yet, the waste on a cane sugar 
estate is appalling to the scientific sugarmaker of Europe, 
and things are altogether in a backward and inefficient 
state. In cons:quence, we have not the same accurate 
knowledge concerning the cane as a plant that we have 
about the beet. 

The sugar-cane is a sort of enormous grass belonging to 
the genus Saccharum, and known as the Saccharum officina- 
rum. ‘There are an immense number of kinds, but prob- 
ably all are from a single species of which they are 
varieties, the differences being induced by cultivation in 
different soils and countries, and, indeed, consisting often in 
only a different name. The vast area over which the cane 
is grown has resulted, indeed, ina greater number of names. 
We have, for instance, the Bourbon cane, the Otaheite cane, 
the Batavian cane, the large red cane of Assam, the black 
and yellow Nepaul cane, the Chinese cane, the Seelangore 
cane, the last named being, perhaps, the finest kind known. 
The South Pacific islands, probably the original home of 
the cane, produce many varieties with unpronounceable 
names. 

The principal differences are in the colors of the leaves 
and stalks, which range from black or purple to green or 
red. The yield per acre and the percentage of sugar is 
also most variable, and has hitherto been a matter more of 
accident than anything else, owing to the backward state 
of the whole industry which I have mentioned above, 


464 Canadian Record of Science. 


In appearance, the cane is a plant with a knotty stalk 
surmounted by a bunch of leaves, and from six to ten feet 
high. At each joint or knot, there is a leaf and an inner 
joint. The number of joints in the stalk varies from forty 
to eighty, and these joints are peculiar structures which it 
is difficult to describe clearly without proper diagrams. 
They are the parts in which the juice is perfected, and each 
encloses the germ of a new cane. The cane is propagated in 
the same way as potatoes, by means of these eyes or joints, 
as up to now no sugar cane has been known to perfect its 
own seed. The cuttings are taken from the most healthy 
canes and usually from near the top. They are planted 
very carefully in straight rows some two or three feet apart, 
and begin to sprout in about a fortnight. They are then 
carefully banked with earth from time to time as they grow, 
until there is a little hill all round the cane very much like 
the way our own Indian corn is treated. At the same time 
weeding and trashing is carried on, the latter operation 
being the removal of all dead leaves and suckers—a most 
important point. 

There is another method of propagation which ought to 
be mentioned, namely rattooning. This is merely allowing 
the new cane to sprout up from the old root or stool as it 
is called. It is remarkable that in some countries as in 
Bengal, good rattoons are never seen, while in Jamaica all 
canes are re-produced in this way. It entails a smaller 
yield but a surer crop. In harvesting, the canes are cut as 
close to the stool as possible, the leaves and tops discarded, 
the rat-eaten canes put aside, and the sound ones trans- 
ported to the mill. This is done, usually, by horses or 
mules but often wire tramways stretch across the planta- 
tions, or navigable trenches are laid out on which flat boats 
are propelled and the cane conveyed on them. 

The yield per acre of cane, varies a good deal in different 
countries. About 25 tons in Louisiana is a good crop, 
while in Barbadoes 30 tons is common. 

Canes contain all the way from six to twenty-four per 
cent. of sugar and may be said to be richer as a rule than 
sugar beets. 


Sugar Producing Plants. 465 


What has been said concerning the effect of soil and 
manure on the sugar beet applies, in a general way, to the 
cane. Plenty of phosphoric acid and as little nitrogen and 
potash as possible is the general law to be guided by, although 
the number of empirical rules about the best manures for 
canes, is large and confusing. The kind of climate isa more 
important consideration with the cane than the beet. It is 
not a hardy plant and needs great heat and considerable 
moisture. Thus it is that canes grow best on tropical 
islands or on the coast. Warm inland countries, even where 
irrigation can be practiced, are not nearly so well suited, 
As in the beet, the development of the sugar in the cane is. 
greatly helped by warmth towards the end of its period of 
growth, and altogether it may be said that the cane Wants 
just what the bect does, to manufacture its sugar, but wants 
the conditions intensified. The fight between the cane and 

‘the beet is now a bitter one. It will probably continue for 
all time, but the beet will get the upper hand gradually, in- 
asmuch as it is of great benefit to the country at large, in- 
directly, that is to say, otherwise than as a sugar producing 
plant. The refuse of a beet factory ranks among the finest 
cattle foods in the world, while that from the cane is good 
only as fuel. The culture of the beet raises the general 
state of agriculture to the highest pitch of perfection, while 
that of the cane excludes other crops. 

Let us now see what becomes of the ripe cane and beet 
after it arrives at the factory. These are very large build- 
ings nowadays, filled with expensive machinery and not in- 
significant little places as many people suppose. ‘To be sure 
there are still a few which are not extensive, and the most 

primitive and curious one is probably that now working on 

| 


the banks of the Ganges. It consists of the stump of a tree 
with a hole in it, in which is a conical crusher driven by an 
ox at the end of a long beam. Two or three canes are 
squeezed in it at a time and the resulting liquor boiled in an 
iron pot alongside. 

Then in China and Manilla the cane is grown in small 
patches and by poor people, and the canes crushed anyhow 


466 Canadian Record of Science. 


and the liquor boiled down to a thick mass without any 
purification. Much of this sugar is refined in Montreal to- 
day, and it resembles earth in appearance. Sugar is also 
made, as we know, from the maple by simple concentration 
of the sap, which, however, is so pure that the product is 
very fine. That made from the date palm and called jaggery, 
is also merely juice boiled down in any kind ofa pot, but n 
countries where agreat deal of sugar is produced, as in Cuba 
or Java or Germany and France, things are carried on in a 
different way, factories work all the way from 200 to 2,000 
tons of raw material in twenty-four hours, and are worth 
anywhere from $200,000 to $500,000 a piece. 

I will give a general description of a beet sugar factory, 
inasmuch as it is much the more perfect and extensive and 
will include nearly all that may be said about a cane sugar 
one. 

On approaching the factory, the beets are seen in great 
heaps outside in process of delivery by the growers. From 
these heaps they are carried by various appliances to the 
first step in the process of manufacture, that is the washing 

The conveyance of these beets was long a puzzle to manu- 
facturers until a German named Riedinger, a few years ago 
hit upon water sluices as the best means, and now they are 
everywhere adopted. The beets are tossed into the sluice 
which carries them along to an elevator. This lifts them 
up a certain distance and throws them into the first washer, 
which is a drum revolving in a tank of water. They are 
next thrown into a second washer which consists of a water 
tank in which great arms revolve and throw the roots about, 
carrying them forward at thesame time and throwing them 
on to an elevator which lifts them up to the top of the 
building. If the washing has been properly done, the beets 
are now quite clean and ready to be cut up. 

The form into which the roots are now reduced depends 
entirely on the method of extraction to be subsequently fol- 
lowed. In former times they were rasped up into an almost 
impalpable pulp and afterwards the liquor was pressed out 
by hydraulic presses of great power, or by roller presses of 


eI ce 


Sugar Producing Plants. 467 


various kinds and shapes. This was always a most unsatis- 
factory way, and has been entirely superseded by what 
is called diffusion. Wherefore, instead of being rasped, 
the roots are sliced up into long, narrow slices and run 
by suitable means into an apparatus called a diffusion 
battery. This consists of a number of cylindrical iron 
vessels, holding each about one ton of cut beets and com- 
municating with each other by means of valves and piping. 
In it the slices are, so to speak, soaked out with hot water, 
passing from one to the other. It is not, however, a mere 
solution that takes place but a curious phenomenon known 
to chemists as osmosis. 

This may be described as follows: If you have a vessel 
divided into two parts by a porous membrane such as parch- 
ment, and in one part water, while in the other there 
is a solution of crystallizable and uncrystallizable salts 

,together, the crystallizable ones will pass through the 
membrane into the water on the other side, while the others, 
or colloid ones, as they are called, will not. This is what 
takes place in the battery. The long, thin slices of beet 
are placed in water of a particular temperature, and the 
cell walls of the root act as the membrane, allowing the 
sugar, which is crystallizable, to pass through into the water 
while other matters remain behind. Unfortunately there 
are other crystallizable matters besides sugar, and these go 
through also, and the broken cells of course give up all 
their contents to the water. So the resulting solution is 
still impure enough, but it is much purer than the liquor 
obtained in the old way, and the process is more rapid. The 
process is a continuous one, the liquor being passed from 
one cell to another until it has passed through ten or eleven, 
when it is drawn off. One end of the battery is continually 
discharging the liquor and the other the exhausted slices, 
which latter are pressed and sold for cattle food, while the 
liquor is further treated. It is very thin, black in color, 
and quite opaque. It would be quite possible to boil it 
down now to athick syrup and let it crystallize out, but the 
result would be black sugar, and very little of it, so it must 


468 Canadian Record of Science. 


be first clarified. This is done in what are called defecation 
tanks, and by means of a peculiar application of lime and 
carbonic acid. As both these substances are used in large 
quantities, there is a lime-kiln always attached to the fac- 
tory, in which lime-stone or carbonate of lime is burnt and 
the resulting gas and quicklime collected. 

The defecating pans are wrought-iron tanks holding about 
700 gallons each, and provided with steam coils for heating, 
and perforated coils for the injection of the gas, which is 
sucked from the kiln by means of a large pump, and forced 
into them and up through the liquor. 

The operation is as follows:—The tank is filled about 
three-quarters full of the black liquor from the battery, 
which has previously been heated to boiling point, and a 
certain quantity of lime is added (usually about 2 per cent. 
on the weight of the beets) in the form of lime milk. This 
causes an immediate partial clarification, and the whole is 
a gummy mixture, light in color. Then the gas is pumped 
through until, by a simple test, we know that it has preci- 
pitated very nearly all the lime that was put in. This pre- 
cipitation completes the clarification begun by the lime, as it 
seems to drag down small suspended particles and coloring 
matters with it, to the bottom of the tank. The action is 
not very well understood, but the result is a very bright, 
clear liquor of increased purity. 

We now have the defecator filled with a nearly boiling 
mixture of lime and sugar-liquor, and the question is to 
separate the one from the other. This is done in what are 
called filter-presses, which are machines so constructed that 
the mass is forced into spaces between coarse cloths held 
in iron frames, so that the liquor runs out clear through 
the cloths, and leaves a thick, nearly dry, cake behind. 
The cake is thrown outside, to be used as manure, and the 
liquor passes into the next stage, which is a simple repeti- 
tion of the defecation, in which a little lime only is added 
and the gas passed through until there is but a trace of lime 
left. It is necessary to repeat the operation in this way to 
get areally good clarification. It is again filtered, and is 


Sugar Producing Plants. 469 


now very thin still, but perfectly bright and clear, and is 
ready for concentration. This is done in two stages: first, 
it is thickened to a syrup, containing 50 per cent. of sugar, 
in what is known as a double or triple effect. This is a 
peculiar and ingenious apparatus constructed first by a 
Frenchman named Rillieux, and consists of two or three 
cylinders about ten feet in height and six feet in diameter. 
They each contain a series of vertical or horizontal steam 
pipes for boiling the liquor, and communicate with each 
other, so that the vapor from the boiling liquor in the first 
boils the liquor in the second, and that from the second 
boils the liquor in the third. In this way we greatly econo- 
mise the heat. 

There isa further peculiarity about the machine, and that 
is, that to the third cylinder is attached an air pump, which 
sucks all the hot vapor from it as the sugar boils, and draws 
it through a stream of cold water, thus producing a vacuum, 
The object of this is to evaporate the water in the liquor at 
-a low temperature, for, by the well-known law of physics, 
the less the pressure on the surface of a liquid the less heat 
it takes to cause it to boil—that is, to evaporate. We do 
not do this to save fuel, for we have to use more than we 
gain in driving the pump, but we do it to save the sugar, 
for if sugar-liquor is boiled at the pressure of the atmos- 
phere, it becomes partially destroyed by the heat and gets 
quite dark in color. The boiling of liquor in a vacuum is 
the greatest advance made yet in sugar-making, and was 
known long before the principle of the multiple evapo- 
rator. In fact, the vacuum pan, which is the next piece of 
apparatus we have to consider, was long the great centre of 
the sugar factory, and the most difficult and important pro- 
cess was the boiling of sugar, We do not look on the mat- 
ter now with the same awe that our progenitors did, but 
consider it still a most important station, 

The syrup on leaving the evaporator is now quite thick 
and is dark brown in color. It is customary now, in the 
best factories, to boil it up at once in the vacuum pan, but 
many still adhere to an older process, that of bleaching by 


470 Canadian Record of Science. 


animal charcoal or by sulphurous acid gas. This will pro- 
duce brighter sugar, but we do not value this much, as the 
refiner, to whom the raw product is sold, buys it by its 
analysis and does not care much about a small difference in 
color. 

The pan is an iron or copper cylinder, furnished with a 
great number of steam coils and an air pump and con. 
denser. It may be any size almost, but usually is about 
nine feet in diameter and ten feet high. 

It is not an easy matter to boil sugar well if it be of a low 
grade, and long experience is valuable. In refineries, good 
boilers get high wages, for the yield depends much on them ; 
but they are commoner now than they used to be. The 
general operation is this. The pan is partially filled with 
liquor, and the steam turned on the lower coils so that 
the liquor is gradually boiled down till quite thick. Then 
the boiler opens the valve suddenly and takes in a small 
charge, shutting again quickly. The result is usually that 
crystals began to form in the pan, and after a little he takes 
in another charge. Sometimes, however, there is great 
trouble in forming the grain as we say, and charge after 
charge is taken in, and the amount carefully varied until at 
last wedo get some grain. Then the panman proceeds cau- 
tiously to nourish the grain which is at first very small, by 
carefully regulated charges. This done, the operation pro- 
ceeds more rapidly and all the panman has to do, usually, is 
to watch his vacuum guage and thermometer, and keep 
taking regular charges till the pan is sufficiently full. Then 
it is concentrated a little more and the work is done. The 
liquor has now become a thick sticky mass of syrup and 
sugar crystals of the consistency of putty, and brown 
in color. Had the syrup been boiled in the open air, it 
~would have been nearly black, but by reason of the vacuum, 
the temperature has been kept down to 150°, and may be 
kept as low as 110°, and it has merely got browned a little. 
The panman tests his pan by taking out little samples, and 
examining them on a piece of glass, or by feeling them and 
as soon as he is satisfied, he shuts off the steam, lets in the 


Sugar Producing Plants. 471 


air to destroy the vacuum and opens the pan below, drop- 
ping the contents into a long receiver, which is placed 
over the centrifugal machines. 

Centrifugals are vertical drums whose periphery is made 
of perforated brass plate or brass wire gauze. A portion of 
the masse cuite, as it is termed, is let into them from the re- 
ceiver, and they are then set in rapid motion, making 1,500 
turns per minute. The masse cuite is thrown violently against 
the perforated plate, and the syrup finds its way through the 
holes and into the outer casing from which it runs to tanks 
below. In the centrifugal, the sugar is left in a nearly dry 
state. It is light yellow in color, of a well-defined grain 
and has a salty taste. It is quite easy now to make it white 
by throwing a little water on it, while the centrifugal is in 
motion, or sending a jet of steam through it, but as this 
melts so much of it, and besides has only a partial whiten- 
ing effect, it is now abandoned in most places, and yellow 
aw sugar is produced, 

This is called the first product and amounts to from six 
to thirteen or more per cent. on the weight of the beets 
according to their quality. 

The syrup which runs off, is still of considerable value, as 
it contains fully two per cent, of sugar on the weight of the 
beets. It is utilised by boiling it up again and then letting 
it stand in a hot room until the sugar gradually settles out 
of itself. Then it is again put into the centrifugals and a 
second product is the result, which is darker and less pure 
than the first product. 

The resulting syrup now will hardly crystallise any 
more, by reason of its impurity, and so special means are 
taken to get rid of the impurities, which have gradually 
increased in proportion as the sugar has been extracted, 
until they now form a great percentage. It is found by 
practical ‘experiment that if the sugar in a liquor does not 
represent more that 60 per cent. of the total sulids dissolved 
in that liquor, some special purification is needed. When 
the liquor left the clarifiers it had 85 per cent. of the total 
solids, Zs sugar now there is only 60 per cent, This has 


472 Canadian Record of Science. 


been a fruitful field of investigation for chemists for many 
years, and all efforts have been made to combine the sugar 
with some substance and so separate from its impurities. 

This can be done by forming what are called saccharates 
of lime, or barium, or strontium,which are decomposed after- 
wards by means of carbonic acid or of heat. 

The factories erected for the strontium process are much 
larger and more complicated than the original sugar fac- 
tories and would entail too long a description. The lime 
processes are simple ones, but scarcely of general interest, 
so I will dismiss them at once. 

There is another and peculiar process which is older than 
the others, and still a good deal used, depending on the 
principle of osmosis which I mentioned before in connection 
with the diffusion. It is cheap but slow. Any one ofthese 
processes may be used to get at the last of the sugar in the 
molasses, but also the molasses may be distilled and the 
sugar turned into alcohol. This.used to be the universal 
custom, but now it is found to pay better to extract the 
sugar. 

This ends the manufacture of the raw beet sugar. It is 
put into bags and sold to refiners. Very few factories turn 
out refined sugar, that is, combine the two processes, for, as 
arule, it does not pay. 

I will now briefly point out the differences between a 
cane and a beet sugar factory. The processes are either 
very similar or identical. The liquor is, however, extracted 
almost universally by crushing under immense rollers in- 
stead of diffusing, which latter process is but of doubtful 
value where cane is concerned. The clarification is made 
by means of lime alone without carbonic acid, and in a 
crude way enough asarule. The evaporation and concen- 
tration in the multiple effect and vacuum pan are thesame, 
but these are only to be seen in the more advanced districts. 

Centrifugals are also used now in many places and, in fact, 
the cane sugar men are copying Closely beet sugar methods. 
The products of a cane sugar factory are divided into several 
classes like that from a beet sugar one, the chief difference 


Sugar Producing Plants. 473 


being that the molasses is either sold for direct consump- 
tion or distilled, the saccharate processes not being appli- 
cable for the extraction of sugar. 

Crude or raw sugar from a factory is now almost always 
sold to a refiner to be turned into white or yellow sugar. 
Refineries resemble raw sugar factories in a few points 
only. They are very large places containing storehouses 
and cooperages as well as the machinery. A fair sized re- 
finery will work 200 tons of raw sugar in twenty-four hours 
and the general process, I will briefly describe. On arriving, 
the raw sugar is melted in a large cistern of hot water in 
which arms revolve. Sugar is put into the water until the 
contents of the cistern are half water and half sugar. This 
liquor is then pumped up to the top of the building and 
heated boiling hot. Next it is filtered through cloth bags, 
from which it runs very clear and limpid. After this it goes 
.to the char tanks. These are immense cylindrical iron 
vessels containing about 25 tons of charred bones or animal 
charcoal as it is called. 

This substance has the peculiar property of decolorising 
liquor. A dark brown syrup often being in contact with 
it for a short time will become as clear as water. After 
passing through these it is collected in cisterns, concen- 
trated in vacuum pans and the masse cuite worked off in 
centrifugals. Owing to the action of the char, the sugar is 
white or light yellow according to how much charcoal has 
been used in proportion to sugar melted. The syrups that 
run from the centrifugals are boiled up again and allowed 
to crystallise out, or are sold for consumption according to 
their strength. On the whole, the process is much simpler 
than that used in a raw sugar factory, but everything is on 
a much greater scale. A very important part of a refinery 
is the char house, this is a place where the char is reburnt 
after having been used in order to serve again, which it is 
made to do many times, until finally being exhausted it is 
sold for artificial manure. 

Concerning the chemistry of sugar, | can say but little, as 
it is too extensive and complicated a subject to be dealt 


474 Canadian Record of Science. 


with in a paper of this sort, however, I may say that the 
sugars belong to the great chemical division called the 
hydrocarbons and are divided into two great groups, called 
the glucose group whose formula is C, H,, O,, and the cane 
sugar group whose formula is C,, H,, O,,. Of the first named 
group, the principal member is common glucose, a widely 
distributed substance in nature, which is usually artificially 
prepared by treating starch with sulphuric acid. It is often 
considered as a deleterious substance and used to adulterate 
sugar, but, although it is my natural enemy, as a sugar 
maker, I must admit that it is just as harmless and whole- 
some as the best of sugar, and its only fault is that it is not 
over one-third as sweet. It may be produced in many 
curious ways, for instance in the human body by the irrita- 
tion of the medulla oblongata, or from this very desk by 
means of sulphuric acid. To this group belong also levu- 
lose, inverted sugar, sorbin, inosit, and many rarer kinds. 

The chief member of the second group is cane sugar or 
saccharose, which we have been discussing. It is called 
cane sugar, but occurs in many plants as the sugar beet, 
the maple, etc., as we have seen. To this group belong 
milk-sugar, maltose, and many others. 

Strange as it may seem, no chemist has ever been able to 
make sugar from a foreign substance. The plants know 
how to do it, but we cannot. Nor has anybody ever been 
able to turn glucose into cane sugar, although the difference 
in their formule is but a molecule of water. Could this 
be done easily, no more sugar-canes nor beets would be 
grown, but we would use up old rags, sawdust, and all sorts 
of detritus. Hvery year somebody reports success in this 
quarter, but no results are forthcoming. The sugar world 
is used to such scares, but it got a bad one a little while ago 
when Prof. Remsen, of Johns Hopkins’ University, made 
from one of the derivatives of coal-tar, toluene, a substance 
called benzoyl sulphonic amide, or as it is now termed, sac- 
charine. This is one of the chemical curiosities of the 
present day. It is a white powder, slightly soluble in 
water, and 280 times as sweet as sugar, that is, one pound 


How is the Cambrian divided ? ATS 


of saccharine will sweeten as much water as a barrel of 
sugar. 

All sugar makers felt very uneasy when this came to 
light, but now it is known that itis harmful inits properties 
and valuable only as a medicine, those who own the five 
hundred million dollars invested in sugar in this world 
breathe again. 


How Is THE CAMBRIAN DIVIDED ?—A PLEA FOR 
THE CLASSIFICATION OF SALTER AND Hicks.’ 


By G. F. Marruew, M.A.; F.R.S.C. 


A new classification of the Cambrian system has lately 
,been proposed by Mr. C. D. Walcott, the well-known 
palzontologist of the United States Geological Survey and 
has received the assent of Prof. Chas. Lapworth. The most 
prominent feature of this classification is the basal position 
given to the Olenellus fauna which no doubt is in accord- 
ance with facts. Another point in this classification is the 
placing of the rocks containing the Paradoxides fauna as 
Middle Cambrian; with this the knowledge at present be- 
fore the writer does not seem to agree. A while ago it 
seemed as though the Cambrian system was divided 
palzontologically into three sections, the Paradoxides beds, 
the Lingula flags and the Tremadoe or Ceratopyge beds, 
which would thus be the Lower, Middle and Upper Cam- 
brian, But this “‘ Upper” Cambrian was not only weak in 
bulk of measures, but in the genera it contained it exhibited 
a strong paleontological affinity to the Ordovician forms, 
so strong, indeed, that by many Huropean geologists it was 
classed as a part of the “ Lower Silurian” system. 
The discovery by Mr, Walcott of many of these so-called 
Ordovician forms, low down in the Cambrian strata of the 
tocky mountain region, shows that a different interpreta- 


' From the American Geologist, September, 1889, 


476 Canadian Record of Science. 


tion may now be given to these forms, for they do not by 
their presence exclude the Ceratopyge or Tremadoc beds 
from the Cambrian. Nevertheless, under the classification 
proposed by Messrs. Salter and Hicks some twenty years 
ago, the Cambrian is divided into two great divisions only. 
The purpose of the present article is to review some of the 
evidence touching the faunas and the sedimentation of this 
system, and to compare the proposed division with that pre- 
sented by Dr. Hicks." 

Late discoveries in America and Hurope, and especially 
the enlargement of the fauna with Olenellus and the dis- 
covery, or rather the determination of its proper place in 
the Cambrian succession, has led to this proposal for a new 
allotment of the parts of the Cambrian system. j 

If the object in view were merely the arrangement of the 
members of this system which may occur in any particular 
country, the sedimentation, or division into series, in that 
country could be utilized for the purpose, but as the object 
is a classification that will apply generally, other criteria 
must be sought. Among those which have been used are 
the succession of the several faunas and the relationship of 
the genera in each; and the comparative bulk of measures 
n the several parts of the system. These form the basis of 
the following remarks, 

The Cambrian rocks as originally described by Prof 
Sedgwick no doubt contained the Ordovician or Lower 
Silurian as well as the strata to which the name has since 
been restricted. These (the Lingula flags, etc.) were also 
claimed by Sir R. Murchison as a part of his Silurian sys- 
tem. In later times the conflicting claims of these dis- 
coverers have been compromised by assigning to each his 
own special domain, and erecting the disputed territory 
into a separate system, the Ordovician. 

The development of the Cambrian system from its origi- 
nal basis in the Lingula flags, etc., received a great 
impulse from the discoveries of Dr. Henry Hicks and the 
late Mr. J. W. Salter, in Wales; and especially in the find- 


* Pop. Sci. Review, N.S. Vol. 5. 


How is the Cambrian divided 2 ATT 


ing of the Menevian fauna in South Wales by Dr. Hicks. 
In the process of elaborating the Cambrian faunas, the 
first step was the discrimination of the two faunas in the 
Lingula flags in 1853. h 
1865. In this year Messrs. Salter and Hicks made known 
the Menevian fauna, and showed the position of 
the Paradoxides beds in Britain. 
1866. In this year the Tremadoc fauna was distinguished 
in South Wales, and fully confirmed in 1872. 
1869. In 1869 Messrs. Hicks and Harkness described the 
great series of red, green and grey slates below 
the Menevian in South Wales, and showed the 
existence of a fauna older than that of the 
Paradoxides beds but with no trilobites. 
Subsequently Dr. Hicks elaborated the Cambrian system 
into seven groups, but showing only four trilobite faunas, 
the first or oldest not having been found by him in Britain. 
The groups of sediments containing these faunas he classi- 
fied as follows: 


Lower Cambrian. Three groups.—Caerfai, Solva and 
Menevian. 


Upper Cambrian. Four groups.—Maentwrog, Ffestiniog, 
Dolgelly and Tremadoc. 


It may be well to inquire what there is to support this 
classification of the Cambrian system, before adopting a 
new one. 

Two principal criteria for determining a question of this 
kind would be the facies and succession of the faunas and 
the bulk of the measures. In applying these tests, we turn 
our attention first to Scandinavia, for in no part of the 
world is there known such a clear, continuous and complete 
succession of Cambrian faunas as in that country. 


Connection, etc., of the Cambrian faunas. 


Of the several classes of organisms of these faunas, the 
trilobites may be taken as the group which will best show 
the relationship subsisting between the several faunas, for 


478 Canadian Record of Science. 


they are the most varied, and were more sensitive to the 
changing conditions of environment than the others. 

In Brégger’s admirable work on the Stages 2 and 3 of the 
Paleozoic rocks of Norway, a table is given which shows 
the succession and range of the species in the Cambrian 
faunas of that country. Then as regards the neighboring 
kingdom of Sweden, Dr. G. Lindstrém’s list (1888) of the 
fossil faunas of the Cambrian and Lower Silurian rocks is 
complete for the several zones of the Cambrian in that 
country. Combining the genera from these sources a full 
representation of Cambrian life in Scandinavia is obtained, 
so far as relates to the genera of the trilobites. 

The first or oldest fauna presents the following genera: 


OLENELLUS (by its sub-genus * Arionellus (=Agraulos.) 
Musonacist) 
* Ellipsocephalus. * Agnostus. 


Of these genera one is peculiar and three (marked by an 
asterisk) pass to the next fauna. 
In the second fauna are the genera. 


* Harpides. Solenopleura. 
ParaDoxipgs (including Centro- Arionellus. 
pleura.) Anomocare. 
Ellipsocephalus. Dolichometopus. 
*Tiostracus (includes Ptychco- Aneucanthus (c.f. Centropleura ?) 
paria.) Corynexochus. 
Conocoryphe. Microdiscus. 
Elyx (=Ctenocephalus.) * Agnostus. 


Here are fourteen genera of which three are found at 
higher horizonsin the Cambrian system. Under Liostracus 
the Swedish paleontologists include Ptychoparia which 
with Agnostus has a wide range in the Cambrian system, so 
that with the exception of these genera the break is almost 
complete, between this fauna and that which follows. 
Conocoryphe as understood in Sweden does not extend be- 
yond this fauna. 


+The name of the leading genus (or genera) of each fauna is 
given in Roman capitals. 


How is the Cambrian divided 2 479 


The third fauna contains the following genera: 


Liostracus ? Leptoplastus. 
OLENUS Eurycare (s. gen. of Leptoplastust 
Parabolina (s. gen. of Olenust). *Agnostus. 


Here all the genera and subgenera are peculiar to this 
fauna except the ubiquitous Agnostus and Liostracus ? 

But the connection with the next fauna is closer than 
appears from the names, as some of the genera are closely 
related to those of the succeeding fauna. Hurycare especi- 
ally is intermediate between Leptoplastus and Ctenopyge. 


The fourth fauna has the following genera : 


*Cyclognathus (sub-gen. of Pel- Ctenopyge (s. gen. of Leptoplas- 


tura Ty) tus f) 
PELTURA. Sphexrophthalmus (s. gen. of Lep- 
, Protopeltura (sub-gen. of Pel- toplastus +) 
tura Tt) Boeckia (sub. gen. of Leptoplas- 
Acerocare (sub-gen. of Peltura +) tus.) 
* Agnostus. 


Cyclognathus is found also in afauna above, but Peltura- 
and Ctenopyge, with their related forms, especially mark this 
horizon. 

The fifth fauna, which has a strong Ordovician facies, 
exhibits the following genera: 


Cheirurus. Nileus. 

Pliomera. Symphysurus (s. gen. of Nileus }) 
* Harpides. Niobe. 

Remopleurides. ° Holometopus. 
* Triarthrus. Conophrys. 
° DICBLLOCEPHALUS ° Parabolinella (s. gen. of Olenus.+) 
° CERATOPYGE. Amphion. 
° Buloma Ampy2. 

Megalaspis ° Agnostus. 


a 
Among these eighteen genera there are only about eight 
(marked by “°”’) which by their aspect recall the Kuropean 
types of the Cambrian trilobites, and probably for this 


+ See Brogger’s Etagen 2 und 3. 
MA 


480 Canadian Record of Science. 


reason the Swedish paleontologists regard this fauna as 
belonging to the Lower Silurian. But it evidently corres- 
ponds to the Tremadoc fauna, which by English paleon- 
tologists is reckoned to the Cambrian; and late discoveries 
in America show that Mileus, Niobe, &c., also are truly 
Cambrian. 

In Wales, which has given its name to the Cambrian 
system, the succession of the faunas, their unity and their 
relative importance are much the same as in Sweden and 
Norway, but these features are obscured by the use of 
different names for some of the genera. 

Mr. Robert Htheridge’s catalogues in the Geology of 
North Wales are the basis for the comparisons made here. 
In them the genus Conocoryphe (as used by Mr. Salter) is 
made to serve for a number of Scandinavian and other 
genera. The figures of many of the species in this work 
are very imperfect, but for the purposes of this comparison 
the species in Conocoryphe may be distributed to Conocoryphe, 
Ctenocephalus, Liostracus, Ptychoparia, Solenopleura, Huloma, 
Parabolina, Parabolinella (?) Conocephalites and Dicello, 
cephalus. 

In Wales the first fauna has produced no trilobites unless 
Conocoryphe viola belongs here. The second Cambrian fauna 
has a full representation as follows :— 


PARADOXIDES. Ctenocephalus. 
Plutonia (sub gen. of Paradoxides. ) 
Anopolinus (c.f, Centropleura.) Carausia. 
Solenopleura.- Conocoryphe. 

%* Liostracus (or Ptychoparia.) Erinnys (c.f. Harpides.) 
Holocephalina. Microdiscus. 
Arionellus. * Agnostus. 


Here there are twelve genera of which two only extend 
upward to higher horizons. 

The third fauna (Lower Lingula flags) has the following 
genera: 


OLENUS. * Huloma. 
* Parabolina. * Agnostus. 


How is the Cambrian divided 2 481 


Of these three extend upward to the higher zone, leaving 
only Olenus as peculiar to this fauna. 

In the fourth fauna (Dolgelly group) are the following 
genera: 


*Euloma. PELTURA. 

* Parabolina Spherophthalmus. 
* Parabolinella (?) Ctenopyge. 

* Conocephalites * Agnostus, 


Five of these genera extend upward into the next zone. 
The Conocephalites have been called Dicellocephali, but they 
are not the typical forms of Dicellocephalus with spined 
pygidium, which occur higher; they are related to Conoce- 
phalites (sens. strict) and Conocephalina, } which has short 
spines found by Brégger in the Paradoxides zone. The genus 
isnot reported from the equivalent beds in Sweden, where 
the genera of the second column held possession, but it is 
found in the fauna of Hof in Bavaria. 

The fifth Cambrian fauna (Tremadoc group) exhibits the 
following genera: 


Psilocephalus ° Euloma. 
Asaphus °Parabolina. (?) 
Cheirurus. °Parabolinella. (?) 
° Angelina. ° Dicellocephalus. 
Nesuretus. Conophrys. 
Niobe. Ampysx. 
Ogygia. ° Agnostus. 
Dionide. 


In this assemblage of fourteen genera only six represent 
“Cambrian forms” of trilobites, but in the lower half of the 
first column are a number of genera which, once thought to 
have appeared first at this period, are now found to be present 
in the West of America by representative forms at a lower 
horizon, Hence these, although hitherto regarded as Ordovi- 
cian, as already remarked, are essentially Cambrian types. 

It will be observed that in the Welsh area the four Cam- 
brian faunas, which have trilobites, show a correspondence 


{Om paradoxidesskifrene ved Krekling. 


482 Canadian Record of Science. 


of genera with those of Scandinavia, and here as there, 
exhibit a very decided paleontological break at the summit 
of the Paradoxides beds. Hence Dr. Hicks was justified in 
dividing the Cambrian groups of strata into Upper and 
Lower, accordingly as they were above or below this horizon. 

Having seen how the Cambrian faunas are related to each 
other in Europe, we may now examine their succession in 
the eastern half of North America. 

To Mr. C. D. Walcott is due the credit of having deter- 
mined the relation of the Olenellus fauna in this region to 
the rest of the Cambrian system. 

The clearest succession of the lower members carrying 
unmistakable forms of this fauna is that which he has lately 
examined in Newfoundland. Combining the genera found 
there with those of the Champlain and Hudson valleys we 
find tbe following :— 


OLENBLLUS. * Zacanthoides. 
Msonacis. * Olenoides. 

* Paradoxides (Shaler)  Bathynotus. 
Avalonia (n. gen. not yet described.) 

* Ptychoparia. * Protypus. 

* Agraulos. * Microdiscus. 

* Solenopleura. * Agnostus. 


Of these thirteen genera it will be observed that two- 
thirds pass to the Paradoxides beds, and of the remainder, 
Avalonia is not described, and Mesonacis is by Scandinavian 
paleontologists regarded as congeneric with Olenellus. There 
is thus a much closer connection between this fauna and that 
which follows it, than there is between the latter and the 
faunas of the Upper Cambrian. - Moreover, the embryonic 
and larval stages of Paradoxides and Olenellus show that 
these genera are closely related. 

We have very little knowledge as yet of the way in 
which the Paradoxides fauna was related to that which fol- 

_lows it, since both in Newfoundland and Acadia the next 
zone has yielded very scanty remains of trilobites. Perhaps 
the Mt. Stevens section where the genus Paradoxides has 
been found? will yield the required information. In New- 


1 See this journal, vol. 11, No. 1. (Jan. ’89.) 


How is the Cambrian divided ? 483 


foundland Mr. Walcott has found Olenus, and in the St. John 
area (Acadia) Leptoplastus occurs. In the latter area also 
the fourth Cambrian fauna has been found, being indicated 
by the presence of Ctenopyge flagillifer, C. spectabilis and 
Orthis lenticularis. 

A fuller presentation of Upper Cambrian forms is that 
which is found in the Mississippi valley in the states of Wis- 
consin and Iowa, where there is a succession of 600 feet of 
sandstones whose fauna has been described and figured by 
Dr. D. D. Owen and Prof. Jas. Hall. The latter divides this 
series into three parts, the lowest of which contains forms 
similar to those at the base of the Olenus zone in Europe. 


In the middle division, which is most prolific of the re- ~ 


mains of trilobites, are species which may be compared to 
those of the genera Olenus, Parabolina, Leptoplastus ? Eul- 
oma and Conocephalites. Dr. Dames compares others to 
Anomocare. It is only in the highest Potsdam division and 
in the beds above it, according to Prof. Hall, that the typical 
Dicellocephali appear, and these in Kurope are found in the 
Tremadoe or fifth Cambrian fauna. Triarthrella occurring 
in Wisconsin with these Dicellocephali is compared by 
Brégger to Cyclognathus, a genus of the fourth fauna and of 
the base of the Ordovician. The whole series of 600 feet 
in Wisconsin seems to belong to the Upper Cambrian. But 
the phase of the fourth Cambrian fauna represented in 
Europe and Acadia by Ctenopyge and its allies is absent, 
probably from the want of favorable habitat. 


Comparative bulk of measures holding the faunas. 


The relative age and position of the Paradoxides beds in 
the Cambrian system may be shown by the bulk of the 
measures in the different parts of the system, With our 
present knowledge, this can be only imperfectly done, but 
the following is a comparison of the mass of deposits in 
three different countries. When the system has been more 
carefully studied in different parts of the world a more exact 
proportion in the sedimentation will be had, 


484 Canadian Record of Science. 


In Norway the Cambrian system has the following 
thickness’ :— 


Ratio. 

Stage 3a—Tremadoc or Ceratopyge fauna...,.....- 45 feet.. 1.2 
«¢  2d-e=Dolgelly or Pelturafauna.............. AQ os aleO 

“  2a-c=Lower Lingula flags, Olenus fauna ....110 “ .. 3.2 

“ 1c-d=Menevian and Solva, Paradoxides fauna. 80 “ .. 2.3 

“ la-b=Harlech (?) or Olenellus fauna......... 80S sae 


355 feet. 10.0 


In Wales there are the following groups of Cambrian 
strata :— 


Ratio. 
( Tremadoc 1000 feet, ile 
Upper 4 Dolgelly 600 “ a3) 
Cambrian. Ffestiniog 2000 “ \ 
Maentwrog 2500 “ 4.5 
Tower Saas sce “4 } 2.5 
Cambrian. aera aly 
Caerfai 1500 “ 1.5. 


10,100 “ 10.0 
In Acadia the Cambrian sediments are intermediate in 
thickness between those of Wales and Norway. The aver- 
age of two sections in the city of St. John gives the follow- 
ing proportions :— 


Ratio 

Division 3=Dolgelly (and Tremadoc)........ 600 feet ?.....0. 2.5 
“ _ 2=Ffestiniog and Maentwrog....... L050 S vaeretaneer 4.0 

“ _ 1=Menevian and Solva...........+. SOO 8 aeerev state 1.5 
peries)/A—Caertal (?)iele eal ceciee ee eiies omer HU  sorondac 2.0 
2500 10.0 


In Newfoundland Mr. Walcott has found the Olenellus 
beds to be about 600 feet thick and the Paradoxides beds 
370 feet, which agrees nearly with the thickness of these 
portions of the Cambrian system at St. John (New Bruns- 
wick). 

The Olenus fauna is found in Newfoundland, but appa- 
rently Mr. Walcott has not discovered there the fourth 


' Die Silurischen Etagen 2 und 3. 
” Above this is a thin body of slates with Arenig graptolites. 


Leptoplastus in the Acadian Cambrian Rocks. 485 


fauna (Peltura) or the fifth fauna. We, therefore, are still 
confined to the three countries of Scandinavia, Wales and 
Acadia as giving the most complete presentation of the 
sedimentation and life of the Cambrian period. Combining 
the ratios for these three countries we get the following 


result :—- 
General 
Norway. Wales. Acadia. Ratio. 
1 


Fifth fauna....Stage3a  1.2......1. ....1.1....1.1 U 

po SS i ere a | ee ae peots.-10 fe, ¢ (ae 
ete. 2... een ss Aj seeds, 300s 9 Sa 
Second “ .... “ led 23......2.5....15....211 4, Lower 
Sepa So (a been ee OL Oi; Cambrian. 


—_—— —_ en _ 


10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 

These facts do not favor the separation of the Paradoxides 
beds from the Lower Cambrian, or their erection into a sepa- 
rate division as Middle Cambrian. If there is to be a Middle 
Cambrian it would rather seem that the Olenus fauna holds 
this position. But as has been shown the faunal relationship 
of the Olenus beds to those which follow them forbids their 
separation, just as in the Lower Cambrian a similarity in 
the forms correspondingly connects the Olenellus with the 
Paradoxides fauna, 


ON THE OCCURRENCE OF LEPTOPLASTUS IN THE 
ACADIAN CAMBRIAN ROCKS. 


By G. F. Marrunmw, M..\., F.R.S.C. 


It is somewhat singular that while species of Olenus have 
been found in Britain and elsewhere, the genus Leptoplastus, 
of which Angelin describes several species, appears to have 
been observed thus far only in Scandinavia.’ Angelin seems 
to have thought this genus so important that he made it 
the type of a family, Leptoplastide, in which he included 
Olenus, Parabolina, Peltura, Acerocare, Eurycare and 
Sphxrophthalmus. Leptoplastus may, perhaps, have been 


' The general average is taken for this portion. 

*I observe that Zittel (Traité de Palwontologie 1887, page 593,) 
mentions the occurrence of this genus in Great Britain, but does 
not give the source of bis information. 


486 Canadian Record of Science. 


regarded by him as a link between the first four of these 
genera and the two last, and thus most suitable for the 
family type. Within the genus there are species which 
ally it to Olenus and Peltura (L. stenotus, &c.), and also one 
(L. raphidophorus) which by its peculiar cheek-spines shows 
a relationship to Spherophthalmus and Ctenopyge. 

The most obvious distinction between Leptoplastus and 
Olenus is the position of the eyes, which in the latter genus 
are in advance of their normal position in trilobites; this 
difference is expressed by Angelin as “oculi subapicales” 
in Olenus, “oculi centrales”” in Leptoplastus. In the latter 
genus the head is more strongly vaulted transversely, and 
the genal spines spread outward in a more decided manner 
than in Olenus. There are other differences, as the number 
of segments in the thorax, form of the pygidium, &c., which 
are not so easy to determine. 

By the form of the head, &c., the Acadian species belong 
to Leptoplastus, and though we have not sufficiently perfect 
specimens to reproduce all the characters as given by 
Angelin, those known are sufficient for a description of the 
species. 


LEPTOPLASTUS STENOTOIDES. N. Sp. 


Head. Broadly semi-circular; crust, smooth. Centre 
piece of the head-shield sub-trapezoidal; strongly arched 
transversely, depressed in front of the glabella; marginal] 
fold distinct, elevated. Glabella ovate-cylindrical, indented 
on each side by a pair of furrows which are moderately 
inclined backward. Occipital furrow distinct, impressed 
all across. Hyelobes prominent, ocular fillet faint. Occi- 
pital ring rounded backward. 

Cheeks arched upward in the middle, depressed at the 
posterior furrow. Movable cheek broad, with a rather wide 
marginal furrow and sharp flaring genal spine about as long 
as the inner area of the cheek. Posterior furrow distinct. 

Pygidium nearly semi-circular (longer than half the 
width), with a broad, flat margin. Rachis distinct, extend- 
ing to the marginal furrow, divided into three distinct and 
two or more faint rings; lateral lobes with three furrows. 


Leptoplastus in the Acadian Cambrian Rocks. 487 


Hypostome (found loose with this species), sub-rectan- 
gular, rounded in front, truncated at the posterior corners ; 
arched upward across the middle, depressed at the end and 
having there a narrow upturned fold. 

Sculpture. Crust smooth. 

Size. Length of middle piece of head 6 mm., width 10 
mm. Length of movable cheek 11 mm., width 4 mm. 
Lengthof pygid. 4 mm., width 7mm, Length of hypos- 
tome (?) 3 mm., width 2 mm. 

Horizon and Locality. Calcareous layers in fine dark olive 
grey shales. Div. 3, Band a. St. John Group on Long 
Island, Kennebecasis River, N.B., in company with Agnostus 
pisiformis, &e. 

This species is very near to L. stenotus, but differs from it 
(as figured by Angelin) in its conical glabella, more flaring 
cheek and spine and wider border to the pygidium. 


Lepropuastus Spinicer. N. Sp. 


Head. Only the centre piece known. This is trapezoidal in 
outline, with a spinous projection in front and another behind. 
It is strongly vaulted transversely and has a distinct anterior 
marginal fold produced at the axial line into a sharp spine. 
The spine projects forward, and is about three-quarters of 
the length of the glabella. Glabella ovate-conical, with two 
pairs of short, slightly oblique furrows. Occipital furrow 
distinct, crossing the axis; occipital ring, broad in the 
middle, bearing a spine directed backward. Fixed cheeks 
strongly arched. lHyelobes prominent. Posterior furrow 
and fold distinct. 

Sculpture. Crust smooth, 

Size. Length, excluding spines, 24 mm., with spines, 4 
mm.: width, 4 mm. 

Horizon and Locality. Occurring with the last species. 

Among the Swedish Leptoplasti, Z. raphidophorus is the 
one which in size compares to this, but it differs in many 
details. It also is a spinous species, but is not shown to 
possess ae peculiar spine at the apex of the shield, which 


488 Canadian Record of Science. 


gives to our species somewhat the appearance of an Ampyx- 
In Ampyx, however, the spine springs from the front of the 
glabella, and in some species is much longer than that of 
LL. spiniger. 


ail 
igi 


TS SAN IAUS 
4) 
} 


NaN AURART 
CM ITTTTTIVE: 


REFHRENCH TO FIGURES. 


Fig. 1. Leptoplastus stenotus. Ang. After Angelin. 

“ 2. Leptoplastus stenotoides. N.sp. Mag. %. 2a Middle piece of 
head shield. 2b Movable cheek. 2c Pygidium. 2d 
Hypostome found with this species. From Div. 3a, Long 
Island, Kennebecasis River. 

“« 3. Leptoplastus raphidophorus. Ang. After Angelin. 

“* 4, Leptoplastus spiniger. N.sp. Mag. ?. Middle piece of the 
head shield. From Div. 3a, Long Island, Kennebecasis 
River. 


In Sweden the beds with Leptoplastus are regarded as 
the upper number of the Olenus beds, as distinguished 
from those which carry Peltura and Spherophthalmus. In 
New Brunswick, however, the physical conditions during 
the time when this genus lived were such as to associate it 
more closely with the later fauna. The two species of 


Derivatives of Tolidin. 489 


Leptoplastus occur in the lowest of the fine slates which 
succeeded to the flags and slate of Div. 2, and lithologically 
the beds fall into Division 3." 

In the Acadian area no trilobites are yet known in the 
great mass of sediments intermediate between the shales 
carrying Leptoplastus and those which hold Paradoxides, 


DERIVATIVES OF TOLIDIN. 
R. F. Rurran, B.A., M.D. 


In 1845 a Russian chemist named Zinin,’ by reducing 
Azobenzol with hydrogen sulphide obtained a substance 
which, when further treated with sulphuric aicd, gave rise to 
a base called Benzidin. The intermediate product of the 
reduction of azobenzol was subsequently examined by 
Hefmann’ and found to be Hydrazobenzol, and the nature 
of the reaction giving rise to Benzidin was made clear. 

From a homologue of hydrazobenzol, viz.: hydrazotoluol 
by Hofmann’s method, Petriew* prepared the homologue 
of Benzidin, viz., Tolidin, and studied some of its charac- 
teristics. The constitution of both Benzidin and Tolidin 
was afterwards established by Gustav Schultz.° These 
two bases were shown by him to be double molecules of 
anilin and toluidin, respectively, connected by their benzol 
neuclei, and having their amidogen groups in the para 
position. Their formulae being :— 

By (% H, NH, C; H, (CH;) NH, 
Benzidin + | | 
\c, H, NH, C, H, (CH,) NH, 
Benzidin has received some attention from chemists and 


many of its reactions have been investigated. Tolidin, on 
the other hand, owing to the difficulty with which it was 


otitin) 


‘In a former communication to this journal, they were referred 
to a8 probably at the top of Diy. 2. (See July, 1889.) 

* Journal fiir practische Chemie, xxxvi., 93. 

* Jahrsbuicht der Chemie, 1863, 424. 

* Berichte, vi., 557. 

* Liebig’s Annalen, 174, 227, Berichte, xvii., 467. 


490 Canadian Record of Science. 


obtained, and its apparent unimportance, has received until 
lately no attention whatever. These two bases were long 
regarded merely as chemical curiosities whose chemical 
relations were of importance only so far as their existence 
threw light on other reactions, and thus aided general- 
ization. A few years ago, however, Greiss' announced that 
benzidin, like anilin, formed a diazo compound on treatment 
with nitrous acid. From this Gustav Schultz, of Berlin, in 
1879, prepared the first of the now important class of dyes 
called Azo-dyes from Benzidin, but the first economic dye 
of this class was patented in 1884 and named Congo red. 
These dyes, now very numerous, owe their importance in the 
arts to the fact that they dye wood and cotton fibre directly, 
1.€., without the use of a mordant. 

The success of the Congo red and other dyes of this class 
lead to the preparation of these rare bases, Benzidin and 
Tolidin, in available quantity. Through the kindness of 
Prof. Hofmann I was enabled to obtain from Gustav 
Schultz, of the Berlin anilin factory, a kilogramme of 
crude Tolidin, and began the study of its derivatives in 
Berlin three years ago. Some of these compounds have 
already been described by me, and formed part of a paper 
read before the British Association in 1886,’ but others have 
been obtained since. This paper deals chiefly with those 
derivatives obtained directly from the base Tolidin, and 
includes only those secondary derivatives necesary to 
illustrate completely a particularly reaction of the base 
itself. The subject is, however, by no means worked out as 
in a direction indicated at the end of this paper, it gives 
promise of interesting results yet to be obtained. © 

The crude base obtained from the factory proved to be 
the ortho-tolidin, and on purification crystallized in glisten- 
ing scales of a pale violet hue, melting at 128° C—not at 
112°, as was originally stated by Petriew.’ It turns in- 
tensely blue when treated with oxidizing agents, gives a 


! Journal fiir practische Chemie, 101, 92, 
2 Proc. Brit. Ass’n., 1886. 
3 Loc cit. 


Derivatives of Tolidin. 491 


blue color with ferric chloride when concentrated, and green 
when dilute, when boiled this turns red and gives a precipi- 
tate of ferric hydrate. The sulphate is very insoluble; the 
hydro-chlorate is soluble in water and in alcohol ; it forms with 
Platinum chloride beautiful yellow acicular crystals, usually 
in rosettes, insoluble in water and dilute alcohol. These 
decompose on exposure to moist air, but if dried after pre- 
cipitation by washing with alcohol and ether, they may be 
further dried at 100° and analysed. The following results 
confirm the formula :— 


C; H; (CH;) NH, 


} 2HCl, PtCl, 
C; H; (CH;) NH, 


Caleulated. Found. 
T iD 
Platinum = 31.07 per cent. 30.81. 30.90. 
\ Cyanide of Tolidin. 


Cyanogen gas, evolved by heating mercuric cyanide, was 
slowly passed through a cold saturated alcoholic solution of 
Tolidin, till a distinct precipitate occurred, the solution was 
tightly corked and allowed to stand for forty-eight hours. 

A voluminous, brown, amorphous precipitate resulted 
which, when filtered and washed with alcohol, ether and 
benzol, was dried and examined, This product was found to 
be a reddish brown amorphous body, insoluble in water, 
alcohol, ether or benzol, very slightly soluble in phenol, 
ligroin and nito benzol. It did not melt at 320°, and burned 
with difficulty when heated on platinum. It decomposed 
into tolidin and oxalic acid when heated with acids. 

In making the combustion of this substance it was found 
necessary to add lead chromate to the copper oxide to ensure 
complete oxidation, and even then the combustion was very 
tedious, The following figures established the formula :— 


Cy He Ne 24 CG H; (CH;) NH, | CN 


Theory. Found, 
10 Il. TET: 
C = 72.72 71.96 71.8 
H = 6.06 6.11 6.21 


N == 21.21 see eeee 21.43 


492 Canadian Record of Science. 


The Thio-urea. 


Twenty grammes of Tolidin in alcohol were boiled with 
an equal weight of carbon bisulphide in a flask with reversed 
condenser for six hours. The result was the formation of a 
white crystalline powder, melting at 185° and insoluble in 
most media, but soluble in strong sulphuric acid, from which 
it was precipitated on dilution. Hydrogen sulphide was 
evolved during the reaction. The resulting compound had 
the formula: C,, H,, NV, CS, and the reaction which occurred 
may be represented thus: 


C, H, NH, C, H, NH 
| + CS,= | hes EES 
C, H, NH, C, H, NH 
The following are the analytical results :-— 
Theory. Found. 
i II. ITI. 
C = 70.86 per cent. (pit 71.06 5055 
H = 5.50 6.03 5.81 
N = 11.02 i 300% 3006 cece 
S = 12.01 2 5000 So0d 12.14 


All attempts to convert this into an iso-sulpho- evauie 
by the usual methods were ineffectual. 


Diacetyl Tolidin. 


Tolidin, when boiled for a few hours with 7-8 times its 
weight of glacial acetic acid, in a flask with reversed con- 
denser, readily forms the diacetyl tolidin. The same sub- 
stance is at once formed in the cold when acetic anhydride 
is added to a solution of the base. It is a white crystalline 
powder, melting above 320° and insoluble in the usual sol- 
vents. It is deposited, however, in snow white needles on 
cooling its solution in boiling nitro-benzol; when thus puri- 
fied and dried at 130° it yielded the following analytical 


data :— 
Calculated for C,, Hy, N, O, 


Theory. Found. 
i TL. III. 
C= Vi 220i 72.62 72.29 
A= 6.75 6.88 6.59 
N= 9.46 Sood booed 9.75 
) == 10.81 


Derivatives of Tolidin. 493 


Tetra-acetyl Tolidin. 


This is probably the most interesting of all the deriva- 
tions of Tolidin, inasmuch as it is, with one exception, the 
only example of a primary base in which both of the hydro- 
gen atoms in the amidogen group (JVH,) have been re- 
placed by the acetyl radicle. The only other compound of 
this class is Diacetanilid.* C,H, V (C,H, O),. Hoffmann 
prepared this by the action of glacial acetic acid on phenyl 
mustard oil in a sealed tube at 130°—140 C. 

C,H, NCS + 20, H, 0, =C, H, N (0, H, 0), + 00, 
+ 4, 8. 

From the readiness with which the acetyl radicle united 
with the tolidin it was supposed that a similar compound 
might be obtained directly by treating diacetyl tolidin with 
acetic anhydride. Accordingly diacetyl tolidin was, with 
6-7 times its weight of acetic anhydride sealed in tubes and 
submitted to a temperature of 180°C for six hours. The 
tubes were then found to contain ina dark fluid acicular 
erystals, which were soluble in alcohol, ether, benzol and 
and acetic acid, but insoluble in water. After purification, 
the substance was found to crystallize in long, silky, snow 
white needles, melting at 210° and on analysis gave the 
following results :— 


Calcnlated for C,, H,, N, O, 


Theory. Found. 
ie 10h 
C == 69.47 69.28 eres 
i 6.32 6.61 seee 
N= 7.37 fee 7.65 
O = 16.84 aelle disiee 


When treated with dilute alkalies it at once broke down 
into diacetyl tolidin and acetic acid. The two acetyl deriva- 
tions of Tolidin may be thus represented :— 


CH, CH, 
l {G H, O l C, H, O 
C, H,—-Ni C,; H,—-N1 C, H, O 
{ez { H, O 
’. H,—N1 C, H, O C, Hy,—-N1C, H; 0 
CH, CH, 


Diacery1-ToLimim. Tprra-AcpryL TOLIDIN, 


494 Canadian Record of Science. 


Dinitio-diactyl-tolidin. 

Diacetyl tolidin is easily nitrated when added in small 
quantities to fuming nitric acid, and the violence of the 
reaction moderated by surrounding the flask with ice cold 
water and maintaining a large exvess of nitric acid. The 
mixture is then poured into a long beaker filled with 
snow and the precipitated nitro body filtered and washed. 
It is insoluble in alcohol, water and the usual media, but 
may be, like diactyl tolidin, purified by precipitation from 
solution in boiling nitro benzol. This compound, at first of 
a brown tint, can be obtained almost white by repeated re- 
crystallization. It does not melt, and when an attempt was 
made to purify by sublimation it exploded violently. 

On combustion it yielded the following data :— 


Calculated for C,, Hy, N, O; 


Theory. Found. 
C = 55.96 55.73 
H= 4.66 4 82 


Ne Wag ees GeO 
O = 24.87 se0e ou00 
These results are in conformity with the formula :— 
CH, 


C, Hy, O 
vo,—d ee Nes 

| { H 
NO,—Cle ENA 


CH, 
Dinitro-tolidin. 

When the body above described is saponified by pro- 
longed boiling with strong caustic potash a red compound 
results, which from a large volume of boiling dilute alcohol 
may be obtained in garnet red tabular crystals which melt 
at 265° and explode on heating to a higher temperature. It 
is with difficulty dissolved in any ordinary solvent. 

It yielded on analysis the following results :— 

Calculated for C\, H,, N, O, 


Theory. Found. 

It, Il. 
C = 55.63 55.87 
H= 4.65 4.91 


N=1854 Malti 
O = 21.16 eecce eocoo 


LD’ Abbé Brunet. 495 


This points to the following as the probable formula :— 
CH, 
| 
NO.—C, H,—NH, 
NO,—C, H,—NH, 
CH, 

It was thought probable that this compound like other 
nitro derivatives of the aromatic series might be reduced 
and a tetra-amido derivative thus obtained, but this reduc- 
tion could not beaffected. When dinito tolidin is submitted 
to the reducing action of nascent hydrogen, evolved either 
from tin and hydrochloric acid or from sodium amalgam, 
it breaks down into tolidin, and by no means employed 
could the nitro groups be reduced to amidogen. 


( Continued.) 
; CuemicaAL LABORATORY, 
McGill Uniy., Med. Faculty. } 
October, 1889. 


L’Assé Lovis OvipDE BRUNET:! 


Louis Ovide Brunet, priest in the Archdiocese of Quebec, 
and Professor of Botany in the University of Laval, was 
the second son of Jean Olivier Brunet and of Dame Cecile 
Lagueux, who kept an honorable commercial house in 
Quebec. He was born in the Lower Town the tenth day of 
March, 1826, After having pursued a brilliant course of 
study in the Petite Seminaire, he consecrated himself to the 
priesthood and was ordained on the first of October, 1848. 
He was successively Vicar at Notre Dame de Quebec, of 
St. Joseph de Levis, Missionary at the station of Grosse 
Isle, and priest at Valcartier. In 1854 he passed to the 
rectory of St. Lambert, where he remained until his 
entrance to the Seminary of Quebec. 


‘From L’Annuaire de L’ Université Laval, pour L’Année Acade- 
mique 1877-78, 


496 Canadian Record of Science. 


His very decided taste for communal life, and his rare 
aptitude for science, caused him for a long time to wish to 
be admitted into that institution. His desires were at last 
fulfilled: in 1858 he entered the Seminary as an auxiliary 
priest, and was immediately charged with the teaching of 
Botany. There he occupied himself with the organization 
of a museum, but the difficulties he met with, and the 
numerous cares of such an undertaking, caused him, at the 
outset, to wish to visit Hurope, in order the better to pre- 
pare himself for the teaching of his favorite science. He 
departed for Hurope in 1861. The preparation he made 
for that purpose, during the two preceding years, rendered 
his visit most advantageous and productive of good results. 
After his return, M. Brunet was appointed ordinary pro- 
fessor in the Faculty of Arts, a title which he kept until 
his death; although sickness obliged him to give up his 
work in 1870 and leave the Seminary in 1871. He then 
retired to the privacy of his family, where he enjoyed the 
society and devoted care of a beloved mother and sister. 
Madame Brunet died before her son, but Madame Giroux 
never ceased to surround her brother with the most atten- 
tive care until the last. 

During his career as professor in the Faculty of Arts, 
M. Brunet rendered important services to Laval University, 
which that institution cannot forget. He must, in fact, be 
regarded as the founder of the Museum of Botany. The 
Canadian plants which the herbarium now contains, were 
gathered, for the most part, by himself, and are the fruit of 
twelve years of earnest work. All were studied and clagsi- 
fied by himself. He profited py his voyage to Kurope, to 
give all possible authenticity to his determinations, and in 
carefully comparing those plants which presented difficulties 
of determination with original specimens in the herbarium 
of Michaux at Paris, and of Sir W. Hooker at Kew. After 
his return from Europe, the new or doubtful plants were 
submitted to examination by the most distinguished 
American botanists, such as Dr. Asa Gray, Dr. Engelmann, 
and others. 


L’ Abbé Brunet. 497 


For the plants of America outside of Canada, as well as 
for the general herbarium containing species from all other 
parts of the world, M. Brunet, always careful to give to his 
museum an indisputable authority, secured specimens from 
the most celebrated collectors, as we may see from the 
following partial enumeration :— 

Plants from the Rocky Mountains, from the collections 
of Hall, Parry and Harbour, named by Asa Gray and Dr, 
Engelmann 

Plants of Illinois and Missouri, from ihe collections of 
Reid arranged by Stendel. Also from the collections of 
Geyer. 

Flora of New York from the collection of Leidenberg, 
named by N. Sonder. 

Flora of Texas and vicinity, from collection of Mr. 
Vincent. 

* American mosses, from the collections of Sullivant and 
Lesquereux. 

It would also be necessary to mention a large number of 
plants furnished to M. Brunet by his correspondents as 
exchanges ; among others, by Mosser, Smith and Durand, of 
Philadelphia. As for the specimens of the general herb- 
arium, it will suffice to name Messrs. Puel, Maille, Borderey, 
Le Jolis, Verlot, E, Bourgeau, J. Carruel, Balansa, Mougeot 
and Nestler, to make one realize the value of an herbarium 
containing collections from so many well known botanists. 

An idea of the amount of labor accomplished by the 
lamented professor, outside of his teaching and other duties, 
may be gained from the statement that the herbarium of 
Laval University—thanks to the intelligent care of M. 
Branet—contains more than 10,000 specimens, all properly 
named and classified. In addition to this work, M. Brunet 
occupied himself in collecting for the benefit of his students 
a complete series of our Canadian woods, He caused the 
specimens to be cut in such a manner as to present all the 
parts of the wood from the bark to the pith. ‘To the collec- 
tion thus made by himself, he added a number of exotic 
woods which he obtained from the friends he had made in 


498 Canadian Record of Science. 


France and elsewhere. Being designed wholly for purposes 
of study, and therefore of small dimensions, these specimens 
were little calculated to be remarked in a museum and 
draw attention to the resources offered to commerce and 
industry by the magnificent species of wood in our forests. 
Having been charged to prepare collections of Canadian 
woods for the Universal European Exposition, M. Brunet 
profited by observations made during the preceding exhibi- 
tion, and succeeded so well, that he obtained the medal of 
honour at Dublin in 1865, and again at Paris in 1867. 
These were the only two occasions on which he had been 
called upon to compete. Such results, in causing the 
resources of Canada to be appreciated in HKurope, show the 
high esteem in which he was held. It is hardly necessary 
to say that the collection for which he received the medal 
in 1867 was similar to the one which still excites the 
admiration of all those who visit the museum of Laval 
University. 

M. Brunet was honorably known in Kurope and the 
United States; a member of several learned societies, he 
counted among his friends men of the highest scientific 
attainments. He published several botanical articles of 
merit. They are as follows :— 

1. Notes upon the Plants collected in 1859, by L’Abbé 
Ferland, upon the Coasts of Labrador. 

2. Journey of André Michaux to Canada. (Translation 
by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt in Can. Nat. N.S., p. 325.) 

3. Enumeration of the Species of Plants of the Canadian 
Flora. 

4, Catalogue of Canadian Plants contained in the Herb- 
anium of Laval University.' 

5. History of the Picea found within the limits of Canada. 

6. Catalogue of the Ligneous Plants of Canada. 

7. Elements of Botany and Vegetable Physiology, with 
a small flora. 


1 Tt is to be regretted that M. Brunet was not able to continue 
this detailed catalogue, which has remained unfinished. 


: DL Abbé Brunet. 499 


This last work was particularly intended for the use of 
young ladies in religious institutions. Notwithstanding 
some incorrectness of style, it has fully answered the pur- 
pose of its author, and is yet highly esteemed, because in 
a small compass, it comprehends all that can interest those 
for whom it was written. 

During his connection with the Seminary, M. Brunet 
united to his duties as professor of the University, works of 
a much more modest character, but in which he was equally 
interested. Gifted with various aptitudes, he willingly 
occupied himself with everything that might contribute 
to develop intelligence and taste in children. He taught 
drawing at the Seminary for several years. During his 
visit to Europe he had perfected a talent already remark- 
able, by studying different styles of drawing, and he found 
many occasions to verify the fact that in an educational 
institution, oné cannot have too much knowledge on different 
subjects. 

Whether in charge of the literary societies, or engaged 
in the more important duties of his sacred office, he gave 
to each and all an attention which extended to the minutest 
details. It was at his suggestion that two divisions of the 
yearly retraite of the Petite Seminaire were made,—the 
exercises being conducted simultaneously, but separately: 
The grande retraite includes all the classes from the sixth; 
the petite retraite, though it includes only the two lowest 
classes, numbers, however, 120 to 150 retraitants. By this 
division it became possible to deal with subjects in a manner 
particularly suited to the members of each division. 

Amiable and full of wit, the conversation of M. Brunet 
was pleasant and cheerful — qualities which caused his 
colleagues to seek his society. The long illness which 
brought his life toa elose, altered this feature of his dis- 
position, and in the latter part of his life he lived in almost 
complete seclusion—his best friends having much difficulty 
in seeing him. 

The illness which slowly took his life away assumed 
a serious character only a few days before his death, which 


500 Canadian Record of Science. 


became known even before the aggravation of his illness 
was realized. M. Brunet enjoyed lucidity of mind almost 
to the last. The end came without pain, on the second of 
October, 1876, at eight o’clock in the evening. He was fifty 
years of age, exactly twenty-eight of which he passed in 
the priesthood. His remains rest in the chapel of the 
Seminary. 


An ANCIENT BLAZE. 
By D. P. PBaNHALLOW. 


Somewhat more than four years since, I described! an 
interesting blaze of considerable antiquity, found in the 
interior of a beech tree when in process of being cut up for 
firewood. Ina more recent publication’, additional notes 
were offered, and the statement then made, that the pos- 
sible date when the blaze was made—assuming the 160 
rings of growth to represent exactly as many years, and 
also assuming that none of the external layers had been 
removed by decay and other causes—corresponded exactly 
with the date when the parish of Two Mountains was estab- 
lished, viz., 1721. 

It was therefore thought possible that it represented an 
old boundary blaze, of which there might be others pre- 
served in some of the old trees of the vicinity. This ex- 
planation, however, was never a satisfactory one to me, 
inasmuch as surveyors would hardly undertake so elaborate 
a figure for such a purpose, nor would they be liable to 
make the lines of the figure so narrow as to render their 
early obliteration, within a few menths at the farthest, a 
matter of certainty. 

At our request, therefore, Mr. Oswald, who originally 
discovered the specimen, kindly undertook to make a 


1 Science ITI., 356. 
* Trans. R. Soc. Can., V., iv. 50, 


An Ancient Blaze. 501 


thorough examination of the locality. His report is sub- 
stantially as follows :— 

‘From the appearance of the ground at the base of the 
tree, I think there must have been a hut there at one time. 
There are three mounds of earth forming as many sides of 
a square. Those forming the two sides, east and west, are 
about sixteen feet long, while the mound at the north end 
is about twelve feet long. They are all about two feet high. 
At the southern end of the square there is no mound, the 


N. 
12 ft. 
Ww. le cea INe 
oo co 
a a 
‘ 
Stump. 


earth being at natural level, while at four feet from the 
probable line of this end, is the stump of the tree from 
which the blaze was taken. The land to the south rises 
gradually for one hundred yards, while to the north, for 
about the same distance, it slopes down towards a small 
stream where there is every indication of an old beaver 
dam. The land around it is in heavy bush, and no doubt 
a century and a half ago, it was in that condition for miles 
around. I made inquiries of old inhabitants if there were 
ever any boundary lines near here, and I found there were 
none. At present, the location is a full mile from the 
boundary line dividing the parishes of St. Augustin and St. 
Scholastique, and the Seigniory boundary of the Sewinary 
of St. Sulpice and the Globensky Seigniory, while it is just 
about the center of the County of Two Mountains.” He 
also dug on the site to a depth of two feet without any 
result beyond the fact that the earth appeared to be in a 
natural condition, 


502 Canadian Record of Science. 


These facts must certainly dispose of any possible con- 
nection between the blaze and a boundary line, while they 
also strongly point to the probable fact that a log hut once 
stood at the foot of the tree, and in decay produced the 
mounds observed. It is also of interest in this connection 
to note what we have elsewhere’ stated, that the Franciscan 
Hennepin, who was with La Salle from 1679-1682, was- 
traversing this very region of Two Mountains during the 
years when this blaze was cut, and he speaks of frequently 
making blazes on trees, as was then customary, the figures 
taking ne form of a cross. 

It would appear probable, tietefore, from the facts now 
in our possession, that the blaze was made as a sort of shrine 
by a trapper or a monk whose hut stood at the foot of the 
tree, and that it was made by a Franciscan monk would 
appear most probable from the character of the blaze 
itself. 


ADDITIONAL NOTES ON GONIOGRAPTUS THUREANI, 
McCoy, FROM THE LEVIS FORMATION, 
CANADA. 


By Hener M. Amt. 


In Vol. IIL, No. VIL., p. 422 of the Record, the writer 
presented a brief paper “on a species of Goniograptus. from 
the Levis formation, Levis, Quebec,” in which there was 
recorded for the first time on this continent the discovery 
of this interesting genus of siculate graptolites. It was 
intended to have a plate illustrating the Canadian indivi- 
duals accompanying that paper, but it was unavoidably 
omitted. 

The plate accompanying this note was prepared by Mr. 
Lawrence Lambe, artist to the Canadian Survey, and illus- 
trates well, two of the best specimens collected by Mr. 
Weston and Mr. Lambe, in 1886 and 1887, respectively. 
There are a number of obvious typographical errors, of 


1 Trans. R. Soc. Can., V., v. 50. 


Il. No, 8, 1889: 


EG, SCIENCES Vou 


CAN. R 


rUS FROM LEVIS, QUEBEC. 


yv 


AMI ON GONIOGRAI 


BOA: Sane See angen 


aS 


bry a 


10. dno. delidop C5 ie Ai 


: eon08 de siagaliay 


het 


40 wate Fa ie 


Additional Notes on Goniograptus Thureant. 5038 


little import, in that paper (loc. cit. supre,) whilst one or 
two less obvious corrections are hereby submitted.’ 

On page 426 and line 12 from the bottom the text reads: 
“The angle which these celluliferous stipes make with the 
general direction of the arm is generally 450°” The angle 
here meant is 45° not 450°. 

On the same page, in the preceding paragraph, it is 
stated of the arms that “all four are sub-equal, disposed 
regularly and symmetrically, so as to form a large + shaped 
figure.” This statement might be modified so as to indicate 
the exact angles made by the arms; that they are disposed 
so as to form a polypary with two series of arms and areas 
included within or between the arms, one set of which con- 
tains an angle of seventy-five degrees,and the other or larger 
angle, one hundred and five degrees. 

The excellent figures by Mr. Lambe are exact reproduc- 
tions of the specimens in the national collections of the 
Geological Survey Museum, Ottawa, and indicate admirably 
the mode of growth of the polypary. Only in fig. 2, the 
smaller specimen, are there any hydrothece visible. 

Although the material very kindly placed at the disposal 
of the writer by Dr.Selwyn and Mr. Whiteaves is excellent, 
and presents new features respecting the morphology and 
development of Goniograptus, it is nevertheless hoped that 
additional material will be forthcoming whereby all the 
generic and other relations of this interesting member of 
the disc-bearing group of graptolites can be studied and 
ascertained. 

It might be interesting here to add that the following 
species occur in the same measures with Goniograptus 
Thureani, McCoy var. Selwyni, nobis, viz :— 

Tetragraptus quadri-brachiatus, Hall; T. approximatus, 
Nicholson; 7’. fruticosus, Hall; T. serra, Brongniart ; (=T7. 
bryonoides, Wall) ; Dichograptus octo-brachiatus, Hall ; D. (?) 
ramulus, Mall; Drityograptus sp., and Lingula Trene, 
Billings. 

' The paper in question was published during the author’s absence 
in ae” so that he had not opportunity of correcting the proof. 


504 Canadian Record of Science. 


Book NotTIcgEs. 


Tpxt-Boox or Borany.'—This most recent of American Text- 
Books of Botany is dedicated to the illustrious memory of Antoine 
L. De Jussieu, upon whose inductive method the course of study is 
based. The first part deals with instructural and systematic botany, 
touching briefly upon some of the more important physiological 
processes. Part II., Phytology, opens with a pretty full list of . 
abbreviations used, a most useful list of etymons, and a very full 
list of proper names. The remainder of the work—169 pages—is 
taken up by a “ Manual of Plants, including all the known orders 
with their representative genera.” 

There is little evidence of advance beyond what has been stated 
in previous text-books. We note, however, as announced in the 
preface, that the sequence of the leading divisions of the Phanero- 
gams—Class I. Gymnosperms and Class II. Augiosperms—is more 
in accord with present views than what is usually found in our 
unrevised text-books. The figures are good, and for the most part 
fresh—a few being original. 

The treatment is clear and concise, but in the use of similes is 
often inclined to be trivial—a style quite out of place in a scientific 
treatise. The attempt to cover too much ground within a very 
limited space has resulted—as must be expected under such cir- 
cumstances—in a breviety of statement which must often leave the 
student without any clear conception of the particular subject. So 
far as the systematic and structural portion is concerned, this diffi- 
culty would be overcome by a competent teacher, but for the stu- 
dent under the ordinary circumstances of academic instruction 
the fault is a serious one. It becomes more marked in the Manual, 
where brevity and condensation is carried to such an extreme as 
to render this part of the work of little or no value for the deter- 
mination of species by those who have not already gained a con- 
siderable experience in the analysis of plants. 

When a new work such as this appears, one naturally looks to it 
as giving recognized facts of fairly recent date, and it is disappoint- 
ing to find, page 46, that the leaves of Welwitschia are spoken of 
as persistent cotyledons; page 70, and in the chart, page 69, the 
term Azoic is retained instead of Eozoic, while the statement is 
made, notwithstanding the known presence of Hozoon Canadense 
and graphite in the Laurentian formation, that no life appeared 
until the Paleozoic ; the cells of Diatoms are rich in starch, p. 25 ; 


1Botany for Academies and Colleges, with a Manual of Plants. 
By Annie Chambers-Ketchum, A.M. J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1889. 
8yo, pp. 190 and 169. 


How is the Cambrian divided ? 505 


the term radicle is still applied to the caulicle of the embryo; the 
obsolete term spongioles, is given a definite value ; while on p. 163 
we are left to infer that soda is present only in marine plants. No 
doubt these mistakes will be eliminated from the next edition 
Though hardly adapted to the requirements of a college, the book 
will dorbtless serve a very useful purpose, and we are certainly dis- 
posed to give it a welcome, as promising evidence of zealous work 
by a lady. 
P; 

Gray’s Scrpntiric Parnrs.'—The most important of recent botani- 
cal publications, and one which will be received with the greatest 
favor wherever botanical research is prosecuted, is the collection of 
scientific papers by Dr. Gray, recently issued in a most attractive 
form, under the editorship of Prof. Sargent. The present issue 
embraces two volumes, a third to follow, as we may infer from a 
statement in the preface. 

The voluminous character of Dr. Gray’s writings is well known 
to botanical students, but, as the editor correctly deserves, “ The 
number of his contributions to science and their variety is remark- 
able, and astonishes his associates even, familiar as they were with 
his remarkable intellectual activity, his various attainments, and 
that surprising industry which neither assured position, the weari- 
ness of advancing years, nor the hopelessness of the task he had 
imposed upon himself ever diminished.” There will, therefore, be 
a well nigh universal feeling of regret for the necessity which com- 
pelled exclusion of “a number of papers of nearly as great interest 
and value as those which are chosen.” 

The writings are grouped in four divisions, according to the par- 
ticular subjects dealt with. ‘The first in importance contains his 
contributions to descriptive botany. These, with few exceptions 
were devoted to the flora of North America, and although it did not 
fall to his lot, as it did to that of some of his contemporaries, to 
elaborate any one of the great families of plants, the extent and 
character of his contributions to sympathetic botany will place his 
name among that of the masters of the science. 

“His works, of a purely educational character, are only second in 
importance to his writings on the flora of North America ; and 
their influence upon the development of botanical knowledge in 
this country, during the half century which elapsed between the 
publication of the first and the last of the series, has been great and 
must Jong be felt. No text-books of science surpass them in the 


‘Scientific papers of Asa Gray, selected by Charles i hae Sar- 
gent; Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1889. 2 vols, 8vo., pp. 397 and 498. 


506 Canadian Record of Science. 


philosophical treatment of the subjects they embrace, or in the 
beauty and clearness of their style. 

A series of critical reviews of important scientific publications, 
and of historical accounts of the lives and labors of botanical 
worthies, may be conveniently grouped in the third division of 
Professor Gray’s writings; while in the fourth fall a number of 
papers which owe their existence to the discussions which followed 
the publication of Mr. Darwin’s ‘Origin of Species’—discussions in 
which Professor Gray took, in this country, the foremost position.” 

For the re-publication of the first and second divisions, there is 
no present necessity. The most important of the philosophical 
essays “which grew out of the discussion of the Darwinian theory, 
have already been re-published by their author,” and are, there- 
fore, available. The two volumes now belore us, therefore, embrace 
many of the most important scientific articles, reviews and bio- 
graphical sketches which Dr. Gray wrote during that long period of 
an unusually active and brilliant career, extending from 1834 to 
1887. As many of the valuable papers now left are beyond the 
reach of most botanical students of the present day, it is to be 
hoped means may be provided for their re-publication at a later 
date as a fourth volume of the present series. 

The writings of Dr. Gray possess a peculiar interest, not only 
from the fact that they cover a period of somewhat more than fifty 
years, but because we also have in them a history of botanical 
Science during a period pregnant with the most important develop- 
ments—a period which has given birth to an entirely new school, 
of which Dr. Gray was himself one of the most brilliant leaders. 

As acritic, “ his reviews represented the opinion of a just and 
discriminating mind, thoroughly familiar with all sides of the 
question before it, critical rather than laudatory, loving the truth 
and its investigators, but the truth above everything else. No 
other naturalist of his reputation and attainments ever devoted so 
much time to literary work of this sort, or continued it so uninter- 
ruptedly for so many years; and in our time, the criticism and 
advice of no other botanist has been so eageriy sought or so highly 
valued by his contemporaries.” 

The thanks of botanists everywhere are due Professor Sargent 
for the service he has rendered them and science, in this compila- 
tion. 1eh 


INDEX. 


PAGH 
EMESESISESE CRISS a0 Ss. SLL SERS SPN IRE INE tot apt eA ech Reet Noa 2 182 
Acadian and St. Lawrence Water-shed L. W. Bailey......... 398 


Adams (Frank D.) and Lawson (Andrew C.) Ph.D. 
On some Canadian Rocks containing Scapolite, with a few 
Notes on Rocks associated with the Apatite Deposits...... 186 
Ami, (Henry M.), M.A., F.G.S.,-- 
Notes on Fossils from the Utica Formation at Point-a-Pic, 


Murray River, Murray Bay (Que.), Canada ................. 101 
Notes on the Flora of Montebello, Que. (Estate of Hon. Mr. 

JELEN TV ATHTN CAB) nk, 2 its Watt ge acta ADAP OE ae YON ASS CRO 315 

On a Species of Goniograptus from Lévis formation........ 422 

Additional Notes on Goniograptus Thureani.. so00 soo oY 
American Association for the Advancement of Shalsiace iene 

CEEOL ITO S LOO (rae) «mera ets a ye ais face Grsigvaders = cists bashers e's Svesyoters athys,s 29 


Batiey (L. W.), On the Acadian and St. Lawrence Water-shed 398 


Birds (Some) observed at Montreal. F. B. Caulfield ........... 414 
Book Notices.. este ietten ence sboaten atts cithisocsorsstamnaceeseoae ee UL 
Brunet— L’Abbé. Roiix Ovide Be coco eletnav deus eve anele Mesvessenalercseetenitoeeas 495 
CAMBRIAN Rocks IN ACADIA :— 
a MISOL ICS Oli ep serge er a athe ein cas cain t ckcl sicko ots hlevones eve aieiolere a 
“LEPC AST0 a CCE TTP CO) a AR OR AR Pa a a 71, 303 
PT MDICINEMUAT YS SN OUCS sain; iirc Ges oto neater a eae clan eee 371 
PIA DLT PANISIMNN IN PA CAGIA 2 < oe eisai ccc nates outaersls conse 383 
Cambrian—How divided? a Plea for the Classification of Salter 
BCD ERICK so Sate ete tle diast Rate abe US ee SS SR RR Rack 475 
Caulfield (F. B.), Some Birds observed at Montreal............. 414. 
Chalmers (Robert), Glaciation of Hastern Canada .............. 319 
Chambers (E. T.), Notes on the Lake St. John Country......... 388 
Climate of the Canadian West. Ernest Ingersoll.............. 81 
ITEMS CL. WO ly) LU lcerepatesasilcrs eves sirteapeiccsuasdealtsdansGeejiveruen volee® nevave . 509 


DAWSON, Sir J. W., LL.D., F.R.S. :— 
Preliminary Note on New Species of Sponges from the 


Quebee Group: at LAttle) M6tish oie ieee eeeessebiens 49 
Sporocarps discovered by Prof. Orton in the Erian Shale of 

BSCLIETIR ULE COIN eS ca Ree id sic wii arilale tise #5 0 dee sie'e 137 
MEONL CMAQ CUO Det ete a. Saye vin wl alein efrieidateveiie a> wicie'a'é w elaine a 201 


On the Eozoon and Paleozoic Rocks of the Atlantic Coast 
of Canada in comparison with those of Western Europe 
ATIC PHO UNLEMIOU OLHAIDOIICH ga cccbawacesctscnssebevecy svar 280 


508 Canadian Record of Science. 
PAGH 
Note on Balarus Hameri in the Pleistocene at Riviére 
Beaudetterretezsae ia. (asc tee ee Lee 502 Saeed 
On Fossil Sponges at Little Metis .......................... 429 
New Fossil Plants from the North West ................... 430 


DISTRIBUTION AND PHYSICAL AND PAST-GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS 

of British North American Plants. A. T. Drummond....: 1 
‘Drummond, A. T. :— 

Distribution and Physical and Past-Geological Relations 


of British North American Plants.................----.-- 1 
MieserairiescOte Ma nibODa nese ere eee ee 39 
The Great Lake Basins of Canada.............:.....-+----- 142 
The Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence................ 247 

Eozoon CANADENSE. SirJ. W. Dawson.............-..-..---+ 201 


Kozoon and Paleozoic Rocks of the Atlantic Coast of Canada 
in comparison with those of Western Europe and the 


Interior of America. Sir J. W. Dawson ................. 230 
FErVatar veseeseee geese cee cosee ceceeeee: coneceeee ssneseeee snscesese testes rassseeesssecne OO4 
Foop (The) oF PLANTS. Professor Penhallow.................-- 333 
Forestry for Canada. Hon. H. G. Joly de Lotbiniére........... 364 
Goopwin (W. L.), Queen’s University, Kingston :— 

spin ed: FITCRS ea ne ei 8 Saree OG ae Cok neta Vaya s le de a 227 
Glaciation of Eastern Canada. Robert Chalmers............... 319 
Great Lake Basins of Canada, The ........................--025 142 

Great Lake Basins of the St. Lawrence......................--- 247 


Gypsum Deposits in Northern Manitoba. J. B. Tyrrell, B.A... 353 


HARRINGTON (Dr. B. J.), B.A. :— 
Note on a Specimen of Lake Iron Ore from Lac la Tortue, 


Hinde, (George Jennings) Ph.D., F.G.S. :— 
Notes on Sponges from the Quebec Group at Métis, and 
fromthe Witica Shaliey yee ae eee aa Oe eoee eee ee 59 
On Archeocyathus, (Billings,) and on other Genera allied 
thereto, or associated therewith from the Cambrian strata 


of North America, Spain, Sardinia and Scotland......... 363 
On a New Genus of Siliceous Sponges from the Trenton 
Hormation ab Ottawa re cere seer Cree eRe Eee eee eeee 395 
Hunt, (T. Sterry) LL.D., F.R.S. :— 
ihe studycotviineral ogy ios. acces Eee cee 236 
Mineralocicalebvyolutiont- is.) Serre ca eee Ee eee 241 


INFLUENCE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ON CELL LiFe. Dr. J. 


Wesley VEINS tyres mispssscvercad oon Re tare Sa eee Oe EE Bee 294 
Ingersoll, Ernest :— 

Climate of the Canadian West...-.......-....22--+e0c-0e-05 81 

IMGexser pr cttrenetocsevessessinianins veaceee Steseves A CEAREoDbcacccoccosococn condaccing °-SWI7/ 


Index. 509 


PAGE 
JOLY DE LOTBINIERE (Hon. H. G.) :— 
ARCS Er yRrOr, CANAd aneemos cee: wtorc ais as Seer rete cise viens e's 364 
KAVANAGH, (Rev. Prof.), S.J. :— 
On Modern Concretions from the St. Lawrence............. 292 
LAPWoORTH, (Prof. Charles), F.R.S. :— 
Note on Graptolites from Dease River, B.C................. 141 


Leptoplastus,(Occurrence of,) in the Acadian Cambrian Rocks. 485 


MANITOBA WATERS, Examination of some. A. McGill, B.A., 


1 CSTOR EAS Sec ee gyeolis iis Cr tec RA a CMM ASI eee te ea ang teed 69 
Matthew, G. F., M.A, F.R.S.C. :— 
On a Basal Series of Cambrian Rocks in Acadia............ yA 


On the Classification of the Cambrian Rocks in Acadia. ..71, 303 


Supplementary Notes to GION? ipeaale ae RR ARO ie cae 371 

On the Cambrian Organisms in Acadia..................... 383 

How is the Cambrian divided? A Plea for the Classification 

TLD (Sep Aes eey a6 HLS Vel te) Re hes A NN TONS ONE a 475 

On the occurrence of Leptoplastus in the Acadian Cambrian 

ie ROCK S® or, o.sf3:2!% Hebe Mol i AR ie nee Beis PE ORE Ge A TASCA aie EP 485 
WEIL ONG OTCANTA DS ULACHS Ieee icisic cis soon chs cess als See eres tego nie _ 
Microscopical Society—Session 1886-87..................0.0.0005 45 
Mills, (Dr. T. Wesley), M.A. :— 

The Influence of the Nervous System on Cell Life........ 294 
Mineralogy, The Study of. Dr. T. Sterry Hunt................ 236 
Mineralogical Evolution. Dr. T. Sterry Hunt................ 242 
UOT ELUETT DSU GARG ee lei rl a ee a SA ae 382 
Modern Concretions from the St. Lawrence. Rev. Professor 

LEE nap So. SO) Cee ae ae ene eT TS Ree 292 
NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY :— 

RETONCEP OL NTNIS LO eto eis) ES nice fale aie ia Macs ich ahs noos anja mw aanarteleas 44 

Do with President’s Annual Address............ 168 

URI AESE MC ROR CLUN AUEy SRM Nees le te te tapes ieee a, ayatcrk Syasiai oto yd ay 246, 432 

EMEA TIE eect eee A Rh 1 Sata etE Heelies seerala ahd iaiadegyen) days 374, 435 

PBI LOLI DELS Shes terse oie tei etiat Mie bys laa mentite bite xe 451 


New Fossil Plants from the North West. Sir J. W. Dawson... 430 
Note on Graptolites from Dease River, B.C. Professor Charles 


DS OMVOR UM Ts ERGs cers ieels crake foes ante le epee Wa Sara aWie «sie 141 
Note on Balarus Hameri in the Pleistocene at Riviére Beau- 

UDC Roae a) OW Vir MULABOML: |: sioittiol x nena daw RANG Skivsleiew i hs 287 
Note on a Specimen of Lake Iron Ore from Lac la Tortue, P.Q. 

Di ios Og MIQUMUNGLON a ee ose eae ee Gabe ee eet 43 


Notes on Fossils from the Utica Formation at Point-i-Pic, 
Murray River, Murray Bay (Que.), Canada. H. R. Ami, 


i 


510 Canadian Record of Science. 
PAGE 
Notes on some of the Birds and Mammals of the Hudson Bay 
Territories and the Arctic Coast. Dr. Rae............... 125 
Notes on Shepherdia Canadensis. Professor Penhallow....... 360 
Notes on the Erian (Devonian) Plants. Professor Penhallow.. 430 
Notes on the Lake St. John Country. E. T. Chambers......... 388 


On some Canadian Rocks containing Scapolite, with a few 
Notes on Rocks associated with the Apatite Deposits. 
Frank D. Adams and A. C. Lawson ...................... 186 

On Archeocyathus, Billings, and on other Genera allied 
thereto, or associated therewith from the Cambrian 
Strata of North America, Spain, Sardinia and Scotland. 


DriGs Js Hinde; GS ieee wee one ce 373 
On a New Genus of Siliceous Sponges from the Trenton Form- 
ation at Ottawa. Dr. G. J. Hinde, F.G.S................ 395 


On a Species of Goniograptus from Lévis Formation. H.R. Ami 422 


PENHALLOW (Professor D. P.) :— 


Relation of Climate to Vegetation.......................... 170 
The: Food of Plants ayes cc cee Seales en ee een eee 333 
Notes on Shepherdia Canadensis .......... etic ee aT ease 360 - 
Notes on Erian Mevontiayt Plants ...... By Ee OAS Gio cic 430 
AmmAmn cient Blazeucecsceecssesiscscsocoll esses cdticeclscccenses)accceeee er aeree - 500 
Prairies ot Mamie las ella emer eel Sere eer 39 
Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement 
of Sciencedorllssi fo ieee ian Ses Sh ee eae 29 


RAE, (JOHN), M.D., LL.D., .R.S., F.R.G.S.) — 
Notes on some of the Birds and Mammals of the Hudson 


Bay Territories and the Arctic Coast ..................... 125 
Relation of Climate to Vegetation. Professor Penhallow...... 107 
“Ringed Trees.” W. lL. Goodwin, Queen’s University, Kingston 227 
Royal Society of Canada, Proceedings of .....................-- 147 
Ruttan, R.F.B.A., M.D., Deviatives of Tolidin.................-...- . 489 
SKAIFE, (WILFRID), B.A.Se. :— 

Sugar Producing Plants soe cor see eee eee 455 

Spencer, J. W. :— 

The St. Lawrence Basin and the Great Lakes .............- 232 
Sponges—New Species at Little Métis, Preliminary Note. Sir 

die Wis Dawes one) Guts hio Sei Bak OM Ui Tee 49 

Do at Métis, and from the Teen Shale. G. J. Hinde, Ph.D. 59 

Do Fossils at Little Métis. Sir J. W. Dawson........ 429 
Sporocarps discovered by Prof. Orton in the Erian Shale of 

Columbus, Ohio. Sir J. W. Dawson..................... 137 
St. Lawrence Basin (The) and the Great Lakes. J. W. Spencer 232 
Sugar Producing Plants. Wilfrid Skaife, B.A.Sc............. 455 
TYRRELL, J. B.) B.A., F.G.S. :-— 

Gypsum Deposits in Northern Manitoba...... ie geeieeeneetee 353 


| 
ABSTRACT FOR THE MONTH OF JULY, 1889. 
Meteorological Observations, McGill College Observatory, Montreal, Canada, Height above sea level, 187 feet. C. H. McLEOD, Superintendent. 
7." a Sky CLoupED, E 
THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. WIND. Ty Tentas.’ [3 3 | sala ble g | 
———— SS { Mean iteeyn . ores $ an =4 |s3 
‘ pres-_ |relative ew 6 = a vel SE Sa as : 
DAY. it 4 fe sure of |bumid-| point. | genora lieu 2 | |e lsea| 2° | Ee |e 3 DAY. 
i . | ity. F 4 z 2 |e sol || Ee 
Mean.| Max. | Min. |Range}] *Mean. | SMax. §Min. | §Range. | vapour. | ity afrcumaynsl hn aalte s s|\5 ee) [ne S 5 
> perhour n oa 
| 1 76 75 87.5 66.0 21.5 30.1672 30.2c0 gO. 124 076 6135 67.7 64.7 Ss. 90 2.0 5 () 89 hee I 
| 2 75 42 82.3 68.2 14-1 30-1308 30-194 30-059 -135 .6422 73-8 66.2 AS5 14.2 5-5 | 10 I 65 |[napp. 2 
| 3] 75-05] 82.0 69-2 12.8] 29.8837 | 30.045 29.727 318 +7308 84 2 69 8 S.B 12.3 8.5] 10] 4 00 | 0.10 5 eels 3 
| 4| 70.07] 77-0 59-3| 177] 29-7755 | 29-979 29.638 =340 +5918 79:7 63.2 S.W. 20.9 Gy2))|Proh| eee 41 | 1.03 BS 4 
5 | 64.52] 75.0 54-4 | 20.6] 30 1103 | 30.146 30.060 -oS6 3748 62.0 51.0 N.W. 10.8 OB Oo) HO se, . os 5 
6| 68.25 77-5 57-3. 20.2 30.1762 30.247 30.111 .136 4035 59-7 530 S.W. 8.6 2.5 | 10 ° 89 00 6 
Suveer |) 7488 63.1 i721] cooaans soad0 || > doasa0 ores on 8000 eoag S.W. 22.1 3600 04 0.3 sont Boop Ete eee SIND 
74.00 | 82.0 67.0 15 0} 29.9125 29.926 29-899 027 6155 740 64.8 W. 8.6 9-5} 10] 3 31 0.02 Gr obo Z a 
62.72 | 71.6 589) 12.7] 29.9975 30.024. 29.978 046 4968, 87.0 58-7 N-.E. 130 10.0 | 10 | 10 00} o.1r 
67.92 76.1 59 3 16.8 29.9673 39 O01 29-933 .068 ~5472 80.2 61.5 N.E. 10.9 6.8 [ 10 I 34 a0 
€6.10 | 72.6 61 3 11-3] 29.8870 | 29 957 29.856 10 5805 go 5 630 N.E. 79 10.0 | 10 | 10 | 25 | 0.52 06 
65.00 72-5 58.5 13 7 29 9992 30-026 29.963 .063 4905 80.8 58.8 N.E. 7.9 8.2}10] ofj 34 ori 3. 
| 67.65 78.0 59-3 18.7 29.8140 29 929 29.710 219 5703 84-7 62.5 SE. 8.7 8.0] 10 I 28 0.42 500 
| 
le 
SUNDAY. .....-14 | ««*«- || 71-0 Sey] 14577 || oononoe Bt an ae Rae sous rene N.W. 10.7 200 |e (CY || cmon Bind Wicerer| keh ieee ts .SUNDAY 
15| 61.65 | 699, 53-4| 16.5] 29 8465 | 29 885 29.813 072 - 3683 67.0 50.3 N. 10-7 €.7| 10} 0 48 | 0.03 fugu 
16 | 6602) 771 57-3 | 19 8} 29.7987 | 29 840 29-746 +094 -4695 74.3 57 0 Ww. 19.0 7-2 | 10 3) 48] 0 36 toa 
17 | 64.67 | 72.5 59-0] 135} 29 8928 | 29 932 29-813 119 +4430 73-0 | 55-7 Wie 13.9 | 3.8] 9] o 72\Inapp.|] .... ' 
18 | 68.75] 77-9 58.3 18 7] 29.8763 | 29.940 29.791 +149 . 4802 68.7 57-3 Ss. 11.4 2.2] 10 oOo} 698. E 
| 19 71.13 80.8 64.2 166 29 7223 29.785 29 644 -141 5997 79-0 63.8 5. 9-3 10.0} 10 9} 18 0.23 te 
| 20| 68.63 74.9 64 5 10.4 | 29.7025 29.831 29.582 249 -5025 80.8 62.3 N. 15.5 10.0| 10] 10] 19] 2.00 woue does) er) 
\| 
||SUNDAY arene S00 80.0 61.5 12.5 A 05 589000 093 || ooda0 00 pode N.W. Ir.2 6606 5 99 Ps 
|| 22| 71.25 | 80.9 61.2) 197] 29-8633 | 29 939 29 775 164 5285 69.3 60.2 S.W. qi 33] to} 0} 92 ao : 
23} 65.48 | 74-9 58-5 | 16.4] 29 7227 | 29-798 29.653 145 4788 78.2 | 57.7 S.W. 190 | 45] 10) 0} Or} o110 oe 
| 24 | 59 78| 69.9 56.0] 13.9] 29 8777 | 29-953 29.822 +131 +3518 68.7 49.0 W. 14-7 6.7} 10] 9} 36) 0 04 
25 | 61-98 | 70-0 52-3 17-7 30 0190 | 30 062 29.982 080 3402 61.5 48.0 W. 13-7 3-0| 8} 0} 985 Inapp. 
| 26 | 65.67 73-9 a |) ky 30.1002 | 30.144 30-064 o80 13323 53.8 47.7 i. 6.2 20/7] o| 100 D 
27 | 63.33 || 72/0 57-9 14.1 29-9635 | 30.038 29 876 162 - 4635 80.7 50.8 S$. B. 120 8.8} 10] 3] oz] 078 
16.3 BouG Pea OO) 0.28 
| SUNDAY. sem 25 0 Meee 719 59-2 | 18-7 995000 : 200 S. E. | | 
-2] 13-4] 29.8023 82.3 65-7 8. 179 9-3] 10] 7} 417] 0197 
-3| 10.2] 29.9570 “85.7 65.0 S.W. 13-2 So}io} 1 27, | 0 14 
3 15.7] 30-1005 77-3 64-7 S.-W. 98 8.2} 10 2] 64 | sere 
15.96 | 29.9286 12 47 | 6 36 -. | 50.3) 7.16 aq SEY ssa qenenanpbon 
15 yrs. means for & 15 years means for and 
including this mo,] 69 02 | 77.34 | 60.02) 16.32 29 8815 72.9 0 5-42) M59.2' 4 25 including this_month . 
| 
ANALYSIS OF WIND RECORD. *Barometer readings reduced to sea-level and mele ras eee on the 20th; giving a range Of 
-665 inches. Maximum relati idity was 97 
Virection........| N. | N.E. | B. | S.B. 8S. | S.W. Ww. | N. w.| Calm. temperature of 32° Fahr. on twoldaya: Minimum relative HS are 38 
— FF | | | —_—— on the 26th. 
8 18 2 1126 152 2481 8 § Observed. r 
ee ial ertSvele pegesta Stren Weeoeoe ees es 394 | oe a P SuTintinchestohine | Rain fell on 20 days. 
Duration in hrs.. 95 51 32 103 121 164 94 | 84 1 Pressure/of vap 5 ECU y: Hail fell on 1 day. 
fe — ——|—_—_ — | |] — — | ———_|—_— —|———— t Humidity relative, saturation being 100. 
Mean velocity...| 10.51 | 10-16 7.31 10.93 | 12.64 | 15.13 | 14.83 | 11.88 3 | Auroras were observed on 3 nights. 
| Wight years only. | 
EE eee ee ee ah ae er | Thunderstorms on 5 days. 
The greatest heat was 87.5 on the Ist; the great- y é z 
Greatest mileage in one ho af OD 6 any est cold was 5%.3 on the 25th, giving a range ot | Norr.—The rainfall is the greatest recorded in 
aud 20th, i e hour was 53 on the 4th teeeiGnat direction, S51° W. ern Gh OAL) EET, ” ‘Warmest diy was JWy,in 15 years; and is the greatest for any one 
m < Total mileage, 9,279. the Ist. Coldest day was the 24th. Highest baro-month during that time, except the month of 
esultant mileage, 3,170 meter reading was 30,247 on the 6th; lowest baro- Avice ae (rainfall 7-89) and October; 1885 ; 
5 


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Meteorological Observations, McGill College Observatory, Montreal, Canada, Height above sea level, 187 feet. C. H. McLEOD, Superintendent. 


i Ue See a | |e eee Sky Croupenf E 
THERMOMETER. BAROMETER. WIND. Ix Tenens. [5 3 qi g 
[are i = aa aa { Mean ee D a8 23 a ue 
pres- |relative ew d oo 8 ag as 
DAY. sure of |bumid-| point. | Gonoral ee | Ble ieee ge a z DAY. | 
i « i S iy ity: 2 x bY Eaey ss |] a iz |} oI 
Mean. | Max. | Min. |Range} *Mean. | SMax. §Min. | §Range. | vapour. | ity direction. |in miles] § | 3 | 5 S g S E 
perhour n 
r| 66.72} 72.5 63-4 9-1 30.0460 | 30.148 29.965 -183 .6162 94.2 65.0 S. 63 8.3] 10] o 00 a6 I 
2} 70.53 | 79-1 63-2 | 15.9} 29.9000 | 29.976 29.841 +135 +0185 84.2 65.0 Ss! 10.6 8.5 | 10] 1 42 5 
3| 68.97 | 78.6 61-1 17-5] 29.8603 29.918 29-816 -102 +5633 79.8 62.3 S.W. 16.5 6.3 10] o 50 x 3 
51 
Sunpay...... 50 saes- || 7375 57-4 | 16.1 ao oe 5.W. 14-9 J ..-. | .. 0.13 4 sseees ss. SUNDAY 
¥ 61.57 | 70.0 58.3] 11-7 30.113 4290 78.2 54.5 W- 7.6 6.8|10] 0 28 | 0.02 5 
6 | 64.40] 73.0 55.4] 176 30. 16r 3930 66.5 52.2 5. W. 15.9 2,8} 10] o G3 |) coos 6 
7| 62.67 | 70.9 549] 160 30.194 3057 65.2 50.2 W. 8.4 2.2| 9| 0 86 ‘ 7 
8 | 62.37 | 73.0 51.9 | 2t-1 30.215 3903 67.7 52.0 S.W. 6.3 7.2|10] 0 OSes 8 
9 | 66.52] 74.0 59.2 || 14.8 29.976 5498 84.5 61.5 S.W. 15.8 98] 10] 9 02 | 0.04 9 
10} 64.90} 70.4 59-1 11.3 29.848 4638 75:7 56-8 W. 11.6 8,5 | 10 1 45 | 0-26 D 10 
SuNDAV.......- re] Geoas 63.7 Gasc' | S852)1) sosoooe | acaaoe es dood 39906 pad a000 Niles 14.7 va ; 56 46 Bos Bodo sfeiefal | XC eee OUN DAY 
12| 58.42| 67.3 50.4 | 16.9} 30.0043 | 39 043 29.959 -084. +3615 75.0 50,0 S.W. 15 3 5.7 | 10] o 77 \Inapp. | .... 
13,| 60.05} 68.3 52.4 | 15-9] 30-0845 | 30.102 30.041 -061 +3423 67.0 48.5 W. 69 7.2 | 10] o 83 ea00 
14], 59:98 | 64.7 55.0 9-7 | 29-9015 | 30.049 29-738 3It 3952 76.3 2.0 li. 16.5 | 10.0] 10 | 10 00 | 0.63 aes 
15 |> 61.13 | 66.5 56.4 | 10.1] 29.7532 | 29.828 29.677 151 4507 84.2 55-8 S.W. 14.1 9.7|1t0| 3 2m ons eet 
16 | 61.30} 68.1 54-3 13.8] 29.8400 | 29.857 29.824 033 4130 76.8 53:3 S.We 95 6.7 | 10] o 65 | 0.06 
17] 63.38] 71.0 56-4 | 14.6] 29.9198 | 29.973 29.854 119 4558 79.2 56.3 W. 14.4 9-0} 10] 7 66 cart 
SUNDAY.......+ TSH | feeceveyetet || 7677 7i3|| F@Boe)|} soovoon acd. ||) seceded ac0 onaod ie ava 5.W. iGaY? | caten|| aa {| o¢ Ch) gana || Seo Whereas 18 oScocoos. «SUNDAY 
19 | €4.10| 68.6 58-4] 10.2] 29.9437 | 20.974 29-915 +059 -4978 83.2 58.5 5.W. 18.2 9.5} 10] 7 03 19 } 
20} 68.28] 74.9 63.6] 11.3] 29-9353 | 29.960 29.916 044 +5353 78.0 60.8 = Ww. 9.5 5:7 |10| o 75 20 
21 | 68.93} 76-3 63.0 | 13-3] 29.7658 | 29.882 29.668 214 6122 86.5 64.7 S.W. 14.8 8.8] 10} 3 or | 0.23 21 
22 | 65.90] 72.0 6L.4 10.6 29.8083 | 29.855 29.730 .12 - 4643 713-5 57.0 S.W. 17.7 3.5| 10] 0 76 : 22 
23 | 65.48] 75-2 58.8] 16.4] 29.9660 | 30.051 29.888 163 4593 74.5 56.7 5S.W. 15.2 4.7 | 10] © g2 | 0.02 23 
24 | 61.47 | 68.6 53-9 | 14-7} 30-1452 | 30-190 30.102 .088 3939 72.3 52-2 N.H. 12-3 50/10] o (|| coo as 24 
Sunpay..... oot} ||) easdo 7o.0 2@|| RO] onpcuco Boodg oaa00 eats! ft cosas ei A600 N.E. PO |} osqo |] oo b 99 . 25 --.-...... SUNDAY 
26 | 61.47 | 71-5 50.1 21.4} 30.2852 | 30.319 30.250 -069 +4125 74-8 53-5 N.E. 95 22}! (|| @ 93 eoee 26 
27 || 66.58 | 76.0 59-1 | 16.9] 30.2552] 30.32 30 192 +137 4863 75-5 58.2 S.W- 12.0 2.5] 10] o 7° ee 27 
28 | 69.67} 79.3 59-2 | 20.1} 30.1938 | 30.248 30.147 +101 #5295 74-3 60.7 5.W. 4-4 0.5]| 2] 0 94 ease | 28 
29 || 71.32 | 81.1 60.3 | 20.8] 30.0965 30-153 30.041 se -5505 73-5 62.2 8.W. 9.2 39] 10] o 84 2 29 
30 | 71.70} 79-0 66.3 | 12.7] 30.0608 | 30.125 50 032 +093 .5008 64.8 59.2 S.W. 19-3 4:8] 8] 0 77 tuoe 30 
31 | 65.38 | 73.9 59-3 | 14-6] 30.2595 | 30.293 30. 187 -106, +3755 60.8 51.0 N.B. 13,8 4H]] Hi © go . wee tee 3r 
- «--.--Means.| 64.97 | 72.35 | 57.56 | 14-78 )| 30.0049 | ...... | -++<-° 118 4681 75-8 56 7 | 8. 54° W.| 12 go | 5.06] . 59.0 
15 yrs. means for & fer 15 years means for and 
including this mo,) 67.10 | 75.38] 58.96! 16.42) 29.9397 soponp!) sonee 5 129 4840 72.5 aaon 600 soon Usha thos loo UGe ah ahh e2 +++» |ncluding this month .. 
ANALYSIS OF WIND RECORD. 
= ——— ~ — «Barometer readings reduced to sea-level andjthe 30th. Gisteleet Gly ae the atte eben pea: 
. A =) a meter reading was 30. on the 27th; lowest bar- 
Direction...... pall Sb N.E. EH. S.E. Ss. | S.W- WwW. | N.W | Calm. temperature of 32° Fahr. ometer was 29.668 on the 2Ist ; giving a range Of 
Miles, \iareceal 686 ——I ea . 0.661 inches. Maximum relative humidity was 98 
beeen eee es I 6 460 197 927 4344 1725 257 3 Observed. on the Ist and 15th. Minimum relative humidity 
Duration in hrs.. 59 66 AS = 86 298 234 an + Pressure of yapour in inches of mercury. wus 4200 the 6th. 
imonm wate, 11.2 10-4 oa | ave | aad 14.6 12.9 i 7.6 | { Humidity relative, saturation being 106. Bini Sllon Wabyap 
: ‘ ; 3 : ie tl | Wight years only. Auroras were observed on 1 night. 
—— ae t 0 
7 st The greatest heat was 81-1 on the 29th; the great- Tog on 4 days. 
Greatest mileage in one hour was 27 on the30th.) Resultant direction, § 54° W. lest cold was 50.1 on the 26th, giving a range of | Thunderstorms on 6 days. 
Resultant mileage, 4,805 Total mileage, 9,237 PoeweenatioNS OF SLO clecwecsh Whee eas wie 
» 4,305. , 9,237. 


at eee 


Bees ee eLearn I NE 


ABSTRACT FOR THE MONTH OF SEPTEMBER, 1889. 


Meteorological Observations, McGill College Observatory, Montreal, Canada, Height above sea level, 187 feet. 


C. H. McLEOD, Superintendent. 


Sky CLoupEDy 1 E 
THERMOMETER, BAROMETER. WIND. In Tentas. |53 £14 = g 
oe; ue x 2 as {Mean | [Mean 2°3| 38 Za | os 
res- |relative| Dew Z omg) = as 3 
DAY. a ii iia, han eT eM aun of | bumid-| point. Gonerall eee g 4 zlene Ee es a 5 DAY. 
‘ 5 in. j 5 5 in. b h ity- 2 . h 2 an leg 
e Bean a oe £28 meee shina SRange.)]/ vapour.) ity direction. jin miles S 2/4 Ag CA a i 
perhour| Moz a) 
Sunpay... I sain 75.9 55-1 20.8 Sr Oacno hi Me code al lMtgorieice Ssotee.| eenptna Ouic 280 6.6 »g08 |f 9g gr D0 oe .. «SUNDAY 
2) 6792] 77-5 55-8 | 22.4] 30.1868 30.113 145 5007 74-2 58.8 9-3 6.8} 10] o 75 2 
3| 69.32] 79 2 59.5 19 7] 30.0803 30.040 .086 5373 70.7 61.0 9.5 6.5] 10] o 75 3 
4| 70.70 | 82-1 60.4 | 21.7] 30.0582 30.022 ogr 5732 77.0 62.8 5:5 3-7 | 19} oO 79 see 4 
5 | 70-32 | 77-0 62.9) 14-1} 29.9788 29.930 107 5493 75.0 | 61.5 Iq.1 ZO) Oi © S4 |) ans 5 
6| 64.35 | 72.0 57-1 14 9} 30 o1s0 29.903 267 5142 85.0 59-7 16.9 7.8|10] 0 03 | 0.12 6 
7) 61.53} 65.9 54-9 | 12.9] 30.1903 30.123 130 4537 83.5 56.0 6.3 8.3] 10] 0 o7 ee 5 7 
Sunpay. ...... 8 73-4 53-1 Ws} || <oapHe |} ocaose |} oongon ahtte 060 0560 600 1.9 eco . 77 . {3 oo ... SUNDAY 
9 77% 57-5| 19-6] 30.2428| 30.284 30.208 076 4777 72.0 | 547.7 93 0.0) o] of 98 . 9 
10 78.8 60.1 | 18.7} 30.2333 | 30-264 30.217 047 5310 78.7 60.7 11.2 €.8] 10] 0 56 ++ | 10 
Ir 80.1 59-9 | 20.2} 30.2030 | 30 260 30. 104 +096 5055 73:5 59.2 13-1 0.8] 5] 0 88 Ir 
12 80.4 58.4 222013081997; |9302224) 30-171 +053 5168 74-0 59-7 10.5 3-7 | 10] o 88 12 
13 75-5 621) 13-4] 30.2153 | 30-273 30.151 122 4710 71.8 57-0 8.8 8.7 | 10] of 95 13 
14 78.7 | | 60.3| 18.4] 30.1845 | 30.232 30-147 085 5680 76.8 62.2 15.4 7.0|10| o 39 0 a || a 
Sunpay.. ... noisy)|| 9 a0 81.0 CB! 57752)" Ssaosnl| sescoo il) Goosoo onto gaoce ep OND S: 15-7 so | HEE i 75 0 15 «+e+ese+s+SUNDAY 
16 | 62 82] 72-9 54-1 18.8] 29.9733 | 30.069 29.910 159 +5240 89.3 59:8 N. 14.0 $.3 | 10] 0 00} 0.74 16 
17 | 53-75 | 55x 50.2 5-9] 29-9817 | 30-061 29.867 194 «3880 93-7 52-0 N.E. 77 | 10.0] 10] 10 00 | 0 85 17 
18 | 5495 | 59-2 51-4) 78] 29.7963) 29.801 29.776 035 3763 86.5 | 508 S.W. mA || oollrall @|| sl) ae || |] ocac 18 
19 | 49-17 | 52-3 47 0 5-34 29.5155 | 29.782 29.370 406 3137 89-7 46.2 Ww. 18.2 8.8 | 10 | 5(?)} 99} 0.54 ee 19 
20)// 51-32) || 54-0 47.5 6.5} 29.3202 | 29.362 29.292 079 3473 O17 49.0 S: 15.9 | 100 | 10| 10 00 | 0.40 ++ | 20 
21} 49.02 | 53-0 45-5. 7-5 29-4458 | 29.649 29.281 368, 3068 87-5 45-3 W. 16.0 $23] 10 || © 00 | 0.40 we | 21 
SuNDAV.. .....22 anos 52.0 BG FAN] cansos seo006 |) Sgqro rae ae aha W. 22.9 |.... | 10] - 40 | Inapp- . Bee eepueccerat ec SuNDAY 
23| 48.80) 57-1 38-6} 18.5} 30.0125 | 30.070 29.943 127 2113 62.3 35.8 W. 20.3 1.8}10] o 95 23 
24 56.22 | 65.0 48.2 16 8 30.0550 30 096 30.025 O71 2925 65.8 44-0 kK. go 20/10] 0 53 sees 24 
25 | 59.40) 71.2 45 7 | 25.5 30.0005 | 30 081 29-928 +153 3418 70.3 48.2 Ss. Ir. 1.7 |10| 0 92 cee 25 
26] 55-78 | 62.5 47-5 | 15.0] 29.8337 | 29-882 29-792 090 3875 85.3 51 S.W. 20.0 9:3 | 10| 6 00 | 0.23 26 
27 | 47.08 | 55.0 43-5 | 11.54 29.y225 | 29-993 29-857 .136 2487 77.2 40 0 W. 14.7 8.0 | 10 | © 49 | 0.05 27 
28} 43.50 | 50.9 38-7 | 12.2} 30.0630| 30-133 30.028 105 2052 72-7 35-0 Ww. 14.3 5-2] 10] 0 30 | 9 07 se. | 28 
SUNDAY........29 peo |) Z8o5 Sy if) Bees llimedoaneeel i adecno Aiep Be ‘ W. 11.3 ae a0 62 | 0-09 29s cs0e Sunpay 
30 | 51.70) 620 40.6 | 21.44 29.8747 | 30.010 +342 90.0 48.5 Ss. 11.3 9-8] 10] 9 to | 0.08 oon || B® 
| if —— |——— — —e — —$ —|—-— | eee 
A ....Means.| 59.93 | 67-58] 52.00 | 15.57 29.9835 an 142 4197 79-21 529 aie 12 43 | 6.21]. 45-0] 4.63 tees Seog |SITE Sasossansauoecou 
15 yrs. means for & a z 15 years means for and 
including this mo,! 58.56 | 66.69] 50.83 15.77! 30.0065 Seo MAS 179 .3804 14.94 ae 5 69 154.4! 3-33 including this month 


ANALYSIS OF WIND RECORD. 


Direction. nN. | we. | & | sz. S.W | W. | N.W. 
Miles 527 940 |_ 22 | 1301 ton | se | 2037 [aa 
Duration in hrs. [ees 97 42 118 147 75 | 129 | 20 

Mean velocity... OH | 9:7 Go | II.0 Ta. | “16.7 | 15.8 | rc 


Greatest mileage in one hour was 32 on the 9th. 
Resultant mileage, 3,155. 


Resultant direction, S 30° W. 


Total mileage, 8,950. 


«Barometer readings reduced to sea-leve] and 
temperature of 32° Fahr 

§ Observed. 

+ Pressure of vapour in inches of mercury. 

{ Humidity relative, saturation being 106 

| Hight years only. 


The greatest heat was 82 1 on the 4th; the great- 
lest cold was 37.7 on the 29th, giving a range of 
temperature of 44.4 degrees. 


Warmest day was 


the 15th. Coldest day was the 29th. Highest baro- 
meter reading was 30.370 on the Ist ; lowest bar- 
ometer was 29.281 on the 2lst; giving a range of 
1.089 inches: Maximum relative humidity was 99 
onthe 17th. Minimum relative humidity was 39 
on the 25th. 


Rain fell on 14 days. 
Aurora on 1 night. 


Fog on 6 days. 


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