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THE CARIBBEAN FORESTER

It is my pride and joy to be the shepherd of my country's trees.

TROPICAL FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION,
UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE,
RIO PIEDRAS, PUERTO RICO

eee a a : ocT. 1939

CARIBBEAN FORESTER

This journal is planned as a medium of exchange of knowledge between
those interested in forestry in the islands and countries in or near the
Caribbean Sea. Invitations to cooperate in this project have been sent to
forestry and agricultural officials in the following places:

Bahama Islands Dominican Republic Mexico

Barbados French Guiana Nicaragua

British Guiana Grenada Panama ‘

British Honduras Guadeloupe St. Luedia

Canal Zone Guatemala St. Vincent

Colombia Haiti Salvador

Costa Rica Honduras Surinam

Cuba : Jamaica Trinidad & Tobago

Dominica Leeward Islands Venezuela
Martinique

It is planned to present this journal quarterly. Material for pub-
lication should be submitted at least two months before publication date
and be addressed to the Director, Tropical Forest Experiment Station,

Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico.

Edited, Multilithed, and Distributed
by the
Southern Forest Experiment Station
New Orleans, La. U.S.A.

To Our Collaborators

Now that the first issue of The Caribbean Forester is ready for pub-
lication and distribution, we wish to express our most sincere appreciation
to those who have taken time from their own pressing duties to prepare an
article for this number, and also to those who sent encouraging letters and
promised participation in later numbers. For foresters and agricultural men,
the summer is necessarily the time of greatest field activities; at this period
it is sometimes more than difficult to proportion the necessary time for pre—
paration of written material. In addition to that, we had misjudged somewhat
the length of time required for communication by boat mail, so that the time
available before the requested date was not sufficiently adequate for partic-—
ipation by all who might have wished to do so.

After receiving this initial issue, many of you undoubtedly will have
suggestions for improving the makeup and quality of the journal. These will
always be gladly welcomed, as it is only by such means that we can improve
the journal and make it most useful to all concerned. Mr. Stevenson of
British Honduras has suggested that this Station serve as a clearing house for
request articles, so that if you advise us of some item from another country
which is of especial interest to you and about which you may wish to have
further information, we will write to the particular country and ask for a
detailed article on the findings or procedure requested. Such items will be
suggested by notes from the various contributers as to what they are working
on, so please remember to send in news of the work in progress, so that we
all may be informed of the character of the work in your department. Some
work which may seem a minor item to you may be of tremendous interest to
someone else.

We are looking forward to a greatly increased number of contributions
for the second issue which it is planned to put out in January. Please
start as soon as possible on that article you are intending to write, so
that we may have it on hand by the first of December. Remember that forestry
covers a broad field and that agricultural men can add appreciably to our
understanding of the many factors which affect the forests of a country.

It would be appreciated greatly if all of you would attempt to extend the
usefulness of this journal by getting in touch with the various natural
scientists in your country and request their cooperation in this project.
Such men frequently have a strong interest in forestry even though the
nature of their work prevents them from active participation in it. Also,
invite young men in your department to send in contributions, as this will
give them an opportunity to publish informally some of their observations.
Let us go on to an increased exchange of information, to better the present
practises of forestry and land use, and to help, if we can, to extend the
proper management of forests to areas and countries not well managed at the
present time. - —-~— L. R. HOLDRIDGE, Tropical Forest Experiment Station.

CONTENTS

Forestry in British Honduras, N. S. Stevenson, British Honduras.......l
ine forests, of Dominica, B. W. T., H., BayPidduck, Momimicarew erie.
Forestry in Jamaica, C. Swabey, Jamaica.......ee. s}ejele (clave ebenenau tener aes Shit
Forestry in Puerto Rico, L. R. Holdridge, Puerto Ri cot... eee eee
Forestry in St. Lucia, E. Y. Walid, St. Lucia... 2... sistetietelaleashehe olansteteeemenenerlee
Forestry in Trinidad & Tobago, Ry Lb. Brooks, Trinidad: ia. c ser sicuriereereneneee

Compte rendu préliminaire du travail forestier 4 la station de Kenscoff,
Haiti ,oPaerre. Sylvain, Haiti. acts iss eieteweicnetelenets Gdevenahoseietel ctedeuuicin nel pare

A mahogany seedling blight in Puerto Rico, L. A. Alvarez Garcfa, Puerto
RAO Ove tale oc aka coUalis cor aienateheemaba nel chegaseetiiie benoit eee4eeg8e aleiletia teed shovberiel eicncietstelekatareL creme

Some notes on forest entomology, Luis F. Martorell, Puerto Rico.......25

Preparacién y uso del mantillo o estiércol compuesto en viveros
forestales, J, A. Gilorminid... Puerto RICO. i. cyelecersrasreteheres stele ccahetchatenmenentey?

The forests of Surinam, Gerold Stahel, Surinam.......cseue sVokeleicholsehekenenele,

New tropical forest experiment station........... eral eleiebelettel ober etre ketensokenetel ope

ii

FORESTRY IN BRITISH HONDURAS

N. S. Stevenson,
Conservator of Forests

Although British Honduras has been dependent for more than 2 centuries
on the exploitation of its forests for export, forestry in the Colony is perhaps
fortunate in that only about 10 percent of the area is or has been in recent
times under plantation, while the utilization of the forests has been restricted
for the most part to the cutting of logwood (Haematoxylon campechianum) , mahogany
(Swietenia macrophylla), and cedar (Cedrela mexicana) and to the bleeding of chicle,
a chewing gum base (latex of Achras zapota). The only dependency of the British
Crown in Central America, it lies on the Caribbean coast and is bounded on the
north, west, and south by Mexico and Guatemala. The population is slightly less
than 58,000 persons, of whom no less than 53 percent live in the capital, Belize,
and the district towns. There are few roads, and the rural population of about
three persons per square mile is for the most part distributed in small settle-
ments along the lower reaches of the rivers, which are the chief lines of communi-
cation. Of the total area of 8,867 square miles, about 45 percent is privately
owned, and the land remaining in the ownership of the Crown includes most of the
mountain area of the south. Although a large portion of the total area was un—
doubtedly cultivated by the ancient Maya, the Mayas and Kekchis now in the colony
are comparatively recent immigrants.

A Forestry Department came into being April 1, 1922; and it is obvious
that the forest officers have been spared many of the tribulations of their less
fortunate colleagues elsewhere, who may have had to work in competition with severe
land hunger or who may have been called upon to recmstitute the forest, to check
active erosion, and to cope with the problems of a deteriorating climate. With
all the advantages of starting on the ground floor, however, there are very de—
finite problems to be solved, and the financial stringency of the past 10 years
has restricted seriously the activity of the Department.

The Colony is dependent on the export of produce, of which in 1938 no less
than 75 percent by value was derived from the forests. Mahogany (57.35 percent)
and chicle (15.95 percent) have been the chief forest products for many years,
and the problem of conserving and developing the remaining stocks of these prod—
ucts and of developing a more complete utilization of forest produce is obviously
of prime importance. The Government has at present no control over the exploita—
tion of the forests on privately owned lands, which have been seriously overcut
for mahogany in the last few years, but a comprehensive forest ordinance gives
it control over forests on Crown lands.

On Crown lands, general control over mahogany cutting is ensured by the en-
forcement of a high minimum—girth felling limit. In the few forest reserves and
particular areas where detailed information of topography, vegetation type, and
stocks is available, exploitation is more closely controlled by simple working
plans and marking for felling. It is hoped gradually to determine the stocks on
Crown lands, so that they may be worked on a clearly defined rotational basis
that will permit ample time for recuperation and will remove no more than the
increment. Cruising of the mahogany forests gradually is giving average stocks,

and increment measurements are taken in various vegetation types. An attempt is
being made to increase the stock of mahogany, cedar, and pine by silvicultural
improvement in accessible areas. It has been necessary to work out the silvicul-
ture most suited to local conditions, and many methods of obtaining regeneration
in large quantities have been tried, usually with fair success. Such regenera—
tion, however, requires constant attention during the early years, and continuity
of funds to carry on the work is essential.

The buying and selling of chicle from all lands is controlled by legislation, |
but the complete control over bleeding methods on Crown land is at present prevented |
by lack of inspecting staff, |

The selective exploitation of mahogany and chicle has left in the forests
many potentially valuable timber species. Only one of these, slash pine (Pinus
caribaea), occurs in gregarious stands in the dry savannah and pine forest which
covers about 15 percent of the total area. About 65 percent of the total area
is covered by a high rain forest composed of a large number of hardwood species;
these are individually of very low stocking,rarely exceeding six large trees per
acre and usually much fewer. A resources survey has recently been carried out
over a period of 7 years. The stocks of the commonest species not at present
utilized have been enumerated for many different vegetation types on Crown land
in various parts of the Colony. In addition, a testing programme of the most
important of these species has been carried out by the Forest Products Research
Laboratory, Princes Risborough, England. Marketing efforts are also being made,
but the preoccupation of the logging contractors with mahogany, the high cost of
selective logging, and the low price obtainable for unknown tropical hardwoods
have thus far prevented development. The lack of population, along with the
absence of a local market capable of absorbing the lower grades of lumber, has
also prevented the conversion of these species in the Colony and the export of a |
select high-grade portion.

Pine is probably the most promising of the species enumerated. There is |
a local market for 1 - 14 million board feet and a large potential market in the |
West Indies and the neighbouring republics. At present, efforts are being made |
to improve the few small sawmills in the Colony, first to supply the local market |
and later, if possible, to export a select fraction.

A very considerable amount of exploration has been done by forest officers
since 1924, and in 1933 a map was compiled to show the major types of vegetation.
The Colony has been most fortunate in receiving this year photographs of an aerial
survey carried out over all except the most mountainous portion of the Colony by
a commercial company prospecting for oil. It is hoped that the remaining portion
will be photographed later. Stereoscopic examination of these photographs has
shown that it will be possible to map the major vegetation types and the topo—
graphy over large areas of private and Crown land, for which no adequate maps now
exist, The value of a good aerial survey has certainly been proved in the Colony,
and it is a matter of considerable regret that this work was not carried out
years ago

Tt has been found that vegetation type can be used as an approximate index
of soil value, and it should be possible shortly to decide which areas should be
set aside for agriculture, which should be reserved as protection forest, and
which should be set aside as production forest. Shifting cultivation in the

Colony has been temporarily restricted within well-defined reservations, but
such reservations can be only a palliative until the agricultural population

is persuaded to change its methods of cultivation. The obvious risk of reducing
the land within the reservations to unproductive and worthless scrub by a shorter
rotation of plantation has had to be taken in order to protect from destruction
forests containing valuable stocks of mahogany; but permanent agriculture is
being encouraged by offering the free hold of small areas at a low purchase
price, provided the land is permanently improved. Fortunately, the most
valuable forests do not grow on the best agricultural land, and until there

is a definite land hunger there need be no encroachment of agriculture on

land more suited to forestry.

The prevention of destructive exploitation of the forests in privately
owned land still awaits solution, but the close cooperation of the technical
departments makes possible comparatively rapid progress in carrying out the
policy for Crown lands. This policy aims at the fullest utilization of the
land, based on careful estimation of the soil and the forests; the encourage-
ment of permanent cultivation on the truly agricultural soils; the improve-
ment of yield in the best forest areas; and the safeguarding of the land
from erosion and the climate from deteriorating.

Summary

British Honduras, which is still largely covered by forest, is sparsely
inhabited, while the forest exploitation of over 2 centuries has been restricted
to a few products only. The most important problem is the maintenance of the
export trade by the development of more complete utilization of forest produce.
In addition, silvicultural work in the mahogany and pine forests is being
carried on. A recently completed aerial survey, and 15 years of exploration
of the soil, vegetation, and topography, form the basis on which the Forest
Department and the other technical departments concerned in land usage are now
planning the fullest utilization of the land.

Resumen

La Honduras Brit&anica se encuentra todavia cubierta de bosques en su
gran parte y esta poblada muy escasamente, mientras que la explotacién forestal
se ha limitado durante mAs de dos centurias a unos pocos productos forestales.
Un desarrollo mas completo para el aprovechamiento del producto forestal para
mantener el comercio de exportacién constituye el problema mAs importante.
Adem4s, se esta llevando a cabo trabajos silviculturales en los bosques de
caoba y pino. Un reconocimiento aereo terminado recientemente y quince anos
de exploraciones del suelo, vegetacién, y topograffa, constituyen la base
sobre la cual el Departamento Forestal y los otros departamentos técnicos
interesados en el aprovechamiento de tierras, estan haciendo actualmente sus
planes para la utilizacién m&és completa de aquellas.

THE FORESTS OF DOMINICA, B.W.I.

H. B. Pidduck, Acting Agricultural Superintendent

A large part of the interior of Dominica is still occupied by. luxuriant
tropical rain forest, although inroads are being constantly made by peasants
in search of virgin soil for the growing of food crops and bananas for export.

Although the forests occur mainly on Crown lands, there is no provision
for the enforcement of legislation, which is inadequate and deals only with the
disposal of such lands (Crown lands ordinance, No. 1, 1915).

A forestry ordinance is under consideration at the moment, but two
factors would negative its usefulness, viz., lack of funds to provide the
necessary staff and the fact that the boundaries of alienated lands on which
forests also occur are in a state of considerable confusion. For the latter
reason, a cadastral survey has been suggested,

Parts of the more accessible forest land have for years been exploited
for such products as hardwood, firewood, canoe shells, charcoal, etc., and
at Portsmouth, in the north of the island, a sawmill was established some
20 years ago but was soon abandoned. This was because the land is very
mountainous, and also there is nowhere a plentiful stand of any one species
of timber tree. The forest, in fact, although rich in excellent materials,
is very heterogeneous.

Exploitation tends to be limited, with the exception of felling and
burning for garden purposes; on the leeward side, and parts of the windward,
much land has become ruinate on that account. Since the rainfall exceeds
200 in. a year in the interior and averages 100 in. on the coast, exposure
of the soil inevitably leads to heavy erosion, and recently floods and
landslides have increased in frequency and volume. The need for a Forestry
Department is obvious.

Resumen

El interior montafioso de Dominica posee extensas 4reas de bosques
tropicales lluviosos, ricos en materiales. Las 4reas mas accesibles se
explotan por sus productos maderables o son desmontadas para uso de los
agricultores, y conjuntamente con una precipitacién abundante tal destruc-—
ciédn del bosque ha resultado en un aumento de inundaciones y derrumbes.
Una legislacién forestal esta bajo consideracion y hace falta un departa-
mento forestal.

FORESTRY IN JAMAICA

C. Swabey, Forest Officer

Jamaica with an area of 4,450 square miles has a density of population of
270 to the square mile. Topographically the island consists of (a) a backbone of
mountains (volcanic and residual) rising to 7,300 ft., (b) an elevated limestone
platean, much dissected, rising to 3,000 ft., (c) coastal limestone cliffs and
hills to 500 ft., and (d) coastal alluvial plains. Rainfall ranges from 30 in;
on the coastal plains to 200 in. in the interior hills.

The whole island was at one time covered with forest, but by the middle of
the nineteenth century all the accessible areas had been cleared either for export
erops (sugarcane, coconuts, coffee, cacao, ginger, tobacco, etc.) or for food
crops for local use. During the early period of British occupation (i.e., from
1665) considerable quantities of mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni), cedar (Cedrela
odorata), fustic (Chlorophora tinctoria), and other cabinet and dye woods had
been exported, but today very little economic timber is available and exports
are negligible.

About 1860 the dangers of excessive deforestation became apparent, and
a number of abortive attempts were made to deal with the problem: reports and
recommendations were made in 1886, 1913, 1924, 1926, and finally in 1935. Forest
laws were passed in 1889, 1892, 1913, and 1927, but practically no progress in
forestry matters can be recorded during this period. In 1937, a comprehensive
Forest Law repealing previous enactments was passed, and 200,000 acres have been
declared Forest Reserve. Also in 1937 a Forestry Division of the Lands Depart—
ment was formed and was transferred the following year to the Department of Agri-
culture; the Division now functions to all extents and purposes as an independ—
ent department.
The policy of the Lands Department is (1) to develop measures of soil
and water conservation and the prevention of erosion by (a) the formation,
reafforestation, and maintenance of forest reserves under public ownership, and
(b) the encouragement of protective measures on private lands; and (2) to develop
the local timber industry on conservative lines.

The staff of the Division consists of a forest officer (trained), a
forest settlement officer, a forest supervisor, a forest surveyer, and 16
rengers.

Acquisition of land for forest reserve is an important aspect of the
work of the Division, and an immediate programme embracing 15,000 acres has
been approved; this is financed in part, by the Water Commission. Compulsory
acquisition powers have not yet been called into play, but are available if
necessary. The absence of adequate surveys is a serious handicap, and in
some districts little progress can be made until extensive surveys have been
completed -

*Reafforestation of denuded areas has been begun mainly at 2,000 to
4,000 ft.3 the principal species used are Hibiscus elatus, Cedrela odorata,

Podocarpus elongatus, Juniperus lucayana, and Pinus massoniana. Farticular

attention is being paid to the catchment areas of the Kingston water supply.
Attention is also being directed to private tree planting, and district
nurseries are being established. Coupled with reservation and reafforesta-
tion measures is the construction of bridle roads and inspection bungalows
in the remoter districts.

Erosion is an extremely serious factor in the interior mountains,
and the bulk of the work of the Division is in protecting water supplies
and in decreasing the number of floods and droughts.

The control of timber cutting on Crown lands is being achieved
gradually, and felling is now permitted in certain areas under rigid mini-
mum-girth rules; uncontrolled cutting, the destruction of immature saplings,
and extensive stealing have seriously reduced the stocking of the forests,
and the younger age-classes are poorly represented.

Research is a crying necessity, not only in reafforestation technique
and timber utilization, but in the fundamental sciences of botany, ecology,
soils, etc. In the absence of specific research staff, however, this has
to be undertaken on a small scale in the course of routine work.

Finally, education and propaganda are being attempted. Posters have
been designed, instructional leaflets have been prepared, and it is intended
to try and make the rising generation "forest minded" through education in
the schools.

Resumen

Hace mucho tiempo que los bosques en las 4reas accesibles de Jamaica
fueron tumbados para la produccién de cosechas agricolas. Grandes cantidades
de madera se exportaban anteriormente, pero actualmente este negocio es casi
nulo.

En el 1937 se establecié una Seccién Forestal la cual se compone de 20
empleados; 200,000 acres fueron declarados reserva forestal y la adquisicion
de tierras continua. Se est4 llevando a cabo la reforestacidén de las Areas
desmontadas, prestAandosele atencién especial a la conservacién del suelo y

del agua. El corte de madera en el patrimonio de la Corona ha sido restringido,

y se han tomado medidas para enseflar al pueblo el valor de la silvicultura.
Se han empezado investigaciones importantes, pero en pequefia escala.

FORESTRY IN PUERTO RICO

L. R. Holdridge, Associate Forester

Puerto Rico, the smallest of the Greater Antilles, is roughly rectangu-
lar in outline, 100 miles long by 35 miles wide with an approximate area of 3,435
square miles. The main mountain range runs lengthwise and slightly south of the
center of the island, reaching an elevation in the highest peaks of slightly
over 4,000 ft.

The island enjoys a subtropical climate,which is relatively uniform
throughout the year. The average annual temperature is 76° F,, ranging from
an average of 73° in the cooler months to 79° in the summer. Maximum tem-
peratures rarely pass 100°, so that, as far as heat is concerned, working
conditions are very comfortable. The equability of the climate rests in
large part on the presence of the almost continuous northeast trade winds.
These same moisture-—laden winds bring the rains, which fall in greatest pro-
fusion on the eastern mountains, where recent records at about 2,000 ft. above
sea level have shown a total of over 200 in. per year. Precipitation, which
in general decreases as one goes westward, as a result of the removal of
moisture from the trade winds by the high mountains to the north and east,
reaches a minimum of around 30 in. per year on the southwest corner. Where
high rainfall occurs, there is no marked dry season or only a short dry spell
from January to March, but in the areas of considerably lower precipitation,
there is a definite period of drought from November or December to April or
May and a shorter midsummer dry spell in July and part of August.

The island came into existence by the folding and raising of the ocean
floor. Volcanic action was restricted to two peaks long quiescent. In addi-
tion, partial submérgence and subsequent lifting of the land mass account for
strips of coral limestone on the north and south coasts. Erosion has been
so active for centuries that the land mass has been cut up into sharp ridges
and deep valleys in the mountains, and the washed material has built large
alluvial plains at the mouths of the river valleys.

The soil consists chiefly of deep, reddish clay-loams or tenacious,
rec clays. The alluvial plains produce excellent crops, but the agricul-
tural lands on the hills and slopes have lost a large part of their fertility
through leaching and erosion of the soil.

Agricultural crops represent the major part of the income of the island.
Sugarcane leads all other crops in importance and utilizes the greater part of
the fertile lowlands. This is followed in order of value by tobacco, coffee,
coconuts, grapefruit, and minor crops.

The population of Puerto Rico is denser than that of any other country
or island in this region, with the exception of Barbados. The total number of
inhabitants is over 1,500,000, which amounts to over 500 per square mile.
Coupled with this, and of great significance to forestry, is the fact that
the major portion of the population is rural, as commercial development is-
only slight and is restricted mostly to the rum and needle-work industries.

Naturally, under the pressure of such a concentration of population,
the extensive stretches of forest which were found by the early Spanish ex-
plorers have been reduced to a mere remnant of their former glory. Asa
matter of fact, the effect of man on the natural vegetation of the island
has been so far-reaching that it is almost impossible to obtain a true
picture of the plant associations and successions pertaining to our area.
Practically no virgin stands of forest exist for study today, except for
those small areas of dwarf forest at high altitudes, where timber produc-—
tion is negligible and the forest values will ever be in terms of pro-
tection and scenery.

Difficult.as it is to obtain an exact idea of the original forests,
about which unfortunately all too little was written, by piecing together
all available evidence, one is able to secure a rough picture of the makeup
of the original forests. Scattered unevenly around the coast are various
areas of mangrove swamps or woodlands, which comprise a total of approxi-
mately 16,000 acres. Another coastal type, littoral woodlands, occurs on
areas of white sands along portionsof the north coast.

From these types up to about 1,000 ft. above sea level on the north,
east, and west coasts, agriculture has almost completely taken over the area.
From the little data available, it would appear that the original forest on
this strip would fall in the classification of semi-evergreen rain forest.
Between 1,000 ft. and 2,000-2,500 ft, above sea level, rainfall is somewhat
heavier, and the temperature is considerably lower. Although this strip would
fall within the general classification of the preceding type, a few dominant
trees not found in the preceding justify setting it apart as a distinct type,
or at least a subtype.

Above this strip, there is a sharp change to smaller-—leaved species;
this is accompanied bya general change in appearance that is distinct at a
distance. This region apparently would fall within the upper montane rain
forest. At or near the summits of the higher mountains, this same composi-
tion of species prevails, but conditions of growth are so poor that a dwarf
forest, or what might be termed an alpine elfin woodland, results.

On the southern dry coast, the lowlands have been rather thoroughly
stripped of their forest cover and by means of irrigation made to serve in
the production of agricultural crops. There is some mention in old litera=-
ture of savanna areas, and although not extensive the southern lowlands
would be classed as savanna woodland or moist deciduous forest, depending
on the amount of precipitation. In any case, considerable more study will
be necessary before it is possible to delineate exactly the various climax
types and their boundaries. Then too there is the possibility that the
wholesale destruction of forests over considerable areas may have had a
definite influence in throwing an area out of one classification and into
a distinctly drier type.

Forestry was started on the island in 1903, when President Theodore
Roosevelt proclaimed the establishment of the Luquillo National Forest on
about 13,000 acres ceded to the Federal Government by the Treaty of Paris;
but it is only in recent years that activities have assumed large propor-
tions, owing to the impulse of the conservation movement in the United
States and the relief activities: on the asland. ~in'1917,) an Insular tonesc

ee

Service was established to administer the mangrove swamps, forest areas in the
western mountains and along the south coast, and Mona Island about 40 miles
west of Puerto Rico. The total acreage of these forests amounted to about
30,000. At the same time, appointment was made of a Forest Officer to head
both the Federal and Insular services. At first, practically the only
activity consisted of protection of the forest areas; but beginning in 1921,
some planting was carried out each year on the Insular Forests, and nurseries
were in operation to provide trees for those farmers who wished to plant on
their own land.

In 1933, acquisition of additional Federal lands was started; the
Civilian Conservation Corps, a relief agency to carry out works of conserva-
tion, was set up on the island; and forestry entered a phase of enormously
expanded activities. In 1935, the official name of the national forest was
changed from that of Luquillo to Caribbean, owing to the establishment of a
new purchase unit outside of the Luquillo Mountains,

Also, in the fall of 1935, a Forestry Division was formed as part of
the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration, and purchase of additional
Federal lands was undertaken on five new purchase units. These units were
selected for their importance in protecting the watersheds of streams used
for power and irrigation and, at the same time, where they would interfere
least with agriculture.

The Caribbean National Forest, the C.C.C., the Insular Forest Service,
and the Forestry Division of the P.R.R.A. are all directed by one administra-
tive head, this position having been filled since 1935 by Mr. E. W. Hadley.

The work of these organizations is carefully coordinated in the central office,
where departments have been set up to handle the various activities, such as
planting or engineering, regardless of the unit on which the work is performed.

Forestry activities

Planting.—One of the largest activities consisted of the reforestation
of brush and grass lands on the new purchase areas. At the height of this project
in 1936, over 6,000 men were employed on planting alone, and the total area planted
to date amounts to over 18,000 acres. The principal species used in reforestation
have been Swietenia mahagoni, S. macrophylla, S. candollei (the Dominican, Honduras,
and Venezuelan mahoganies, respectively), Cerdana (Cordia) alliodora, Petitia domin-
gensis, Montezuma speciosissima, Vitex divaricata, Cedrela mexicana, and Casuarina
equisetifolia. Calophyllum antillanum, Andira inermis, and Lucuma multiflora were
seeded directly. Besides these species, several other have been tried out, such
as Xanthoxylum flavum, Colubrina ferruginosa, Tectona grandis, Eucalyptus sp.,
Haematoxylon campechianum, Neltuma (Prosopis) juliflora, Guarea_ guara, Byrsonima

Spicata, Mimusops nitida, Hymenaea courbaril, Ocotea moschata, and Sideroxylon
foetidissimum,

Clearing land of brush and grass and subsequent cleanings of the areas
following planting was found to be extremely expensive, especially in those
sections of high precipitation where weed growth is very rapid. In order to
reduce such high expenditures, a system of combined forestry and agricultural
use was worked out whereby squatters and former tenants on newly acguired lands
would be given permission to continue in residence on the property and cultivate
their agricultural crops, provided they would interplant such plots with forest

2)

tree seedlings or seeds provided by the Forest Service. The only expenditure
under this system is the cost of seed or stock and the administrative costs
necessary for supervision. To date this is working out very satisfactorily.
to both parties concerned, and the growth of trees within such cultivation

is 2 to 3 times more rapid than within natural vegetation.

Nurseries.-In order to provide sufficient nursery stock for the increased
planting program, several large nurseries were established about the island. The
largest of these, at Cayey, produced about 20 million seedlings per year. With
more recent reductions of the planting program, the policy has been changed, and
small nurseries on the individual planting sites have replaced the centrally
located nurseries. The latter system cuts down the cost of transportation and
provides fresher stock for the planting crews.

Management.—Owing to the small amount of timber left standing within the
boundaries of the forest units, the existing stands require protection more than
anything else. Each unit (sometimes two adjacent units) is administered by a-
forest ranger, with various forest guards carrying out the actual police work.
The Insular Forest Service uses a plane for the detection of illegal cutting or
charcoal burning and also to detect stills, which are often set up in the man-
grove swamps.

A complete aerial survey has been made of the island, and a set of the
pictures finds considerable use in the Service. Soil surveys are likewise
complete, but have not been published. Besides these, the Forest Service has
carried on management surveys to determine stocking, etc. on most of the units,
and all new tracts acquired by purchase are first surveyed and appraised.

Certain sections of the forest that have been only lightly culled of
valuable timber in the past have been treated silviculturally on "timber-stand
improvement" projects to release valuable timber species by the removal of
weed and other species for charcoal and fuel. Sometimes these operations
provide timber or other valuable timber products.

Roads and trails.-In order to open up inaccessible areas of the various
units for management, the several work projects have constructed approximately
104 miles of truck trails and forest highways and about 116 miles of foot and
horse trails. Most of these have been within the mountainous sections on very
diffivenlt terrain,

Recreation,-This rather recent activity has assumed considerable importance
on the island as sites are developed for recreational areas in the forests for
thousands of city dwellers. The La Mina Area in the eastern mountains has
provided facilities for swimming, hiking, picnics, and overnight visits. Other
areas are in various stages of development.

Extension forestry.—One trained forester spends his entire time in contact—
ing private-land owners and providing information and assistance to those interested
in forestry. Government nurseries provide free seedlings from the nurseries for
distribution to such individuals.

Research,-Forest research was initiated 14 years ago on a small scale with -

emergency funds; studies were made on various phases of planting and nursery work.
In addition, work started on an illustrated popular booklet of the forest trees of

Sal@) =

Puerto Rico will be assimilated into the larger program of the new Tropical
Forest Experiment Station.

Summary

Puerto Rico, with an area of 3,435 square miles,enjoys a subtropical
climate with rainfall varying from 30 to over 200 in. per year. The island
was raised by a folding of the ocean floor, with later deposits of limestone
along the coast. Soils are clays or clay-loams, on which are produced a
variety of tropical crops.

The population is very dense, and this has resulted in nearly complete
destruction of the original forests. From the evidence available, it would
appear that the forests fall into approximately seven distinct tropical types.
A beginning of forestry was made several years ago, but during the last decade
forestry activities have been greatly expanded.

To date, over 18,000 acres have been planted with tropical hardwoods,
nurseries operated to provide the necessary stock, various surveys made for
management purposes, and many miles of roads and trails constructed to facil-
itate the various activities of forest management. In addition, facilities
have been provided for recreation in the forest areas, private forestry has

73

been assisted, and research on silvicultural problems has been initiated,

Resumen

Puerto Rico es una isla con un area de 3,435 millas cuadradas, que goza
de un clima semitropical y una precipitacidn pluvial desde 30 a mas de 200 pul-
gadas anuales. La isla se formd por un levantamiento del fondo oceAnico y se-
Gimentaciones subsecuentes de roca caliza en el litoral. El terreno es algo
variable predominando los barros, en los cuales se producen una diversidad
de productos tropicales.

La poblacién es dense trayendo como consecuencia la destruccién de la
foresta original. De la evidencia actual podemos decir que los bosques perte—
necian aproximadamente a siete tipos tropicales distintos. Hace algunos afios
se iniciaron trabajos y estudios silviculturales y durante la ultima década
éstos se han intensificado.

Haste la fecha mas de 18,000 acres se han plantado de maderas tropicales
duras, se han establecido almAcigas para obtener el material necesario, se han
hecho reconocimientos con el fin de llegar a conclusiones conducentes a las
operaciones y se han construfdo veredas y caminos en abundancia para facilitar
las diversas operaciones silviculturales. Ademas de todo esto, se han
organizado parques de recreo en las zonas forestales, los bosques privados se
han atendido en diferentes sentidos e investigaciones cientificas se han
esbozado para todo trabajo de silvicultura.

= ils

FORESTRY IN ST. LUCIA

BE. Y. Wald, Agricultural Superintendent,
Department of Agriculture

St. Lucia, in common with the other islands forming the Windward
Islands Group, has no separate forest staff, with the result that little
or no work in forestry has been carried out. Early in 1936, Mr. A. Wimbush,
lately Conservator of Forests, Madras, conducted a short investigation to
study and report on the steps to be taken to introduce a policy of forest
conservation, as a result of which it is now likely that a forest officer
shortly will be appointed to serve the Windward Group.

As I assumed charge of this Department only within the last year,
I have not had much opportunity for forestry work; and, with the pressing
needs of agriculture, the appointment of a forest officer to give a closer
study to local forestry problems is urgent. A rough estimate made a few
years ago gave the area under natural mixed forest as 12,000-13,000 acres
(equal to only about 9 percent of the total area of the Colony). The
natural resources of the forests, through constant exploitation in the past,
have been depleted seriously, until at present the most valuable trees have
been reduced considerably in number. The forests of this Island thus have
little remaining monetary value, but their importance in soil and moisture
conservation, particularly in the vicinity of the headwaters of the prin-
cipal rivers, cannot be overstated, and it is unfortunate that these points
have been appreciated insufficiently in the past.

"Squatting", or shifting cultivation, has also been responsible for
a great deal of devastation in the forest areas, but some improvement is
now being shown owing to a general "tightening up" in regulations concern-
ing squatters. The problem is complicated, however, owing to the fact that
a large proportion of the primary forest areas remaining are unescheated
(or ungranted) lands,which cannot be regarded as Crown property until they
have been formally escheated; this entails a period of 12 months after the
area has been surveyed. The shortage of staff in the Survey Department,
and the absence of any defined forestry policy in the past, is responsible
for the fact that most of these unescheated forest areas have not yet been
acquired by the Government, but steps have recently been taken with a view
to obtaining the necessary funds with which to undertake this work. The
allocation of limited funds this year has enabled a small subordinate
forestry personnel to be appointed, consisting of a forest ranger, two
forest guards, and two forest watchers. The forest ranger has not been
appointed yet, and may now await the decision of the forest officer, who
(it is hoped) will be appointed soon; but two forest patrols have been
organized, one for the northern part of the Island, and one for the southern
part, each comprising one forest guard and one forest watcher. These patrols
have had no forestry training, and for the present are concerned in prevent—
ing further encroachment and devastation in the remaining forest areas by
squatters, in short, in general policing.

=O

The local forests have been described by Mr. Wimbush as "tropical
evergreen protection forests", the commonest tree met with being gommier
(Dacryodes hexandra), which is of no commercial value except in the con-
struction of canoes. Good timber trees are laurier canelle (Ocotea rubra)
ana a few other kinds of laurier, balata (Mimusops balata), white cedar
(Tecoma _leucoxylon), and fustic (Chlorophora tinctoria); other trees in
general use are maruba (Simaruba sp.), angelin (Andira inermis), fiddlewood
(Vitex divaricata), and yellow savonette (Lonchocarpus latifolius). Annual
rainfall in the forest areas ranges from about 80 to 120 in. per annum,
Considerable scope exists for reafforestation programs in several parts of
the Colony, but the inadequate staff and lack of funds have prevented any
execution of these programs. A beginning was made last year, however, with
the importation of small quantities of teak and Honduras mahogany seed,
subsequently raised in the Departmental nurseries and transplanted to
gmall areas in the vicinity. This work is being continued this year, and
will be featured regularly in the activities of this Department in the
future, commensurate with the funds at our disposal. Cassia siamea is
under trial for the drier districts of the Colony, especially in the North,
where an early program of reafforestation could do much to arrest the com-—
bined effects of soil and wind erosion.

Summary

The forests of St. Lucia equal about 9 percent of the total area of the
Colony, or roughly between 12,000 and 13,000 acres of tropical evergreen pro-
tection forest. They have been considerably reduced in value by constant ex-
ploitation and shifting cultivation. Two forest patrols, each comprising one
forest guard and one forest watcher, have been organized during the past year
for protection of the remaining forests; Government forest lands are being
increased; and reforestation with timber species is already under way.

Resumen

Los bosques de Santa Lucia constituyen alrededor de un nueve por
ciento del drea total de la Colonia, o sea entre 12,000 y 13,000 acres de
bosques tropicales vivaces de proteccién. Su valor ha disminuido conside-
rablemente debido a la constante explotacién y al cultivo desmesurado.

Dos patrullas forestales, compuestas cada una de un guardabosques y un
policia de bosques, se organizaron durante el afio pasado para la proteccién
de lo que resta de éstos. Los terrenos forestales del Gobierno se estan
aumentando y ya se ha encaminado la repoblacién forestal con Arboles made-
rables.

ENA Tee

FORESTRY IN TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

R. L. Brooks, Conservator of Forests

The forest policy of Trinidad and Tobago may be briefly summarized
as follows:

(1) The permanent reservation by the Crown of suitably situated areas
of forest of a total acreage sufficient to supply the benefits necessary for
the welfare of the community —— indirect benefits in the form of the main-
tenance of climatic conditions for agricultural crops, preservation of water
supply, prevention of erosion and flooding, etc., and direct benefits in
the form of the supply of forest produce.

(2) The management of these forests in such a way as to encourage the
fullest possible utilization of their products on the basis of a sustained
yield.

(3) Such improvement of the existing growing stock as will-enable the
Colony in the future to become at least self-supporting in lumber.

The general position with regard to forest reservation is eminently
satisfactory, except in so far as the western portion of the Northern Range
is concerned, In this district, however, the greater part of the land area
has for many years been under private ownership, and until recently was
mainly covered by cacao or second-growth forests.

In the present depressed state of cocoa, landowners are renting out
increasing areas of steep hillsides to agricultural peasants, who grow field.
crops, such as maize, tomatoes, etc., under a system of shifting cultivation.
Many of these peasants prefer the highest, steepest, and most inaccessible
portions of the hillsides, as the danger of loss of crops by praedial larceny
is lessened thereby.

The abnormally high rainfall of 1938, coupled with the increase of
clearings, was productive of erosion, flooding, and landslides to an unusual
degree, and revealed clearly the dangers of the existing situation. The
problem is under investigation by the Lands Advisory Committee.

So far as the maintenance of a sustained yield is concerned, all
Forest Reserves are subjected to an elementary form of yield control, either
by girth limits or some form of the Brandis-—Burma method. Control of the
cutting in Forest Reserves by petroleum companies, however, is badly in need
of intensified supervision, if the overcutting of the past is not to be
continued.

Generally speaking, however, the utilization of forest produce has not
reached, by a long way, the maximum production permissible: the mora forests,
for example, are yielding only a fraction of their potential production. The
lack of supplies of seasoned local wood continues to be one of the biggest
factors militating against increased consumption. Research is required into

Salis

the utilization of species, regarded at present as of little or no market value,
and into many other problems of utilization. As time permits, research is»being
carried out on durability tests, the suitability of substitute species for
sleepers, wood preservation, etc,

The Forest Department is in touch with persons interested in the
possibilities of the exploitation of the mora forests, and it is hoped that
results will materialize in the not-—too-distant future. In the meantime
the number of small country sawmills has shown an increase.

Since the high cost of exploitation of the natural-mixed forests of
the Colony, which have a small volume production per acre of marketable species,
is a further factor contributing to its dependence upon imported softwoods, the
improvement of the growing stock, aiming at a high volume production per acre
with consequent cheap exploitation, forms an important part of the forest policy
of the Colony. The Department's activities in this direction have included,
besides the regeneration of indigenous species, a cautious teak-planting program
dating back to 1913. The oldest Trinidad-grown teak trees (apart from a few
trees about 60 years oid in the Royal Botanical Gardens) are 25 years old,
therefore; and the results from the aspects of volume production, health, and
costs are so good that a reasonable expansion of the planting program would
appear to be thoroughly justified.

The regeneration of indigenous species is proceeding satisfactorily
under the shelterwood—compartment system, but improvement-felling technique
needs intensified research, followed by considerable expansion of the program.

The foregoing very brief analysis reveals both shortcomings in some,
and the need for expansion in other directions, in the satisfactory prosecu-
tion of our forest policy. Improvement can be effected only by an increase
of staff; and the sanctioned personnel, both technical and subordinate, has
now been expanded,

Resumen

La politica forestal de Trinidad y Tobago consiste brevemente de (1) la
reserva permanente de tierras reales suficientes para suministrar adecuadamente
los beneficios forestales necesarios para el bienestar de la comunidad, (2) admi-
nistracion de estas areas para utilizar lo mas posible sus productos y mantenerse
en uma base de produccién, y (3) su mejoramiento para hacer que la Colonia pueda
ser dependiente de si misma en sus necesidades maderas.

En general, la reserva forestal es satisfactoria, excepto por la depresién
econémica en el distrito de cacao al oeste de la Sierra del Norte, donde los
cambios en el cultivo de cosechas junto con las fuertes lluvias recientes, han
causado grandes pérdidas de terreno e inundaciones. La restriccién de las cosechas
para mantener una produccién permanente est& en prAactica en todas las reservas. La
utilizacién puede aumentar todavia, como en los bosques de mora, y se estan efec-
tuando las investigaciones mas necesarias hacia este fin. Los bosques mixtos y
naturales se estan mejorando por medio de desmontes sistematicos y siembra de
especies nativas y de "teak", Después de 25 afios de haberse sembrado esta ultima
especie, el estado actual de las plantaciones justifica la expansion de su siembra.

sow ses

COMPTE RENDU PRELIMINAIRE DU TRAVAIL FORESTIER
A LA STATION DE KENSCOFF, HAITI

Pierre Sylvain, Spécialiste en Horticulture,
Service National de la Production Agricole
et de
L'Enseignment Rural

Généralités.

La région de Kenskoff offre un intérét tout particulier pour
l'agriculture en raison de son climat exceptionnel pour les tropiques,
présentant une température minimum de 4.5° et maximum de 31°C., qui peut
la faire ranger dans la série des régions tempérées chaudes. Kenskoff
est plus populaire en raison de son voisinage de la Capitale, mais il
existe en Haiti plusieurs autres localités présentant & peu prés les
mémes conditions, notamment toute la partie élevée du Massif de la
Selle et les pics les plus hauts du Massif de la Hotte. I1 est possi-
ble de cultiver dans ces différentes régions toute une série d'espéces
qui ne sont pas susceptibles de se développer dans les autres parties
du pays. Leur flore spontanée est d'ailleurs franchement différente de
celles des autres régions.

Le plus grande probléme agricole de Kenskoff est 1'érosion favorisée
par un déboisement intempestif, érosion que se fait sentir plus que par-
tout ailleurs sur les collines abruptes qui caractérisent cette partie
du pays.

Ce déboisement exagéré tire probablement sa cause dans les conditions
climatiques mémes de la région et dans sa proximité de la capitale. De
temps immémoriaux, les meilleurs légumes sont venus de Kenskoff, dont
la température idéale favorisait la culture. Dans le but d'en produire
toujours davantage sans utiliser d'engrais, les paysans ne se sont pas
contentés de cultiver les plateaux et les vallées, dont la fertilité dimi-
nuait chaque année, mais ils se sont attaqués aux flancs des collines
boisés, dont le sol encore vierge fournissait plus facilement de meil-
leures récoltes, Malheureusement ces terrains en pente, remués tous
les ans, perdent 4 chaque averse un peu de leur couche superficielle,
ne gardant que le sous-sol et parfois, au bout d'un certain temps, unique-
ment un roc impénétrable pour la végétation.

La cnlture du mais entreprise sur une grande échelle dans la région
est tout aussi contre indiquée. Pour permettre la culture de ces plantes
annuelles, le paysan haitien a toujours en coutume d'avoir recours au
déplorable procédé de "bois neuf", consistant 4 couper tous les arbres
existant sur la parcelle et 4 bruler les brindilles de bois et les herbes
séches, procédé qui occasionne une sérieuse déperdition de matiére or-
ganique.

Une autre cause qui a grandement contribué 4 l'abatage des arbres,
c'est la vente des pins, tant sous la forme d'arbre de Noél que de bois

™~

de construction ou de bois 4 brfiler.

a ew

Nous savons qu'A l'origine Kenskoff et Furcy étaient surtout
boisées de pins, la forét du Mont des Commissaires s'étendant jusqu'a ces
parages; on peut encore en voir quelques vestiges au Morne Bourette et au
Morne de la Découverte. L'exploitation irrationnelle de cette partie de
la féret, ainsi que les nombreux incendies dis & la négligence des paysans
et & la pratique du "bois neuf" ont fait de cette zone forestiére les
collines dénudées que nous voyons actuellement.

Quoique veuillent croire certains, la terre de la région est pauvre
et s'appauvrit encore sans cesse en raison de la grande déperdition d'humus
causée par 1'érosion. Le régime des sources méme est atteint, l'eau
devenant de plus en plus rare. Toutes ces considérations prouvent gu'il
est tout a fait essentiel de remplacer le systéme de plantation de cultures
annuelles par des cultures permanentes industrielles ou fruitiéres, 14 ou
la terre le permet, et la plantation d'espéces de reboisement proprement
dites, ou la terre végétale fait entierément défaut, et ot il faut refaire
pour) ainsa) dire Te sol Tel est le principal but que nous nous sommes
assignés et la raison méme de notre projet.

En plus de ceci, nous voulons faire des essais d'acclimatation de la
plus grande quantité d'espéces, vu que cette région étant tout @ fait
typique, l'on peut y faire venir des espéces tempérées qu'on ne peut obtenir
dans la plupart des autres localités en Haiti.

Ce premier rapport exprime les résultats obtenus jusqu'a ce jour.
Nous ne pouvons encore é6noncer que des observations préliminaires, vu
que l'acclimatation est une opération trés complexe que réclame beaucoup
d'expériences avant qu'on puisse se prononcer strement. I1 arrive souvent,
en effet, qu'une plante se développe bien dans les premiéres années de sa
plantation et présente par la suite des arréts de croissance la rendant
indésirable. I1 ne faut pas non plus confondre le point de vue de 1'amateur
et celui de l'agronome; un jardinier peut, 4 force de soins, réussir 4
développer une espéce qui ne peut cependant @tre considérée comme acclimatée,
sa culture é6tant trop difficile pour pouvoir 6tre entreprise économiquement.
De fait, on ne peut considérer une espéce comme véritablement acclimatée
que si elle peut se repeupler naturellement, c'est-a-dire dans le cas des
plantes 4 graines produire des semences viables.

Espéces Forestiéres.

Eucalyptus.—Une des premiéres essences essayées & notre Station a
été l'eucalyptus que s'est acclimaté un peu partout dans les régions tempérées
et tropicales. Nous n'avons pas rencontré les mémes difficultés qu'a& Damien
pour la pépiniére et le pourcentage de plants obtenus a @té en général
satisfaisant surtout pour l'Eucalyptus globulus.

L'Eucalyptus présente divers avantages qui nous ont fait en essayer
la culture.

(1) Sa croissance trés rapide permet d'obtenir rapidement une assez
grande quantité de bois sur une superficie donnée.

hatte)

-

(2) Le _bois quoique parfois difficile & débiter peut @tre employé
i cle / et comme bois de chauffage de méme que dans les travaux

(3) Les feuilles de 1'E. globulus contiennent 1.5 & 3 pourcent d'une

essence servant de base 4 divers produits pharmaceutiques&/

(4) L'Eucalyptus repousse aprés que la tige principale a été coupée,
ce qui permet l'exploitation des foréts 4 intervalles réguliers sans
nouvelle plantation.

A cété de tous ces avantages 1'Eucalyptus présente de nombreux in-
convénients comme espéce de reboisement.

(1) Les jeunes plants donnent un certain mal pour étre obtenus de
semis et sont trés delicats dans le premier stade de leur croissance
exigeant quelques binages aprés la mise en place.

(2) L'Eucalyptus ne se fait pas dans tous les sols demandant généra-
lement un terrain plutdt riche.

Riviére et Lecq racontent bien la défaveur dans laquelle est tombée
cette essence aprés avoir joui d'une grande vogue dans l'Afrique de Nord,
Le climat de l1'Algérie, cependant un peu trop froid pour la plupart des
espéces essayées, comptait probablement pour beaucoup dans l'insuccés ren-
contré, Nous pouvons espérer trouver en Haiti une espéce qui satisfera
nos conditions. I1 est en tous cas intéressant de faire des essais dans
ce sens, wi la nécessité de trouver une espéce de reboisement 4 croissance
rapide. Si l'Eucalyptus ne peut é6tre employé chez nous que dans les meil-
leurs terrains, il faudra localiser sa culture 4 certaines régions de sol
plus riche et employer le pin occidental ou quelque espéce moins difficile
pour les parties les plus arides.

Nous avons essayé sept especes d'Eucalyptus au cours de l'année et
voici les résultats obtenus:

Espéce Date de semis Croissance Aspect général des plants

Aprés 10 mois:
E. robusta 20 novembre max. 85cm. moy.75 cm. Satisfaisant, malgré quel-
ques cas de rouille.

Aprés 8 mois $:

E. globulus 7 janvier max.llOcm.moy.100 cm, Satisfaisant.

BE. maideni 7 janvier max.120cm.moy.100 cm. Satisfaisant, quelques
cas de rouille.

E. resinifera 7 janvier max. 4O0cm.moy. 25 em. Croissance chétive, beau-
coup cas de rouille.

E. gunni 7 janvier max. .99em.moy,.; .70\:cm'.

Hetrostrata ~ 24 juillet Les plants présentent

jusqu'a& présent une bonne
croissance, mais sont en-
core trop jeunes pour étre
étudiés.

1/ L. H. Bailey, Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture.

2/ Riviére et Lecq, Cultures du Midi.

eye

E. gigantea,—Les Eucalyptus gigantea, aprés avoir offert un trés

faible pourcentage de germination, ont eu une croissance chétive pendant
quelques mois, Deux aspersions de bdouillie bordelaise n'ont pu venir a
bout de la rouville et finalement tous les plants sont morts; il semble
que cette espéce généralement considérée comme convenant aux régions
fraiches ne puisse 6tre acclimatée A Kenskoff.

De ce tableau, il ressort qu'excepté 1'E. gigantea et 1'E. resinifera
toutes les espéces essayées semblent pouvoir étre acclimatées. L'E. robusta
et 1'E. rostrata, présentent l'avantage de pouvoir étre aussi plantées dans
les régions plus chaudes du pays. Le développement ultérieur des plants
révélera l'espéce convenant le mieux 4 Kenskoff.

Ce tableau fait aussi clairement ressortir le développement trés
rapide de 1'Eucalyptus, car les chiffres obtenus sont de beaucoup supérieurs
& ceux cités dans la table 6tablie par Green pour 78 espéces forestiéres
cultivées dans un bon sol moyen du Minnesota. D'aprés cette table ou
1'Eucalyptus n'est pas cite, les trois espéces ayant atteint le plus grand

développement: 1'Acer saccharinum (érable 4 sucre), le Robinia pseudoacacia

(faux acacia) et le Catalpa speciosa ne dépassaient pas 60 cm. aprés un an3/.
Cette année nous avons surtout propagé 1'E. globulus qui nous semblait

mieux venu en pépiniére que les autres espéces. Quelques plantations expé-

rimentales ont pu en é6tre faites sur une petite échelle dans les endroits
suivants:

Localite Propriétaire Superficie No. plants Sol
Kenskoff Louis Roy 2 ha. apprx. 617 argile rouge
Kenskoff Henri Roux 5 ha. apprx. 934 argile rouge
trés rocailleuse
Platon
Café Léonce Borno 1,062 me. 118 argile noire
trés rocailleuse
Viard R, T, Auguste = ha. apprx. 267 argile rouge
Furcy Naudé - Ziegel 132 argile rouge

Ces plantations faites dans des regions et des terrains de nature tout
& fait différente donneront une idée générale du comportement de l'espéce
dans notre district,

(3) Samuel B,. Green, Principles of American Forestry,

ESQ

Le total des plants produits nour les sept espéces envisagéec
est le suivants:

Eucalyptus globulus 4400
" robusta 7Th9
" rostrata 952
" maideni 80
u resinifera 40

N gunni 147
i gigantea -

Pins.—Les nombreuses espéces du genre Pinus se rencontrent dans des
conditions tellement differentes qu'elles ont su donner 4 cette plante un
caractére tout 4 fait cosmopolite. Les pins se voient en effet tant dans
les régions chaudes que dans les régions froides, au bord de la mer comme
au sommet des pics les plus elévés, dans les sols siliceux comme dans les
calcaires. Il semble donc qu'il suffise de savoir choisir les espéces
convenant A une région déterminée pour les y voir y croitre.

Haiti a eu la grande chance d'avoir 4 1'état spontane une des es-—
péces les plus intéressantes et alors que les stations de diverses na-
tions tropicales ont a essayer 1'acclimatation de nombreux types pour
trouver celui que convient le mieux a4 leur pays, nous n'avons qu'& pro-
pager intensivement celle que la Providence a placée spontanément sous
nos cieux, Le Pinus occidentalis, qui pousse chez nous 4 l'état sauvage,
nous semble présenter bien des avantages.

Sa croissance est relativement trés rapide. D'aprés des mensurations
pratiquées sur les pins d'environ 18 ans de'la propriété Buch, 4 Furcy,
le diamétre moyen des plants a été de 31 cms. alors que d'aprés le Dr. Web
cité par Véges et Dupont, le pin @ longues feuilles des Etats Unis (Pinus
longifolia) prend plus de ‘70 ans pour atteindre un tel diamétre 4 D'aprés
les mémes auteurs, le pin maritime frangais, considéré comme ayant un dé-
veloppement trés rapide, prend de 20 & 25 ans pour atteindre le diamétre
de 25 cms., diametre minimum pour 1'exploitation de la résine. Un fores-
tier haitien pourrait done constituer une forét 3 ou 4 fois plus vite qu'un
planteur américain de Pinus longifolia.

La résine du Pinus occidentalis est considérée comme tout a fait bonne
pour le marché international alors que certaines espéces ne fournissent pas
de résine commerciale. Pour toutes ces raisons, nous croyons que, jusqu'a
preuve du contraire, tout reboisement intensif de pins devrait se faire 4
l'aide de 1l'espéce indigéne. Nous avons cependant expérimenté certains types
étrangers qui pourraient étre susceptibles de donner de bons résultats dans
notre région,

(4) Bulletin Agricole du Congo Belge. [Pinus palustris Miller (the longleaf
pine of the United States), according to growth records collected by the
Southern Forest Experiment Station, has shown increments of 2 cm. a year and
frequently attains a d.b.h. of 1 ft. at the age of 40 years.—O.R.}

= O0u=

Voici les résultats obtenus pour quelques mois de plantation.

Espéce Age des plants Crois moy. Crois max. Aspect gal.
Ee radiata2/ 9 mois isieemst 22 cms. Bon,
P. pinaster 9 mois 6 cms. Oe Cms. Croissance presque
i nulle.
P; occidentalis 8 mois 3 Dem Sis 7 cms. Satisfaisant,
P. densiflora 6 mois 4 cms. SwCMsSr Croissance
trés faible.
P. canariensis 8 mois 2 7 cms. 12 “ems ¢ Satisfaisant.
P. thunbergii 8 mois 5 6 ems. 9 ems. Satisfaisant.
P. pinea (semis le 15 janv.) (pas de germination)

Il est intéressant de comparer ces chiffres 4 ceux établis par Green
qui, aprés un an, avait obtenu 7 cms. + pour 7 espéces de pins differentes
des nétres. La croissance du P. radiata est surtout tout 4 fait remarquable.

Autres coniféres.—A part les pins, nous avons essayé d'acclimater

quelques autres coniféres. Le tableau suivant présentera sous une forme
schématique les résultats obtenus:

Croissance

Espéce Age des plants moy . max. Aspect général

Abies balsamea 8 mois $ Presque nulle.

Abies cephalonica Les graines n'ont pas germé.

Sequoia sempervirens Une seule graine a germé, le
plant n'a pas survécu,

Cupressus sempervirens 18 ems. 26 cm. Satisfaisant.

Libocedrus decurrens Les graines n'ont pas germé,

Cedrus libani 6 mois $ Avcmts Seem. Chetart.

Gingko biloba Les graines n'ont pas germé.

Larix leptolepis 6 mois lem $ 2 cm. Chétif.

Larix europea Les graines n'ont pas germé.

Picea pungens glauca 6 mois 27cm. °3 em. -«Chéetit.

Juniperus bermudiana

Les graines n'ont pas germé.

Il ne faut pas déduire du fait que certaines graines n'ont pas ger-

mé que ces espéces ne peuvent 6tre acclimatées.

Certains coniféres ont

des graines preséntant un pouvoir germinatif trés capricieux; il nous
faudra essayer & nouveau les espéces qui n'ont pas germé,

5/ Les plants de P. radiata ont presénté de trés grandes variations
de croissance, ceci étant du probablement au sol de la plate-bande
qui n'était pas de richesse suffisamment uniforme.

ay anbas

Summary

Kenscoff, in the mountains above the capital of Haiti, is an important
agricultural section, possessing a cool climate, comparable with many other
mountain areas in the Republic. Erosion is the great problem. The extensive
pine forests which formerly existed here have been cleared and burned for agri-
cultural use, or cut for Christmas trees and fuel. Such clearing has extended
to the very steep slopes, where washing and impoverishment of the soil has been
excessive.

Owing to the necessity for shifting from the annual cultivated crops to
permanent fruit or forest groves, experiments are being carried on to determine
the species adaptable to the environment, Although the preliminary results
cannot be taken as definite proof of acclimatization, the findings to date are
of considerable interest and indicate future results.

Species of Eucalyptus, because of their rapid growth, ability to sprout,
their excellent wood, and the presence of commercial oil in the leaves (of
certain species), are very desirable. Several species have been tried out;
some attained a height of 120 cm. Bs mo. after seeding. Many pines and other
conifers have been given a trial in the nursery, and rates of growth are given.
Pinus radiata shows considerable promise. P. occidentalis, native to Haiti,
is a good turpentine species, and grows very rapidly.

Resumen

Kenscoff, radicado en las montafias inmediatas a la capital de Haiti es
una seccidén agricola importante y tiene un clima fresco parecido a muchas otras
4reas en las montafias de la Repiblica. La erosién es el problema mayor. Los
pinales extensos que existian anteriormente aquf, se han tumbado y quemado para
uso agricola 6 cortados para lefia y para Arboles de Navidad. Tal desmonte se
ha extendido hasta las cuestas mas empinadas donde el lavado y empobrecimiento
Gel suelo ha resultado excesivo.

Debido a la necesidad de cambiar de cosechas anuales a huertos frutales
6 bosques, se estan haciendo experimentos para determinar las especies que mas
se adaptan al medio ambiente. Aunque los resultados preliminares no se pueden
tomar como prueba definitiva de aclimatacién, los datos son de interés e
indicativos de futuros resultados.

Los Eucaliptos son muy deseables debido a su crecimiento rapido, su
habilidad para retonar, la madera excelente y el aceite que contienen las hojas
de algunas especies. Muchas especies han sido probadas y algunas han alcanzado
una altura de 120 cms. ocho meses después de haberse sembrado. Se han ensayado
muchos pinos y otros confferos en viveros y los promedios de crecimiento anotados.
Parece que Pinus radiata puede darse bien. P. occidentalis, el pino nativo de
Haiti, da muy buena trementina y crece muy rapidamente.

SDD) Ss

A MAHOGANY SEEDLING BLIGHT IN PUERTO RICO

L. A. Alvarez Garcia — Asst. Phytopathologist,
Agricultural Experiment Station
Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico

Introduction.—Among the various timber trees grown on hillsides and
valleys at lower elevations in Puerto Rico, the West Indian mahogany,
Swietenia mahagoni Jacq., is one of the most esteemed for furniture and
other purposes. The hard, strong, reddish-brown wood is considered one
of the best forest products of tropical America.

During the past few years,mild foliage troubles have been noticed
in nurseries at Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico, and at Villalba; and in August
of this year, our attention was called by the Forest Service at Rio Piedras,
to a sudden and severe outbreak of a blight, followed by defoliation, among
small 6-months—-old mahogany seedlings growing in the Insular Forest Nursery
at Guaénica, Puerto Rico.

Isolations made from infected leaves, as well as the examination
of the fruiting bodies present on them, revealed that the causative agent
is a fungus belonging to the Sphaeropsidales. All the information hereby
presented, unless otherwise stated, refers to the disease as it occurs in
the Insular Forest at Guanica,

Symptoms.—-The first noticeable symptom in the appearance of a dis-—
colored area along the margins, and particularly on the apical portion,
of the leaves. The infection occurs in old as well as in young leaves,
although more frequently in the former. The tips of the leaves appear ne-
crotic, as if burnt. As the disease progresses, the tissues beyond the
necrotic areas and across the whole width of the blade become a aul,
light green; this is followed by a complete necrosis of the previously in-
vaded regions. The dead portions are sordid yellow to dark brown, in-
creasing gradually toward the petioles. Small, black, erumpent bodies are
easily recognized scattered over the dead areas. With the advance of the
disease, the tips of the leaves curl up, and finally the necrotic leaves
dropvort.

Causal agent.-The pathogen responsible for this malady has been found
to be Phyllosticta sp., a member of the Sphaeropsidales of the Deuteromycetes.
Since, to our knowledge, there have been no previous reports on a disease of
this nature occurring in Puerto Rico or elsewhere, the organism is described
here as a new species:

Phyllosticta swietenia sp. nov.; Pycnidia numerous, scattered,
amphigenous, ochreous, lenticular to globose, thin membraneous, erumpent
or piercing the epidermis, large 190-285 x 95-135 mw. in diam.; ostiole
distinct, black bordered, 20 m. in diam.; conidia hyaline, granular,
ellipsoidal, pointed at both ends, 5.7-7.6 x 2.8-3.8 am.

meee a

Epidemiology.-ihe incidence of the malacy has been observed to be
affected by the amount of inoculum present, and by the moisture on the leaves.
The crowding of large seedlings in nurseries or the prolonged use of artificial
shade and sprinkling favor extensive development of the disease. Nurseries
kept without natural or artificial shade have shown no serious development of
the trouble.

It has been noticed that the lesions are more frequent at the tips of
the leaves, where water drops collect. These drops provide a very favorable
medium for the germination of the conidia and consequently for infection.
Germination of conidia placed in water occured within an hour. Apparently,
the delicate spores are incapable of standing long periods of dryness.

In Guanica, where the nurseries are located, the annual precipitation
fluctuates between 25 and 35 in. The climatic conditions are naturally un-
favorable for the incidence of the disease, but in this case the nurseries
were protected from the sunlight by palm-leaf shades and were watered re-
gularly with sprinklers every night. The wetting of the leaves and the
shade kept the environment very favorable for the spread of the pathogen.

At Rio Piedras, where the rainfall is high, but where the seedlings are
growing in the open, without shade, nurseries show no incidence of the
disease, the free circulating air keeping the leaves relatively dry.

Summary

A sudden outbreak of a foliage blight attacking 6-months-old West
Indian mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni Jacq.) seedlings growing at the Insular
Forest Nursery at Guanica, P. R. was found to be caused by an unreported
species of Phyllosticta, here described as P. swietenia sp. nov.

The initial infection, which starts generally at the apical portion
of the leaves and progresses toward the petiole, is followed by necrosis and
defoliation. Nurseries kept under artificial shade and in places of high
humidity are severely infected. Seedlings grown in the open escape the malady.

Resumen

Un brote serio de una enfermedad foliar se manifest6 recientemente entre
los semilleros de caoba, Swietenia mahagoni Jacq., ubicados en el Bosque In-
sular en Guanica, P. R. El patodgeno responsable es un hongo no informado
anteriormente, perteneciente al genero Phyllosticta y aqui llamado P. swietenia
sp. nov.

La infeccién, que se inicia generalmente en la punta de las hojas, como
una pequefia mancha oscura, necrética, avanza luego en forma continua hacia la
base. Invadidas totalmente, las hojas siguen una defoliacién,intensa. La
enfermedad toma incremento en semilleros bajo sombra, donde el ambiente es
hfimedo. En semilleros sin sombra la infeccién es minima,

Lye

SOME NOTES ON FOREST ENTOMOLOGY

Luis F. Martorell, Asst. Entomologist,
Agricultural Experiment Station,
Raio* Paledras, PB. Rh.

Successful control of the coffee stem borer--The coffee stem borer,
Apate francisca Fabr. has been known for many years as an insect pest on
coffee in Puerto Rico. The following trees or other plants are recorded
as additional hosts of the insect: grape fruit (Citrus maxima (Burm)
Merrill); citron (C. medica L.); chinaberry (Melia azedarach L.); pigeon
pea (Cajan cajan (L.) Millsp.); Humboldt's willow (Salix chilensis Molina);
Linociera domingensis Knobl.; Picramnia pentandra Sw.; avocado (Persea gra-
tissima Gaertn.); pomme rose (Jambos jambos (L.) Millsp.); pomegranate
(Punica granatum L.); flame tree (Delonix regia (Bojer) Raf.); annatto
(Bixa orellana L.); Inga vera Willd.; sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.);
tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.);and guava (Psidium guajava L.).

Recently, the insect has come to be better known,owing to the heavy
damage it inflicts on forest trees, such as Dominican mahogany (Swietenia
mahagoni Jacq.), West Indian birch (Elaphrium simaruba (L.) Rose), etc. In
July 1937, a heavy outbreak of Apate francisca appeared in forest plantations
in Mario Mercado's farm in the dry south-coast section near Guayanilla.
Young mahogany trees about 3 years old and ranging in diameter from 1 to 3 ft.
were found seriously infested by the borer, and sometimes individual trees con-
tained as many as 20 or more tunnels. The outbreak was a direct result of the
large amount of trash of tree trunks and branches left on the ground, following
previous clearing of a growth of inferior species, and providing excellent
conditions for the rapid breeding of the species. A high percent of the mahog—
any was attacked, and infestation spread to native Bucida buceras L. trees and
adjacent plantings of Australian pine (Casuarina equisetifolia Forst.) and flame
trees. As a control measure, Dr. Wolcott, Head of the Entomology Department at
the Experiment Station, recommended running a large flexible wire (No. 6 or No. 8)
into the tunnels to kill the beetles. Four or five men carried out this operation
on the several thousand trees in the plantation in one week, and almost completely
destroyed the infestation. Some of the trees had been so seriously attacked that
they died a few months later, but the rest were saved and subsequent infestations
have not been serious.

Control of the "capa" leaf—-roller—A very extensive infestation of the
capa leaf-roller, Hyblaea puera Cramer, on capaé blanco (Petitia domingensis Jacq.)
appeared in the Forest Service nurseries at Cayey in July 1937. . The infestation
spread rapidly and each day appeared in new seed beds. By spraying with arsenate
of lead in the proportion of 25 pounds to 50 gallons of water, and using soap
as a spreader, the infestation was stopped in about a week. Since that time,
only small outbreaks of the pest have occurred, and similar sprays of arsenate
of lead have always given satisfactory control.

A new insect record for Puerto Rico.—Phostria originalis Lederer, appeared
in Puerto Rico as a pest on moca (Andira inermis, H.B.K.), one of our valuable
forest trees. This is a web-worm which is found in clusters of about 80 to 100
at the ends of the branches, in a web made of silken hairs, dry twigs, and leaves.

Le

The tree is completely defoliated by the larvae. This insect was recorded
for the first time at Aibonito and Barranquitas in July 1936, and again in
July 1938. Several moca trees were seen badly defoliated by this insect
near Aibonito.

The larva of Phostria originalis is a small, greenish worm, about
20 mm. long, with greyish spots scattered over the body. The pupa, which
is dark reddish-brown, measures about 16 mm. in length. The pupal period
in the laboratory varied from 8 to 12 days.

Summary

The coffee tree borer, Apate francisca Fabr., has seriously infested
Dominican mahogany plantations in Puerto Rico. Control was secured by pushing
flexible wire into the tunnels to kill the beetles.

The cap&é leaf-roller, Hyblaea puera Cramer, attacked Petitia domingensis
seedlings in Forest Service nurseries. Adequate control was secured by spray-
ing arsenate of lead.

Phostria originalis Lederer, a web-worm, has been found defoliating
Andira inermis.

Resumen

El taladrador del tallo del café (Apate francisca Fabr.) ha infestado
grandemente las plantaciones de caoba dominicana en Puerto Rico. Este ataque
pudo combatirse introduciendo un alambre flexible dentro de los tineles para
matar el insecto.

El pega pega del cap& (Hyblaea puera Cramer) atacdé los arbolitos de
capa blanco (Petitia domingensis) en los planteles del Servicio Forestal.

Este insecto se pudo combatir con aspersiones de arseniato de plomo.

Phostria originalis Lederer, la oruga tejedora de la moca, fué hallada
deshojando los arboles de moca (Andira inermis).

SO Ghe

PREPARACION Y USO DEL MANTILLO O ESTIERCOL COMPUESTO
EN VIVEROS FORESTALES

J. A. Gilormini,
Assistant Forester,
Servicio Forestal de Puerto Rico

Introduccién—Para los que practicamos siembras en jardines, planteles
y viveros, el estiércol compuesto nos es de grandisima utilidad. En la
practica de viveros forestales por ejemplo, donde las plantulas van a estar
muy poco tiempo, tenemos que proporcionarle alimento de ligera asimilacion
para poder obtener arbolitos de buena calidad para ser luego llevados a los
distintos distritos forestales donde seran trasplantados definitivamente.

Sitio donde se usa el mantillo—La cantidad de arboles propagados
anualmente en los distintos viveros forestales es bastante considerable.
Las materias fertilizantes que éstos toman del terreno durante anos,
disminuye la propiedad fertilizante de dichos terrenos. El uso de abonos
quimicos proporcionaria una ayuda en cuanto a la alimentacién de los arbolitos
por cierto periodo de tiempo solamente; ya que estos abonos son arrastrados
por las lluvias y debido a su gran solubilidad se pierden considerablemente
con las aguas. Adem&as muchos de los terrenos usados para la propagacién de
arbolitos son pobres en materia orgadnica la cual puede ser suministrada con
la aplicaci6én de un estiércol compuesto bien curado que no perjudique a las
Siembras que se hagan en dichos terrenos.

Como se prepara _el mantillo—El mantillo es una mezcla compuesta
particularmente de estiércol de establo, hojarasca, cachaza, yerbas, tierra
y otras materias vegetales que se consigan.

Al preparar el monticulo de estiércol compuesto, la primera capa que se
pone consiste de terreno fértil de un espesor de 10 a 12 pulgadas. Entonces
las siguientes capas se alternan con estiércol, paja, yerbas, hojarasca,
cachaza y otras de las materias que estén a la mano. Cada capa no debe ser
de un espesor mayor de 4 a 7 pulgadas. Al terminar el montfculo de estiércol
compuesto, se la aplica una capa de tierra fértil encima del filtimo material
usado. Esta filtima capa debe ser de 6 a 10 pulgadas de espesor.

Es recomendable gue se aplique cal para mejorar su composici6n y evitar
la pérdida de nitrégeno durante la fermentacién.

Las capas deben guedar bien apretadas, pues si el estiércol y los otros
fermentos quedan flojos, se calientan mucho durante la fermentacién con la
consiguiente pérdida de algunos productos de nutricién de las plantas como el
nitrégeno. Al mantillo se le puede afadir abonos quimicos tales como el
superfosfato y sulfato de potasa para hacerlo mas rico en materias fertilizantes.
Esto queda a eleccién de acuerdo con la calidad del mantillo que se desee
preparar

iD

Después de preparar el monticulo de estiércol compuesto, éste puede
moverse dos 6 tres veces aurante la fermentacion para obtener un producto
homogéneo y bien curado.

Durante el perfodo de seca, el montén de estiércol compuesto debe ser
regado varias veces durante el tiempo de fermentacién para asegurar una completa
podredumbre de los distintos materiales.

El tiempo que toma un montén de estiércol compuesto para estar listo para
ser usado varia desde ocho meses a un ano.

Uso del mantillo.-El mantillo se aplica de acuerdo con la fertilidad y
condiciones fisicas del terreno. En terrenos medianamente fértiles usamos
mantillo a razén de 27 a 30 pies cibicos por 400 pies cuadrados de terreno
en los semilleros.

Se aplica antes de la preparacioén de los semilleros. Al aplicarse se
mezcla bien con el terreno y luego se procede a la preparacién de éstos para
sembrar la semilla inmediatamente después.

Summary

The addition of compost to forest-nursery sites balances the drain on the
soil in producing sturdy stock over successive years and gives more satisfactory
results than chemical fertilizers, which are rapidly leached from the soil by the
heavy rains of the tropics.

The compost heap is started with a layer of fertile soil 10 to 12 in.
deep followed by successive layers 4 to 7 in. deep of materials available,
such as manure, grass, weeds, leaves, filter-press cake, or other litter, with
a final topping of 6 to 10 in. of good soil. Some lime should be added, the
layers well packed, water added during dry spells, and the heap worked over
occasionally to insure thorough rotting of the materials and a homogeneous
mixture. The compost is ready for use at the end of 8 to 12 months.

It is applied previous to bed preparation and thus well mixed with the

soil. The amount to be applied varies with the condition of the nursery soil;
in Puerto Rico about 27 to 30 cu. ft. are used on a bed of 400 sq. ft.

a Se

THE FORESTS OF SURINAM

Gerold Stahel, Director,
Agricultural Experiment Station

The forests of Surinam cover about 90 percent of its area of
54,291 square miles. Between 1904 and 1925 a well equipped forestry
department was in operation with one or two trained foresters, but since
1925, the country has had no such officers, and the care of the forests
has rested upon the Surinam police.

Los bosques de Surinam cubren alrededor de un noventa por ciento
de su area de 54,291 millas cuadradas. Un departamento forestal bien
equipado estuvo en operacidén entre los afios 1904 y 1925 con uno 6 dos
silvicultores adiestrados, pero desde el 1925 el pafs no ha tenido esos
oficiales y el cuidado de los bosques ha descansado sobre la policfa de
Surinam.

NEW TROPICAL FOREST EXPERIMENT
STATION

The Federal Government of the United States of America recently has
appropriated funds for the establishment of a Tropical Forest Experiment
Station with headquarters in Puerto Rico. The appropriation of $30,000 was
granted by the Congress for the two-fold purpose of laying the scientific
foundation for sound forestry practices in Puerto Rico and elsewhere in the
American tropics, and to serve as far as feasible as a center for the
reception and dissemination of knowledge in the field of tropical forestry
in America.

Mr. Arthur Bevan, who is being offered the Directorship of this new
Station, and Dr. I. T. Haig, Chief of the Division of Forest Management
Research of the United States Forest Service, are now in Puerto Rico to set
up the organization of this unit. It is hoped under these auspices to greatly
expand the progress of work, which has been under way for the last 13 years
on emergency funds.

The results from the studies to be undertaken should help greatly

to solve the forestry problems in Puerto Rico. At the same time, it is
hoped that many findings will have a wide application in the Caribbean region.

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It is my pride and joy to be the shepherd of my country's trees.

TROPICAL FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION,
UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE,
RIO PIEDRAS, PUERTO RICO

JAN. 1940

THE CARIBBEAN FORESTER

This journal is planned as a medium of exchange of knowledge between
those interested in forestry in the islands and countries in or near the
Caribbean Sea. Invitations to cooperate in this project have been sent to
forestry and agricultural officials in the following places:

Bahama Islands Dominican Republic Mexico

Barbados French Guiana Nicaragua

British Guiana Grenada Panama

British Honduras Guadeloupe St. Lucia

Canal Zone Guatemala ob. Vincent

Colombia Haiti Salvador

Costa Rica Honduras Surinam

Guba Jamaica Trinidad & Tobago

Dominica Leeward Islands Venezuela
Martinique

It is planned to present this journal quarterly. Material for pub-
lication should be submilted at least two months before publication date
and be addressed to the Director, Tropical Forest Experiment Station,

Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico.

Edited, Multilithed, and Distributed
by the
Southern Forest Experiment Station
New Orleans, La. U.S.A.

To Our Collaborators

The coming of each new year is conducive to a short period of
retrospection as well as to consideration of intended accomplishments
for the next 12-month period. Like a young child, however, "The
Caribbean Forester" has had too little experience to allow us to in-
dulge in thoughts on past accomplishments. We wish to mention only
in passing that the first step taken, namely, the October issue,
brought forth a great number of congratulatory letters from far and
wide, expressing the wish for long-continued life of the new periodical.
This information is gladly passed on to the several contributors who
made the first number possible.

As for the future, the satisfactory fulfillment of the Journal's
purpose to assemble the vast amount of silvicultural information scat-
tered about the Caribbean region and to make it available for all in-
terested workers, will depend in great measure on the extent to which
contributors from the various countries are willing or able to parti-
cipate. At any rate, the fact that articles are arriving from countries
new to the list of contributors augurs well for an increased participa-
tion during the present year.

Such an increase in the number of organizations taking an active
part in the journal is highly desirable, since it makes possible the
attainment of a much more complete picture of the forestry situation in
the Caribbean region, where this publication may serve as a document
for future study of the local growth of the forestry movement and of
silvicultural knowledge. Even a rapid scanning of the articles in the
first two numbers suffices to demonstrate the strong desire already
present to put an end to devastating forces and to show the forests in
their true economic light.

It is hoped that the remaining countries in our region will go
on record soon with descriptions of their forestry situations, so that
we all can watch the future developments not only within our own borders
but also within the region as a whole, and thus enjoy the encouragement
for our own efforts and the pleasure which concerted participation in
a good cause affords.--L. R. Holdridge, Tropical Forest Experiment Station.

CONTENTS

Mapping vegetational types in British Honduras from aerial photographs,

J ¢B..Kinloch, British, Honduras oi. 5 cits anette ossvaresaeheren ere eneeecone mene pene tane tre al
Forestry in Grenada, W. H.. Hagley, .Grenadars i. cin.tcaiteheysureteeie eieretaclometereeeole 5)
Forestry and forest resources in Haiti, Schiller Nicolas, Haiti......... 7
Reservation policy in Jamaica, C. Swabey, Jamaica: iy.ch20c 2h. au eee 10

El servicio forestal en la Republica Dominicana, Tomas Erickson,
Dominican’ REPUbE AC yw jo ass aca: colts a die. \a\'e Syioolle a ovelcval aha stelapeheleteeeme ied: Rate ta ote a ane aks

Conservacion, ‘José Marrero, Puerto “Rico... cise wes olen elie Solent ha eee iy

A rapid method of extracting balsa seed, L. R. Holdridge, Puerto Rico. .25

A cedar seedling blight in Puerto Rico, L. A. Alvarez Garcfa,
PUI GO! RAC Ole! sitio Site als ar's GO eee nee ates ote ree sie 4: aber Mebatecatehete near ete teRegate 26

Calophyllum antillanum, a desirable tree for difficult planting Mee

Le. Rs Holdridge. Puerto: (RAC orci een cle ccolapenoke tee Melemette ts Uavenenenenees «letaneasleyle
The entomologist looks at maga, George N. Wolcott, Puerto Rico......... 29
Some notes on forest entomology, Luis F. Martorell, Puerto Rico........ 31
EN SMEMOL LAM salad eta aia aa: area elie lalouep eyavane) &)alacsiell) etojerledalteleretanenecotaGuraie cl ytlek ote Renters Meneame 33

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MAPPING VEGETATIONAL TYPES IN BRITISH HONDURAS
FROM AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

J. B. Kinloch,
Assistant Conservator of Forests

In 1939 British Honduras was fortunate in receiving photographs of an
aerial survey carried out over the greater part of the Colony; and the Forest
Department has started an attempt to interpret these photographs for a re-
vision of its vegetation map, but our experience is still very limited. The
following notes, however, may be of interest to tropical foresters who for the
first time are attempting similar work; and it is hoped that they will bring
out helpful suggestions from more experienced men.

Mapping vegetation types in the Colony is aimed at obtaining (1) data
as to the available volumes of timber other than the one export species,
mahogany, in order to develop a wider utilization of the country's forest
resources; and (2) soil-—type information on which to lay the foundations of a
sound policy of land usage. Inthis densely wooded, sparsely inhabited country
with its few internal communications, the determination of the boundaries of
vegetation types by ground methods is of necessity slow and expensive; labor
is costly, and the trained staff is short.

A triangulation framework exists, and on it the numerous cadastral
surveys will be tied. As regards actual small-scale topography, little has
been done except forest, river, and road surveys and the topography included
on the cadastral surveys. From the aerial photographs, it will be possible to
show all the topography, with the exception of the Maya Mountains, which were
not photographed.

On account of the geological immaturity, there are no large uniform
expanses of any one soil-type. Since vegetation is closely correlated with
soil, vegetation types are very patchy. Interpolation of association bound-
aries on a map based on the usual l1- to 5—-percent transect-samples may there-
fore be little more than informed guesswork, since the range of vision in
the rain forest is little more than a chain. Our experience indicates that
practically nothing short of 100-percent stock- and type-mapping can be con-
sidered accurate, but it is financially impossible to carry out 100-percent
enumerations in reasonable time except in restricted areas. We do not have
6,000 C.C.C. workers! Therefore if association boundaries can be distinguish-
ed accurately on the aerial photographs, the value of sampling transects will
be enhanced greatly.

There are two ways of interpreting photographs. In the first, the
photographic survey precedes the ground survey. Photographs of selected,
typical areas may then be taken to the field, and the ground conditions noted
on the photographs. The second method is to carry out the ground survey and
then attempt to correlate the photographs with this in the office. Here we
have no choice; the second method must be adopted, since only one set of
photographs is available and this has to be preserved carefully in the
Survey Department.

During the past 7-8 years we have carried out a resources survey, in
which it was attempted to sample a typical area in each of the major geologi-
cal and floristic regions by transects, giving on an average a 3-percent enu-
meration with an ecological basis. A considerable volume of field data is now
being summarized, and all plotting of maps has been completed. This field work
was undertaken almost wholly by two European officers and later by small native
crews trained under them. This point is mentioned, since it must be stressed
that interpretation of vegetation in the office from the photographs we are
studying is possible only with a good knowledge of conditions in the field.

The aerial photographs are being plotted in the Survey Department. The
resulting map on a scale of approximately 1:40,000 will be compiled into plans
of a convenient size. To Mr. G. A. Elliott, who has studied this branch with
H. M. Ordinance Survey, thus obtaining very useful experience, I am indebted
for collaboration in the preparation of this note.

The value of a knowledge of conditions on the ground is demonstrated amply,
since the stations of the triangulation survey can be located in the photographs,
which are thus being adjusted into an accurate framework. The degree of accuracy
of the resulting map is much higher than could have been obtained had the triangu-
lation survey not been carried out. Similarly the ground work of the vegetation
survey is providing a sound starting point in obtaining information on the vegeta—
tion from the photographs.

The flying height of 21,000 ft. and the scale of the photographs were
chosen as most convenient for a photo-geological survey. The vegetational de-
tail is minute; and the magnification, while sometimes helpful, is generally un-
satisfactory, since fine detail is obscured in the grain of the paper. Much
finer differences in vegetation undoubtedly could be made from photographs
taken between 5,000 and 8,000 ft. In spite of this limitation, the small-scale
photographs are already affording valuable information, and it is hoped that
further study will overcome most of the difficulties at present encountered in
interpreting the vegetation.

Forest officers in British Honduras have flown on every opportunity
afforded by a restricted travelling budget. During the last 3 years, the start
of an internal air service has enabled them, while travelling to outstations,
to become acquainted with the aspect of the different vegetational types from
the air. Usual flying heights are between 1,000 and 2,000 ft., from which in-
dividual canopy species often can be recognized, especially when they are in
flower. Sketching the vegetation has been attempted whenever possible. This
limited flying experience has proved very helpful in studying the high-altitude
photographs, in which individual species generally cannot be recognized, since
the crowns of the rain-forest canopy appear fused into an indistinct mosaic.

Certain vegetational types, however, can be distinguished readily. '
Open grassland, slash pine forest, mangrove, low scrub-swamp forest, new cul-
tivation, and rain forest all have their distinctive appearances. The most
important type from the forestry aspect, the rain forest, is unfortunately
much more difficult to subdivide into its various associations, which often
differ markedly in species, timber sizes, and value for agricultural sites.

On first examination the rain forest appears the same in all localities,
but it is essential that subdivision be attempted. The first major subdivision
which suggests itself is into geological regions. As noted above, geology and
vegetation are closely related in British Honduras, and the resources survey
has sampled the main geological regions, which are readily distinguished by
the type of weathering of the different rocks. The precipitous sinkhole, en-
closed-valley weathering of the dense limestone is very different from the
herringbone, rounded gullying of the granites and schists, which in turn
differs from the knife-edge splitting of the slates or the low rolling terrain
of the Toledo shales. Their floras, seen on the ground, are as distinct as
the weathering appears from the air.

The present stereoscope is not fitted with a grid for measuring height.
A new model, which should arrive shortly for the Survey Department, has this
refinement, but how far it can be used on the high-altitude photographs is
still to be discovered. Nevertheless, relative heights of the canopy can be
estimated in any one locality.

The resources survey classified the forests in 10- to 15-foot height-
classes, which have been found during the summarizing of the field data to
correspond roughly with variations in the association within any one geologi-
cal region. An approximate subdivision of the rain forest into low (30-50 ft.),
medium (50-70 ft.).and high (70-100 ft.) classes can be made with the present
stereoscope.

It is further known that the associations vary according to whether the
slopes are steep or gentle, since slope affects drainage and consequently soil
moisture. Hill-top vegetation differs from that of the valley sides, and the
latter from that of the valley bottoms. Approximate contouring, therefore,
provides a further clue to the association examined.

In all our ecological work, the palm associates have been regarded as
important indicators; and most of our associations have been described from the
several predominating broadleaved species, in conjunction with the palm associates,
which appear to be much more selective of soil or soil moisture than most of the
broadleaved species.

It has been found that the crowns of canopy palms show up white in
contrast to the usual light or dark greys of the broadleaved species. This effect,
probably caused by the reflection of light from the glabrous palm crowns, can be
checked in the shifting-cultivation clearings in high rain forest,where the natives
leave the canopy palms standing in their clearings. With X4 magnification, these
isolated palms can be seen clearly, giving a clue to the nature of the adjoining
forest. The white crowns of the palms stand out from the darker matrix of the
broadleaved species and, wherever they are frequent in the canopy, create a
peculiar pepper-and-salt effect; this is generally true only in high rain forest.
It has been noticed on the ground that, in general, the larger the canopy palms
the taller is the forest. In low rain forest, canopy palms are sparse.

It has not yet been found possible to differentiate between the two
chief canopy palms, viz., Sabal, which is confined to limestone soils, and
Orbignya, which occurs in the highest types of rain forest on the limestone,
as well as on the granites and schists and Toledo shales. This may be found
possible with further study of the magnified photographs.

For working out association differences in the rain forest from the
photographs,there thus exists a number of clues; these include geology, slope,
aspect, relative height of the canopy, abundance of canopy palms, and general
appearance of the photographic matrix.

To interpret these results,an area that has been transect-sampled is
selected. The nlan, which is on the scale of 20 chains to the inch, shows
the height-class association boundaries at their junctions with the transects.
A map prepared from the photographs, showing all boundaries that can be ascer-
tained from the factors listed above, is enlarged to the. 20-chains scale. The
field plan is then superimposed on the aerial map, and all possible boundaries
are connected,

The aerlal map is then superimposed on the field plan, and any associa-
tion boundary junctions left unconnected are marked off on it. The sections be-
tween such unconnected boundaries will then be re-examined under magnification
and the height grid to see whether finer distinctions cannot be discovered.

While this system will practically bring the field into the office,
sufficient experience has not yet been gained to tell whether differences ob-
vious in the field will be as apparent on the small-scale photographs. It is
hardly to be expected that all the numerous associations recognized in the field
will be distinguished, but our foundation of ground work enables us to make a
fairly confident start.

Resumen

El Departamento Forestal de Honduras Britdnicas tiene acceso a un juego
de estampas fotograficas de un reconocimiento hecho de la mayor parte de la
Colonia, y se esta empezando a hacer un mapa de la vegetacién. Las fotograffas
fueron hechas a una escala pequefia y, por lo tanto, el detalle del terreno es
diminuto.

Aunque las colindancias de la vegetacién pueden ser distinguidas hasta
por el] mas lego, la subdivisién de los bosques pluviales en sus numerosas
asociaciones es mucho mas diffcil.

La necesidad de un conocimiento inteligible de las condiciones en el
campo esta acentuada, y ciertos factores sugeridos por los resultados de un
estudio hecho sobre una base ecolégica durante varios aos se mencionan como
ayudas definitivas en la subdivisidén del bosque pluvial. Estos incluyen
geologia, declive, aspecto, altura relativa del covertor vegetal, abundancia
de palmas de dosel y la apariencia general de la matriz fotogrdfica.

FORESTRY IN GRENADA

W. H. Hagley,
Forest Officer and Agricultural Assistant

The island of Grenada, some 120 square miles in extent, may be considered
mountainous. The main chain of mountains, which runs from north to south, in-
cludes the most important forest areas of the colony. The St. Catherine "massif"
to the North, with one spur having an altitude of 2,749 ft. above sea level,
attains the highest elevation of the entire mountain system, but some 17 peaks
in the chain have altitudes of 2,000 ft. and over. The forests of the colony
are mainly of the tropical evergreen type, lying within (and to a great extent
above) an isohyet of 100 in. of rainfall per annun.

As early as 1887, Mr. Hooper reported on the forests of Grenada and
Carriacou and recommended the reservation of the forests on the central ridge
of the colony for water-conservation purposes. With the exception of the ap-
pointment in 1898 of forest guards to prevent illicit felling of timber, there
is little record of any action being taken in that direction until 1906, when
an ordinance was passed bringing into being the Grand Etang Forest Reserve.

In 1910 the Forestry Ordinance was introduced, and with it was established

a Forestry Board, the primary function of which was to draft schemes for the
protection of forest growths of the colony. In 1937 the administration of

the forest reserves was vested in the Agricultural Department, and every effort
is being made to develop the forests on scientific lines.

Reserved forests occupy about 4,000 acres, and the total area of state
and private forests is approximately 16,000 acres. This area represents nearly
19 percent of the total land area of the colony. Major agriculture, the cul-
tivation of cocoa and nutmegs, occupies some 33,000 acres. These orchard
crops with their somewhat dense canopies play an important part as allies of
forest growth in the conservation of soil and water.

Prior to 1937, the state forests were viewed solely from a protection
point of view and were maintained absolutely as rain reserves. The present
policy, it may be stated, aims at the development and extension of the forests
on mixed lines. From the protection aspect, every effort is made to protect
and maintain the headwaters of rivers, especially the catchment areas of
potable waters; to maintain the forest cover on ridges and on steep hillsides
in a campaign against erosion; and to establish windbreaks. From the economic
point of view, merchantable species that have reached maturity are exploited;
and the management of the forests, under a scheme of improvement fellings ana
liberation cuttings, aims at gradually changing the forests, in suitable areas,
so that more valuable species may in time play the dual role of protection and
supply, thus relieving at least a fair portion of the financial burden incurred
by their conservation. Seed and seedlings of economic species are being dis-
tributed free of cost to estates for windbreaks and shelterbelts. It is hoped
that by this means the management of such estates will establish, wherever
practicable, woodlots on soils of low agricultural value and gradually replace
existing shelterbelts with species of greater economic value.

Little work has been done as yet in carrying out enumeration surveys,
and therefore no detailed stock of timber is available. It may be safely
stated, however, that gommier (Dacryodes hexandra) is easily the dominant
Species, and in many areas of the forest can be found in almost pure stands.
Bullet (Mimusops balata), laurier (Lauraceae), maruba (Simaruba_amara),
serette (Byrsonima spicata), greenheart (Buchenavia capitata), and crappo
(Carapa guianensis), are occasional to rare. In the lower elevations and
coastal areas, red cedars (Cedrela mexicana), West Indian mahogany (Swietenia
mahagoni), Honduras mehogany (S. macrophylla), and white cedar (Tecoma
leucoxylon ) thrive weil, and there is a considerable area in these belts
where woodlots could be established successfully with these species.

Nurseries are being established to provide seedlings for regeneration
work; maruba, serette, crappo, and the several kinds of laurier are the principal
Species grown. Seedlings of semi-forest crops, such as cloves, cinnamon, and
pimento, are also being grown for free distribution to peasants, in an endeavor
to encourage them to plant the steep hillsides of their holdings for the twofold
purpose of agricultural extension and soil conservation.

Exports of West Indian mahogany on a small scale are being made to the
neighboring colony of Trinidad, and a limited market for locally produced boards,
scantling, and shingles exists in this colony. The conversion of this timber,
which is principally gommier, furnishes employment for a moderate number of wood-
cutters, together with their help, throughout the year. Locally sawn boards are
sold at a price which approximates 50 percent of that for imported lumber. This
construction material is used, in large part, for building laborers' and peasants!
cottages.

It must be stated that the Forest Service of this colony is small and
perforce all efforts must be somewhat circumscribed; nevertheless, the various
problems of forest management that present themselves are being attacked along
technical lines. It is gratifying, therefore, to know that in the solution of
some of these problems it may be possible to draw upon the experiences of other
Forest Services through the medium of this journal.

Resumen

La isla de Grenada, que comprende aproximadamente 120 millas cuadradas,
es mas bien montanosa. Los bosques, que ocupan casi un quinto de la colonia,
son principalmente del tipo tropical vivaz.

Antes del 1937, los bosques del estado se preservaban principalmente para
la proteccién, pero la presente politica de administracién trata de conseguir
la conversidén gradual de los bosques al doble propdédsito de proteccién y produccién.
Al presente, la tumba de madera provee emplec local y material de construccién,
asi como tambien pequefias cantidades de caoba antillana para exportar a Trinidad.

Se han establecido viveros para proveer arbolitos de especies maderables

y de cosechas semi-forestales y se atacan por vias técnicas los varios problemas
de administracién forestal que se presentan.

Ome

FORESTRY AND FOREST RESOURCES IN HAITI

Schiller Nicolas, Service Technique

The Republic of Haiti occupies approximately one-third of the island
of Hispaniola. The Indian name, "Haiti", refers to a mountainous and wooded
land, but the traveler who comes to the country for the first time, whether
by boat or airplane, after seeing what man has brought about, might conclude
that the name was given in derision.

The topography, the climate, the soils (mostly from calcareous rock),

the great variety of excellent woods, and the restricted valley area, should
make forestry one of the most important economic activities of the country.
On the contrary, however, nowhere else in the West Indies has deforestation

and erosion played such tragic havoc and depleted agricultural resources to
such a dangerous point. This mischief has taken place mostly since 1840,
because previous to that date the farming operations of the French on the
mountain slopes consisted mainly of growing coffee and cacao. Moreover,
the application of drastic laws against clearing of land, the small popula-
tion, and the intensive use of irrigation water for sugarcane plantations
and for sugar, indigo, and coffee mills, kept the misuse of the hill lands
within a reasonable limit.

When independence was secured (1804), Haiti had a population of about
520,000 inhabitants. Ever since, the population has increased about 500,000
every 25 years. The pressure of population, in conjunction with the absence
of any agricultural and forestry organization and policy, the insecurity of
land titles, political instability, the "peon" system for the share croppers,
absentee ownership of land, inadequate fiscality, etc., have created outright
the plague of "bois neuf" or shifting cultivation. To appreciate fully the
dreadfulness of the situation, it may not be amiss to point out a few facts.
Haiti, with a population of 3 million souls, has an area of 27,700 sq. kn.,
including the adjacent islands, or 2,770,000 hectares of land. Of this,
2,070,000 has. consist of rugged mountains and tablelands, and the remain-—-
ing 700,000 are in plains. In the upland regions, there were only 700,000
has. suitable for agriculture. About $ million has. of densely wooded areas
have been cleared for permanent crops and about 1 million has. for
annual crops. Observers admit that in less than a century about two-thirds
of this land has become unproductive, and of the 500,000 has. of hill lands
left, probably 100,000 are submarginal and could be restored to agricultural
uses only at a heavy (probably prohibitive) cost. Thus the mountains and hills
offer but 400,000 has., which, with the primitive, inadequate, and exhaustive
agricultural methods of the peasants, are rapidly deteriorating. Two-thirds
of this area may be considered as moist, receiving an average yearly pre-
cipitation of 175 cm. and having an annual mean temperature of 18°C.

The area in valleys and plains covers some 500,000 has., of which
more than 100,000 are unproductive through alkalinization, drought, water
occupation, lack of drainage, and deposition of gravel and sand by floods.
Of the 400,000 left, approximately 300,000 at the most may be classified
as agricultural. The portion irrigated by combined government and private
works hardly reaches 40,000 has. The prevailing climate is mostly semi-arid,
with 90-150 em. of rain annually, and a high mean annual temperature of 27°.,
concurrent with steady drying winds curing the winter.

This total of 700,000 has. amounts to less than ¢ ha. per capita of
the rural population, which is not enough for bare subsistence. All this has
occurred in that surprisingly short time through deforestation (for agricultural
purposes) of sites which were suitable for forest growth only and which, properly
managed, would have insured permanent revenue to the public treasure and profit-—
able labor to a goodly portion of the population.

According to its Indian appellation, in Haiti one would naturally expect
to see forestry solidly and extensively established with government and private
organizations, but the absence of, and indifference for, this branch of human
activity is shocking. Up to 1924, the Department of Agriculture maintained
an employee for forest and water conservation, but this function was exclusively
figurative. As for legislation, the old "Code Rural", based on colonial regula—
tions and containing some excellent dispositions, remained a dead letter.

Not until 1924, was an adequate Department of Agriculture, with a forestry
branch, founded in Haiti. In Feb. 1925, the forester in charge, Wm. R. Barbour,
took office at Port-au-Prince. After functioning for 6 years this branch was
closed, owing to the impossibility of obtaining reserves under conditions which
would allow the elaboration of an appropriate forestry program. The fundamental
obstacle came from the inadequacy of domain legislation and the imbroglio of
land titles. Most of the activities of the section centered on establishing
the sisal industry. In 1926, however, an important bill authorized the creation
in the north of a reserve of 38,700 has., mainly logwood. In 1937 another
important reserve of some 15,000 has. was also established by law in the pine
forest of the La Selle Mountains south of Port-au-Prince, but up to now these
have been mere testimonials of good intentions.

A small watershed area of 80 has. at Petion-Ville, a suburb of Port-au-
Prince, has been reserved since 1936. Also in the spring of 1939, a reforesta-—
tion plan, comprising the planting of a mixed stand of quick-bearing fruit trees,
shade trees for the establishment of coffee groves in the future, and economic
hardwoods, was drawn up and is being executed. Urgent action was felt necessary,
because one of the two springs which furnished water to a goodly portion of the
population of Port-au-Prince had dried up for the first time, and severe hardship
had resulted.

Other laws concerning forest conservation and the protection of steep
jands were aimed at (1) preventing destructive fires in the cattle-range
savannahs in the pine forests, and (2) controlling timber cutting on private
and state land, based on minimum ~ girth allowances. Unfortunately, however,
the personnel to carry out these laws is already overburdened with agricultural
activities and has received no special training.

Last year a section of Silviculture which functions under the division
of export crops, was created. It supervises extension projects of tree
planting on slopes not suitable for annual crops, and the organization of fire
prevention in the pine forests of La Selle and the North. At the former it
has undertaken a small trial of turpentining to determine commercial possibil-
ities. It will shortly undertake a progressive program of lumber felling and
sawing of boards, in order to give employment to numerous idle farmers.

Summary

Haiti, occupying one-third of the island of Hispaniola, possesses the
natural qualifications for extensive development of forestry activities, but
since 1800 deforestation and erosion have played heavy havoc, resulting in
serious depletion of forests and agricultural resources. For 6 years after
its establishment in 1925, a forestry branch functioned within the Depart-
ment of Agriculture but with very restricted forestry activities. Forest
reserves have been created and conservation laws passed, but an adequate
personnel is not available for their management and application. A new
section of Silviculture established last year has again taken up forestry
activities in the Republic.

Resumen

Haiti, que ocupa la tercera parte de la isla de Santo Domingo, posee los
requisitos naturales para el desarrollo de actividades silviculturales, pero
desde el 1800 las tumbas irracionales y la erosién han producido grandes estragos
que han resultado en serias desolaciones de los bosques y de los recursos
agricolas. En 1925, como parte del Departamento de Agricultura, se establecié
una seccioén de silvicultura que funcioné durante seis afios, pero con actividades
muy limitadas. Se han establecido reservas forestales y se han aprobado leyes
de conservacién, pero no se dispone de personal adecuado para la explotacidén de
las unas y la aplicacién de las otras. Una nueva seccién de silvicultura
establecida el afio pasado se ha hecho cargo de nuevo de las actividades forestales
de la Republica.

RESERVATION POLICY IN JAMAICA

C. Swabey, Forest Officer

The formulation of a suitable policy to control the selection of perma-
nent Forest Reserves in Jamaica is by no means easy; maladjustments in land use,
absence of adequate maps, an apparent land hunger, and political complications
all tend to obscure a rational interpretation of the fundamental land-use

optimum.

It is believed that similar difficulties arise in most islands of

the West Indies, and a discussion of the views evolved in Jamaica might be of

interest.

In the first place, we are faced with the following facts:

(1)

The population which is 260 per square mile, is increasing at
the rate of nearly 24 percent per annum, so we must expect a
pressure of 600 to the square mile within 50 years.

The bare maintenance of life of such a population demands that
every acre of land capable of growing food and cash crops must
be used for these purposes.

The proximity of the North American continent permits the im-
portation of supplies of softwood at a reasonable rate. While
war conditions might cause temporary increases in prices, the
preliminary data of the Forest Survey conducted by the Southern
Forest Experiment Station at New Orleans indicates that fears of
a southern timber famine are unjustified.

In some districts, firewood, fence posts, and other forest pro-
ducts essential to the agriculturist are not available.

Excessive deforestation and unsuitable agricultural methods
(including methods of grazing) have caused enormous soil losses,
with the inevitable results: general rural impoverishment, loss

of soil fertility, declining crop yields, floods, droughts, lowered
water table, and silting of streams, reservoirs, and irrigation
channels.

From these basic facts, which have to be considered in framing a forest
reservation program (although there is danger of oversimplification,if all other
facts are ignored), several conclusions may be drawn:

(1) There is no justification to retain as Forest Reserves solely for pro-
duction purposes any areas capable of permanent agricultural use. Ex-
ceptions to this are in areas of high population, where local reserves
for fuel, etc. are not available on land unsuited for agriculture, but
such conditions are not frequent.

(2) Areas where agricultural development cannot be carried on without
seriously endangering the welfare of the community should be reserved
as protective forest.

(3) Areas unsuited to any form of permanent agricultural use should be
maintained as forest.

Ore

We thus have the following forest classification:
A. Land suitable for agriculture
(i) but required for soil and water conservation (protection) ;
(ii) but required for local supplies of fuel, etc. (production).
B. Land unsuitable for agriculture (protection or production).

Once these principles have been accepted, the next step is the actual
selection in the field of areas to be reserved. Here we immediately are faced
with problems of land classification, and certain queries present themselves.

For instance, in the mountain areas of steep slopes, high rainfall, and erosible
soil, the mere reservation of the main ridges and the stream banks can never solve
problems of soil and water losses on agricultural lands on the intermediate slopes;
the selection of reserves for protection of a natural drainage area must therefore
be based, not on any absolute or theoretical land-use optimum, but on a lmowledge
of the type of agriculture which is to be practised on the unreserved land. If

a highly developed soil-conserving agricultural technique is adopted, the require-
ments for Forest Reserves obviously will be far less than if primitive soil-wast-
ing processes are employed. Forest reservation under such conditions, unless
accompanied by improved agricultural technique, is of only limited value in the
economy of the drainage area, and it is therefore necessary to assume that an
erosion-control program on agricultural land will be pursued in conjunction

with the reservation program. Such a scheme is under way in Jamaica, in an
attempt to achieve control and balanced use of soil and water resources. Even

so, selection of the actual boundary line is certain to be somewhat arbitrary

with our present ignorance of the relationships between soil, water, and plant
cover.

It is necessary to draw a distinction between areas already excessively
deforested and those where agricultural development may still be extended; in
the first case, selection of the limit of Forest Reserves is often based on
local economic and social factors, i.e., om the extent of land it is possible
to retire from cultivation without causing undue dislocation of the local
economy. An actual example may illustrate this: In one of the Blue Mountain
valleys, in great need of protection, the east side of the valley has been
split up into small holdings, often less than 5 acres in extent. Any attempt
at wholesale reservation and removal of the thousands of families involved
would have been out of the question as long as they had been forced through
land pressure to attempt mixed-crops farming and had saved some of their soil.
On the western side of the valley, the land was mainly in the hands of large
proprietors, the higher lands being subjected to transient tenancies; here it
was possible to extend reservation down through these private lands, without
depriving the rural population of irreplaceable means of support.

On the other hand, the selection of the reserve boundaries on undeveloped
land can be effected on a somewhat less artificial basis. On the northern slopes
of the Blue Mountains, under such conditions the underlying principal is to run
the line at a elevation of 3,000 ft. (maximum elevation of the range is 7,300 ft.),
below which permanent and mixed cultivation can be carried out; above that eleva-—
tion, the principal cultivation would be annual crops highly conducive to soil
erosion. The reserve boundary may drop down to 2,000 ft. or even lower where
slopes are excessively steep or where ridges and spurs are to be guarded.

eer

Turning now to land unsuited to agriculture, an entirely different
approach is necessary. The requirements here are not to reserve the maximum
of land compatible with the economy of the district, but to reserve only that
land which can produce a better economic return under forest than under agri-
cultural management. This problem is mainly met in the great limestone areas’
which cover three-fifths of Jamaica, and here again the decision is by no means
easy. It has been the habit of peasants on the limestone areas of adequate
rainfall to use shifting cultivation, and such a system, modified and controlled,’
may yet prove to be the soundest; the rocky hills certainly will not stand per—
manent cropping, while the porous nature of the soil renders this apparent abuse
comparatively innocuous from the point of view of erosion.

The issue is complicated further by the presence of small fertile glades
amongst the rocky "cockpit" formations; these may range from 4 acre to 5 or
6 acres but they generally are small. There is great demand for land in these
little glades; and it seems probable that, even when within a forest reserve,
they will be leased or rented under some controjJled form of land use. Reserva-—
tion of the dry limestone areas is simple and straightforward, as the land is
quite unsuited to any form of agriculture.

Resumen

Al formular una polftica de reservas forestales en Jamaica, uno se con-
fronta con los siguientes hechos: una poblacién de 260 habitantes por cada milla
cuadrada que aumenta a razén de 24 por ciento por aho; la necesidad que tiene
esa poblacién de utilizar toda la tierra disponible para la produccién de alimen-
tos y de frutos para la venta; la facilidad para la importacién de maderas de pino
de} continente norteamericano a precios razonables; la ausencia en algunos
distritos de combustible y de productos de madera para el agricultor; una excesiva
despoblacién de bosques y métodos agricolas poco apropiados con sus males
resultantes.

A base de éstos y otros hechos, las reservas forestales deben establecerse
en tierras que no sean apropiadas para Ja agricultura o en tierras propias para
la agricultura cuando esas reservas sean necesarias para la conservacién del suelo
o de la Jjuvia, o para suplir localmente combustible y otros productos de madera.
La seleccién actual de las areas en el campo apareja muchos serios problemas; y
si han de establecerse reservas en suelos de categoria agricola, los métodos de
cultivo que se practican, asi como los factores econémicos y sociales de la
tocalidad, deben ser considerados.

She yyee

EL SERVICIO FORESTAL EN LA REPUBLICA DOMINICANA

Tomas Erickson, Agrénomo Encargado,
Servicio de Foresta, Caza y Pesca

la isla Hispaniola o de Santo Domingo, que es la segunda en extensién
notre las Antillas Mayores, ee su superficie repartida entre la Republica
+n ft

Dom inicana al Este y la Republica de Haiti al Oeste. Comparandola con los

ros paises antillanos, la tales Dominicana, con una extension superfi-

cial de 50,070 kilometros cuadrados, y una poblacion de 1,479,417 habitantes,

puede considerarse muy escasamente poblada, ya que la densidad de su poblacién
de unos 30 habitantes por kilémetro cuadrado. £1 territorio de la Replblica,

afecta la forma de un poligono muy irregular, cruzado por cuatro sistemas de

montanas que corren de Este a Oeste, con ligeras inclinaciones hacia el norte

ui 3] sur. :

Los vientos alisios y la orografia del pais, con tan notables diferencias
i2 nivel, son causas de que la temperatura varie bastante de una regién a otra,
d= modo que mientras en los llanos costeros puede llegar a alcanzar hasta 35° y
en verano, en la misma época se registra en las montahas una temperatura
0° — 22°C., la cual puede bajar en invierno hasta 0°C. Estos dos factores,
los alisios y los sistemas de altas montanas, vienen a determinar para el pais
una temperatura mucho mas moderada de lo que podria esperarse de tomar en cuenta,
Unicamente, su latitud. Asi tenemos una temperatura media anual en el pais de
24..7°C. y de 17.8°9C. en el valle de Constanza.

2 WwW Qs
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(NOM SEI

La caida de lluvia también varia mucho, segin la zona; asi no es extrano
gus se registren minimas de 30 pulgadas anuales en una zona y maximas de mas de
JOC en otras, mientras el promedio anual en el pais es de 57 pulgadas.

De acuerdo con las ultimas investigaciones realizadas,* se afirma que la
Republica tiene alrededor de un 75 por ciento de su territorio ocupado por bosques,
aunque tal afirmacioén parece a muchos exagerada, dado el gran desarrollo que ha
adguirido la agricultura y especialmente por lo extendido del sistema de conucos,
que conlleva el abandono de las parcelas cultivadas para poner en cultivo otras
parcelas de monte virgen. Estas mismas investigaciones han establecido la
clasificacion de nuestros bosques en las seis categorias siguientes:

1. Bosques espinares de la region arida. Estos bosques son formados por
especies de madera dura, y en los que abundan Swietenia mahagoni, Phyllostylon
brasiliensis. Caesalpina coriaria. Acacis lutea, Haematoxylon campechianum,
- Guajacum Goajacum officinale, G . sanctum, Colubrina ferruginosa, etc., acompanados de
Gactus, Eugenia, Croton, Pithecellobium y Stigmatophyllum; bosques éstos que
ocupan las extensas regiones llanas y aridas del Sur y del Noroeste.

#W¥. D. Durland. Los bosques de la RepUblica Dominicana; y C. E. Chardén,
Reconocimiento de los recursos forestales de la Republica Dominicana.

2. Bosques del litoral del llano costefio. Estos son formados por
Swietenia mahagoni, Guajacum officinale, acompanados de Hura_crepitans,

Didymopanax morototoni, Cecropia peltata y Coccothrinax argentea, y ocupan

la parte mas oriental de la regién del Este.

3. Selvas hiimedas. Estas selvas son compuestas de Swietenia mahagoni
Coccoloba sp., Hymenaea_courbaril, Hura crepitans, junto con Roystonea_ caribaea,
Cecropia peltata, Piper aduncum, etc., las cuales ocupan gran parte del interior
de la Republica, en zonas donde la precipitacién pluvial es mayor de 70 pulgadas
al afio y la elevacién de 200 a 800 metros.

«

4. Selvas de montafa. Estas selvas, que son integrada por manaclares
(Euterpe globosa) y por selvas musgosas en las que predominan los helechos
arborescentes (Cyathea, Alsophila) y el "palo de cotorra" (Brunellia comocladi-
folia’ en los limites 'de la selva musgosa, entre 4sta y los pinares, se
2ncuentran en las montanas, desde los 750 a los 1,150 metros; pues a mayores
alturas el manaclar es :substituido siempre por el pino.

5. Pinares Jel interior. Estos son integrados exclusivamente por
Pinus occidentalis, en la mayoriadelos sitios y de Juniperus lucayana en otros,
muy contados. Segun Chardén, los pinares ocupan unos 7,500 kildémetros
cuadrados del territorio de la Reptiiblica, encontrdndoseles desde los 150 a los
3,000 metros de altura en todas las cordilleras del pais, donde impera sélo,

asociado Unicamente a la Gleichenia, la Danthonia domingensis, Rubus domingensis,
y muchos musgos y liquenes. ,

6. Manglares y ciénagas. En éstos abundan mayormente Rhizophora mangle,
lLaguncularia racemosa, Avicennia nitida, y Chrysobalanus icaco. Estas especies
se encuentran formando bosques, aungue no grandes, en las partes muy bajas,
preferentemente en las desembocaduras de los grandes rios, como el Haina, el
Yuna y el Iguamo.

A pesar de que haya unos 20 aserraderos instalados en el pais, y de que
2xistan maderas propias para todos los usos, la exportacién de maderas es bastante
reducida. Puede estimarse que ésta no pasa de unos 13,000 a 15,000 kilos, con un
valor aproximado de $200,000 a $250,000. Las maderas que en mayor cantidad se
2xportan son guayacdn (Guajacum officinale), bera (qG. sanctum), caoba (Swietenia
mahagoni), cabilma (Guarea guara), y yaya (Oxandra spp. e Isidorea spp. ). se
2xportan principaimente traviesas y postes de distintas maderas duras, y también
2] fruto del dividivi (Caesalpiniacoriaria), que se emplea como materia tintérea.

El principai material de construccién empleado por el campesino es la tabla
de paima (Roystonea regia), lo cual deja reducido el consumo debido a la
sdificacién de casas en los centros urbanos, donde precisamente se prefiere el
cemento, y la tabla de pino importada, en ciertos casos.

La industria de la fabricacién de muebles, no esta tan desarrollada como

seria de desearse, pero no obstante, va prosperando mucho. La importacién total
de madera, incluyendo madera labrada y muebles, no pasa de unos $100,000 al ano.

sisal Mes

Historia y organizacién del Servicio Forestal

Nuestros problemas forestales habian sido notados y hecho resaltar por
distintos investigadores, pero solo con el advenimiento al poder del Dr. Rafael L.
Trujillo Molina, se empezo a buscar solucion a tales problemas.

Asi fué como, respondiendo a esta necesidad, se creé el Servicio Forestal
en el ano 1934. Lo integraban 12 guardabosques, que adscritos al Servicio
Nacional de Riego, y por lo tanto a la Secretaria de Estado de Agricultura, de
la cual es dependencia el Servicio de Riego, comenzaron enseguida a prestar
servicios, diseminados por todo el pais, vigilando el cumplimiento de la Ley No.
641, sobre conservacién de montes y aguas.

Habiéndose evidenciado en el curso de las actuaciones de los guardabosques,
la necesidad de gue este cuerpo fuera dirigido por un funcionario dedicado
exclusivamente a los asuntos forestales, en 1936 se designé un Jefe del Servicio
Forestal, y ademas se aumenté a 22 el ntmero de los guardabosques.

El 4 de mayo de 1937 se introdujo una nueva organizacién en la Secretaria
e Estado de Agricultura, en virtud de la cual se creaban los Distritos Agricolas.
De acuerdo con esta reforma se crearon oficinas regionales de agricultura, con
un Encargado de Distrito Agricola al frente de cada una. Estos Encargados de
Distritos quedaron capacitados para dirigir todas las actividades agricolas de sus
jurisdicciones respectivas, mediante el personal de campo de la Secretarfa de
Estado, personal que fué puesto bajo la inmediata direccién de dichos funcionarios.
De este modo se suprimieron los Encargados de Servicios de la Secretarfa de
Estado y fué distribufdo el personal entre las oficinas de los Distritos Agrfcolas.

won

Tal organizacién no fué alterada esencialmente hasta el lo. de enero de
1939, en que se designaron Agrénomos Encargados de Servicios, con su oficina cada
uno en el edificio ocupado por la Secretaria de Estado de Agricultura y dependiendo
directamente del Secretario de Estado y los Subsecretarios de Estado correspon-
dientes. El Servicio ademas fué aumentado, ascendiendo actualmente a 40 el
numero de guardabosques que lo integran. De manera que, actualmente, atin cuando
Siguen actuando los Encargados de Distritos Agricolas y el personal de campo de
la Secretaria contimia dependiendo de ellos, son los Agrénomos Encargados de
servicios los que tienen a su cargo la responsabilidad de preparar y vigilar el
cumplimiento de los planes de trabajo de cada rama de las actividades encomendadas
a la Secretaria de Estado de Agricultura, Industria y Trabajo.

El Servicio de Foresta, Caza y Pesca, que es asi como se denomina, aunque
todavia carece de los fondos y del personal técnico que serian necesarios para
desarrollar una intensa labor en prodela conservacién y aumento de nuestros
bosques, no se ha limitado a vigilar el cumplimiento de la ley sobre conservacién
de montes y aguas, sino que, aprovechando el entusiasmo del Sr. Secretario de
Estado y los recursos a su disposicién, ha venido desarrollando una serie de
labores tendientes a poner en pradctica, en cuanto sea posible, la politica
forestall adoptada.

eG

Esta politica forestal consiste principalmente en organizar el aprovecha-
miento de los bosques de un modo previsor, y en algunos aspectos conservador.

Tal objetivo se va logrando con la aplicacién de la Ley No. 641, sobre conservacién

de montes y aguas del Reglamento No. 323, que establece las medidas que deben
tener los a4rboles para poder ser cortados.

Impedir la tala de los bosques del Estado y limitar el desmonte de ciertos
bosques particulares, mediante la declaracién de vedados y parques nacionales.

Defender contra los incendios forestales los bosques de especies resinosas,
por medio de reglamentaciones y de la organizacién de Brigadas Civiles Honorarias
contra incendios.

Repoblar los lugares deforestados exigiendo el cumplimiento de la dispo-
sicién que exige sembrar veinte Arboles por cada uno que se corte y utilizando la
produccién de los veintidés viveros forestales oficiales diseminados por todo el
pais.

Ademés, proteger los rios y arroyos, prevenir la erosién de los suelos
impidiendo los desmontes en las cimas de las montanas, y finalmente conocer mejor
nuestra flora mediante exploraciones frecuentes y las investigaciones y estudios
d2 una oficina o establecimiento creado especialmente con ese objeto, segin los
proyectos que con tal propésito se estdn preparando.

Bn todos estos aspectos se ha venido laborando tenazmente durante el ano,
y se espera que en lo adelante puedan continuar intensificdndose las actividades
del Servicio Forestal, hasta dejarlo definitivamente encaminado hacia la
satisfaccion de las principales necesidades del pais, por lo que respecta a la
defensa, incremento y aprovechamiento racional de sus recursos forestales.

Summary

The Dominican Republic is crossed from east to west by four mountain ranges

Although 20 sawmills are operating in the country, little timber is
exported; this is limited mostly to exports of Jignum vitae, mahogany, cabilma,
lJancewood, and ties and fence posts of durable woods. Local consumption as well
as importations are also low.

The Service of Forestry, Game, and Fish, established in 1934, has increased
in personnel up to the present number of 40 forest guards distributed throughout
the Republic and working under the direction of the Agronomist in charge of the
Service. The activities of the Service consist of regulation of cuttings, fire
prevention, reforestation, regulation of stream-flow, soil-erosion control, and
investigation.

a 6S

:
whose great elevation accounts in part for the considerable variation in temperature
and rainfall. The population amounts to only 30 persons for each of the 50,070
square kilometers of land area, which has been estimated as being 75 percent

Forested —nprobably an exaggerated figure. The forests have been classified in

the six following types: 1. Spiny forests, 2. Coastal forests, 3. Moist forests,
4, Mountain forests, 5. Pine forests, and 6. Mangrove swamps.

CONSERVACION

José Marrero,
Assistant Planting Officer
Servicio Forestal, Puerto Rico

Cuatro siglos después de ocupado el continente americano y cuando ya
millones de acres de terreno han sido inutilizados y exuberantes florestas
destruidas; y de palpar funestas consecuencias de ello en forma de sequias,
tormentas de polvo e inundaciones, es cuando el término "Conservacién" ha
venido a ser objeto de estudio y de la gran atencién que su importancia deman-
daba. En este sentido no hay nada mas a propdésito que las autorizadas palabras
del Secretario de Agricultura de Estados Unidos que sirvieron de prélogo a la
Memoria de esa Secretaria de 1938.

"La naturaleza considera la tierra benignamente. El hombre la trata
duramente. Este se excede considerablemente cuando cultiva los campos, al pastar
sus rebanhos y al explotar los bosques, y como consecuencia arruina por completo
millones de acres de terreno. Afio tras afio vacia la savia de sus tierras hacia
jas ciudades las cuales vierten lo que no utilizan en los desagues, los rios, y
finalmente en el mar. El problema de las inundaciones como hechura del hombre
es principalmente el resultado de tales excesos.

"Este procedimiento terriblemente destructivo es permisible en una civili-
zacién incipiente. No es perdonable en los Estados Unidos en el afio 1938. Sabe-
mos lo que debe hacerse y se ha comenzado a hacer. Como individuos y como nacién
hemos iniciado las medidas necesarias. El pueblo ha despertado a tiempo. Treinta
afios mas tarde el problema pudiera haber sido irremediable.

"E1 fundamento social en relacién con el deterioro del suelo es que ningtn
individuo tiene el derecho a destruirlo, aun cuando sea de su patrimonio. Hemos
sido lentos en reconocer que la tierra le exige obligaciones al hombre."

En ningun momento se habia enfrentado el hombre que llamamos civilizado
a un caudal tan intocado y repleto de recursos como encontrara el europeo después
del descubrimiento. Todos hemos oido narraciones de tan fabulosa riqueza que
supo arrancar exclamaciones de admiracién hasta de los labios rudos del conquis-
tador. Los archivos de Espafia, Francia e Inglaterra guardan los testimonios de
admiracién de Cristébal Colén, de Sir Walter Raleigh, de Bartolomé de las Casas,
y de centenares de historiadores y viajeros.

En aguella época la unica preocupacién fué establecerse en el nuevo paraiso
de la manera mas radpida y segura posible. La conquista de Norte, Sur y Centro
América e islas adyacentes ha pasado a la historia como una epopeya magnifica y
grandiosa.

Explorando el continente y cuando se hubo establecido diferentes demarca-
ciones entre las naciones conquistadoras siguieron los pobladores en carrera
desenfrenada arrancdndole al suelo y a los bosques sus mejores riquezas para
asi perpetuar y garantizar su vida en el Nuevo Mundo. Enorme fué el despilfarro
de los recursos de América por nuestros abuelos, pero atin asi podemos hablar de
gue hasta cierto punto hubo necesidad de ello. Lo que sf no estd justificado ni

eh eee

es perdonable, como bien lo c:iatiza el senor Wallace, es que tal despilfarro
esté ocurriendo en la América sn este mismo instante.

Entre los agentes destructivos que hay operando en detrimento del bosque
y del suelo merecen atencién especial el conuco, especie de agricultura ndémada
caracteristica del trépico, y el fuego usados ora para librarse de la maleza o
como purificador de pastos. Hemos creido oportuno citar a dos testigos de renombre
para apuntalar esta tesis con opiniones mds autorizadas.

Muy interesante y de acertadisima aplicacién es la tesis "Consideraciones
acerea de la destruccién de los bosques y del incendio de las sabanas" producto
de las experiencias en Venezuela del eminente botanico y hombre de ciencias,

H. Pittier. A continuacién citamos algunos parrafos de la referida publicacién: |

"Bl buen juicio indica que las crestas de los cerros y los declives con
excesiva inclinacién no deben desmontarse-y en todos los paises bien organizados,
la ley, rigurosamente aplicada, vigila por la preservacién de los bosques en tales
Situaciones.

"En cualquier caso, es un crimen Ja destruccién de selvas cuyo desarrollo
ha necesitado siglos y cuyo valor no deja de ser enorme, simplemente con el
objeto de sacar del terreno fertilizado por ellas algunas miserables cosechas
de maiz o de cardotas.

"Rl elima de Caracas no es actualmente el de antano, cuando existian los
tupidos bosques del valle de Tacagua y sus avanzadas por las lomas de Catia. En
aguel entonces, la temperatura era mas uniforme, la sequedad del verano tal vez
menos marcada y el verdor de la vegetacién mds persistente en el curso del afio.
Los mismos efectos desastrosos de la supresién de los bosques por la tala y el
fuego se notan en toda la parte poblada del pais.

"Kn el valle de Aragua, han pelado las vertientes hasta cerca de las cumbres,
las aguas han escaseado al extremo de que la Laguna de Valencia, que en tiempo
histérico ba%aba los pies de la ciudad de este iltimo nombre, se va reduciendo
poco a poco a lags dimensiones de una mera charca. El] clima se ha vuelto mas seco;

y cultivos que como el cafeto y el cacaotero necesitan de una cierta humedad
atmosférica ya no prosperan en las risuefas llanuras de la Victoria y Maracay.

"Otra falacia es la nocién que el] agricultor se ayuda usando el fuego para
destruir las malezas. La paja seca, acaba siempre por podrirse y reducirse a
humus que fertiliza la sabana, mejor que la ceniza sujeta a los caprichos del
viento. Un conocimiento elemental de lo que son las rafces de las pebeteras, de
los mastrantos y otras malas hierbas que suelen invadir las sabanas, demuestra
que el fuego no las alcanza. Se queman los tallos y dem&s partes encima del suelo,
pero luego vuelven a retofar. Por otra parte, las gramineas y otras plantas
apetecidas por el ganado tienen raices muy superficiales, habiendo repetidas
investigaciones demostrado que su penetracion vertical excede raras veces de 10 cm.
Asi resulta que el fuego, por rdpido que sea, destruye con facilidad la macolla de

las gramfneas més finas que son las que importa conservar.

"En cuanto a las garrapatas, su biologia es hoy tan conocida que la pre-
tensién de que esta plaga se destruye por medio del fuego se vuelve absurda. El
mismo ganado lleva el insecto a las sabanas y e] Unico medio para evitar esto es
mantener las reses limpias, lo.que se consigue por medio de banaderos adecuados.

a eh

'El fuego encendido en una sabana en lo fuerte de la estacién seca, consti-
tuye un grave peligro por la rapidez con la cual se propaga, alcanzando a veces
habitaciones humanas, y casi siempre los cultivos y los bosques, causando en estos
iltimos estragos que no se borran sino en un largo periodo de afios. Pero su mayor
inconveniente es tal vez la accién que ejerce sobre el suelo, el que se halla des-
pojado de Jas partes organicas que son la base de su feracidad y reducido a una
mera masa mineral, suelta y facilmente lavada por la erosién de las aguas pluviales."

Debemos aclarar que el Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria de Venezuela ha
iniciado actividades para la conservacién del suelo y de los bosques posteriores
a la publicacién del trabajo del Dr. Pittier, de lo cual es de esperarse una
razonable mejoria en las condiciones descritas.

Dejaremos a Thomas Belt en su obra "El Naturalista en Nicaragua"l/ describir-
nos como trabaja el conuco en los trépicos: "Al cortar el bosque y sembrar maiz
por primera vez, abundan las semillas de las especies forestales, las cuales
después de recolectada la cosecha germinarian y constituirfan el bosque nuevamente,
Siempre que se le permitiera hacerlo; de manera que a los veinte anos dificilmente
s+ podria distinguir de las florestas adyacentes. Pero no sucede tal cosa. A los
dos o tres ahos éste s2 corta nuevamente y he aqui la diferencia. Al no existir
Simientes de especies superiores, éstas son reemplazadas por gran variedad de
arbustos endebles, los cuales solamente se encuentran donde se ha cultivado la
tierra. Las yerbas también se apoderan del suelo; si estas prevalecen, el Indio
o Mestizo no osa repetir la siembra porque sabe que las yerbas la ahogarian y es
muy indolente para destruirlas. Sia la larga la maleza prevalece y cubre el
suelo,el Indio vuelve y repite la siembra de maiz. Como gran parte de los des-
montes se revierten a yerbas, este agricultor incipiente sigue trabajando a
2xpensas de la floresta haciéndola retroceder gradual pero efectivamente."

Hasta ahora hemos contemplado este problema en sus manifestaciones mas
recientes, ésto es, en la América. El Viejo Mundo nos ofrece ejemplos palpables
= los funestos resultados de las practicas en discusién. En la antiqufsima China,
7 azote siniestro de las sequias y las inundaciones estd arraigado seguramente en
a completa denudacién de sus montafias. Las desiertas llanuras del Asia Menor
stuvieron salpicadas en la antiguedad de florecientes ciudades que posefan
refinada cultura. Seria arriesgado calcular hasta qué punto influyé la desmedida
explotacién d= sus recursos en dicha decadencia. Sin embargo, el deterioro del
suelo tuvo que ejercer decisiva influencia en civilizaciones gue estuvieron
hondamente arraigadas en él.

Or o Qa

El el
Globo, hay do
campos a desi
viene el agri
después vienen
desierto.

Africa, donde existen las regiones mds perfectamente desiertas del
umentacién que prueba como ha ocurrido la transicién entre fértiles
rto en el relativamente corto intervalo de dos siglos. Primero
ultor némada con sus inseparables agentes, el hacha y el fuego;

los rebafios a aprovechar las raquiticos pastos; y por Ultimo, el

Cc
S
Cc

No habrfa razén para alarmarnos tanto si los métodos destructivos ya men-
cionados no fueran mas alld de la destruccién del bosque original. Desgraciada-
mente tales métodos se extienden hasta incluir la casi totalidad de las dreas
agricolas especializadas y que se nos imaginan como permanentes.

1/ Tomado d= 1a obra "Tropical forests of the Caribbean" por T. Gill.

Sous

La erosién geolégica, o sea la formacién natural de los suelos, es un
procese fundamental, Solamente cuando el hombre le resta la cubierta de bosques
y pastos y altera las condiciones naturales del suelo por el cultivo se produce
21 proceso temido de erosién acelerada, la cual es hechura del hombre.

Nos consideramos afortunados al presentar estadisticas?/ producto de una
evaluacién completa de este problema en Puerto Rico, evaluacion realizada por el
Servicio de Conservacién de Suelos. Por ser quiz4s nuestro pequefio pafs el tinico
en Ja America tropical donde se ha completado tal labor de reconocimiento creemos
gue tales estadisticas ofrecen particular interés,

Tomando 2n cuenta la erosién y deslave sobre la superficie total del pais
(a base del cual se han calculado los por cientos ofrecidos en los diferentes
cuadros) creemos que encabezamos Ja lista entre los pafses de la America tropical,
ya que es el nuestro un pafs de muy limitada extensién territorial, casi sin otros
recursos que las potencialidades de su suelo, y por afadidura, uno de los mAs
poblados del orbe, La mayorfa de Jos pafses ya mencionados solo ha explotado
activamente una fraccidén de sus territorios, y con escasas excepciones ha contado
con innumerables recursos naturales lo cual ha permitido un cultivo mucho menos
intensive de Jas zonas agricolas, Sin embargo, entre las Antillas mayores resal—
tan Haiti y Jamaica como pafses casi comparables con el nuestro en la acelerada
pérdida de sus suelos. Aun en naciones de mayor extensién territorial como
Venezuela, Colombia y Brazil, Jas regiones agricolas mas intensamente cultivadas
sufren pérdidas comparables a las nuestras. Venezuela, que en su mayor parte no
ha sufrido Jas pérdidas de una erosién acelerada, presenta un caso conmovedor de
terrenos arruinados en ja zona comprendida entre la Guaira y Caracas. Por otro i
lado, El Salvador se ha dado cuenta de los peligros de la erosién y usa las |
barreras vegetativas como primer arma de combate.

/
' {
|

Clases de erosién agrupadas en orden ascendente

de importancia economica

Por
ciento

Descripcién

Ninguna o muy poca erosién

Erosién moderada

Erosion severa que ocurre por capas, y carcavas, incluyendo
eresién activa de arrastre de material "C" en suelos "AC"

691,000
589,000

31.4
26.8

917,700

2,197,700

Total

En el 68.6 por ciento del drea total de nuestra isla el deslave es més o menos
serio, dejando sdlo ei 31.4 por ciento de terrenos mds llanos, o cubiertos por bosques
© que apenas se cultivan, donde el problema no causa preocupacién. Teniendo necesidad
de cultivar intensamente la mas minima porcion de tierras laborables, nos confrontamos’
con el hechode que e! 41.8 por ciento de nuestro territorio sufre erosién clasificada

2/ Tomadas del trabajo "El Dominio de la Erosién de las Tierras en Puerto Rico"
por e] Sr. René Jiménez Malaret, publicado en La Revista de Agricultura de
Fuerto Rico de marzo del afio 1939.

OMe

como severa. No es necesario comentar las repercusiones que tiene este hecho
sobre nuestra economia y sobre nuestro peublo en general. El tabaco, segundo

en importancia entre nuestros cultivos, ha sido afectado visiblemente. Este
cultivo que se adapta al clima fresco de nuestras montanas, pero gue requiere

un laboreo constante de suelos en declives hasta de 50 por ciento, principalmente
en las &épocas de mayor precipitacién, ha creado condiciones muy propicias para
los arrastres. Como consecuencia la produccién por unidad de terreno se ha
reducido perceptiblemente, y sélo haciendo fuertes inversiones en materias
fertilizantes pueden los agricultores obtener rendimientos aceptables.

Aun nuestros cafetales, que ofrecen condiciones mucho menos propicias para
los arrastres, indiscutiblemente sufren continuas pérdidas. En lo que respecta a
cultivos de subsistencia, es légico suponer que la erosién no es menos severa que
en el caso del tabaco, mayormente si se considera que esos cultivos se siembran
en rotacién con el tabaco en casi todas las dreas tabacaleras.

Area afectada or ciento del total or las diferentes clases

de erosié6n, sin hacer referencia a los correntones

Area en
acres

Descripcién

No existe erosién acelerada aparente, 271,300 IAS)
Breve erosién por capas (25 por ciento de la capa superficial

perdida), 419,900} 19.1
Erosién moderada. Ocurre por capas. Del 25 por ciento al

75 por ciento de la capa superficial perdida. 589,000] 26.8
Erosién severa. Ocurre por capas. 75 por ciento o mas de la

capa superficial perdida. SD OOOO sone,
Erosion activa de arrastre de material "C" en suelos "AC" 52,600 Riv
Frecuentes brotes de piedra caliza debido en parte a la

erosion rapida. 15,200 od

Total

2,197,900

Es de lamentarse que dependiendo tan intimamente del suelo para nuestra
subsistencia hayamos permitido que en el 38.7 por ciento de nuestra drea total éste
haya desaparecido en sus 3/4 partes o mas. Solamente en el 12.3 por ciento no existe
erosién acelerada aparente. Es indiscutible que es cuestién esencialisima para este
pais hacer evolucionar sus practicas agricolas hasta aumentar considerablemente el
area de las zonas no afectadas por este mal.

Obedeciendo a la inaplazable necesidad que existe de conjurar el mal, el
gobierno Federal ha iniciado en la isla extensos programas de repoblacién forestal
y de conservacién de suelos. Demas esta decir que los técnicos y todas aquellas
personas que se inquietan por estos problemas en la América latina ya han hecho
sentir sus voces de protesta.

Syom

£1 Dr. Juan Pablo Duque, Jefe de la Seccién Técnica de la Federacién de
Cafeteros de Colombia en su informe sobre el viaje de estudio que hiciera a los
paises de Centro América d& énfasis a este inaplazable problema. El Sr. J. Marciano
Rodriguez, Perito Agrénomo del Banco Nacional de Nicaragua, y quien acompafiara
al sefior Duque, hace las siguientes y muy acertadas declaraciones:

"Una d= las principales causas de la inconstancia de las cosechas de café
en Nicaragua es debido a la erosién de los suelos. La planta, después de una
buena cosecha, deja agotado el suelo y queda ella misma extenuada. Si a este
agotamiento se agrega la pérdida por efectos de la erosién, los resultados tienen
que ser precarios.' A continuacién afiade: "Minuciosos estudios efectuados en el
Brasil comprueban que la cantidad de elementos que extrae una cosecha en un afio
es veintiuna veces menor que la que extrae la erosién. Es éste uno de los
principales problemas que urge resolver en Nicaragua."

Una de las notas mds alentadoras en este respecto es la manera como los
cafeteros salvadorefios se han enfrentado a la erosién de sus suelos. Hace algtn |
tiempo los agricultores mds adelantados siembran sus cafetos en terraplenes
formados en sentido contrario a la pendiente. Asimismo cavan hoyos en la parte
superior todo para reducir el arrastre. Ademds hacen uso intensivo de la planta
liamade izote o espadillo (Yucca elephantipes Regel). Esta planta la siembran
después de cada Jinea de café, en medio de la calle, y en sentido contrario a
la pendiente. Cada calle forma una barrera que impide el paso de la tierra.
Esta se va acumulando, hace subir el nivel del terreno y forma una terraza.

Las Siembras del café en curvas de nivel se ha generalizado bastante.

Quizds nos hayamos extendido demasiado al desarrollar este tema pero no
queremos terminar sin sugerir medidas que tomadas a tiempo puedan atajar el mal.
En primer término es importante que cada ciudadano de un pais agricola comprenda
que su bienestar esta fntimamente ligado a la productividad del suelo y a la
perpetuidad de los bosques de su pais. En este sentido nada mds propio que
empezar esta labor educativa en la escuela. Me permito sugerir que se preparen
cursillos elementales donde se haga resaltar esta realidad al nifio. En la cele-
bracion del Dia del Arbol se la debe dar énfasis a este vital aspecto. Creo que
debemos imitar el ejemplo de los europeos y norteamericanos en el respeto que
sienten hacia los drboles y los animales.

-La experiencia y los estudios cientificos han demostrado la necesidad de
actuar. Creo que los hombres de gobierno y legisladores, sintiéndose a tono con
su responsabilidad hacia el futuro de su pais, deben crear leyes que permitan
atacar e] mal efectivamente. Estas leyes deben inspirarse en el nuevo concepto
de que los recursos de la nacién son para e] goce indefinido de sus hijos y de
gue ninguna generacion tiene el derecho a comprometer la vida de las generaciones
que han de seguir. Aqui debemos recordar las palabras del Secretario de Agricultura
norteamericano cuando dice, "El fundamento social en relacidén con el deterioro del
suelo es que ningun individuo tiene el] derecho a destruirlo atin cuando sea de su
patrimonio." En este sentido la presente administracidén de Estados Unidos de
Norteamérica ha dado un magnifico ejemplo al inspirar la extensisima legislacién
agraria del Nuevo Trato en la conservacién de los recursos de la nacidén haciendo
posible dar la batalla en todos los frentes.

i aes

Sabemos que en varios paises de la América se ha pasado legislacién inspi-
rada hacia la adopcién de medidas de conservacion, pero desgraciadamente en muchos
casos tales leyes no se han llevado a la practica. Sabemos de muchas republicas
gue tienen magnificas leyes para la proteccién de la floresta, en sus estatutos,
y sin embargo sus bosques son victimas de continua destruccién. Tales leyes no
han sido efectivas ora porque no se-han creado los organismos llamados a hacer
cumplir la ley o porque éstos cuando se crearon, no tuvieron la ayuda necesaria,
© guizds los frecuentes cambios de gobierno no han permitido una politica de
conservacién a tono con las necesidades del pais. Em otras palabras, las leyes
forestales no han trascendido al piblico ni han hecho sentir su efecto bienhechor
en Jos bosques.

La organizacién de centros experimentales y de divulgacién agricola, ademds
de la creacién de servicios forestales que cuenten con el respaldo del publico, y
con suficiente personal y asignaciones para efectuar satisfactoriamente sus
importantes encomiendas, debe contarse entre los primeros esfuerzos a realizarse
por los gobiernos preocupados en la resolucién de este problema.

Tales métodos han dado espléndidos resultados en E.U. de N.A. y en Europa.
Si se tuvieran dudas sobre su aplicabilidad a las condiciones del trépico, bastarfa
para disiparlas con fijarnos cémo estos métodos funcionan en nuestro pais. A los
centros de experimentacién y de divulgacién agricola establecidos hace algunos
anos, y que en la actualidad marcan el paso al agricultor, hemos tenido la fortuna
de haber ahfadido la administracién de grandes extensiones forestales. Contamos
ademas con un eficiente Servicio de Conservacién de Suelos. Las unidades de
demostracién de este servicio que funcionan activamente en las zonas cafieras,
cafetaleras, tabacaleras y de frutos de subsistencia, encontrardn medidas prdcticas
que le muestren al agricultor del trépico cémo conservar indefinidamente la tierra
y cémo hacer de la agricultura una actividad permanente, en contraste de lo que ha
sido hasta la fecha; una agencia cémplice de usar medidas destructoras. La reciente
creacién de la Estacién Experimental de Silvicultura Tropical con miras a investigar
los diversos problemas de los bosques tropicales, completa el cuadro de investiga-
ciones encaminadas a perdurar las mejores riquezas de los bosques y los campos.

Resumen

Desde su ocupacién por el europeo, el continente americano ha sufrido la
destruccién, muchas veces viciosa, de millones de acres de bosques y el desme-
joramiento de una porcién considerable de los suelos agricolas. Al presente
estamos palpando las consecuencias funestas de esa destruccién en forma de
sequias, inundaciones, tormentas de polvo y pobreza para los habitantes de las
zonas afectadas. El uso desmedido del conuco y del fuego han sido responsables
de la gran parte de las dreas arruinadas que a diario se observan.

Los Estados Unidos de Norte América, a pesar de su bien organizada
agricultura, esta sufriendo graves pérdidas en sus suelos. Para evitar mayores
ruinas al darse cuenta de que es necesario conservar los recursos de la Nacion
para el uso de ésta y de las generaciones futuras, ha iniciado extensisimos
programas de repoblacién forestal y conservacién de suelos. Asimismo se ha
pasado extensisima legislacidén agraria como complemento a los programas mencio-
nados, lo cual ha permitido atacar el problema en sus mds variados aspectos.

eee

En los paises de la América latina, aunque los técnicos estdn alertos,
no se han emprendido todavia medidas que conjuren el mal efectivamente. En
Puerto Rico se estén usando activamente medidas de conservacién. Tales
instituciones como las Estaciones Experimentales, el Servicio de Divulgacién
Agricola, el Servicio de Bosques, y el Servicio de Conservacién de Suelos, y
la recientemente creada Estacién Experimental de Silvicultura Tropical,
ofrecen al agricultor medios factibles para conservar los recursos naturales.

Interés y conocimiento del piiblico de la trascendencia de tales
problemas, legislacién adecuada y respaldo absoluto del gobierno, utilizacién
adecuada de centros experimentales, y estudio de los medios de que se valen
otros paises para conjurar el mal, serdn los medios que decidirdn si América
sera la tierra prometida de las generaciones futuras, o si habrd de correr la
misma triste suerte de las dridas y desoladas campifias del Viejo Mundo.

Summary

Since its occupation by the European, the American continent has suffered
a vicious destruction of millions of acres of forests and the impoverishment of
a considerable portion of its agricultural soils. At present, the inhabitants
of the affected zones are suffering the severe consequences of this destruction
in the form of droughts, floods, dust storms, and poverty. The uncontrolled
use of shifting agriculture and fire has been responsible for a large part of
the ruined areas that one sees on all sides.

The United States, in spite of its well-organized agriculture, is suffering
severe losses of its soils. With the realization that it is necessary to preserve
the resources of the Nation for the use of this and future generations, it has
initiated extensive programs of reforestation and soil conservation in order to
avoid further damages. Likewise, as a complement to the aforementioned program,
there has been passed extensive agrarian legislation, which permits an attack
on the problem from all sides.

In Latin America, the scientific workers are well aware of conditions,
but so far have not been able to institute measures to control effectively the
evil. In Puerto Rico measures of conservation are being put in practice.
Institutions such as the Experiment Stations, Extension Service, Forest Service,
Soil Conservation Service, and the recently established Forest Experiment Station,
offer the agriculturalists practical methods to conserve natural resources.

Public interest and knowledge of the importance of such problems, adequate
and well-enforced laws, use of experimental centers, and study of the means by
which other countries effect control of the evils, will determine whether America
shall be the promised land of future generations or whether it will suffer the
same sad fate of the desolate arid areas of the Old World.

SOY ie

A RAPID METHOD OF EXTRACTING BALSA SEED
L. R. Holdridge, Associate Forester

The balsa tree (Ochroma), which has a wide range in the American tropics,
needs little introduction because its extremely light wood has long been an im-
portant article of commerce; but our native species, 0. pyramidale (Cav.) Urban,
(=0. lagopus Sw.), locally called "guano", occurs only as scattered individuals
at lower and middle elevations and has never been exploited commercially.

Last year, the Forest Service decided to raise a few seedlings of this
species in the Rio Piedras Nursery and, while working on this assignment, JoSe D.
Meléndez, Assistant Planting Specialist, devised a simple method for seed extrac-
tion, which not only reduces hand labor to a minimum, but apparently increases
the germination percentage. Additional trials will be necessary, but this pre-
liminary note is written not only for those who are planting the species but also
to learn whether someone else has worked out the process in more detail.

The fruit of the balsa is a long, ridged capsule, which dehisces to release
great quantities of down similar to rabbit fur (note the specific name lagopus),
in which the fine seeds are loosely embedded. This material, which is very light
and enables the seeds to be transported long distances by the wind, is used
locally for stuffing pillows and mattresses. To extract seeds by hand from this
fluffy down is a very slow process. Finding that this material burned extremely
rapidly, Meléndez tried out various methods of extraction with fire and tested
the germination of the distinct lots, with the following results:

Percent
germina-

no. Method of extraction
1 By hand
2 By hand
3 Fire, in an ordinary metal
waste-paper basket 3.60
4, Fire, on a 1/8-inch mesh wire
Sieve, seeds dropping onto paper 27.00

5 Fire, on same screen but seeds
dropping through to a pan of
water 2 inches below

Many of the seeds extracted with fire in the metal basket were charred, as
they were unable to drop away from the heat; this probably accounts for the very
low germination. When the material is spread out thinly on the wire screen, the
fire literally flashes across, the seeds drop readily through the screen away from
the flames, and there is apparently little or no damage to the seeds. Besides the
readily noted increase in germination, the heat seems to stimulate early germina-
tion; and there may be some connection between this earlier, increased germination
and the habit of the tree of springing up on burned-over areas.

Resumen

Una prueba con frutas de balsa demostré que por medio del fuego la semilla
se puede extraer rdpidamente de la peluza en que se encuentra mezclada. Un
cotejo preliminar del percentaje de germinacién de las semillas demostr6é que con
la apropiada extraccién por fuego, la germinacioén aument6 grandemente al igual
que fué acelerada.

SDB

A CEDAR SEEDLING BLIGHT IN PUERTO RICO

L. A. Alvarez Garcfa, Asst. Phytopathologist,
Agricultural Experiment Station,
Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico

Introduction.-~Spanish cedar, comprising several species of the genus
Cedrela, is a highly esteemed timber tree in Puerto Rico and elsewhere in
tropical America. Its soft, fragrant, reddish-brown wood is utilized for
cabinet-making, cigar boxes, and many other articles.

In Feb. 1937, a severe blight was observed defoliating and even killing
many small cedar trees (Cedrela mexicana Roem. ) planted on a northeastern slope
in the vicinity of Luquillo, Puerto Rico. There seems to be no previous record
of the occurrence of this malady under our environment.

Symptoms.-The young lesions appear first as minute, discolored specks,
which enlarge to form subcircular or irregular and poorly defined spots, vary-
ing from a very few to about 25 mm. in diameter. The tissues of the lesions
gradually become yellowish brown in the center, and some are bordered with a
darker brown band. Most of the spots are not well defined, however, the
tissues staying green and concolorous with the leaf blade. From 50 to 100
minute, erumpent, black, fruiting bodies are produced gregariously and con-
spicuously on both sides of the spots, though more numerously on the upper side.
When the number of lesions is rather large, the leaves turn yellow throughout.
In some instances the chlorotic leaves show the minute, black fruiting bodies
on a greenish, diffused spot. Heavily infected seedlings shed their leaves
and eventually die.

In addition, the parasite infects the petioles of the leaves,as well
as the young twigs. The lesions are similar to those described on the leaves,
except for the elongated shape which they assume. The fruiting bodies are
produced also on the necrotic areas of the lesions, though not so numerously.

Causal organism.—The disease is caused by the fungus Phyllachora
balansae Speg., one of the Dothidiales, which produces a Linochora conidial
stage. The organism has been reported on various species of Cedrela in
tropical America.

Resumen

En 1937 se encontro en la vecindad de El Yunque en Luquillo, P. R.,
que un gran numero de arbolitos de Cedrela mexicana Roem. sembrados en una
ladera que mira hacia el noreste, sufria de una defoliacién pertinaz. Muchos
de ellos sucumbieron. El agente responsable es el hongo Phyllachora balansae
Speg. Las hojas parasitadas mostraban numerosas y pequefias lesiones salpicadas
de peritecios negros, gregarios. Antes de ocurrir la defoliacién, las hojas se
tornan totalmente o parcialmente amarillas.

NOG a

CALOPHYLLUM ANTILLANUM, A DESIRABLE TREE FOR DIFFICULT
PLANTING SITES

L. R. Holdridge, Associate Forester

Calophyllum antillanum Britton (=C. calaba Jacq..) of the family Clusiaceae,
ranges from southern Mexico through Central America and the West Indies into
northern South America. The common names most in use for the species are "marfa"
(in general), "galba" (in Trinidad), and "ocuje" (in Cuba). The tree is identi-
fied readily by its opposite, elliptic, dark-green leaves, with very numerous,
parallel, lateral veins; the exudation of a yellowish milky sap from broken leaves,
twigs, or bark; and the diamond-shaped fissures in the bark of the trunk. The
wood, which ranges in color from pinkish to red, is moderately hard and heavy,
fairly easy to work, durable, tough, and strong, and finds many uses in general
carpentry, ship construction, and furniture making.

The small, white, fragrant flowers are borne in lateral or axillary racemes.
In Puerto Rico, the flowering period extends from March to June, reaching a peak
in May, although a few flowers may be found at other times of the year.

The fruits, which are globose, one-seeded drupes about 1 inch in diameter,
are referred to as seeds. These ripen between October and February and number
about 120 per pound. The seeds maintain their viability well, and a fair germina-
tion is obtained even with seeds stored for 1 year in a dry room, but it is always
desirable to use fresh seed. Average germination, as recorded in the Rio Piedras
Nursery, is 70 percent, but this is believed to be a bit low and is probably due
to inclusion of data on seeds held in storage. Trinidad reports germination be-
tween 85 and 95 percent. The seeds are produced rather abundantly every year and
are easy to collect. Our local purchase price, based on a prevailing wage of
$1.00 per day, is 3¢ per pound. Because of the large size of the seed and the
high germination rate, this species is very suitable for direct seeding; and
practically all reforestation with this species in Puerto Rico has been carried
out in this manner. A further reason for direct seeding is the fact that the
seedlings are rather difficult to transplant, and heavy losses ensue if bare-
root planting is attempted.

Some of the earliest plantations in Puerto Rico, established in 1921 and
ensuing years, consisted of several hundred acres seeded to this species within
the Maricao Insular Forest. The site, in the western mountains, is extremely
difficult; the underlying rock is serpentine, and the soil is notably lacking in
phosphorus. Erosion had removed the greater part of the fertility of the soil,
and the site was exposed to hot, drying winds and sun during the long dry season.
In spite of these difficulties, however, the plantations were very successful;
and although growth has been very slow, it is better than that of other species
on the same area. All other species suffered a high mortality, and the growth
of survivors was not as satisfactory as that of maria. Growth is speeded up
after establishment of the seedlings and the corresponding alteration of the
environment; and it is interesting, in walking through the seeded areas of
several successive years, to note the change from the struggling, yellowish-
leaved individuals 3 or 4 years old to the dark-green specimens flushed with
new growth in the older plantations. In like manner, the soil has changed from
bright-red, impermeable clay to a darker soil, more porous and fertile.

OT oe

Because of the success on this extremely difficult site, maria has been
used several times in recent years on other difficult sites, where other tree
species failed; it has consistently proved its adaptability to trying environ-
mental conditions. Even on the shallow-soiled tops of exposed limestone hills
in the heart of the sinkhole country, where it is known that, although most of
the area is too shallow for planting seedlings, trees once established can send
their roots down into the porous limestone, planting marfa seeds in the shallow
soil pockets has given excellent results. Now 2 years after planting, the seed-
lings range in height from 3 to 5 feet, and although a small percentage dried
out after germination, the most of the plantations look very healthy.

Another difficult planting site was found in the Luquillo Unit on wet,
swampy, flat land about 2,000 ft. above sea level, where rainfall] approximates
100 in. per annum. Here also, other trees failed, but by making small raised
piles of earth and inserting seeds of maria, a successful plantation was estab-—
lished. Again in the limestone country on heavy, red clay, which had greatly
deteriorated, owing to agricultural use, maria came through in fine shape ahead
of all other species on the same site.

This does not mean, of course, that the planting of maria should be
restricted to difficult sites; it responds much more readily to favorable
conditions than to unfavorable ones. Also cultivation or intercropping with
agricultural crops results in greatly increased growth.

From a general silvicultural standpoint, this species is very desirable.
It is able to compete with abundant grass and other herbaceous vegetation, and
the strength of its stem prevents the excessive doubling due to vines, which is
detrimental to many other species. It forms a good straight trunk; and, where
the proper density of plantation is maintained, the lower branches are killed
anc shed off at an early age because of the heavy shade from the evergreen
leaves. So far, very few insects or diseases have been found attacking this
species, and their damage is slight. One new seed borer was observed at Maricao
this last fall, but determination has not been made,and its damage has not
assumed appreciable importance.

Resumen

Calophyllum antillanum, un drbol de gran distribucién en la region del
Caribe, produce una madera valiosa. Sus semillas grandes dan un por ciento alto
de germinacién, y ésto la hace que sea muy satisfactoria para la siembra directa
por semillas. Ha probado ser de gran utilidad en Puerto Rico para la repoblacién
forestal de sitios dificiles, usando la semilla directamente. La especie compite
bien con otra vegetacién, es de tronco derecho, se poda a si misma facilmente, y
es relativamente libre a los ataques de insectos y enfermedades.

2 oe

THE ENTOMOLOGIST LOOKS AT MAGA

George N. Wolcott, Entomologist,
Agricultural Experiment Station,
Rio, Piedras, P. R.

The value of mahogany, Swietenia mahagoni, for the construction of
furniture or for use as interior trim in the West Indies is due to a considerable
extent to its resistance to the attack of the West Indian dry-wood termite, or
"polilla", Cryptotermes brevis Walker. Mahogany is not absolutely immune from
attack, and the light-colored sapwood is quite susceptible, but furniture built
of mahogany heartwood has survived the varied vicissitudes of climate, hurricanes,
and polilla attacks to which it has been exposed in the West Indies better than
that made of any other wood or material.

The one serious objection to mahogany is the slow growth of the tree.
For this reason, it seems desirable to call attention to another tree of much
more rapid growth, which appears to have all of the desirable characteristics
of mahogany. This is the Puerto Rican maga, Montezuma speciosissima Sessé &
Moc. (=[hespesia or Maga grandiflora), which is a native tree of rapid growth.
It produces a dark-red heartwood slightly more resistant to the attack of
Cryptotermes brevis than is the heartwood of mahogany, and its light, yellowish-
brown sapwood is also the equal of mahogany in its resistance to termite attack.
From the standpoint of the furniture manufacturer, it is more desirable than
mahogany, but it is at present little used because of the insignificant commer-
cial supply of maga lumber.

The maga belongs to the Malvaceae family, and in cotton-producing regions
it is considered undesirable because its fleshy seed pods can serve as alternate
hosts for the caterpillar of the pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella Saunders)
during that part of the year when cotton is not being grown. The maga fruits
from September to June, but it produces no pods during the summer, which is the
time that cotton is maturing bolls in the Isabela region. As it happens, the
maga has been planted most extensively along roads between Isabela and Aguadilla—
in just that part of Puerto Rico where most of the native cotton is grown.
Theoretically, therefore, the presence of maga trees in this region is a serious
obstacle to the effective control of pink bollworm; but the occurrence of this
pest of cotton depends to a much greater extent on factors other than the fruit—
ing of the maga. In any case, the possible injury is to the cotton; that to the
maga is negligible.

Other insect pests of cotton do no appreciable damage to the maga. The
white scale of cotton, Hemichionaspis minor Maskell, has been noted on maga,
but neither this nor any other scale insect occurs on maga in sufficient
abundance to cause serious injury. The cotton caterpillar, Alabama argillacea
Hubner, does not feed on maga foliage, the holes sometimes noted in the leaves
being due to an unidentified Anomis. Examining a large amount of maga foliage
with care, one will sometimes find a stray mealybug, Pseudococcus citri Risso;
the oviposition spiral of an unidentified whitefly; a Capsid bug, Hyaloides

= OQ 1

vitreus Distant; leafhoppers, Empoasca minuenda Ball or Dikraneura depressa
McAttee; or the Fulgorids, Catonia cinerea Osborn or Cedusa santaclara Myers,
but each so rare that damage to the host is negligible. Cotton stainers,
Dysdercus andreae L., are possibly more often noted in Puerto Rico feeding

on the seeds of maga than in cotton fields, although they cannot obtain access
to them until the fleshy fruit surrounding the seeds has been broken open, or
eaten away by rats. Feeding on, or hiding under the injured flesh of, crushed
fruits, the following scavenger beetles have been collected: Carpophilus

hemipterus L., Europs apicalis Reitter, Metamasius hemipterus L., and
Hypothenemus sp.

Thus, in contrast to several other tr2es which have been suggested for
extensive planting in Puerto Rico, the maga has no insect pests of any importance.
Furthermore, when the wood matures, it will be the equal of, or superior to,
mahogany in resistance to termite attack.

Resumen

El valor de la caoba como madera de ebanisterfa para uso local se debe
mayormente a su gran resistencia a la polilla de la madera (Cryptotermes brevis
Walker). Sin embargo, el crecimiento de la caoba es lento, y se llama la
atencién hacia la conveniencia de la maga para propésitos de reforestacién
extensa.

Este es un arbol nativo de crecimiento rdpido, con un corazén rojo
2 ? ° e es
obscuro aun mas resistente a la polilla que la caoba. [km secciones algodoneras
la planta acttia como huésped alterno de la oruga de la cdpsula del algodén, pero
ésta, asi como algunos otros insectos que se encuentran a veces en el 4rbol, no
le causan dafios perceptibles.

23 Ove

SOME NOTES ON FOREST ENTOMOLOGY

luis F. Martorell, Asst. Entomologist,
Agricultural Experiment Station,
Rio Piedras; PR.

The Pustule Scale

The pustule scale, Asterolecanium pustulans Cockerell, is by far the worst
pest on Cassia siamea Lam. (=Sciacassia siamea Britton) in Puerto Rico. Heavy
infestation has been noticed throughout the Island, especially in the coastal
sections. The first large infestation was noticed by the author at the Rio Piedras
headquarters of the Forest Service, where a large group of mature trees was killed
by the scale. Later, in Sept. 1937, a windbreak of 30 or 40 trees was found des-—
troyed by the scale at Toa Baja. Going along the roads on the north coast of
Puerto Rico, one commonly sees trees infested by the scale, most of them killed
by the insect. The planting of Cassia siamea on the coastal plains of the Island
is limited by this important insect pest, therefore, because sooner or later the
tree will succumb.

The silver oak, Grevillea robusta Cunn., is a tree that the Forest Service
formerly heid in esteem and planted in many places in Puerto Rico. The reason
for the present scarcity of this species is due, as in the case mentioned above,
to its great susceptibility to the pustule scale.

Oleander, Nerium oieander L., a common ornamental shrub in Puerto Rico,
is an additional host of the pustule scale and is very susceptible to attack.
Whenever possible, oieander should be destroyed to avoid further spread of
the scale to more resistant species.

The West Indian Peach Scale on Fraxinus

The papaya scale, or West Indian peach scale, as this insect is known, has
found a new host plant on which to Jive. This is the genus Fraxinus, trees of which
were imported by ths Forest Service and were doing very well in a plantation at
El Guinso Reservoir. These trees now, however, are heavily attacked by Aulacaspis
pentagona Targioni, the scale insect in question; according to a careful tally,
of the more than 200 trees planted, 44.5 percent were infested.

The scais attacked the whole trunk and caused a complete defoliation of
the trees. Some of them retained their upper leaves, but the rest of the trunk
was compieteiy defoliated. In heavily infested trees, a sort of die-back was
produced, starting from the growing point and extending downwards, with result-—
ing mortality in many cases.

An attack by the same insect has been reported on trees growing in the

Maricao Insular Forest in a plantation near Camp Santana; here most of the trees
were destroyed.

oi

The Sea-Grape Sawfly on "Moralon"

The sea-grape, Cocculobis uvifera (L.) Jacq. is very heavily attacked
year after year by the sawfly, Sterictiphora zaddachi Dewitz. In June 1937,
on a country road between Central Bayaney and Central Soller at San Sebastian,
several trees of moralon, C. grandifolia, Jacq. were found almost completely
defoliated. Upon careful examination, fresh leaves were found covered with
egg clusters of the grape sawfly; on a single fresh leaf, 17 egg-—clusters
were collected. Adult sawflies also were abundant.

Further observations on this insect indicate that the heaviest infesta-
tions take place on sites protected from the full force of the wind; infested
sea-—grape trees along the coast are not as heavily infested as trees in the same
section protected by hills or other windbreaks.

Resumen

La queresa pustulosa, Asterolecanium pustulans Cockerell, ataca a la
Cassia siamea Lam., en Puerto Rico. El insecto causa gran mortalidad a dichos
arboles, especialmente en las llanuras, cerca de la costa. El insecto es un
factor limitante en la plantacién de dicho 4rbol.

También el roble plateado australiano, Grevillea robusta Cunn., y la
adelfa, Nerium oleander L., son muy susceptibles a los ataques de la queresa
pustulosa.

La queresa de la papaya, Aulacaspis pentagona Targioni, caus6é gran
mortalidad en plantaciones de fresno, Fraxinus spp., en Maricao y El Lago del
Guineo.

El himendédptero, Sterictiphora zaddachi Dewitz, causdé gran defoliacién en
el moralén, Coccolobis grandifolia Jacq.

ae oes

CNS ME MOR TAM

Ferdinand A. Silcox, Chief of the Forest Service, U. S. Depart—
ment of Agriculture, died suddenly at his home in Alexandria, Virginia,
on Wednesday, December 20, following a heart attack. He would have been
57 years old on Christmas day. Mr. Silcox was graduated from the Yale
School of Forestry in 1905, receiving the degree of Master of Forestry.
That same year he entered the Forest Service as a ranger and was assigned
to duty in the forests of Colorado. He was rapidly advanced to the post
of Acting Forest Supervisor and Forest Inspector for Western States, and
in 1910 he became Regional Forester of the Northern Rocky Mountain Forest
Region, with headquarters in Missoula, Montana, where he remained until
1917, During the World War, he served as Major with the 20th Engineers,
but in April 1918 was aked by the Secretary of Labor and the Director of
the U. S. Shipping Board to head the office handling labor problems in the
shipyards at Seattle, Washington. Mr. Silcox was more or less closely
associated with industrial problems until November 1933, when he was
selected by President Roosevelt to be Chief of the U. S. Forest Service.
As Secretary Wallace has said, "The death of Mr. Silcox is a blow to the
whoie American movement for conservation of human and natural resources .**#t*
His work is commemorated in a Government organization of highest efficiency
and esprit de corps-—~and in the grateful remembrance of great service to
many of the worthy civic enterprises that American citizens are carrying
on today."

Edmundo Martinez Maté falleciéd el 27 de septiembre ultimo en la
ciudad de Caracas, Venezuela. Fué el primer puertorriquefio en ostentar
el titulo de Silvicultor y laboré arduamente desde los comienzos del
Servicio Forestal en Puerto Rico. Desde 1928 hasta 1931 cursé estudios
profesionaies en la Universidad de Cornell y con algunos intervalos
trabajo desde su graduacién hasta 1937 en el Servicio de Bosques de
Puerto Rico. &n ese afio embarco para la republica vecina de Venezuela
donde ocupaba el importante cargo de subjefe de la Seccién Técnica de
Reforestacién cuando le sorprendié la muerte a la temprana edad de 43 afios.

Z AV] v ite BYD CVI ee Me AY AY,
KY RAYS venta SAT) TA) aw Ww 3 w * aw OW

Correction

On page 23 of Vol. J, No. 1, the name of the new species of mahogany
seedling biight there described should read Phyllosticta swieteniae.

Notes Assistance in the preparation of these materials was furnished by the
personnel of Work Projects Administration Official Project 65-2-64-74.

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TROPICAL FOREST
TE
RIO

THE CARIBBEAN FORESTER

This journal is planned as a medium of exchange of knowledge between
those interested in forestry in the islands and countries in or near the
Caribbean Sea. Invitations to cooperate in this project have been sent to
forestry and agricultural officials in the following places:

Bahama Islands Dominican Republic Mexico

Barbados French Guiana Nicaragua

British Guiana Grenada Panama

British Honduras Guadeloupe St. Lucia

Canal Zone Guatemala St. Vincent

Colombia Haiti Salvador

Costa Rica Honduras Surinam

Cuba Jamaica Trinidad & Tobago

Dominica Leeward Islands Venezuela
Martinique

It is planned to present this journal quarterly. Material for pub-
lication should be submitted at least two months before publication date
and be addressed to the Director, Tropical Forest Experiment Station,

Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico.

Edited, Multilithed, and Distributed
by the
Southern Forest Experiment Station
New Orleans, La. U.S.A.

To Our Collaborators

The establishment of the Tropical Forest Experiment Station, located
on the grounds of the Insular Agricultural Experiment Station at Rio Piedras,
Puerto Rico, is proceeding slowly and surely. A Laboratory and Office
building to house the Station is under construction on a hill overlooking
San Juan and the Island to the West. It should be completed and ready to
occupy in September of this year.

It is hoped that full use of the Station and its facilities will be
made by all countries and persons interested in tropical forestry. While
the Station is the medium for issuing "The Caribbean Forester", we want you
to consider it your publication. For those who do not have the time to write
longer articles we would appreciate short notes giving us your experience,
observations and problems concerning any item of interest. These would
supply a medium for comment and exchange of views and would prove a valuable
addition to the journal.

To get back to the Station, for the present we are continuing the
experimental work in nursery practice, planting, and forest management.
On the other hand, no attempt is being made to set up a complete long-range
program until a careful study has been made of the entire field. To serve
properly the needs, not only of Puerto Rico, but of tropical America, it
is necessary that we be given every assistance in the formulation of our
program. You can participate by advising us of your problems and how we
can help in their solution. Will you not give us the benefit of your
recommendations and suggestions? Nothing would encourage us more.

Some general plans have been tentatively approved. All these are
with the purpose of increasing the usefulness of the Station. Provision
is being made in the new building to furnish office and laboratory space
for visiting scientists who wish to carry on studies of tropical forests
or allied biological sciences.

As soon as facilities are available, we expect to make provision for
men from tropical American countries, particularly younger men engaged in or
who hope to be engaged in forestry work, to come to the Station for training
in research work and forestry.

For those countries not able to send anybody to the Station, but who
are anxious to carry on experimental work and who request technical col-
laboration and assistance, the Station expects to have a technical staff
to furnish such a service.

It seems like an ambitious program to carry out in addition to our
experimental projects, but there it is, and all we can do is to hope that
if it meets with your approval, you will assist us in carrying it out. If
you don't approve and feel that we can contribute more in other ways, won't
you tell us so? - - - - - ARTHUR BEVAN, Tropical Forest Experiment Station.

CONTENTS

Balsa in British Honduras, N. S. Stevenson, British Honduras......... aL

Forestry and forest legislation in the Dominican Republic,
Js. Ge Scarif, Santo Domingo aegis ccd'scvecacetee s aie aval eveletovelelebeeeuodeys ence neene 4

Venezuela Forestal, I., Manual Gonzdlez Vale, Venezuela..........00. 10

The use of geometric figures in ecological description,
ivan 7. Sanderson, British Museum, hondon,sEnolandyyvecmrcaterete athens ILS)

Forestry and forest resources in Haiti (Cont.), Schiller Nicolas,
PAE s eis a seciesaicheselln =a lt sorsSipossaiitore, elie wile Neineskeveltostoiantejte Neal Cut ioll omerononleltie ek ene Renee mente ene: wer mee 20

Some notes on forest entomology, Luis F. Martorell, Puerto Rico..... 23

The possibility of close cooperation for mutual benefit between
agriculture and forestry in the American tropics,
L. R. Holdridge. PuertowRi Con s-jineia ats settee a sss iallenaneeneceneneie ohne mena onete PBS)

ata

BALSA IN BRITISH HONDURAS

N. S. Stevenson, Conservator of Forests

The following extracts from reports on seed extraction and plantation work
with balsa in British Honduras will be of interest to the Puerto Rico Forest
Service. Botanical material of "polak", as it is locally known, has been identified
as-Ochroma lagopus, 0. concolor, O. bicolor, 0. velutina and QO. limonensis, but
Mr. Paul C. Standley of the Field Museum of Natural History in the "Flora of
British Honduras" believes that all material reported from British Honduras is
referable to Ochroma limonensis Rowlee. :

Polak occurs very rarely in high rain forest, but is a common tree in
"huamil"™ or second growth on abandoned plantations, where it makes very rapid
growth. Many inquiries have been made for supplies of the wood and there is a
local market for the floss for stuffing pillows and mattresses. Unfortunately,
the wood of the tree in huamil shows very considerable variation in density,
ranging from soft, very light wood in the center to comparatively hard wood on
the outside, which-may be as much as three times as heavy as the center wood.
Natural stocks on abandoned shifting cultivation are, generally speaking, too
scattered for commercial exploitation and in | collecting the floss the normal
local method is to fell the tree.

The experimental work undertaken since 1934 on a very small scale was
designed (a) to grow polak in plantation and by silvicultural treatment to
produce a wood of more uniform texture and density, (b) to obtain floss from
plantation-grown trees and (c) to separate the seed from the floss efficiently
and quickly.

The following conclusions have been drawn from our work up to date.
Polak is essentially a "huamil" species demanding a fair degree of soil drainage.
It will not tolerate waterlogging and is an extreme light demander. It gives
excellent natural regeneration following burning either at seeding time (late
April and early May) or up to 3-1/2 months afterwards—-possibly longer.
Experiments made on "unburnt" land, though giving promising regeneration, all
failed and burning appears to give the polak seed the necessary stimulus and
the other huamil species the necessary set-back to enable the former to establish
itself against the latter. The seed has the power of lying dormant in or on the
soil for some time (at least 3-1/2 months) under second growth and responds at
once by germinating where the second growth is cut and burnt. In the absence
of burning the seed germinates successfully but the seedlings do not thrive
beyond a height of 1-1/2 - 2 inches, except in prepared nursery beds.

Artificial regeneration is to be avoided when possible. Direct sowing
is the only practicable large-scale method, transplants being exceedingly
delicate and subject to wiltering. A good, hot burn is essential to success.
Experiments to date have been confined to sowing seed after clearing, with or
without burning before sowing, but results obtained with natural regeneration
seem to show that the correct method is to clear the land, broadcast the seed,
and then burn. This sounds very drastic with such a small, delicate seed as
that of polak, but would probably prove successful. Patch burning followed by

sowing has not been very successful, probably on account of the side-shade from
the fast-growing huamil.around the patches.

With dense regeneration it is probable that no cleaning would be necessary.
Small areas of natural regeneration have been seen where no cleaning has been
carried out and polak has established itself at the end of 1 year against all
other species. Polak appears to reach a height of about 10 feet in the first
year, after which thinnings would probably be necessary, as, being an extreme
light demander, it responds to crowding by growing very tall and spindly.

Transplanted seedlings in a portion of 6-1/2 acres of plantation showed
slightly better growth than the natural regeneration and attained a mean girth
of 38 inches in 5 years. The growth in the first 2 years was extremely rapid
and the first thinning carried out at 4 years 8 months should have been made
sooner. The average height to the first branches was 12 feet but the trees
are now cleaning themselves of these lower branches,

An alternative method of broadcasting seed without separating the seed
from the floss was not completely successful. Pods were tied to high sticks |
through an area felled for plantation and it was expected that the drying pods
would open and the seed be carried evenly over the area by the wind-borne floss.
Heavy rains, however, thoroughly wetted the floss in the partly opened pods and
the method, though cheap, cannot be guaranteed and is not recommended if clean
seed can be obtained easily.

The collection of pods from trees removed in thinning the plantation
already referred to, showed that large quantities of floss cannot be obtained
annually from plantations managed primarily for the production of wood. This
part of the research was therefore abandoned and new experiments were commenced
to determine whether polak trees in pastures and other open spaces could be made
to develop low-branching, heavy crowns from which the pods could be collected
without felling the tree. The work done so far shows that saplings of about
4-6 inches girth can be cut successfully about 4 feet from the ground and will
produce many branches. It is probable that periodical pruning will be required
to keep the crown within reasonable picking reach.

At present the collection of seed or floss necessitates the felling of
the tree and the gathering of pods by hand. Felling must be carried out either
in the early morning when the fruits are still damp with dew or on wet days,
otherwise the fruit bursts and the greater part of the seed is lost. In an
early method of separation the fruits were spread out on tarpaulins in the sun
on calm days and allowed to open thoroughly, the woody parts being picked out
by hand. The floss containing the seed was packed loosely into bags and well
beaten with sticks, separating the seed from the floss. The bags were then
emptied and the floss winnowed or raked away from the seed. By this method
ll large sacks of fruits gave 12 sacks of floss and 22.3 lbs. of seed, 1 pound
avoirdupois containing approximately 45,800 seeds.

A later and more efficient method was evolved to prevent loss of floss
in sudden gusts of wind. The pods are now sunned in shallow trays covered with
chicken-wire netting and the floss is removed by hand into large plywood boxes.
The seed is then removed from the floss in a homemade machine consisting of 1/Z-inch
square mesh wire-netting cylinder about 18 inches in diameter and 3 feet long,

‘through which runs a shaft carrying two opposite sets of 1/2-inch square pegs
spaced about 1 inch apart and leaving a clearance of about 1-1/2 inches between
the ends of the pegs and the netting. The shaft is mounted on bicycle wheel
hubs and is rotated in the cylinder by hand power transmitted through a bicycle
crank and chain. The cylinder is filled about one-third full of floss through
a removable section about 1/4 of the circumference and the full length of the
cylinder. The upper portion of the drum is covered with paper to stop seeds
being thrown out and they fall through the bottom onto an inclined sheet, the
vibration and movement working them gradually downward to a receptacle.
Experience shows that the seeds can be removed quicker by a backward-and-
‘forward motion of the paddles rather than by straightforward rotation and the
machine is worked in a draught to remove quickly the dust and fine particles
which otherwise become a nuisance to the operator. Ten large bags of pods
treated: by this method gave seventeen large bags of floss and over forty pounds
of seed. A considerable amount of time is wasted in filling and emptying the
cylinder and it is believed that a cylinder of larger diameter would be just

as efficient.

Our planting experience of 1934 was confirmed in an article by Samuel
Greenhouse on "The Culture of the Balsa Tree in Ecuador" in the Journal of
Forestry (Jour. Forestry 33 (10): 870-876, Oct. 1935) (Society of American
Foresters, Atlanta, Ga.). There is also a note on Ochroma in Tropical Woods
(Yale School of Forestry, New Haven, Conn.), No. 59, pages 15-18.

Resumen

Desde el 1934 se ha estado experimentando con la balsa (Ochroma sp.) para
obtener madera de densidad y textura mds uniforme y producir fibra o lana de los
arboles sembrados en plantaciones, y para separar la semilla de la fibra rdpida
y eficientemente.

La balsa ocurre principalmente después de desmontes y requiere suficiente
drenaje y luz abundante. La repoblacién artificial usando plantulas no es satis-
factoria debido a la naturaleza delicada de los arbolitos. Una excelente
repoblacién natural se obtiene quemando el sitio al tiempo de caer la semilla, a
Ultimo de abril y a principios de mayo o hasta 3 meses y medio después; o la
. semilla puede regarse al voleo antes de la quema. El fuego estimula la germina-—
cién e inhibe el desarrollo de otras especies.

La recoleccién de las bellotas se lleva a cabo corrientemente cortando el
drbol temprano por la mafana o durante dias htimedos. Actualmente se ha demos—
trado que cuando los arbolitos se cortan a cuatro pies del suelo ramifican mucho,
haciendo posible la recoleccién de las bellotas sin necesidad de tumbar el 4rbol.

La fibra se saca de las bellotas a mano, después de haberlas expuesto al
sol en cajas llanas cubiertas con tela metdlica. Las semillas se separan de la
fibra por medio de una maquina rustica, que consiste de un cilindro de tela
metdlica con un eje dentado el cual se mueve a mano.

FORESTRY AND FOREST LEGISLATION IN THE
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

de Gemocarits
Introduction.— The Dominican Republic occupies the eastern two-thirds of

the Island of Hispaniola, lying between latitudes 20° and 17° 30' N. The Republic
has an area of 19,325 square miles, approximately 60 percent of which is forested.

Forested 3 ,007 , 000 hectares2/
Under cultivation 1,000,000 hectares
Grassland 500,000 hectares
Coast, lakes, rivers, and roads 250,000 hectares

Urban and waste lands 250,000 hectares

Principal Woods of Present Economic Importance.-— Because of the relatively
large percentage of its area in forest, the Dominican Republic has for many years

been a rather large consumer and exporter of certain woods -- the most important
of these being:

1. Caoba (Swietenia mahagoni (L.) Jacq.) -- true mahogany

2. Espinillo (Zanthoxylum flavum Vahl.) -- West-Indian satin-wood
3. Guayacdn (Guaiacum officinale L.) -- lignum-vitae

4. Bera (Guaiacum sanctum L.) -- bastard lignum-vitae

5. Mora (Chlorophora tinctoria Gaudich.) -- fustic

6. Campeche (Haematoxylon campechianum L.) -— logwood

7, Baitoa (Phyllostylon brasiliensis Cap.) -- a native boxwood

8. Cedro (Cedrela odorata L.) -- cigar—box cedar

9. Sabina (Juniperus gracilior Pilger) -- pencil cedar
10. Pino (Pinus occidentalis Sw.) -- Santo-Domingo pine

The last named -- Pinus occidentalis Sw. -- is cut principally for local

consumption, while most of the wood from the other species is exported, either
in log or manufactured form. Such exports amount to between $150,000 and
#200,000 yearly.

Wood Imports.— Notwithstanding the abundant supply of wood in the Republic,
in the past a relatively large amount has been imported yearly from the United
States. Most of this has consisted of southern pine in. structural sizes and has
supplemented the native pine, which is cut at a yearly rate of between 7 and 8
million board feet. Recently, however, pine imports have fallen off considerably
owing not only to a noticeable decrease in construction, but also to the fact
that during the last few years native woods have been utilized more and more.

So that, where wood imports were often valued at between $400,000 and $1,000,000
yearly, they barely exceed $30,000 at present.

1/one hectare is equivalent to 2.471 acres.

The three economically important forest regions of the Republic.-— The
3,007,000 hectares classed as forest land present the greatest of variety not

only as to species of trees supported thereon, but also as to stocking and
accessibility. As a matter of fact, more than 50 percent of this area can be
considered of importance only insofar as its vegetation regulates streamflow
and prevents erosion. Three forest types, however, are of great economic
importance from a forestry standpoint. They are:

1. The tropical rain forest.-— This forest type is found along the
eastern half of the north coast, centering about the peninsula of Samand and
extending inland at this point. Here where precipitation varies from 60 to
120 inches per year, the climax forest is quite mesophytic, and the charac-
teristic tree is yaya (Oxandra lanceolata (Sw.) Baill.). Throughout this
forest type the best Dominican mahogany, satin-wood, and lignum-vitae is
found; and although much of the forest has been exploited, there are stiil
areas of untouched timber within this region -- especially on the peninsula
of Samand itself. This is so principally because in this part of the
Republic transportation facilities are still undeveloped; and only that part
of the timber near the coast can be economically logged.

2. The xerophytic thorn—hardwood-softwood forest.- This forest type
is found along the southwestern coast of the Republic and extends inland

throughout the provinces of Barahona and Azua. Characterized in the drier
and lower portions by a thorn forest of giant cacti and bayahonda (Prosopis
chilensis (Mol.) Stuntz), where precipitation is favorable -- especially back
in the hills where the rainfall varies from 30 to 40 inches yearly -- many
important commercial woods are found. Among these are bastard lignum-vitae,
the dyewoods, native boxwood, and the "cedars". The supply of these, however,

is being exhausted rapidly. This is due to the relative ease of transportation

throughout this region, its proximity to important seaports, and the sparse,
park-like growth habit of the trees. Moreover, unlike other tropical tree
species, those classed as xerophytic or semi-xerophytic are relatively slow
growers, seed scantily, and often do not coppice.

3. The pine-hardwood forest.- This forest type is found along the
windward slopes of the Cordillera Central in the provinces of Trujillo, La
Vega, and Santiago at an elevation ranging between 1,500 and 7,000 feet
above sea level. Santo Domingo pine is the dominant tree throughout, with
an understory of pomarrosa (Eugenia _jambos L.) occurring in the moister and
more protected situations. The pine resembles in growth habit and size the
pines of the southeastern United States and, like the latter, provides
excellent structural material for local consumption.

As one of the principal highways in the Republic is through this region,
much cutting has occurred here during the past 15 years; and, at the present
rate of exploitation, the remaining stands of pine can last little longer,
except in highly inaccessible locations. It is not, however, so much the
amount cut as the accompanying bad practices, that endangers the forest
type -- such practices as clear-cutting large blocks of timber with no
thought to the growing stock or reproduction and allowing fires to burn over
the mountain sides unchecked.

Forest Legislation.-— Public forestry is carried on under the leadership
of the Secretary of Agriculture; but no true Forest Service exists and relatively
little forest legislation has been enacted. A law was passed, however, in 1934
"concerning the conservation of forests and waters." This law, containing
15 articles, is in brief as follows:

Article 1.- The following are declared and designated as Forest Reserves
of the Republic.

(a) All unreserved Public Domain lands now in forest or capable of
supporting a forest.

(b) All future acquisitions of land by the National Government when
such land either already be in forest or be deemed unfit for other purposes.

Article 2.- The following lands are to be deforested under no
circumstances:

(a) The upper portions of the several mountain ranges in the Republic.

(b) The banks of all rivers and streams for a distance of 20 meters
back from either side and the edges of all gulleys and "arroyos" for a
distance of 10 meters back from either side.

(c) Lands lying within a radius of 150 meters of river and spring
heads and atthe ‘heads of all “arroyos!.

(d) Areas 20 meters wide around all lakes and lagoons.

(e) The summits of all hills under agriculture for a distance down
on all sides of at least 10 meters.

For any infraction of the above a person is liable to a fine of
from $5.00 to $200.00, a term of from one to six months in prison, or both.

Article 3.- One year is given all agriculturists now farming land dealt
with under Article 2 to either abandon it or show that its cultivation is
indispensable to their livelihood.

Article 4.- All lands under cultivation upon abandonment must be re-
forested in conformity with rules and regulations as laid down for such cases.

For any infraction of either Article 3 or Article 4, a person may be
liable to a fine of from $10.00 to $50.00 and furthermore may be made responsible

for any sums of money the Government deems necessary in restocking such lands.
Moreover, such reforested lands must be cared for by the party concerned.

Article 5.-— It is prohibited to:
(a) Fire the woods.

(b) Light fires in areas within the pine forests which might
endanger these.

Article 6.- Trees along public roads and highways are not to be cut
unless they interfere with the maintenance of said roads and highways.

Article 7.- No block of land larger in area than 200 hectares can be
deforested for agricultural or other purposes without special permission from
the Secretary of Agriculture.

Article 8.- When land is cleared for pasture, five trees in semi-arid
localities must be left per hactare.

Article 9.-— "Precious woods" such as caoba, espinillo, guayacdn, cedro,
roble (Macrocatalpa longissima (Jacq.) Britt.), Cap& (Cordia Gerascanthus L.
and Petitia domingensis Jacq.), nogal (Juglans jamaicensis C. DC.), ébano
(Gymnanthes lucida Sw.?), and others can be cut only if for each tree taken
twenty of like species are planted in its place.

Certain minimum requirements as to diameter of trees cut will also be
enforced, along with the time for such cuttings to take place.

Article 10.-— Only under special justification can trees bearing fruits
of commercial importance or palm trees be cut.

Article 11,- All trees to be used for firewood or in the manufacture of
charcoal must be cut at least two feet from the ground line, thus permitting
ample opportunity for coppicing.

Article 12.- The National Government may take all measures necessary
for the reforestation of forests whenever and wherever such measures become
necessary.

Article 13.- This law in its entirety may be enforced by any and all
law-enforcement bodies of the National Government, and especially by a body
of "Forest Guards" under the direction of the Secretary of Agriculture.

Article 14.— A fine of from $5.00 to $100.00, a prison sentence of
from five days to three months, or both,may be inflicted for the infraction
of any of the above articles where special punishment has not been duly
prescribed.

Article 15.- The present law supersedes and invalidates all previous
laws dealing with the conservation of forests and waters in the Republic.

The above law furnishes an excellent beginning in forest legislation
and control; however, there is still much to be done. Moreover, due to a
lack of responsibly trained foresters and of proper public cooperation, the
above law has fallen more or less into neglect and is seldom enforced.

A law, however, passed in 1937 dealing with "a tax on wood sawed either
for sale within the country or to be exported, and the modification of the
Industrial Tax Law" has been enforced rather rigidly. In brief it states that:

Article 1.- A tax of $5.00 per 1,000 board feet is placed on all timber

sawed for structural purposes, and of $2.00 per 1,000 board feet on all wood
to be used for the manufacture of boxes and crates.

Article 2.- Woods to be exported are subject to the following duties:

(a) On oulee cedro, espinillo, roble, sabina, and ébano -- $5.00
per 1,000 kilos.

(b) On bera, guayacdn, and capé& -- $2.50 per 1,000 kilos.
(c) On other woods and plants -- $1.00 per 1,000 kilos.

Article 3.- Customs officials are empowered to withhold shipment of
all material listed in Article 2 until the proper export duties have been paid.

Article 4.- Infractions of the above three articles are punishable by
penalties as prescribed in Law No. 855.

Article 5.- The Industrial Tax Law is to be modified as follows:

(a) A yearly assessment on sawmills powered by steam or motor of
$25.00 -- excepting those engaged in the manufacture of boxes and crates,
in which case an assessment of $15.00 per year is made.

(b) A yearly assessment on lumber yards and warehouses of $10.00.

Passed primarily to gather revenue for the National Government, the
above law has discouraged greatly the local milling and exporting of timber.
In one respect, however, this has had a beneficial effect upon the forests of
the Republic; for it has fostered natural or involuntary forestry -- the extent
of such natural forestry varying in inverse ratio to the margin left for stumpage.
On the other hand, the price for local construction lumber has necessarily
remained well above the financial means of the average citizen -- an undesirable
Situation. There has been, therefore, recent agitation to modify the law and
thus open the way for further development in lumbering.

The future of forestry in the Dominican Republic.—- Still rich in forests
of valuable woods, the Dominican Republic -- unlike several of her less fortunate

neighbors -—— is in an enviable position and may become easily a leader in
Caribbean forestry. Her ability to assume such leadership, however, depends
largely upon her attitude toward her forests during the next few years; for there
are definite steps that must be taken to insure their future maintenance and
development. The most pressing of these are:

1. A fuller use of the forests as a whole. This means that markets must
be created for many woods now cut and left in the forests by those interested
solely in exploiting the better-known species, such as mahogany, satin-wood,
and lignum-vitae. The creation of such markets, however, should not be too
difficult as many of the lesser-known species of tropical woods seem to offer
great potentialities and need only to be properly introduced to the consumer.

2/ One kilo is equivalent to 2.2046 lbs.

2. Further development in forest legislation. Such legislation, however,
should not be conceived and passed arbitrarily, but should be based rather on
proper management and silviculture as developed locally.

3. The development of forest-consciousness in the average citizen. He must
be made to understand the importance of this natural resource and to realize that
in many localities unfit for other uses the forest may furnish the only means of
obtaining from the land a future sustained income.

4. The expansion of the existing Forest Service. Such a branch of the Govern-
ment, under the direction of responsibly trained foresters, would assure the future
of forestry in the Republic and would more than pay for itself in a few years.

If such steps are carried out, forestry in the Dominican Republic will begin
to play a greater and greater role in the economic welfare of the nation. However,
such remedial action should be taken at once lest irreparable damage be done in the
meantime.

Summary

The forested area of the Dominican Republic is estimated at 3,007,000 hec-—
tares or 60 percent of the total area. The ten most important species are listed as
caoba, espinillo, guayacdn, bera, mora, campeche, baitoa, cedro, sabina, and pino.
Wood imports have dropped off in recent years owing to a decrease in construction
and increased utilization of native species.

The three forest types of greatest economic importance from a forestry stand-
point are the tropical rain forest along the eastern half of the northern coast, the
xerophytic thorn-hardwood-softwood forest along the southwestern coast and extending
inland throughout the provinces of Barahona and Azia, and the pine-hardwood forest

-of the central mountains in the Trujillo, La Vega, and Santiago Provinces.

A brief of the forestry legislation is given and definite steps most needed
for advancing forestry are suggested as follows: A fuller use of the forests as a
whole, further development in forest legislation, the development of forest-con-
sciousness in the average citizen, and expansion of the existing Forest Service.

Resumen

El drea forestal de la Reptiblica Dominicana se estima en 3,007,000 hectdreas
o el 60 por ciento del drea total. Las diez especies mas importantes son: caoba,
espinillo, guayacdn, bera, mora, campeche, baitoa, cedro, sabina y pino. Reciente-
mente, la importacidén de madera ha disminuido considerablemente debido a la
construccién limitada y a la mayor utilizacidén de las especies nativas.

Los tres tipos forestales de mayor importancia desde el punto de vista sil-
vicultural son: la selva pluvial tropical en la mitad oriental de la costa norte,
la selva xeréfila o seca a lo largo de la costa suroeste extendiéndose hacia el
interior a través de las provincias de Barahona y Azla, y los pinares en las
montafias centrales de las provincias de Trujillo, La Vega y Santiago.

Se incluye un resumen de la legislacién forestal, sugiriendo los pasos mas
necesarios para el progreso de la silvicultura, como sigue: un uso m&s intenso de
los bosques en general, mayor desarrollo de la legislacidén forestal, el desarrollo
del conocimiento forestal en el ciudadano promedio, y la expansidén del Servicio
Forestal actual.

as i as

VE NCE ZU eA eee Oa Bo cAL emma

Manual Gonzdélez Vale
Estudiante de la Escuela Forestal de la Universidad de Yale, E. U.,
Doctor en Ciencias Frsicas y Matemdticas de la Universidad de Los Andes.

La Base de Toda Economia Nacional

Dos puntales bdsicos soportan la plataforma sobre la cual descansa toda
economia nacional, a saber: 1. El Elemento Humano 2. Los Recursos Naturales.
Ambos factores son importantes. Una perfecta correlacidén de ellos constituye
el estado econdémico ideal.

1. El Elemento Humano.- La prosperidad de un pais reside mds en el
numero y en la calidad de los hombres que lo pueblan que en la abundancia de
sus recursos naturales. Alli donde factor humano escasea no existe competencia,
y donde no hay competencia no puede haber progreso.

2. Los Recursos Naturales.- Los recursos naturales alimentan la
industria moderna en la forma de materiales en bruto. Ellos constituyen la
fuente de energia que mantiene en movimiento la maquinaria econdmica. Ellos
suministran al hombre la fuerza financiera que lo habilita para llevar a cabo
sus ideas.

Los recursos naturales pueden ser clasificados en la forma siguiente:
A. Tierra B. Aguas C. Clima.

Los recursos naturales terrestres pueden, a su vez, ser subdivididos asf:
Reino Mineral: Productos Minerales
Productos Agricolas
TIERRA: Reino vegetal:
Productos Forestales

Reino Animal: Animales y sus productos.

Las fuentes principales de estos productos son tres: granjas o haciendas,
bosques y minas. ‘

Ue

Nuestra Mayor Riqueza

Los recursos minerales, en general, constituyen un factor transitorio
en la economia de cualquier pais. Su existencia es limitada y su renovacién
es imposible. Ademds, su explotacién esta sujeta a las mas extremas
alternativas del comercio internacional. Sin embargo, en términos generales,
la existencia de minerales visible en la actualidad parece ser suficiente
para abastecer la industria por varias centurias. Petrdleo constituye la
excepcién; la existencia visible y probable puede agotarse en veinte o treinta
afios.

La sabidurfa y la bondad de la prédiga naturaleza no pueden ser mas
patentes. Ella guarda solfcita escondidas en sus entratas riquezas inmensas,
como temerosa de exponerlas al alcance de la avaricia humana; debido a ésta,
esas riquezas ocultas han acarreado a la humanidad casi tantos sinsabores
como beneficios. Pero su mas preciado tesoro, aquello que es absolutamente
necesario para nuestra subsistencia, lo muestra palpable en cade pliegue de
su rugosa piel, al alcance del pobre y del rico, como convidando a disfrutar
de sus beneficios. Sus trigales de oro, sus bosques de esmeralda y sus
manantiales de plata, son ciertamente la mds alta expresidén de su magnanimidad
sin limites y es en su conservacién hacia donde nuestros esfuerzos deben
particularmente encaminarse.

Los bosques, en particular, a diferencia de los productos minerales,
pueden ser renovados por las mismas fuerzas naturales que los han producido
en el pasado; sin embargo, estas fuerzas naturales en su accidén constructiva,
requieren la colaboracién orientadora del hombre.

La Situacién de Venezuela

Comoquiera que Venezuela "ha edificado su casa sobre petréleo", est4
expuesta a la suerte de tan incierto fluido. El gobierno actual estd al
tanto de este hecho, y en consequencia, ha comenzado a "reedificar sobre
roca", ha comenzado a "sembrar el petréleo". El Plan Trienal Venezolano
incluye la intensificacién de la Agricultura y la conservacién de los
Recursos Forestales. La palabra "conservacién" tiene dos acepciones: la
que le da el artista o el amante de la naturaleza, y la que le atribuye el
economista. En este ultimo sentido, indudablemente el més importante,
conservacién significa, no el encadenamiento de los recursos forestales,
Sino su "uso sabio". El presente articulo, que es un retofo del Plan
Trienal, persigue esta Ultima finalidad.

Baal

Los Recursos Forestales Venezolanos

Su Valor Econdémico Presente Y Probable Futuro

Hoy.- La contribucidén actual de Venezuela a la economia mundial de
productos forestales es ciertamente muy mezquina. La industria maderera
venezolana, en particular, es incipiente. Venezuela exporta un pufado de
maderas para usos especiales, viéndose precisada a importar la mayor parte
de su consumo doméstico. La exportacién de productos forestales menores,
tales como balatd y sarrapia, ha decrecido ultimamente. En pocas palabras,
la industria forestal esta en mantillas y su contribucién a la economia
venezolana es insignificante.

Manfana.— Existen argumentos en pro y en contra relativos al papel que
los bosques tropicales estén llamados a desempeflar, en el prdédximo futuro,
en la economia mundial de productos forestales. En contra se destacan: la
escasa poblacion de los trépicos, la naturaleza heterogénea de los bosques
ecuatoriales, la falta de vias de comunicacién, la inestabilidad de los
gobiernos de la América tropical, etc. En favor figuran: la naturaleza
virgen de dichos bosques (solo ellos pueden producir maderas de primera
calidad), la existencia de ciertos productos absolutamente necesarios a la
industria moderna y que no existen en otra parte del mundo, el uso creciente
del "enchapado" (que permitird el uso de las especies de segunda calidad),
etc.

Pesando ambas series de argumentos en la balanza de la légica y teniendo
en cuenta que el mundo estdé& comenzando a sentir "hambre de madera", la
conclusién parece ser que no esta lejano el dia en que los bosques tropicales
desempefiardn un papel importante en la economia mundial forestal. Me inclino
a creer que en la segunda mitad de esta centuria, los paises de la zona
templeda limitardn sus actividades a la explotacidén intensa de las Confferas
(Softwoods) y dejardn al trdédpico la tarea de suministrar las Angiospermas
(Hardwoods).

Cuando esto ocurra, si ocurre, los bosques de la América tropical
tendran indudablemente un puesto de preferencia, especialmente los bosques
de la regién de Caribe—por lo menos, en lo que atafie a los Estados Unidos
de Norteamérica.

Entre los paises adyacentes al mar Caribe, Venezuela esta llamada a
desempefiar el papel principal. Con excepcidén del valle del Amazonas en el
Brasil, no existe probablemente en los trdépicos otra regién m&s rica en
recursos forestales que la del valle del Orinoco en Venezuela. La regidén
adyacente al Lago de Maracaibo no se le queda muy atrds.

Existen otras razones para considerar los bosques venezolanos como los
ra ° . F- . ok.
mas importantes en la region del Caribe. La explotacion de productos

Pes oleae

forestales envuelve un numero de consideraciones fuera de la existencia
forestal misma. Fundamentalmente es una cuestién de costo de transporte

al mercado, de accesibilidad. Como acabamos de apuntar,. las regiones
forestales mas ricas de Venezuela estdn situadas alrededor del Lago de
Maracaibo y adyacentes al Rio Orinoco. El primero est& conectado directamente
con el mar Caribe. La importancia de este hecho ha sido sentida por las
Compafifas Petroleras que operan en esa regién. El Rio Orinoco atraviesa

de oeste a este el territorio venezolano, es navegable por grandes embar-
caciones por mas de mil kilometros y desemboca en el Ocedno Atldntico.

Por otra parte, el actual systema de carreteras de la Republica esta siendo
aumentado y elaborado y el gobierno venezolano contempla la construccién

del Ferrocarril de Los Llanos que conectardé el sur con el norte del pais.

La explotacién de los bosques del sur justificard, en parte, la construccién
de este ferrocarril, pudiendo ser una de las principales actividades de

éste el transporte de productos forestales, particularmente maderas, para
uso doméstico. Los bosques, a su vez, podrdn suministrar al ferrocarril

las traviesas o durmientes y demas material forestal que su construccién

y mantenimiento requerirdn. Otra ventaja que presenta Venezuela es su
magnifica situacién financiera, tmica en la América Latina.

Politica Forestal Que Debiera Seguirse

Debido a que las vias de comunicacién son todavia insuficientes, a
que el pais no cuenta con un personal forestal debidamente entrenado, a
que la mayorfa de los productos forestales son desconocidos en el mercado
mundial y a que el ptiblico no estd acostumbrado a estos productos, la
politica forestal que en mi concepto debiera seguirse, debe perseguir ante
todo el remedio de estas deficiencias.

La mayor parte y los mejores bosques venezolanos pertenecen a la nacion.
Esta puede darse el lujo de invertir considerables sumas de dinero en ellos
sin esperar inmediata retribucién. Puede aguardar a que esos bosques sean
estudiados y su riqueza determinada, y a que los productos forestales sean
debidamente ofrecidos al mercado internacional antes de someterlos a una
explotacién intensa. Indudablemente que una explotacién inmediata conducirfa
a una seleccién despilfarradora.

A mi modo de entender, sdlo existe un plan estratégico de ataque que
comprende dos operaciones principales, a saber:

(1) Defensiva.- Restringir la explotacién de maderas en los bosques
nacionales hasta tanto no se elaboren planes técnicamente orientados y leyes
acordes que regulen dicha explotacién. Intensificar la conservacién de los

bosques protectores.

(2) Ofensiva.- Dar a la Ciencia Forestal en su acepcién moderna, el
puesto de preferencia que le corresponde en el pais. Para ello es necesario

lees

crear un Instituto Forestal que comprenda: (a) Una Escuela Técnica Forestal,

y(b) Una Escuela de Guarderfa Forestal. De esta manera podria emprenderse
el estudio de los bosques comerciales. Con el tiempo este Instituto podria
ampliarse y ser elevado a la categoria de Instituto de Conservacién que
incluirfa el estudio de la fauna asi como el de la flora y problemas
relacionados.

Summary

Two major factors constitute the platform upon which any national
economy rests, namely, the human element and the natural resources. Both
are important and a perfect correlation of the two constitutes the ideal
economic status. The natural resources may be divided into three broad
classifications: land, water, and climate. Again, the land resources may
be subdivided, as follows: 1. Mineral kingdom - minerals, 2. Plant
kingdom - food products and forest products, and 3. Animal kingdom -
animals and animal products.

The mineral resources are, in general, a transitory factor in the
economy of any nation because their supply is limited. On the other hand,
the plant and animal resources are renewable. The forests in particular
may be reproduced through the collaboration of man with the natural forces.

Venezuela contributes very little at present to the world's timber
requirements. However, if and when a wood-hungry world turns to the
tropics, the forests of tropical America and especially those of the
Caribbean region will play a leading role, at least from the standpoint
of the United States. Among these forests of the Caribbean region, those
of Venezuela are probably the richest in resources and a sound national
forest policy may very well add a great source of income to future
Venezuelan economy.

Eye

THE USE OF GEOMETRIC FIGURES IN
ECOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

i2 “Ey Sanderson, BA: (Cantab.) F.L.S.

The recent attempt to correlate the nomenclature of tropical vegetation
types by Burtt Davy (1938, Imp. For. Inst., Oxford, Paper No. 13), and the
introduction by Huxley (1938, Nature 142,219) of the conception of "clines"
into taxonomic zoology, have provided a great stimulus to ecological field
work in botany and zoology respectively.

There is, moreover, a very close linkage of clinal variation in animal
groups to the zoning and/or local distribution of plant formations and their
included associations. This linkage may in fact prove to be complete and the
origin of clinal variation in land animals be found to be entirely dependent
upon the progressive spread, evolution, and differentiation of vegetation types.

Much plant variation is itself demonstrably clinal in character, being
in a like manner closely linked with such factors as the zoning of soil facies,
rainfall, humidity, temperature and altitude, geographically with latitude, etc.
Exact and detailed information recorded in the field upon the incidence and
distribution of any one of these groups of related factors will therefore assist
in the elucidation of the others provided their close linkage has been demon-
strated and proved.

The recording of ecological data is at present sadly lacking in cohesion.
Local disturbances of fauna and flora are noted, rehabilitation successions
worked out, and isolated clinal variations mapped but the observations are seldom
integrated. A complete picture of universal trends, preferences, and possibilities
is neglected. In short the accumulation of records is not systematized, more
especially in zoology.

In describing the biological ecology of a given area both as a theoretical
guide prior to observation in the field and as a subsequest framework upon which
to classify, integrate and describe factual findings, a somewhat precise empiri-
cal method has been devised. This has now been in use both in the field and in
‘subsequent laboratory analysis for some time.

The essence of this method is the use of Geometric Figures as descriptive
diagrams. The exact form of these figures depends primarily upon the number of
counteractive factors that are required to be taken into account. Their object
is to obviate the overlooking of possible combinations of factors which would
provide environmental conditions or circumstances of an obscure nature.

As a result of the adoption of this practice, it has been found that
there is a basic octagon wherein the interrelations of the three fundamental
counteractive forces affecting animal life are displayed in their entirety.
This appears to underly the whole of biological variation and, being a simple
example, may serve to demonstrate the whole method.

byes

In fig. 1 degree of light, temperature, and humidity are combined in such a
way that all possible variations of their interaction may be included and, if so
desired, be assigned a mathematically precise definition. Thus, if each of the
three planes be calibrated, any degree of say cold-wet-darkness may be read off
as C.3-W.10-D.2, commencing from the absolutely neutral intersection of the
planes. Normal methods of temperature, humidity, and light intensity may then
be substituted.

Proceeding from this point it will be discovered that the differentiation
of the surface of the earth into major climatic zones may be expressed exactly
by this method, certain of the factors being combined. It is, however, primarily
essential to discover the particular combinations of the axes and then to
orientate the resultant figures to coincide. If this is done all possible
combinations may be read off and none will be excluded.

It will be found that in the polar regions when the temperature and
humidity axes are combined, the dry-cold and wet-hot "poles!" coincide whereas
in the tropics the dry-hot and wet-cold do so. (Fig. II.)

Further, when two basic factors are thus combined, place is found for the
inception of a new factor -axis x-y- in the picture, or conversely, the figure
may be employed to demonstrate more completely intermediate conditions combined
with trends and possibilities in cases of change or alteration.

Taking the word "damp" to mean 50 percent humid with a tendency to "dry",
"moist" to be "50 percent humid" with a tendency to "wet", "cool" as to mean
between hot and cold with a tendency to "cold", and "warm" as to mean between
hot and cold with a tendency to hot, fig. III may be constructed for the tropics.

Upon this the remaining basic factor (i.e., light) may be imposed, but
here it will be found that it is not possible to superimpose all the axes if
a true picture of natural environmental conditions be aimed at. Also, the
intermediate position in nature between maximum light intensity and total dark-
ness may not only be expressed as half-light with a tendency either to more or
to less light; it may also be of two other principal types, i.e., diffused or
filtered (as through water), or broken half-light (as in shadows). These are
the more effective factors regulating animal differentiation.

The octagon may therefore be empirically constructed as in fig. IV.
Herein it will be observed that certain possibilities of combination are totally
excluded, thus in the arctic, wet-hot-broken-light is absent; in the tropics,
wet—cold-broken. If they do occur, they will only be relative to the surroundings
and not to the complete geographical environment. The reason for this becomes
plain if the hypothesis is pursued.

The apices of these octagons represent a number of possible environmental
conditions. Moreover, they represent actuality insomuch as we may choose to
select the three factors of light, heat and humidity to define them. Such
conditions should therefore be recognizable in nature.

Many, if not all of them, are so, but in arranging them empirically to

suit this mathematical representation of their incidence, several facts of
prime importance to ecology and the description thereof come to light.

whaiGwe

Wet

(@) Dry-Celd (Land)

Wet-Hot Diffused Semu1-light.

Moist warm
diffused
semi-light

Damp-cool
broken

semrlight

Dry-Cold Broken semi-light

(a) Arctic.

Moist
Moist

warm.

Damp
cool.

Frc. Il.

Dry Hot

Wet Cold (Sea)

Pres i:
(b. Dry-Hot CLand)
Wet-Cold Difuged Semi- light.
Moist warm Damp cool
Aifused broken
semi- light semi- light.
Dry-Hot Broken semi- light.
IED S a AVA (b) Tropic.

Fresh water.

Marine (wet-~cold- diffused.)

Presh water
Moist, warm,diffuseds

Fossorial
damp, warm ,dor]

Terrestrial.
(dry, hot, broken)

RIG IZ:

Troglodytic.

\ Fossorial.

\

Terrestrial.

ISP ING AVE:

Troglodytic-
Damp, cool, broken.

Herbivorous.

Insectivorous.

Necroph Agous.
PIiGg WIL

If animal and/or plant life be taken to represent an axis with polar
extremes represented by submarine and terrestrial facies, various geometric
representations may be built up solely dependent upon the number of related
counteractive sets of qualifications that are taken into account.

Thus, for animal life a radial specialization of habitat may be singled
out as in Fig. V. (Herein the incidence of animal parasitism is excluded
altogether or taken as being included in the other types—endoparasitism as
"fossorial" or "freshwater" according to the life histories and phylogeny of
the type; ectoparasitism as exemplified by the habitat of the host.)

This diagrammatic representation of animal specialization in habitat may
be fitted onto the octagon for micro-climatic environmental conditions—either
tropic or arctic. From this combined figure, moreover, clines may be read off
as shown in Fig. VI.

Here may be found all types of animal life both catholic and specialized
and a place may be assigned to any intermediate types combining preferences for
two or more habitats either perpetually (e.g., mangrove crabs), seasonally
(e.g., squirrels breeding in holes) or temporarily (e.g., Parasol Ants which are
terrestra-arboreal by night, fossoria-troglodytic by day). Furthermore, there
are no other habitats possible, since, for instance, no animal is known to
complete its life-cycle and live perpetually in the air.

The fact of primary importance to ecological description is that, if the
marine condition is a corollary to the terrestrial as it must be in the tropical
climatic environment, while arboreal is the obvious antithesis of a purely
subterranean existence, the freshwater must be opposed to the troglodytic. That
this is so insofar as their micro-climates are concerned with opposed types of
semi-light and precipitation due to the dampening-warming effect of the one, the
moistening-—cooling effect of the other, is clearly demonstrable.

In studying the distribution of a clinal variation of a species or group,
more relevant facts become apparent if the method described be employed. If a
Species be studied that leads a purely cursorial terrestrial life far from the
sea, it will probably display characters suitable to the retention of body
moisture, colours for the reflection of heat, and markings suitable to broken
light of medium intensities. As this species is followed to river banks or
lake sides, it will meet with moister, cooler conditions though the light will
remain little altered unless it adopt a purely aquatic life there. Its
characters might be expected to (and in many cases which have been investigated,
have proved to) alter accordingly. Should its range approach the sea, more
drastic changes will become apparent. The latter instance is well known to
animal taxonomists.

It would be interesting to know to what extent vegetation types or/and
the variations of individual plant species may be synchronized and explained
upon these principles. In the few instances that botanical clines have been
studied by us during zoological surveys, major and minor clinal variation among
animals and plants appeared to march hand in hand.

- 17 -

The greatest use of the figure combining habitat, light, temperature, and
humidity has been displayed in guiding field work. Herein a prior knowledge of
the fundamental reasons for which any particular animal has sought and taken up
residence in an unusual environment has time and time again led both to a
rational explanation of its morphological variations and, conversely, to an
elucidation of breaks or lacunae in its distribution.

The use of geometric designs is very widely applicable. Thus, the food-
enemy relationship of animal ecology may be expressed by a sexagon, fig. VII.
From this figure all types of food preferences may be read off. Changes in diet
due either to natural or other causes—i.e., the alteration of associated types
through change of vegetation—may be followed. The human species may have
originated as a type at the herbivorous apex, thence moved towards the necrophagous
and subsequently been deflected to the omnivorous of modern civilized man via the
piscivorous or even carnivorous apex. At the present time, the food preference
of Europeans is perhaps tending towards the herbivorous once again.

The colouration of animals is often closely linked to environmental factors,
i.e., green arboreal, yellow desert, black riverain, etc. An octagon for colour is
already in common usage, wherein maximum light (white) and total absence of light
(black) form one axis with neutral grey holding a median position; the other
planes having green and red, blue and yellow apices respectively. It seems
possible that this may be fitted upon fig. VI in determining the possibilities of
basic colouration in animals. The necessity for superimposing arboreal and green,
blue and marine, and the well-recognized melanistic tendency of the riverain
habitat makes the matter one of considerable complexity, calling for a considerable
amount of research. It is possible that various (as yet undetermined) groups of
animals require the association of specific axes. The two figures have been found
to be combined as follows for the description of reptilian colouration: White-
troglodytic; green-arboreal; red-fossorial; yellow-terrestrial; black-freshwater
(or riverain) blue-marine.

The method at present under review, however, is not designed as an
hypothesis to explain the incidence of colour variation nor the selection of
habitat, nor does it purport to be a graphic exemplification of natural laws.
It is designed primarily as an empirical guide to the recording of ecological
facts and as an aid to the understanding of interplay between habitat and other
variations.

It is felt that the method may prove useful to ecologists, especially
foresters who are so constantly faced with marked distributional changes in
vegetation which are dependent upon a number of reciprocal factors. At the
same time it may serve to focus attention upon the very close linkage between
the distribution and minute variation of floras and faunas.

Previous work of our own (Sanderson: P.Z.S. 1936, and Trans. Zool. Soc.
Lond. Vol. IV (in press)) has shown the dependence of fauna upon the distribution

of vegetation types. Work at present in progress is partically designed to show
the use of animal indicators for preliminary spotting of vegetation types.

In describing the ecology of a given area, it is essential to know all
the possible environments created by the interplay of a given number of

Joeee

factors. It is better that the list of possibilities is mathematically
exhausted at the outset, lest unusual phenomena be overlooked or misinter-
preted in the field.

Summary

Davy's nomenclature of tropical vegetation types and Huxley's conception
of "clines" in taxonomic zoology have provided a great stimulus to ecological
field work. There is a close linkage of clinal variation in animal] groups with
vegetation, and in the case of land animals this may prove to be entirely
dependent upon the progressive spread, evolution and differentiation of vegetation
types. It may be found eventually that animal indicators may be used for the
preliminary spotting of vegetation types.

However, present recording of ecological data lacks cohesion, and complete
integrated pictures are not obtained. The use of geometric figures with opposite
axes representing counteracting factors, the combination of related axes by
rotation, with addition of other factors, permits the representation of environ-
mental conditions, precise mathematical definition of intermediate points, and
obviates the possibility of overlooking some environment of an obscure nature.
The method, which should prove useful to foresters, is designed primarily as an
empirical guide to the recording of ecological facts and as an aid to the under-
standing of interplay between habitat and other variations.

Resumen

La nomenclatura de Davy sobre los tipos de vegetacién tropical y la
concepcién de Huxley sobre los "clines! en la zoologfa taxonémica han estimulado
grandemente el trabajo ecoldgico de campo. Hay una estrecha relacién entre la
variacién clinal en los grupos animales y la vegetacién. En el caso de animales
de tierra puede ser que dependa totalmente de la diseminacidén progresiva,
evolucién y diferenciacién de tipos de vegetacién. Eventualmente, puede ser que
los animales sean usados como indices preliminares para sefialar los tipos de
vegetacion.

Sin embargo, el registro de datos ecoldgicos de hoy dia carece de cohesidén
por lo cual no se pueden obtener cuadros completos e integrados. El uso de
figuras geométricas con ejes opuestos que representan factores contrarios, y la
combinacién de ejes afines por medio de rotacién, con la adicion de otros factores,
permite la representacidén de condiciones ambientales, la definicién matemdtica
precisa de puntos intermedios, y ademas elimina la posibilidad de pasar inadver-
tidamente cualquier medio ambiente de cardcter indefinido. El método, que debe
ser Util a los silvicultores queda disefiado primordialmente como una gufa empirica
para el registro de hechos ecoldgicos y como una ayuda para la mayor comprension
de la interaccién entre la localidad y otras variaciones.

love”

FORESTRY AND FOREST RESOURCES IN HAITI (Cont.)

Schiller Nicolas, Service Technique

Even though unorganized and systematically preyed upon by blind human
agencies, the forests of Haiti have contributed tremendously to our past
and present economic needs in addition to their beneficial climatic and
hydrographic influences. No statistical or descriptive literature of any
value exists to give us an idea of the approximate quantitative and qualita-
tive utilization of woods from colonial times up to the present. We do
know that considerable quantities of our valuable woods were employed fcr
maritime, residential, and furniture construction. Some of these, such as
chyole, mahogany, laurel, West-Indian oak, satin-wood, fustic, and ebony,
were exported to a certain extent, while the dyewoods and lignum-vitae
were the objects of a regular and important trade with the metropolis and
other countries. During the Haitian period, up to 1938-39, logwood and
lignum-vitae have been the two capital forest-export products but trust-—
worthy statistics can be obtained for only the years since 1920.

Between 1920 and 1938, the average annual export of logwood amounted
to 26,386,560 kilos. Previous to the American occupation, the amount shipped
was much greater and of excellent quality, and as Haiti was the largest ex-
porter of the western hemisphere from the time of the French occupation up
to recent years, it is easily surmised that the stands of this species were
very extensive. The wanton cutting without replacement has so depleted it
that we are now far back in the list of exporters. What is left and readily
accessible consists of second-growth, irregular, knotty, fluted logs, very
much depreciated in value on the markets. From an original, thick stand of
about 350,000 to 400,000 has., there remains in Haiti approximately 90,000
has., of which a good portion is inaccessible.

Lignum—vitae has had a worse fate, although its range comprised all
of the semi-arid valleys and plateaus of Haiti. Its slow natural regeneration
and the uncontrolled grazing of cattle have favored its more appalling
exhaustion. From a total of 5,537,000 kilos in 1920-21, exports have fallen
to 229,296 kilos in 1937-38. It is presumed that exports will continue to
drop off, since the logs of 10-12" girth which are required by the markets
are practically unobtainable, except for a limited quantity in rugged, in-
accessible places. The difficulty of transportation has been the only
factor to prevent its complete extinction.

Mahogany and cedar have no actual commercial importance as they are
found only individually and very scattered. The central mesas and the island
of La Tortue did bear rather extensive stands, often in association with logwood,
but the few trees remaining which are used for local furniture are young and
comprised largely of sapwood.

As for the other precious woods, such as West-Indian oak, fustic,
tavernon (Lysiloma latisilique), satin-wood, ebony, acomas (Sideroxylon),

Ope

prunus, bayrhum, and crabwood (Gymnanthes lucida), their commercial value
is limited and strictly local, due to the small volume to be found.

In addition, Haiti, which previously had a bountiful supply of fence-
posts, beams, poles, cross ties, and fuelwood, has been experiencing an in-
credible shortage of these items. In fact, there are many districts where
the natural stands have been so abusively depredated that the local popula-
tion is undergoing real hardship, being obliged either to cut down immature
trees whose timber is easily damaged by borers and termites or to pay
costly transportation in order to obtain better material. Owing to the
use of immature wood, the insect and weather damage, and the lack of use
of any preservative, the consumption of building and fencing materials is
disproportionately squanderous. The visualization of the tragedy is more
dreadful when one recalls that the downtrend is cumulative owing to recur-
rent damages by fires, unrestricted grazing, and no replanting.

The only forest stands in the coastal flats which have not been
devastated are the mangrove swamps and this is chiefly due to the small
development of the tanning industry.

The pine stands constitute our forest resource of greatest potentiality,
not only as a business proposition but also as a modifying climatic factor
in a country where damage due to floods, droughts, and winds annually exceeds
the million mark. Although more than three-fourths of its original stands
have been displaced by agriculture or destroyed by fire, especially at lower
altitudes, this species, Pinus occidentalis, still occurs in fairly dense stands
over some 300 square miles. This total area is located in four distinct forests,
as follows: a little-known, inaccessible area in the southern peninsula at
elevations from 1,200 to 2,500 m. above sea level, an area of 212 square miles
in the eastern center of Haiti at altitudes ranging from 450 to 1,200 m., a
small area, not surveyed,near a road in the north center of Haiti, at elevations
of 300 to 900 m., and an area of 4O square miles, southeast of Port-au-Prince
and accessible by car at high altitudes, between 1,300 and 2,500 m. All except
the first area, where the precipitation is abundant, may be classified as semi-
arid. They receive from 1,300 to 1,700 mm. of rainfall annually with a definite
dry spell in the winter and a wet season interrupted by short droughts during
the spring, summer, and autumn. The volume of these forests is estimated con-
servatively at 350 million board feet.

Haiti imports annually an average of 3,820,500 cu. ft. of low-grade
construction wood which is sold here at 6 cents per board foot. Average
yearly imports of turpentine reach 42,000 pounds, which is sold on the local
market at $1.50 per gallon. Annual imports of rosin average 269,000 lbs.,
which brings a price of 10 cents per pound. The total drain of these various
importations could be stopped easily in a short time and Haiti even could be-
come an exporter of these items.

The trouble with Haiti is that political policies have never been based
on examination, study, and consideration of the natural economy of the country.
In colonial times, when the population was less than one-sixth of the present
and better agricultural practices as well as more appropriate land use were the
rule, Haiti was the "pearl" of the West Indies. As a matter of fact, the

ee eee

topography, the climate, and the nature of the soils make the forests the
palladium of this country. More than 50 percent of the mountainous areas
which have been shifted to agriculture never should have been cleared
because of the aridity of the climate, or the superficiality of the soils
and their scanty supply of organic matter. In the semi-arid valleys
where a substantial living can be obtained without irrigation, more than
30 percent of the land should have been left in forest. In both the
mountains and valleys, cattle raising and wood industries could have
furnished millions of man-days of labor instead of the contrasting piti-
ful sights, which greet the traveler, of thousands of abandoned farms
resulting from the exodus to cities and neighboring countries. The
regulation of local climate and waterflow, and the control of floods
through the influence of forest stands, would insure a prosperous agri-
culture in the valleys and on appropriate hillsides.

About two-thirds of the territory is hilly and semi-arid, being
swept by dry, permanent trade winds during the winter months. In the
valleys and savannas, where scarcely 15 percent of the area enjoys a
humid climate, farming, without irrigation and with the primitive tools
and knowledge at the disposal of our rural communities, leads to exhaus-
tion of the soils. Discriminate land use is a crucial problem for Haiti,
as Nature clearly demonstrates that very little area is appropriate for
permanent agriculture and cultivated crops, and that the conservation of
soil and water as well as protection from wind can be secured only through
the maintenance of a greater portion of the territory in forests.

The proper adjustment of our economic and social structure to a
proper use of our lands will inevitably bring about great changes in our
political system and land tenure, but it must not be delayed, as the
alkalinization of the valleys and the approach to a desert climax on the
hills and in the valleys are tending to stifle any dreamed-of progress.

Resumen

A pesar de la falta de organizacién que ha predominado en tiempos
pasados, los bosques de Haiti han contribufdo notablemente a la economia
del pais, ademas de ejercer una influencia bienhechora sobre el clima y
las aguas. La exportacién de campeche, guayacdn, y otras maderas preciosas
ha constitufdo una fuente estimable de ingreso. Sin embargo, posteriormente
la exportacién ha disminuido grandemente y algunas secciones del pafs han
comenzado a resentir la falta de maderas de construccion.

La exportacién desmedida de las angiospermas deja a los pinares como
el Unico recurso forestal de gran importancia. Estos pinares, explotados
cientificamente, podrfan suplir al pafs de madera y productos resinosos
que hasta ahora ha venido importando.

El uso apropiado de la tierra exige imperiosamente la repoblacién
de los terrenos forestales que han sido invadidos por la agricultura.
Es necesario devolver a los bosques al sitio que les corresponde en el
cuadro econdmico del pais.

= 22 =

SOME NOTES ON FOREST ENTOMOLOGY

Luis F, Martorell, Asst. Entomologist,
Agricultural Experiment Station,
RVOyETearas, ba. He

The Spanish Elm Lacewing Bug

During the winter months of this year, a heavy infestation of the
Spanish elm lacewing bug, Monanthia monotropidia Stal, was noticed on Spanish
elms or "capa prieto" trees, Cerdana alliodora R. & P. = (Cordia Gerascanthus
Jacq.) at Cayey and Salinas both at sea level and at high altitudes. Monanthia
monotropidia Stal (Tingididae, Hemiptera), a small, dark brown tingid, was re-
ported for the first time in Puerto Rico by Mr. F. Sein, of this Station, as
attacking, at Lares, a small tree, which was not identified. Nothing was
heard again of the insect until now, when it appears as an important pest on
one of our best forest trees.

A careful examination of the leaves of an infested tree shows small
nymphs and sometimes adults, crawling on the undersides of the leaves and
feeding on the plant juices. Such attack causes a chlorotic condition of
the leaves and subsequent defoliation. Many trees in the infested areas
had been completely defoliated owing to the intense attack and the immense
quantity of nymphs and adults on the leaves.

The Bean Lacewing Bug

The bean lacewing bug, Corythuca gossypii Fabr., which has been reported
in Puerto Rico on a large list of host plants, among them sword beans, castor
beans, lima beans, lemons, oranges, soursops, etc., is now a pest of forest
trees. In February 1939, an infestation of this insect on the undersides of
the leaves of several West-Indian satin-wood or "aceitillo" trees (Zanthoxylum
flavum Vahl.) was observed for the first time at the Cayey nurseries. The
leaves were turning yellow and several weeks later they were shed. Later on,
during July 1939, a heavy infestation of the insect was recorded on several
young "aceitillo" trees at Santurce. The pest was more numerous than at Cayey
and the attack, of course, more intense. The insect seems to persist, for when
the old leaves were shed and new leaves appeared, the insect began to attack
the trees a second time.

Upon examination of "aceitillo" trees at the Gudnica Insular Forest,
the same insect was noticed. Here, the damage was of no importance apparently,
but nearly every tree was infested out of a group of 25 which were examined.

On March 10, 1940, the same insect was observed attacking "carubio" or
yellow prickle trees, Zanthoxylum monophyllum (Lam.) P. Wilson, at Juana Diaz
on the south coast and at Isabela on the northwestern coast of Puerto Rico.
In both cases the attack was so severe that the leaves of the trees were
completely chlorotic. At Isabela, several large trees of "espino rubial"
(Zanthoxylum caribaeum Lam.) were infested by the tingid. No damage of
considerable importance was noticed on this particular species of tree.

ago) ae

The Long Scale, Ichnaspis longirostris Signoret

Ichnaspis longirostris Signoret, which has quite a long list of host
plants, has added one more to it. I refer to the Honduras mahogany (Swietenia
macrophylla King). At El Verde (Caribbean National Forest) a large plantation
of S. macrophylla is attacked by this scale. The parts of the trees mostly
attacked are the lower branches and leaves. The scales are concentrated near
the midribs and veins of the leaves. The result of the insect attack on the
leaves is a heavy chlorosis and later on, defoliation. Some of the trees show
defoliation of the lower branches.

The Mealybug, Pseudococcus nipae Maskell

Pseudococcus nipae Maskell is by far the worst pest of "anacaguitas"
or Panama tree, Sterculia apetala (Jacq.) Karst., in many places cn the island.
0. apetala is planted extensively along the roadsides on the south coast. At
Gudnica, the mealybug is attacking large trees. The infestation is mostly on
the undersides of the leaves, but also the branches and even’ the fruits are in-
fested. In some cases, especially in large trees, the damage is not noticeable,
but when the insect attacks young trees, sometimes these are killed. This case
had been observed at Juana Diaz. At Salinas, also,large trees are heavily in-
fested and young trees are nearly dead. Only in one instance, and this was at
Ponce, were coccinelid beetles found attacking the coccids. These were:

Hyperaspis apicalis Mulsant and Scymnillus nunenmacheri Sicard. These beetles
were very abundant, the young larvae feeding voraciously on the mealybugs.

Years ago, in the area near Rio Piedras, P. nipae attacked "bucare" or
"bucayo" trees, Erythrina glauca Willd., in such a way that year after year
these trees were completely defoliated. Since the introduction to Puerto Rico
of the lady-beetle, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant, which feeds extensively
on this coccid, the ravages of the pest have stopped and P. nipae still occurs
on "bucayos" but now it is of no economic importance.

Resumen

El hemfptero, Monanthis monotropidia Stal, esta alimentdndose en los Arboles
de capd prieto, Cerdana alliodora R. & P., en las cercanias de Cayey y Salinas. El
insecto es de gran importancia econdédmica debido a la gran defoliacidén causada por
la acumulacién de ninfas y adultos en las hojas, los cuales chupan toda la cloréfila.

GC. gossypii Fabr. ha sido encontrado chupando la parte inferior de las
hojas del aceitillo, Zanthoxylum flavum Vahl. El insecto causa defoliacion.
Este también ataca al "carubio", Zanthoxylum monophyllum’(Lam.) P. Wilson, y al

espino rubial, Zanthoxylum caribaeum Lam.

La gueresa larga, Ichnaspis longirostris Signoret, ataca en gran escala a
la caoba de Honduras, Swietenia macrophylla King, en las plantaciones de El Verde
(Bosque Nacional del Caribe). La chinche harinosa, Pseudococcus nipae Maskell,
es un factor importante en el crecimiento de la anacaguitas, Sterculia apetala,
en muchos sitios de la isla. La chinche destruye especialmente los arboles
pequenos. Ataca también el bucare, Erythrina glauca Willd. Los coccinélidos,

H. apicalis Mulsant, S. nunenmacheri Sicard y C. montrouzieri Mulsant, son
preddceos en la chinche.

Bey

THE POSSIBILITY OF CLOSE COOPERATION FOR MUTUAL BENEFIT
BETWEEN AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY IN THE AMERICAN TROPICS

L. R. Holdridge, Associate Forester

The story of the reduction of Puerto Rican forests to their present rem-—
nants before the onslaughts of such destructive weapons of an increasing popula-
tion as the uncontrolled ax and shifting agriculture is an account which is
being repeated in many other parts of tropical America or which will come to be
true unless proper steps are taken to protect existing forest resources by uniting
the various forces in action into an appropriate program of land use. Protection
alone without utilization would be purposeless and protection at the expense of
growing agricultural needs of a nation would be misdirected purpose. The best
solution should be found in due consideration by and for each other of the two
main land uses—agriculture and forestry. Each country presents a distinct pro-
blem comprising many factors such as extent of forest areas, population pressure,
other resources of the nation, types of agricultural crops, prevailing land-use
practices, land policies, climate, and topography; but since the majority of the
countries of this region are dependent on the use of the soil, it is easy to
foresee that the future prosperity of the people depends upon successful formu-
lation of a balanced land-use program. Agriculture and forestry will each attain
their highest development by maintaining a symbiotic relationship with each other.

Undoubtedly, there are many who would point to the vast reaches of virgin
forest on the continental land masses and scoff at the need for any alliance with
agriculture to make of forestry a going enterprise in those countries blessed with
extensive forests. True enough, there can be no doubt about the extensiveness
orf the mixed tropical forest in the western hemisphere, estimates of which run into
millions of acres. Why then has there been such a definite lag in the development
of tropical American forestry, if, as we know very well, thriving communities existed
in this region long before the first log cabins were erected within the boundaries of
the United States? Based on years of personal experience in tropical forestry and
extensive travel in both hemispheres, Major qipenel/ nes very adequately attri-
buted the backwardness of tropical-forestry development to the following four factors:

1. Wood is a commodity of low value per bulk and only high-priced
woods can bear transportation costs to distant markets.

2. Virgin tropical forests contain a much lower percentage of high-
grade wood than those of temperate zones.

3. Local demand issmall per capita.

4. Technical backwardness in utilization and transport.

The truth of the first factor may readily be checked by a consideration
of the number of tropical American timbers which are presented for sale in
northern markets. Only a very few species are well known and this fact is still
more striking if considered in the light of the immense number of tree species
existent in tropical regions. As an example of this complexity of flora, the
island of Puerto Rico, which is roughly 105 miles long by 35 miles wide, contains
over 500 native tree species.
1/ Oliphant, J. N., Director, Imperial Forestry Institute. The Development of
More Intensive Use of Mixed Tropical Forest. Empire Forestry Journal 16 (1). 1937.

me ar

Among this great number of species, we find many more producing timber
of high value in the forest than in northern markets, but, nevertheless, the
majority of the individual trees to be found in virgin forests are of little
value, even when close to a market. Silvicultural operations to convert a virgin
stand of this nature into one more similar to those of temperate regions is
possible, but is being carried out in very few places in the American tropics.
The widespread system of culling forests of the better species, followed by
invasion of weed species, always results in an inferior forest, and one with
which it is very difficult to carry on silvicultural operations without large
expenditures. Oliphant says of this, "One of the most difficult problems of
tropical forestry is that of securing release from interests vested in selective
exploitation, so that this tragedy of misuse may be brought to an end, a process
that must of necessity be very gradual." Although the necessity for discontinu-
ing such culling of the forests is perfectly obvious, it is extremely doubtful
that such can be obtained on any considerable area, unless a rapid realization
occurs on the part of the officials of the various countries represented.

The third factor of the small per-capita local demand is readily
appreciated when one considers the large class of poor people in the tropics
who have little need for and less money to purchase timber or wood products.
Also, the climate combines with poverty in obviating necessity for wood con-
sumption. Shelter can be provided with a thatching of grasses or other
nontimber material over a framework of small poles, and firewood can be
obtained from brush if larger material is not available. Since illiteracy
is common, products from wood pulp, such as newsprint or paper, are relatively
low and it is doubtful that the general per-capita consumption will be greatly
increased in the near future. As a matter of fact, other materials such as
concrete and sheet iron are giving strong competition with wood products
right up to the edge of the forest.

The last factor, that of technical backwardness in utilization and trans-
port, ties in closely with the first and second factors. Naturally, with a low
percentage of high-grade woods per unit area, it is impractical to establish
expensive systems of transportation. Along with this go such factors as the
difficult topography encountered in so many sections of the tropics, the heavi-
ness of the wood of many species which makes water transportation impossible,
and the great distance by steamer to northern markets. As for utilization,
local markets are often well informed by experience as to the relative values
and uses of a great many species occurring in the surrounding forests, but, as
far as northern markets are concerned, very little progress has been made in
the introduction of other than a few already well-known species. The task of
making requisite studies of utilization and introducing a new species to an
always doubtful public is rather heavy for any private corporation to undertake,
and leadership by governmental agencies of either the importing or exporting
countries is necessary to establish such a product on a steady market.

Now that we have considered a few of the reasons which tend to retard the
growth of tropical forestry, let us turn to a brief consideration of tropical
agriculture. For a great many generations, the raising of food crops has been
a going concern in the American tropics and the extent of land surface worked
over for this purpose is still expanding due to two factors: the increase in
population and the search for newer and better soils. As we have already noted,
the per-capita consumption of wood is very low in the tropics, but the consumption

=|. 26e5

of food, based as it is on more essential requirements, cannot be varied to

any great extent no matter where the individual is located. Therefore, agricul-
ture is relatively much more important to the poor man here than in the north,
since shelter is easily provided, clothing requirements are fewer, and food
stands out as the most important of needs. Thus, a predominantly rural popula-
tion may go on increasing and spreading over the land area of a tropical country
without any apparent change in its status.

This process, providing as it does an adequate labor supply for the support
of the upper levels of society of the country, seems like a perfectly healthy
growth until a point is reached where new and fertile soils for agricultural
expansion are not available. At about this same time, concurrent with their
increasing scarcity, comes a realization of the importance of forest resources.
But, because second-growth forests can still supply the essential wood require-
ments, even though of poorer quality, the main feeling of loss probably is con-
nected with the remembrance of the fertile soils which were made available by
the felling of virgin forests. From that point on, the depreciation of soils,
diminishing of forest resources, and lowering of living standards of the people
go hand in hand and the money and energy which must then be expended by the
government to bring about a stable land-use program is out of all proportion
to that which would have been necessary if sufficient foresight had brought
about proper action in previous years.

One could contradict such dire predictions by referring to the fact that
foresters of the United States of America have been pointing out for decades a
rapid local exhaustion of timber supplies and yet their sawmills still go on
cutting at the same rapid pace. However, regardless of whether or not that
country is approaching a timber shortage, the two cases are not exactly compar-
able because in the United States the forests were felled mainly for the pro-
duction of timber whereas in the tropics the greatest force acting against the
forest seems to be that of shifting agriculture, a system which makes little
use of the timber supplies felled and which adds little or nothing to the
permanent prosperity of the country. There is another difference too in the
rapid increase in population in tropical countries where health standards are
raised.

The sketching of this brief and rough picture of land use is not intended
as a prophecy of soil deterioration and timber shortages of nations but rather
as an attempt to point out the role that forestry may play in the economy of tro-
pical countries. As distinct from the prime emphasis on timber production in
temperate zones, forestry in the tropics may well find itself concerned chiefly
with the problem of amelioration of soils which have become "worn out" by too
consistent agricultural use. ©

True enough, there are vast areas of fertile lowlands, either with
abundant water or potentially irrigable, which are now or will be dedicated
to prosperous, permanent, and continuous agricultural use. On the other hand,
there are extensive areas of high mountain forests, arid or swampy woodlands,
and other areas too rocky for either cultivation or grazing which will fall
naturally into a classification of permanent forest sections. Between these
two distinctly demarcated zones stretches a vast intermediate zone, usually
comprising the major part of the country. This zone cannot support continuous
cultivation without deterioration because of the nature of the soils, the topo-
graphy, and the climate; also, because of its extent and under pressure of popu-
lation, it cannot serve its highest purpose by dedication to permanent forestry.

zy 55 Je

This is the zone where land-use evils first come into focus, where the farmers
recall the "good old days" of fertile soils, the soil expert frowns at the soil
erosion in progress, the forester points out the felling of the forests as the
source of the evil, and most all unite in pointing at the system of "conuco"
or shifting agriculture as a prime evil which must be abolished at all costs.

But the tiller of the soil has no evil intentions in the back of his mind
while sweating at the repeated, arduous task of clearing and breaking up new
ground. His purpose of providing food for himself and his family is a most
honorable one, and his ancestors found out in the long-distant past that this
was the most practical system of agriculture for such a zone. In new, rich
country, the garden patch may be abandoned because of the invasion of grasses
and weeds, but where population becomes dense, erosion and leaching of the soil
are the reasons which cause him to turn to a new clearing; and this may now be
to the site of a previous clearing where, following abandonment, grasses and
lush herbaceous growth thrived, to be invaded later by brush and then by weed-
tree species, so that, when he does return, he finds the soil considerably
built up through the process of Nature's tending. Doesn't Nature herself, then,
point out the obvious practice of an alternation of field crops with a forest
crop as the most practical method to follow within this zone? Such procedure
would require no radical change in a cultural system built up through many
generations and it would seem to offer a definite advantage to the cultivator
to find ready for clearing, not a patch of brush and weed-tree species, but a
real, planned forest crop convertible into cash.

The agricultural scientist is striving along many angles to work out the
maintenance of soil fertility in this zone, yet allows Nature to sow haphazardly
the woody species which help to build back the soil in abandoned fields. On the
other hand, the forester is already using, in several places, intercultivation
with agricultural crops as the most practical and least expensive of methods for
establishing forest plantations. When will these two workers, from two sciences
rooted in the soil, get together and work out a real program of land use which
will benefit mutually their respective fields and the people of their country in
general?

Thus, the agriculturist can go a long way towards solving his soil pro-
blems, can assure for his farm an adequate supply of construction timbers,
fence posts, and firewood, and add an additional cash crop to his produce. The
forester can overcome those factors which were listed early in the paper as re-
tarding the development of tropical forestry, by producing stands with a large
percentage of high-grade woods, sufficient to supply local needs and also to
insure northern markets of a continuous supply of first-quality woods which
could be transported readily over the same routes which agriculture uses.

The breadth of the problem involved in this paper is too great to allow
for more than the rough outline presented, and details of application would
necessarily be different for each locality with its correspondingly distinct
set of local factors. In Puerto Rico some progress is being made along this
line which will be described in later articles. It would be extremely in-
teresting to learn of any similar work in progress in other countries.

= ORs

Summary

Major Oliphant has attributed the lag in tropical-forestry development to
the following factors:

1. Wood is a commodity of low value per bulk and only high-
priced woods can bear transportation costs to distant markets.

2. Virgin tropical forests contain a much lower percentage of
high-grade woods than those of temperate zones.

3. Local demand is small per capita.

4. Technical backwardness in utilization and transport.

The other great land use, agriculture, thrives within a nation until
population pressure and deterioration of the soil begin to exert their depressing
effects on the living standards of the people.

It is suggested that the agriculturist and the forester unite their efforts
within that zone between permanent agricultural and forestry lands and change the
system of shifting agriculture to one of alternations of agricultural and forest
crops for the mutual benefit of the country through such development of a more
balanced land-use program.

Resumen

Bl Comandante Oliphant ha atribuido lo rezagado de la silvicultura
tropical a los factores siguientes:

1. La madera es una comodidad de valor bajo por volumen y
solamente las maderas de precio alto pueden soportar el
costo de transporte a los mercados lejanos.

2. Los bosques virgenes tropicales contienen un percentaje

mucho mAs bajo de maderas de alto grado que los de las

zonas templadas.

La demanda local es poca por cabeza.

La torpeza técnica en la utilizacién y el

transporte.

Rw

El otro uso grande de la tierra, la agricultura, prospera en una nadéion
hasta que la presidén de poblacién y el deterioro del suelo empiezan a ejercer
sus efectos deprimentes sobre las normas de vivir de la gente.

Se sugiere que el agricultor y el silvicultor unan sus esfuerzos dentro
de la zona de las tierras agricolas y forestales permanentes y reemplazen el
sistema de agricultura cambiante a uno de alternaciones de cosechas agrfcolas
y forestales para el beneficio mutuo del pais con tal desarrollo de un programa
mas balanceado en el uso de la tierra.

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It is my pride and joy to be the shepherd of my country's trees.

TROPICAL FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION,
" j UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE,
4 RIO PIEDRAS, PUERTO RICO

Sa ae

Vol. 1, No. 4 JULY 1940

This journal is planned as a medium of exchange of knowledge between
those interested in forestry in the islands and countries in or near the
Caribbean Sea. Invitations to cooperate in this project have been sent to
forestry and agricultural officials in the following places:

Bahama Islands Dominican Republic Mexico

Barbados French Guiana Nicaragua

British Guiana Grenada Panama

British Honduras Guadeloupe St. Lucia

Canal Zone Guatemala St. Vincent
Colombia Haiti Salvador

Costa Rica Honduras Surinam

Cuba Jamaica Trinidad & Tobago

Dominica Leeward ieee
Martinique

Venezuela

= nn

It is planned to present this journal quarterly. Material for pub-
lication snould be submitted at least two months before publication date
and be addressed to the Director, Tropical Forest Experiment Station,

Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. /

7,
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77
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Edited, Multilithed, and Distributed
the
Southern Forest Experiment Station
New Orieans, La. U.S.A.

CONTENTS

A list of woods arranged according to their resistance to the attack of
the "polilla", the dry—wood termite of the West Indies, Cryptotermes

brevis Walker, George N. Wolcott, Puerto Rico.............. SA oOo saa u
Blue Mahoe of Jamaica, C. Swabey, Jamaica.......cseeee Sais Be ere Peer eit

Notes on the yarey palm of Puerto Rico and the straw industry derived
Peete Eee TG CAOEM a: EUCTIUO HCO. fc ci cie/eic's's « © 6 </eisieia «<1 0's ales) oe e)e'e' S25

The use of the conical spade, J. C. Cater, teimidad “and Tobago. ...se6«eld

Some notes on the mangrove swamps of Puerto Rico, L. R. Holdridge,
EeimeGO ent COs cs s\sle = s ¢ sodcttoaesaeosoc sors o so ada see anose A oo s 5 oy)

Notes on the Pacific coast region of Nicaragua, R. E. Harding,
Rance aac PU atepe eres tere sec e.e-s.a°s cs ere akelahele > pogagocs Souicoco otigdno des soo osu 0

selection of Species for reforesStation......eecseae oleae) s\olele cies een lsiare erate 32

Seleccidén de especies para repoblacién, (Traduccién del articulo
anterior): Ss. .. te eee eae 1304 aS ROO See ee te tie ae RfoD3

: aby AY

el
toby vt

A LIST OF WOODS ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THEIR RESISTANCE TO THE ATTACK

OF THE “POLILLA", THE DRY-WOOD TERMITE OF THE WEST INDIES,
CRYPTOTERMES BREVIS WALKER

George N. Wolcott, Entomologist
Agricultura] Experiment Station
Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico

"The Comparative Resistance of Woods to the Attack of the Termite,
Cryptotermes brevis Walker", Bulletin No. 33 of this Station, was published in
August 1924 and has long been out of print. Aside from practical experience,
however, up to the present time it has remained the only guide available to the
local public to aid in the selection of woods for furniture or in building which
would prove resistant to this common dry-wood termite, the "polilla" of Puerto
Rico. The former paper, and this present paper, are concerned with the results
of tests conducted with only this one species of termite, the "polilla de madera”
or the common dry-wood termite of the West Indies, Cryptotermes brevis Walker.
This termite occurs throughout the West Indies and in the tropical parts of Mexico,
Central America,and northern South America, but in the United States it is found
only in the extreme southern tip of Florida. The results do not and cannot apply,
therefore, to termites and termite control in the United States generally, or
even to other kinds of termites in the West Indies. They should be considered,
however, by manufacturers of furniture in the United States, or elsewhere, pro-
ducing for sale in the American tropics, and most especially by manufacturers of
radio cabinets, which are especially susceptible to termite attack because of
their internal illumination when in use.

The seriousness of the threat of this insidious enemy of woods in Puerto
Rico (and of the neo-tropics in general) is well shown by the scarcity of old
buildings here, or even of oid furniture, unless of mahogany or some other native
hardwood practically immune to its attack. The damage caused by hurricanes is
increased immensely by the structural weakness of timbers in polilla-infested
buildings, and the ease with which roofs of zine sheets are loosened and blown
about is largely due to the inability of fastenings to hold to rafters hollowed
out by termites. The polilla is no respecter of the property rights of man, or
of the architectural impressiveness to us of a large building. If it contains
furniture or structural members of a wood subject to attack, sooner or later such
furniture or wooden members will be destroyed by termites. Lights left burning
inside during late spring, when dispersion flights of the adults occur, or mere
proximity to old infested buildings at such a time, may result in extensive in-
festations in new buildings, only a few months old.

Aside from the use of concrete, metals,and glass in permanent construction,
and of termite-proofing woods liable to be attacked, certain kinds of wood can be
used for furniture or in construction which are practically or absolutely immune
to termite attack. The ausubo and capa prieto beams recently removed from
La Fortaleza, untouched by termites despite the hundreds of years they have been
in use, is a pertinent recent example. The first cost of such woods is often more
than of others suitable for the purpose but lacking this characteristic, but for
permanence of construction or of furniture, the termite-—immune wood will prove
to be the cheapest in the end. For many uses, a wood which is at the most only

somewhat termite-resistant may seem to be entirely adequate, but eventually will
be a bitter disappointment. Infestation is most likely to develop in furniture
rarely used, or kept in storage, or when papers remain piled on it for months,
or when partly covered with wicker, caning or rattan (see fig. 1) under any of
which conditions the termites find an opportunity to burrow in, and once in, to
penetrate to far distant parts.

The woods which are least resistant to termite attack can be used for
construction only of the most temporary character, and hardly at all for furniture.
It is the purpose of this investigation to list as many as possible of the common
woods and some others of special interest in the order of their experimental
resistance to "polilla" attack, so that a suitable selection may be made for any
purpose in which this characteristic is important.

Methods.- Profiting by the experience gained in making the previous tests
in 1923-24, those initiated in 1936 and continued to date made use only of samples
of woods of unguestioned authenticity and authoritatively determined. To all
persons furnishing the wood samples: Mr. George C. Morbeck of the Forest Products
Laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin; Mr. Charles Z. Bates, Mr. George A. Gerhart, and
Mr. Leslie R. Holdridge of the Forest Service at Rio Piedras, P. R.; Mr. B. R.
Ellis, Secretary of the Southern Cypress Manufacturers! Association; and to the fur-
niture makers at Rio Piedras, Port-au-Prince, Haiti, and at Belem, Parad, Brazil (the
latter all checked with the large samples in the Industrial Museum at Belem), the
writer is most grateful for their interested cooperation, and to those supplying
furniture or timbers infested with termites, a seemingly humbler, but no less essen-
tial element in the experiments, he hereby expresses his even greater thanks.

Ail samples were carefully differentiated as to whether they were of sapwood
or of heartwood. While some variation in the composition of sapwood may be due to
the time of year at which the tree was cut, no significant variation due to this
factor is to be expected in the case of the heartwood. In every wood tested, the
sapwood is somewhat to very much more susceptible to termite attack than is the
heartwood.

Whenever possible, the samples were an inch and a quarter long, an inch wide,
and one-quarter of an inch thick. The exceptions were some of the cypress samples
which could not be cut to this size, and being themselves immune to attack, were
most useful in wedging into position the larger samples of other woods which might
not exactly fit the container. Each selected sample mst be of straight grain,
without knothole, knot or other imperfection, and sandpapered on all sides until
it offered no usual or exceptional point of attack by termites. To twelve such
samples a number was assigned and punched into both sides, and to each of the
twelve a different letter written on with India ink. All were weighed in immediate
succession and two selected of most nearly the same weight, which were checked
again by weighing against each other. Of these two, the one which weighed slightly
more was used for the test, the other remained as check.

Petri dishes holding eight or nine such samples of different woods were used,
the-samples being tightly wedged into place and resting evenly on the bottom (see
fig. 2). From one hundred to two hundred termites, from nature or from previous
experiments, were used for each test, the test normally lasting a month or longer,
during which time the petri dishes, separated by cloth towels, were kept in a
light—tight tin box. The tests were examined daily at first, to remove any dead

termites, and afterwards at longer intervals, until the termites had eaten enough
of one sample (or of two, or more, if crowded, or if several of the samples were

of approximately the same palatability) to show an unquestioned preference. When
the test was finished, each eaten sample was weighed against its check to determine
the amount eaten, and the excrement weighed for digestibility. Such eaten samples
were retired from the tests, and fresh samples selected for further tests of that
kind of wood.

Discussion.- In comparing the new list with the original 1923-24 list,
certain apparent inconsistencies will be noted. Most of these are presumably due
to the incorrect identification of the original wood samples, none of which are
now available for critical examination and re-identification. The "laurel" given
as Magnolia splendens, so far down on the list, was presumably "laurel de la India",
or Ficus nitida. The "cedro"', also well down on the list, was not Cedrela odorata,
but "cedro macho", a name applied to several different trees. Judging also by the
recent results, the samples of "almendra" were confused with those of "guaraguao".
The low position of what was listed as "white oak", as compared with later results,
is presumably because all samples of oak were not identified to species, but sub-—
mitted as "white oak, commercial species" and "red oak, commercial species".
Having made these corrections in the old list, it will be noted that the paral-
lelism between the two, although not exact, is reasonably close, and minor
variations are to be expected with an entirely different series of wood samples.
While one cannot be sure that all of the samples used in either of these series
of tests were typical of the species, the error due to this factor is naturally
jess in woods of most uniform composition.

A source of possible error much more difficult to eliminate without infi-
nitely more tests is that of accurately placing each wood relative to all the
other woods most similar to it in termite resistance. Of two such woods, the
termites might choose one kind of wood in the first test and reverse their choice
in a second, thus making a decision regarding which there is no appeal. It should
also be remembered that each test placed only one wood (the eaten one) in compari-
son with seven or eight others, and it was only by accident or good luck that later
tests showed any more. Thus the positions assigned in the list for each wood are
relative only to some of the other woods, not absolute for each of the other woods.
It is believed that this is only a minor error in any case, as new tests with fresh
samples in critical cases have nearly always merely confirmed the previous assignment.

Gum_and Grain.— While minor variations in the reactions of termites to
samples of the same wood from different trees of the same species are possibly to
be expected, major variations are to be noted only in the case of a few conifers.

At the same time that the first tests were being conducted, Professor R. E.
Danforth of the College of Agriculture at Mayaguez was running similar tests, the
results of which were never published and even the MS report on which has by now
disappeared. For these tests he used mainly common building woods from the States,
especially as wide a variety of samples of the same kind of wood as could be
obtained. Of all the samples, he found that a very heavy and gummy piece of yellow

ine was more resistant to termite attack than any other. The variation in the
amount of gum in various samples of yellow pine is often considerable, and is a
decisive factor in determining the extent to which it is attacked by termites.
One sometimes sees buildings in Puerto Rico constructed of yellow pine in which

the sapwood parts of the boards have been almost or completely destroyed, and of
the heartwood, the part between the grain eaten away, leaving only the gummy
portions. Finer grained or more completely gummy yellow pine is rarely attacked.

The same is true of southern cypress: the somewhat gummy and fine grained
or the very gummy heartwood is entirely immune to termite attack. Less gummy and
especially the coarser grained heartwood are even lower in the scale. Cypress
sapwood is very susceptible to polilla attack. Thus the use of cypress in
construction requires very careful inspection of each board to make sure that no
sapwood is present, and that the heartwood used is either very fine grained or
quite gummy. When carefully inspected, however, a structure made of southern
cypress should be absolutely and permanently immune to termite attack.

Other species of conifers of commercial importance ordinarily show no such
wide variations in the amount of gum present and the fineness or coarseness of
grain as do yellow pine and southern cypress, thus the reactions of termites to
different samples of other conifers are more uniform. While the presence of gum
and the fineness of grain in the conifers may mask the essential susceptibility
of these woods to termite attack, the non-conifers, with few exceptions, have no
such protection. The tabonuco tree, Dacryodes excelsa, which exudes large amounts
of resinous gum, but has little in its lumber, is very susceptible to termite
attack. The West Indian cedar, Cedrela odorata, exuding no gum, but with wood of
an oily feel and powerful odor, is markedly resistant. It should not be supposed,
however, that an odor which seems powerful to us will have any definite effect on
termites, for they readily attack eucalyptus and red cedar. Nor is hardness of
the wood of any appreciable effect on the termites, for hard maple is almost the
exact equivalent of willow so far as being eaten by termites is concerned.

Lignin.- In the preliminary experiments of 1923-24, it was noted that the
woods which were most susceptible to attack were those which were most digestible,
as from them was produced the smallest amount of excrement in proportion to the
weight of wood eaten. The eaten part of those most resistant to termite attack,
on the contrary, often resulted in an amount of excrement weighing 90% of the
weight of the wood consumed by the termites.

According to the analysis made vy Messrs. F. Ramirez Silva and A. Rivera
Brenes, under the direction of Dr. J. A. Bonnet, of the Division of Soils of this
Station, nearly two-thirds of the excrement of Cryptotermes brevis consists of lig-
nin. It might thus appear that the lignin content of wood is largely or entirely un-
available to these termites for food. Cryptotermes brevis cannot eat, and indeed is
repelled by the wall-board plastic (manufactured by the Marathon Chemical Co., of
Rothschild, Wisconsin) largely or entirely consisting of lignin. The woods of high
lignin content, so far as analyses are available and tests have been conducted with
these termites, are invariably very resistant or immune to termite attack, while
those with the lowest lignin content, such as willow and hard maples (20 to 23% lig-
nin) are most susceptible. Lignin is primarily a heartwood constituent, and presum-
ably is the most important factor in the greater termite resistance of heartwood as
compared with the sapwood of any kind of lumber. According to analyses made by
Dr. Bonnet, which report lignin plus ash, plus protein (these two latter being less
than 1% of the total), mahogany heartwood contains 46.12% and mahogany sapwood
34.65%. While the direct relationship between resistance to termite attack and
very high or very low lignin content is obvious, in the case of some woods with

intermediate lignin content, it may be masked by their individual idiosyncracies.
Thus it is not possible in advance to place exactly the termite resistance of any
wood by first determining its lignin content, although for most non-conifers,
especially with those at the extremes, it may be almost as definite as testing
directly with the termites themselves.

IMMUNE OR VERY RESISTANT WOODS

The dark heartwood of lignum-vitae or "guayacdn", Guaiacum officinale,
appears from all tests to be entirely immune to attack by Cryptotermes brevis;
the termites never cluster on it, and the samples remain clean and polished no
matter how long they have been Saal to the termites. Mangrove, cobana negra,
and West Indian cedar or "cedro", which are immune to very resistant, become
spotted with liquid excrement or saliva from the termites, and are not avoided
by them as is lignum—vitae.

Two beautifully grained, dark red woods from the Amazon basin, muirapiranga,
Brosimum paraense, and macacahuba, Platymiscum ulei, are practically immune, while
the dark brown acapti, Vouacapous americana, pau santo, Zollernia paraensis, and
Ssapupira, Bowdichia brasiliensis, are almost as resistant. In Belem, these latter
three are often used as alternating floor boards with pau amarillo, Euxylophora

araensis, a bright yellow hardwood which becomes almost white with use, also very
resistant to termite attack. Two other Brasilian woods, freijo, Cordia goeldiana,
and piquid, Caryocar villosum, are but little eaten by termites. ‘Any one of these
listed is almost or even more than the equivalent of mahogany, and may be used
with equal assurance.

Mahogany or "caoba", Swietenia_mahagoni, is ordinarily considered immune to
the attack of termites, and for this reason has been extensively used for furniture
or specified for the finish and interior trim of concrete buildings of the best
construction. This reputation is well merited, but the most recent tests show that
it may be eaten to a slight extent, and that the sapwood of mahogany is by no means
especially resistant, being below California redwood heart, for instance. Thus
persons purchasing mahogany furniture should make sure that sapwood has not been
used in places where it will not show: the back, or under caning, or in drawers.
They should insist on solid mahogany heartwood throughout, and may well expect
absolute immunity from injury by termites if no sapwood is present.

The reputation of mahogany should not obscure the value of a native Puerto
Rican tree, the maga, Montezuma speciosissima, which most recent tests have shown
to be slightly superior: maga heartwood slightly more resistant than mahogany
heartwood, and maga sapwood considerably more resistant than mahogany sapwood.
The maga grows much more rapidly than mahogany, and from the standpoint of the
cabinetmaker is equally desirable. Unfortunately, little maga is commercially
available as compared with mahogany, as practically all of the mahogany used in
Puerto Rico is imported.

West Indian cedar, or "cedro", Cedrela odorata, is very resistant to termite
attack, the heartwood little more resistant than the sap, but termites do make short
holes in it and daub it with liquid excrement when nothing else to eat is available.
It is hardly to be expected that termite colonies can be started in cedro, and its
increasing use in mahogany furniture is indicated as a lining, or for drawers or
shelves.

Not quite so desirable as mahogany or maga from the standpoint of resistance
to termites, but nevertheless little likely to be attacked, and valuable for other
characteristics, are the following native hardwoods: aceitillo, moralén (ortegén),
hucar, ausubo, guaraguao, granadillo, caracolillo and aust. In this division also
belongs a single furniture wood from the States, black walnut, and from Brasil,
angolim rayado, Pithecolobium racemosum, which is about equivalent in termite
resistance to heavy gummy southern pine.

In the following list, the results of the 1923-24 tests are given parallel
to those of 1936-39. Because of changes in the scientific nomenclature since the
earlier tests, the scientific names there given are omitted as being more confusing
than useful. Mistakes in spelling have been corrected, the omissions of black
walnut and cedro (which should have been cedro macho) supplied, and doubtful
identifications of samples indicated. For the 1936-39 tests, the common name in
English, Spanish, Portuguese or Frencn, is followed by the scientific name as
given by the person or organization supplying the sample. The Brasilian woods
were checked against the large samples in the Industrial Museum at Belem, and
rechecked by the Forest School, Yale University. Following the scientific name
is given the country of origin of the sample used in the tests.

Immune or very resistant woods listed in order of resistance to
Cryptotermes brevis. Heartwood unless otherwise noted.

1923~24 Tests 1936-39 Tests

Lignin plastic (Marathon Chemical Co., Rothschild, Wis.)

Cypress --~------------ Southern cypress, Taxodium distichum, very gummy
(Palatka, Florida)

Lignum-vitae, guayacdn, gaiac, Guaiacum officinale (Haiti)

Mangrove, mangle, old, swamp-seasoned (Puerto Rico)

Muirapirange, Brosimum paraense (Brasil)

Macacahuba, Platymiscium ulei (Brasil)

Southern cypress, very gummy (Ponchatoula, Louisiana)

Acapt, Vouacapous americana (Brasil)

Pau santo, Zollernia paraensis (Brasil)

Maga, Montezuma speciosissima (Puerto Rico)

Mahogany -----~-------- Mahogany, caoba, Swietenia mahagoni (Santo Domingo)
Sapupira, Bowdichia brasilensis (Brasil

Cobana --------------- Cobana negra, Stahlia_ monosperma (Puerto Rico)
Aceitillo, Zanthoxylum flavum (Puerto Rico)

Mangrove Pau amarillo, Euxylophora paraensis (Brasil)

Freijo, Cordia goeldiana (Brasil)
Piquid, Caryocar villosum (Brasil)
West Indian cedar, cedro, Cedrela odorata (Cuba, Haiti
and Brasil)

Ortegén -------~------- Moralén, (ortegén) Coccolobis grandiflora (Puerto Rico)
Southern yellow pine, not typical, very gummy (U.S.A.)
Angolim rayado, Pithecolobium racemosum (Brasil)
Ucar, Bucida buceras (Puerto Rico)

Ausubo —~--~-—--------- Ausubo, Manilkara nitida (Puerto Rico)
Guaraguao, Guarea guara (Puerto Rico)

Maga Granadillo, Buchenavia capitata (Puerto Rico)

Black walnut Caracolillo, Homalium racemosum (Puerto Rico)

Aust, Amomis grisea (Puerto Rico)

LG

LESS AND LEAST DESIRABLE WOODS

The beautiful grey, fine-grained heartwood of the Haitian oak, Catalpa
longissima, is only as resistant to termite attack as is the sapwood of lignum-
vitae. Even this is better than the best of white oak heartwood from the States,
or masonite pressboard, and, surprisingly enough, poplar heartwood. Below these
are the popular laurel sabino, mauricio and capd blanco of Puerto Rico, none of
which, according to these tests, should be considered for furniture. Down among
the sapwoods of the more desirable woods, one finds masa, hueso blanco, roble,
nuez moscada, tabonuco, Philippine mahogany, almendra and maria. One should be
especially warned against using tabonuco for the backs or drawers of mahogany
furniture, or of allowing the substitution of the so-called Philippine mahogany.
Even lower in termite resistance are red oak and red gum, the latter being
extensively used for cheap furniture in Puerto Rico. Quite hopeless are yellow
birch and hard maple, excellent for use in the States, but most disappointing

for the tropics.

Less and least resistant woods listed in order of resistance to

Cryptotermes brevis. Heartwood unless otherwise noted.

1923-24 Tests

1936-39 Tests

Yellow cedar —————————_________ Red cedar, Juniperus virginiana (U.S.A.

White pine --—--
Royal palm

Cocorrén

Almendra (?)
(possibly should
be guaraguao)

California redwood
Casuarina

Ucar

Uvillo
Seagrape
Mango

Mangle botén
Yellow pine

Douglas fir ------------------

Avispillo

INS)
Ponderosa pine, Pinus ponderosa (U.S.A.)
Western white pine, Pinus monticola (U.S.A.)
Lignum-vitae SAP (Haiti)

Cedro macho, Hyeronima clusioides (Puerto Rico)

Cacao motillo, Sloanea berteriana (Puerto Rico)
White oak, commercial species (U.S.A.)

White oak SAP

Masonite Pressboard (U.S.A.)

Yellow poplar, Liriodendron tulipifera (U.S.A.)
Pau roxo, Peltogyne lecontei (Brasil)

Jacana, Lucuma multiflora (Puerto Rico)

Laurel sabino, Magnolia splendens (Puerto Rico)
Aquilén, Laugeria resinosa (Puerto Rico)

Capa blanco, Petitia domingensis (Puerto Rico)
Capa blanco SAP

Mauricio, Magnolia portoricensis (Puerto Rico)
California redwood, Sequoia sempervirens (U.S.A.)
Leche prieta, Micropholis curvata (Puerto Rico)

Aguilén SAP
Maga SAP

Longleaf pine, Pinus palustris (U.S.A.)
Douglas fir, Pseudotsuga taxifolia (U.S.A.)
Mahogany SAP

Southern pine SAP

ee

1923-24 Tests

Cedro (?)
possibly cedro macho

Hemlock
Larch
Coffee
Mamey

Laurel (?)
(Laurel de la India)

Guava

iMeulver fouls 1g) ee

Cupey
Rubber

Orange
Inga vera

Red gum --------------—--

Eucalyptus
Hard maple
Bamboo
Almacigo
Guaraguao (?)
(possibly roble)
Guara

Silver oak
Yellow birch
Jobo

Jaguey

Palo de pan
Chinaberry
Pomarrosa
Sitka spruce
Flamboyan

1936-39 Tests

Guaraguao SAP

Cacao motillo SAP

Hueso blanco, Mayepea domingensis (Puerto Rico)
Jagua, genipapo, Genipa americana (Brasil)
Mauricio SAP

Western white pine SAP

Masa, Tetragastris balsamifera (Puerto Rico)
Roble, Tabebuia pallida (Puerto Rico)

Cedro macho SAP

Southern cypress, coarse-grained

Nuez moscada, Ocotea spathulata (Puerto Rico)
Nuez moscada SAP

Ponderosa pine SAP
California redwood SAP
Tabonuco, Dacryodes excelsa (Puerto Rico)

Longleaf pine SAP

Philippine mahogany, Shorea negrosensis (Philippines)

Marupa, Simaruba amara (Brasil)
Almendra, Terminalia catappd (Puerto Rico)

Marfa, Calophyllum antillanum (Puerto Rico)
Laurel sabino SAP

Red oak, commercial species (U.S.A.)
Douglas fir SAP

Yellow poplar SAP

Red oak SAP

Red gum, Liquidambar styraciflua (U.S.A.)
Red gum SAP

Humboldt's willow, Salix chilensis (Peru)

Red cedar SAP
Southern cypress SAP

ee

Summary

This paper supplements a previous bulletin, "The Comparative Resistance of
Woods to the Attack of the Termite, Cryptotermes brevis Walker", published in 1924
and a list of woods in the order of their resistance is included and compared with
previous results. Tests were carried out with only one species of termite, the dry
wood termite of the West Indies, which is found throughout the tropical Americas,
but only in the southern tip of Florida in the United States. Results, therefore,
cannot be used for termite control in the United States, but may be of value to
manufacturers of furniture producing for sale in the tropics.

All samples tested were carefully differentiated between sapwood and heart—
wood. In-every wood tested, the sapwood was more susceptible to attack than the
heartwood. Petri dishes holding eight or nine samples of different wood and from
one hundred to two hundred termites were used in each trial. The test normally
lasted a month or longer, being continued until there was an unquestioned preference.

It is difficult to accurately rate each wood relative to other woods similar
to it in termite resistance, so that the positions in the list are only relative
and not absolute. Inconsistencies between the two experiments are believed to be
largely caused by incorrect identification of the original wood samples. Correct
identification of current wood samples was assured by using only those of un-
questioned authenticity. Results would indicate that the lignin content of wood
is largely or entirely unavailable to these termites for food. Woods of high
lignin content are invariably very resistant or immune, which probably accounts
for the greater resistance of heartwood as compared to sapwood.

Resumen

Este articulo suplementa el boletin titulado "The Comparative Resistance of
Woods to the Attack of the Termite, Cryptotermes brevis Walker", publicado en el
1924, e incluye una lista de las maderas en su orden de resistencia eompardndose
a la vez con resultados anteriores. Las pruebas se llevaron a cabo con una sola
especie de polilla, la polilla de la madera seca de las Antillas, que se encuentra
por toda la América tropical, pero en los Estados Unidos se encuentra solamente en
el extremo Sur de la Florida. Por lo tanto, los resultados no pueden ser utiliza-
dos para dominar la polilla en los Estados Unidos, pero si pueden ser de valor a
los fabricantes de muebles para la venta en los trdpicos.

Fn todas las muestras probadas se diferenciéd cuidadosamente el corazén de
la albura, siendo ésta uiltima la mds susceptible al ataque. Ocho o nueve muestras
de distintas maderas en platillos de Petri y como de 100 a 200 polillas se usaron
en cada prueba. Normalmente, la prueba duré un mes o mas pero se continud hasta
que hubo una preferencia decidida por alguna de las muestras.

Es diffcil evaluar con exactitud cada madera en relacién a otras similares
en resistencia, de manera que sus posiciones en la lista son solamente relativas
y no absolutas. Se cree que las contradicciones entre los dos experimentos fueron
debidas mayormente a la identificacién errdénea de las muestras originales. Se
asegur6 la identificacién correcta de las muestras comunes usando solamente las
de una identidad auténtica. Los resultados indican que el contenido de lignina
de la madera no es aprovechable como alimento por la polilla. Las maderas que
contienen gran cantidad de lignina son muy resistentes o inmunes, razdén probable
de la mayor resistencia de la madera de corazén comparada con la de albura.

Fig. 1—-Knob on
rocker of hard maple,
infested with termites
despite constant use
and daily handling.
The wicker of the back
of the chair protected
the termite adults and
gave them an opportu—
nity to burrow into
the wood practically
undisturbed.

Fig. 2—Method of keeping,
tightly wedged together in
petri dish, the samples of
different woods being tested
for resistance to termite
attack. The termites them—
selves, of which one to two
hundred are used in each
test, are not indicated. A
series of such petri dishes,
separated by towels, are
kept in a light-—tight tin
box while the tests are in
progress.

BLUE MAHOE OF JAMAICA

C. Swabey
Conservator of Forests

The Blue or Mountain Mahoe, Hibiscus elatus Sw., is a tree of considerable
importance in Jamaica and promises to be one of the most valuable species for
afforestation purposes owing to its rapid growth and relatively wide range of
habitat.

Range.— According to Record, Mahoe "is fairly common throughout the Antilles
and of unknown, though probably very limited, distribution on the Spanish Main.
The tree makes its best development in the mountains of eastern Cuba. .... In very
dry situations it is small and crooked, but in better sites it attains a height of
60 feet, with a long, clear stem usually between 12 and 18 inches in diameter and
seer eiigneiliy much larger".

Habitat in Jamaica.- Mahoe ranges in Jamaica from 500 ft. in the damp lime-
stone districts to nearly 4,000 ft. in the Blue Mountains on shales and residual
voleanic soils. Normally it occurs in areas where rainfall varies from 70 to 150
inches, but it is also grown on the dry alluvial plains with a rainfall of 40 in.
or less. It avoids dry sandy soils and has failed to establish itself on rocky
and eroded ridges. It is also intolerant of exposed situations and is susceptible
to wind damage under such conditions.

Silviculture.— Seed ripens in March - April, when the ripe capsules are
picked or beaten off the trees just prior to opening, then laid on canvas in the
sun and allowed to open. The capsules are then separated from the seed by shaking.
There are approximately 1,500 to 1,600 seeds to the ounce and 10 ounces to the
quart. It is by no means easy to procure adequate seed supplies.

With properly matured seed, germination is up to 80% and is well maintained
up to 4 months in storage, falling off slightly up to 6 months. Data beyond this
are not available. Seed is sown in nurseries and seedlings transplanted to the
field when about a year old. The plants should be 18 to 24 inches high with a
sturdy, woody stock, as small and whippy plants are unsuitable. The large cordate
. leaves should be cut back before planting. There is a tendency for the leading
shoct to die back for a few inches and for an axillary shoot to take its place.
Experiments with "stumping" are being made.

The guestion of optimum spacing is of considerable importance, sinte Mahoe
is very liable to forking and excessive side branching. Even with a 6 ft. x 6 ft.
Spacing, hand pruning is necessary in the early years, while it appears that full
crown development is necessary to maintain maximum growth. It appears that a
wider spacing may have to be considered, coupled with close attention to early
pruning to improve stem form.

Rate of growth is relatively rapid, once the plant is established, though
there may be a lag of 6 months before appreciable height growth begins. Data are
very meagre but the following gives some indication: plantation 10 ft. x 10 ft.
on brown clay overlying limestone, elevation 1,000 ft., rainfall 30 to 50 inches,

2 Sale

age 17 years, average girth 27 inches, maximum girth 38 inches, height 70 ft.

Timber.~ Mahoe has been very badly overcut in Jamaica and there is but
littie mature and well-grown timber available. The wood when freshly cut is
banded with dark green and bluish streaks, alternating with streaks of lighter
color. It darkens slowly on exposure to brown and olive green, though it seems
probable that, if sprayed with a cellulose spray, oxidation may be prevented.
Color and figure are extremely variable and it is difficult to secure matched
wood from existing supplies. The wood is hard and durable, of medium weight
(44 to 49 lbs. per cu. ft.) and works and polishes well. It is in great demand
for cabinet-making and furniture, its principal use today. Formerly, when more
abundant, it was used for house framing, flooring, panelling, carriage and cart-
work, gum stocks, ships' knees, fishing rods, railway sleepers and roofing
shingles.

This unusual range of utility makes Mahoe a particularly interesting
species.

Resumen

Hl Hibiscus elatus Sw. es una especie de importancia en Jamaica, especial-
mente para fines de repoblacion forestal. Es bastante comin en Jamaica y Cuba,
alcanzando en buenos sitios alturas de 60 pies y didmetros de 18 pulgadas o mas.
Localmente, se encuentra desde 500 pies en zonas calcdreas htuimedas hasta 4000
pies en los "Blue Mountains", adaptdndose normalmente a una precipitacion pluvial
de 70 a 150 pulgadas.

Las capsulas que maduran en marzo y abril se recolectan poco antes de
abrirse, secdndose al sol y luego sacudiéndolas para extraerle la semilla. En
una onza entran de 1500 a 1600 semillas. La germinacion de semilla buena es
hasta de 80%, conservdndose hasta 4 meses antes de empezar a decaer. Las plantu-
las se siembran aproximadamente al afio y deben tener de 18 a 24 pulgadas de alto
con un tallo vigoroso. Las hojas son grandes y deben podarse al tiempo de la
Siembra.

Para mantener un maximo de crecimiento se necesita un espacio bastante
amplio entre los arboles, lo cual hace necesario recurrir a la poda durante los
primeros afios. Datos de crecimiento son muy escasos aunque en una plantacidon se
obtuvo una circunferencia promedio de 27 pulgadas y una altura de 70 pies a los
17 afios.

La madera es durable, dura, fdcil de trabajar y toma bien el pulimento.
Tiene demanda para trabajos de ebanisteria y se adapta a muy diversos usos.

NOTES ON THE YAREY PALM OF PUERTO RICO AND THE
STRAW INDUSTRY DERIVED FROM IT

L. E. Gregory, Assistant to Technician
Tropical Forest Experiment Station

The yarey palm or "palma de sombrero" is scientifically known as
Sabal causiarum (Cook) Beccari, of the family Arecaceae. Its smooth, grey
trunk grows to about thirty feet high and twenty inches in D.B.H., with
palmately divided leaves forming the crown.

This palm is endemic to the island, occurring in two localized sections
in the southwest and northwest corners of the island, with a few scattered in-
dividuals outside of these areas. The northwest section extends from Aguadilla
to Isabela, with the greatest concentration of palms in Barrio Malezas, and in
the southwest it occurs around the village of Joyudas.

In the Aguadilla section, the soils are shallow to medium in depth,
friable or plastic rendzinas, mostly derived from limestone. It is an agricul-
tural area given over mostly to subsistence crops, cane and pasture land. The
Joyudas area can be classified as coastal plain or lowland with medium to deep,
friable, sandy loam, agricultural in use, mostly given over to coconut, cane,
and subsistence crops. The palm grows in this section very close to the beach
in the "beach palm sand" type.

The mean annual rainfall around Joyudas varies between 60 to 80 inches
as compared with 40 to 60 inches in the Aguadilla section. Both areas range
in elevation from sea-level to about 500 feet.

The palm regenerates naturally. The seed germinates profusely below the
mother palm and is also dispersed by birds. The palm fruits profusely, the
fruit being a one-seeded, globose drupe about 1 cm. in diameter, brown in color,
smooth, hard, with a bony endosperm, a thin epicarp and a fleshy pericarp.

Most of the palms now growing are from natural regeneration, but several
years ago some spots were artificially sown. The soil was plowed once and
prepared and the palms planted about four feet apart. To this close planting,
the name of seedbeds was given. No transplanting was done and the palms were
left to grow in the seedbed. The seed for the sowing was gathered from the
ground or collected when well matured from the palm. The seed takes from two
to three months to germinate. Cultivation consists of one plowing and one
weeding a year and where space permits, minor crops such as sweet—potatoes,
yuca, etc., are raised between the trees. In some instances the area is used
for grazing.

The palms at Joyudas yield straw of better quality than those from the
Aguadilla section. This has led to the manufacture of high-quality hats in
Joyudas and of cheaper articles such as baskets, mats, hats, "pavas!, etc., at
Aguadilla. Even within the Joyudas section, there are palms that yield better
straw than others. Those growing close together away from the beach and
particularly where the soil is moist and rich in humus yield a straw of higher
quality than the trees nearer to the beach or growing far apart. Old palms do
not produce as high-quality products as more thrifty fast-growing younger trees.

In general, it can be stated that the closer together the palms grow, the
better the quality of the straw.

At ten years of age, the young paim begins to produce straw for the
manufacture of hats. When the palm is young, an unopened leaf or "cogollo!!
is cut every six months, so as not to retard growth. When the palm is mature,
an average of a leaf a month may be cut. For tall palms, a ladder is used to
facilitate cutting the "cogollo".

Fully opened green leaves are used for thatching houses of poor people.
This roof has to be replaced every four years. The wood of the palm is used
as fuel for lime furnaces, but is not very good for this purpose. The palm is
attacked by the bud rot, Phytophtora palmivora Butler.

The straw used for the manufacture of hats and other articles is taken
from the "cogollo". An important point in the cutting of the "cogollo",
especially if it is to be used for hat manufacture, is to cut it at the right
time, If it is left to open naturally, it becomes green inside and is worth-
less, The leaf is cut when the petiole appears and is approximately 6 inches
long. When the pleated, immature leaf is examined, the "leaflet" sections are
of a cream color. A good quality leaf is valued at 35 cents while a medium
quality leaf is only worth 10 cents. .

After the leaf is cut, it is split into "leaflets". This step is called
"tarjar la rama". This is accomplished with the fingers working from the stem
to apex so that each "leaflet" consists of a single fold. All are left attached
to the stem which is then spread in the sun to bleach for 5 days. During the
night, or when it is raining, they are put under cover except for the last two
nights when they are left out for about two hours so as to give the straw
flexibility. After the bleaching process, the leaflets are cut from the stem
and unfolded. This is called "planchar la hoja" or literally, to iron the leaf.
In doing this, the fold is taken between the thumb and index fingers, and spread
open from base to apex. Then, tied in bundles, they are hung from a nail or put
in some other place in the house until needed.

Next, comes the splitting of the "leaflet" to obtain the straw. This is
called "tarjar la hoja" and consists of splitting the "leaflet" lengthwise with
a small blunt knife with a blade about 3 inches long. The knife is thrust
through the "leaflet" at the base, taking the desired width of straw and with
the tip of the knife split lengthwise from base to apex. The width of the
straw depends on the kind of hat to be woven. If a first quality hat is
desired, a good quality leaf is split into strands about 1 mm. wide. On the
average, a whole leaf will supply sufficient straw to make a hat. Cheaper
hats, mats, baskets, etc., are made from wider straw varying according to
requirements. After splitting, the straw is again tied in bundles, ready for
weaving. No chemicai treatment is given the leaf either for bleaching or in
preparation of the straw.

The straw has to be woven during humid days (cloudy or rainy days) or
at night. On dry, bright days, the straw breaks during the weaving. In the
weaving of hats no braiding is done. Ali the work is done by hand. The first
step in weaving ahat is the "estera" or the start. Then come the growths of

os AVA,

which eight or ten are woven in, depending on the size of the hat. When this
point is reached, no more additions are made until the crown is completed. Then,
the crown is turned inside out and two more growths are woven in to turn the brim.
After finishing the brim, the last straw is inserted to finish the edge.

Most of the weaving is done by women. Very expert and fine weaving is
done for the high-quality hats. No attempt has been made to devise methods of
maintaining moisture in the straw such as the reported weaving of Panama hats
under water. As already stated, all weaving is done during rainy weather or
after sundown. A good quality hat untrimmed and unblocked sells for around
$5.00.

In the Aguadilla section, there is another type of this industry. Here,
baskets, brooms, mats, luncheon sets, school, market and hand bags, straw fans,
tables, big hats ("pavas"), etc., are made. This is because the straw from the
palms is of a poorer quality. All these articles are also woven by hand. The
leaves are cut and bleached in the same way as explained before. Beautiful
color designs are woven in all this work.

For coloring the straw, aniline dyes are used. The colors employed are
orange, yellow, bright blue, green, violet, and brown. The brown is obtained
by the mixing of the orange and violet. The proportion used is: 1/8 oz. of the
dye dissolved in about 3 gal. of warm water, except for green, yellow, and blue
when 1/4 oz. of dye, in the same quantity of water, is used. After thoroughly
dissolving the dye, the straw is immersed and left there until the desired depth
of color is obtained. Then, it is taken out and hung to dry in the air. Various
shades of brown are obtained by the length of time the straw is left in the
solutions a close watch should be kept to obtain the desired shade. Care should
also be taken to see that the straw takes the color uniformly.

Two methods of weaving are used. One called "canutillo" that is a sort
of braiding in which the straw is woven in long, round strings and then sewed
into different articles. Most of the articles made in this manner are waste
baskets, tables (for which a wooden frame is made first and then covered with
the braided straw), serving trays, etc. The articles made with this kind of
weaving cost more than those made by the other method, or the one called "de
petate". In this, the straw is interlaced by passing one straw below the
other. Beautiful colored designs are made by this method.

The straw industry as a whole has been diminishing in the last few years.
This has been especially serious in the weaving of quality hats which has been
stopped almost completely due to lowered prices and lack of steady market
resulting from outside competition. This has resulted in the felling of some
palms to make way for more lucrative crops. This industry is of importance
locally and is capable of supporting many people who through this cash income
in combination with subsistence crops, could earn a satisfactory living.
Every effort should be made to revive this interesting and locally important
industry.

Summary

The hat or yarey palm, endemic to Puerto Rico, is largely restricted to
the northwest and southwest sections. The soils are deeper and rainfall heavier
in the latter section and produce a better quality of straw. The southwest area
produces fine quality hats whereas the northwest section produces beach hats,
baskets, floor-mats, brooms and other cheap articles.

The palms occur in natural stands with the intervening spaces devoted to
grazing or the cultivation of minor crops. When ten years old, the palms begin
to produce leaves suitable for hats. Leaves are cut just before opening, dried
in the sun for five days and then cut into strips for weaving. To avoid breakage
of the straw, weaving is done on damp days or at night. Aniline dyes are used
for tinting the straw.

Resumen

La palma de sombrero o yarey, de la familia de las Arecaceas, es endémica
de Puerto Rico. Crece particularmente en la seccién noroeste y suroeste de la
isla, con algunas que otras fuera de estas dos areas. Los suelos de la seccién
suroeste son mejores y mas profundos que los de la otra seccidén, teniendo la
primera una precipitacién pluvial de 60 a 80 pulgadas y la ultima de 40 a 60
pulgadas. En ambas secciones la elevacién varia desde el nivel del mar hasta
los 500 pies.

Casi todas las palmas que se encuentran actualmente son de reproduccién
natural, aunque en afios atrds se sembraban pequefias afeas. Debajo de las palmas
donde el espacio lo permite se cultivan frutos menores y se lleva a cabo algtn
pastoreo. La paja de la seccidén suroeste es de una calidad superior a la de la
seccién noroeste. Por lo tanto en la primera se han dedicado mayormente al
tejido de sombreros finos, mientras que en la otra al tejido de articulos baratos,
como esteras, pavas, canastas, etc.

La palma empieza a producir cogollo para sombreros a los diez afios. El
cogollo se corta cuando esta completamente cerrado. Tan pronto empieza a abrir
se pone verde. Después de cortado se abre y se pone al sol por cinco dias.
Luego, se tarja la hoja para obtener la paja. Obtenida la paja, se procede a
tejer el sombrero. El tejido se hace en dias humedos o de noche para evitar
que la paja se parta.

En la seccioén noroeste se hacen tejidos en colores usando tintes de
anilina. La paja se sumerje en el tinte y luego se seca al aire. Se usan dos
métodos de tejido; uno llamado "de petate" y el otro "de canutillo". Esta es
una industria local que debe estimularse.

ESAS

‘THE USE OF THE CONICAL SPADE

JnmCe Cater
Asst. Conservator of Forests
Trinidad & Tobago

The Spade.- The conical spade, as used in Trinidad, consists of a split
cylinder-of mild steel some 10 inches long and about 3 inches in internal
diameter. The split runs the whole length and is about 1/3 of an inch wide.

On one side of the split, the steel is sharpened to a cutting edge, while on the
other side the edge is blunt. The spade is attached to the wooden handle by
means of two steel rings bolted to the cylinder. The appearance is somewhat
like this:

Front View Side View

This size of spade suffices for most l—year-old seedlings, but larger
spades may be used for larger or older plants.

Method of use.- The first operation is to drive into the soil of the
nursery a number of short posts, the tops of which stand about 2 feet above ground
level, the diameter of the posts being slightly less than the internal diameter of
the spade. A quantity of the leaves of the Balisier plant (Heliconia bihai), a
species of wild banana, and some vines for tying, are then collected and placed
in a convenient position near the posts. Taking the conical spade, the laborer
places it directly over the plant, and carefully lowers the spade until it rests
on the soil, with the stem of the plant in the center. By pressing downwards the
spade is driven into the nursery bed to its full length. The spade is rotated
through NEO when the cutting edge severs the cylinder of earth, and gently
rocked, arter which it can be drawn up containing the plant and a cylinder of
earth. The loaded spade is now placed on the post, and pressed downwards, when
the plant and earth are driven up through the top of the spade. As the plant
emerges a second laborer wraps a leaf round the cylinder and ties it with vine.
The wrapped plants are then ready to be taken to the scene of planting operations.

SWS

Before planting, the leaf wrapping is, of course, removed.

The Cost.~ The use of the conical spade is a comparatively expensive method,
and is confined to plants which cannot be successfully planted with bare roots or
as stump plants. In Trinidad, the conical spade is invariably used for trans-
planting galba (Calophyllum), which does not respond well to other methods of
planting. With a laborer's wage rate of 60 cents per day, the cost of extracting
the galba seedlings with the conical spade, carrying them up to 1/4 mile and
replanting averages about 1-1/2 cents per plant, but has been brought down on
occasions to 1-1/4 cents per plant. With adequate care and good planting weather
the survival percentage is high, being up to 95%, and this justifies the cost.

Limitations of the Conical Spade.- The first essential is that the nursery
soil should contain a fair proportion of clay, so that the soil binds well. The
conical spade is of little use in pure sandy soils as this type of soil falls away
from the roots when the cylinder of earth is pushed out of the spade.

The second essential is that the species to be lifted should have a reason-
ably compact root system. A very long taproot is usually a disadvantage as the
end of the root is almost certain to be broken, though some species can withstand
damage of this type. Again, a wide surface-rooting system, such as is found in
Cedrela, renders the conical spade useless, as the bulk of the roots are inevitably
cut by the spade. Calophyllum seedlings have a rather narrow root system of
moderate length, and therefore are well adapted to the conical spade. Success has
been obtained also with Swietenia and with Tabebuia pentaphylla.

Resumen

La pala cénica usada en Trinidad para sacar plantulas con una bola de tierra
consiste de un cilindro cénico de acero dulce como de 10 pulgadas de largo y 3 pul-
gadas de didmetro con una ranura poco mas o menos de 1/3 de pulgada de ancho a todo
el largo. La pala esté pegada a un mango de madera por medio de dos anillos de
acero atornillados al cilindro.

La pala se introduce en la tierra de manera que el tallo de la pldantula
quede en el centro del cilindro, se hace girar un poco hacia ambos lados, y se
saca con el arbolito y su bola de tierra. La plantula con su bola de tierra se
separa del cilindro haciendo presién hacia abajo con éste sobre una estaca de
madera clavada en la tierra. Al sacar la bola de tierra, ésta se envuelve en una
hoja grande, amarradndola con un bejuco.

Este método se usa invariablemente con el género Calophyllum y pagando
jornales de 60 centavos diarios, los costos de saque, acarreo hasta 1/4 de milla
y resiembra, salen a centavo y medio por planta. Con una época de siembra
favorable y un trabajo cuidadoso, es de esperarse resultados de hasta 95% de exito.

Es esencial que la tierra contenga alguna arcilla, la cual le dd cohesién.
También, la especie a sacarse debe tener un sistema de raices compacto. Ademas
del género Calophyllum, esta pala se ha usado con buenos resultados con Swietenia
y Tabebuia pentaphylla.

“RiGee

SOME NOTES ON THE MANGROVE SWAMPS OF PUERTO RICO

L. R. Holdridge, Associate Forester
Tropical Forest Experiment Station

The mangrove swamps or manglares constitute a small percentage of the total
land area in Puerto Rico and yet are important to the forester because such areas
are highly productive and regenerate naturally, thus lending them suitable for
profitable management. Probably no other forest areas in Puerto Rico have been as
productive in cash crops as these.

The manglares of 100 years ago must have comprised a much greater total
acreage than at the present time. The reduction can be attributed almost entirely
to the influence of man and especially so to the sugar-cane growers. For example,
the Loiza Sugar Co. has installed a system of large drainage ditches and power
pumps in the San Juan District which allows them to cultivate cane on hundreds of
acres of formerly marshy land.

Recently, an additional project of felling manglares and draining of land
was in process east of Ponce on the south coast. Dredging of the bay at San Juan
with the dumping of the silt on former manglares and various garbage dumps close
to the metropolis have eliminated an additional acreage which is being taken up
as building sites. Wherever manglares occur adjacent to population centers, the
poor people recognize the swamps as the cheapest or free building sites and raise
cheap wooden structures on stilts, connecting them with dry land by a ramp of
earth or if at a greater depth, by flimsy wooden bridges. Around Santurce, which
is the eastern extension of San Juan, these concentrations are especially notice-
able and in all such, the rapid increase in population of this class of people
coupled with the effects of the economic depression has given rise to an extraor-
dinary augmentation of such sections in the last few years. The accumulation of
rubbish thrown out the window or door will eventually build up these marsh set—-
tlements to dry land.

Considering natural succession alone, the mangroves are known as land-
builders. This, they accomplish by advancing into the sea or tidal lagoons and
accumulating sediment and vegetative trash about their root systems. They can
advance into the sea only where such formation is protected from strong seas and
where silt or fertile soil accumulates on the bottom. In Puerto Rico, such
advances can be made only on the eastern and southern coasts. On all sides there
is some building out into the lagoons, the latter probably more rapid in recent
decades due to increased agricultural use of highlands with the coincident increase
of eroded materials discharged by the streams at their mouths. However, such gains,
and also the natural change from manglares to dry ground, are very slow natural
processes and their effects in terms of acreage in Puerto Rico are negligible.

The present acreage of manglares in Puerto Rico is estimated to be about
16,000 acres, of which the Insular Forest Service owns 10,800 acres, the Insular

Department of Interior an approximate 1,000 acres, and private landowners the
remainder.

The areas of the Department of the Interior are located around and close
to San Juan and have been most affected by the reclamation for building sites.

= OR

The Insular Forest Service controls 5 manglare districts named for the
towns adjacent to same, with acreages as follows:

San Juan 1,985 Acres
Ceiba 3,092 Acres
Aguirre 2,200 Acres
Boquerén 2,820 Acres
Yauco—Guanica 798 Acres

Total 10,895 Acres

The privately owned manglares are mostly adjacent to the above and consider-
able litigation has been existent since the founding of the Forest Service in an
attempt to definitely locate the boundaries.

There are four species of mangroves which occur in Puerto Rico and which
also have a wide distribution in the world. They are as follows:

Family Scientific Name Common Names

Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora mangle L. Mangle colorado, red mangrove,
zapatero.

Terminaliaceae Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn. Mangle blanco, mangle bobo,
white mangrove.

Terminaliaceae Conocarpus erecta L. Mangle botén, botoncillo,
buttonwood, button mangrove.

Verbenaceae Avicennia nitida Jacq. Mangle negro, mangle prieto,

Siete cueros, salado, black
mangrove, olive mangrove,
salt pond.

A simple key to differentiate these four species by vegetative characters
alone is as follows:

Leaves alternate Conocarpus erecta
Leaves opposite
Leaves gray or finely canescent beneath Avicennia nitida
Leaves green beneath
Leaf tips obtuse, trees with stilt roots Rhizophora mangle
Leaf tips rounded or emarginate, trees
without stilt roots Laguncularia racemosa

Other trees which are found occasionally in the same type are Pterocarpus
officinale Jacq. - palo de pollo, Anona glabra L. - coyure or pond apple, Bucida
buceras L. ~ ticar, and Drepanocarpus Junatus (L.F.) G.F.W. Meyer - escambrén or
palo de hoz, the latter name referring to the flat, sickle-shaped pods. The
Pterocarpus can easily be identified by its buttressed base and the exudation of
a blood-red sap from the cut or bruised bark which gave rise to its Venezuelan
name sangre de drago (dragon's blood). The alternate simple-leaved Anona is
usually found with some of its ovoid, inedible fruits about 4 inches long. The
wood is weak but the bark is quite fibrous. The ucar can be distinguished by
the clustering of the leaves at the ends of the twigs. The Drepanocarpus usually
commands one's attention quite forcefully with its curved stipular spines. It has

=) OO

pinnately compound leaves and small pea flowers of a purplish color. Along the
edges of the mangrove swamps and on the upland areas within the manglares, the
latter called "islotes", one finds native trees typical of the surrounding upland
types, although commonly such areas are used for pasture and coconut groves.
Practically all such areas occurring within the boundaries of the Insular
manglares are rented to private individuals. Rents range from $2 to $5 per acre
per year.

Agati grandiflora (L.) Desv. - gallito or bdculo has been noticed seeding
in open areas near the edges of the swamps with thousands of seedlings in dense
stands and attaining heights of 4 to 8 feet. However, the first high tides which
submerge the roots of the seedlings in salt water effect complete mortality.

The timbers of the palo de pollo, coyure, and palo de hoz are of very little
value. The coyure wood, being of very light weight, finds some use as floats for
nets or in rafts. The light brown or nearly white wood of the ucar is durable,
hard, heavy, strong and tough and finds considerable use.

Within the common site of the manglares, one finds a partial sub-typing due
to the requirements of the individual species. Thus, mangle colorado is found most
commonly along the banks of the streams and lagoons and also directly in the water.
It is the only species which invades sites which are under water the year round.
Directly opposite to this species, we find the mangle botén growing in the driest
parts of the manglares. It is the only species which is found growing above the
high water mark on dry land. In between, we find the other two species growing
pure or in mixture. It is difficult to know how these species were arranged
previous to man's intervention, but apparently mangle negro more closely approaches
mangle colorado in the ability to thrive on wetter sites because it has a special
adaptation in the form of upright pencil-like aerating roots, pneumatophores, which
enable it to withstand submergence.

In order to give an approximate idea of proportion by species in the
manglares of Puerto Rico, the following percents are given although it must be
remembered that they have no claim to accuracy, being based on a few observations
in scattered parts of the mangrove swamps for present-day figures, and estimates
alone for previous figures:

Present—day Percent previous to

percent intervention by man
Mangle blanco 50 30
Mangle negro 25 30
Mangle colorado 20 30
Mangle botén ED: ley
100 100

The mangle colorado is always more or less restricted to the wetter border
of the manglares, which in our areas of not too great width would have amounted to
about 30% in the original stand. Its wood was well esteemed which would have lent
Speed to its exploitation. Coupled with this is the fact that this is our only
Species of mangle which does not sprout from the stump. Areas clear cut were
probably invaded by mangle blanco or mangle negro. Retarding factors in such

invasion would be too much water and some mangle colorado seedlings already
started.

The mangle botén was probably even at its best, only a swamp border tree.
Its fine seed would not give it much competing ability with the larger seeds of
the mangle negro and blanco. Where it grew on dry land it was subject to removal
by agriculturists. In addition it is a good timber, which being on the border was
the most accessible for exploitation.

The mangle negro must have been selected more often than the blanco and the
lighter wood of the latter indicates a faster growth and a better chance for its
off-spring to beat out the negro.

Before proceeding, it might be well to give a little resumé of wood charac-.

teristics in order that one may better picture the relative values of each species.
The following is a table giving the source of information:

Red White Black Button
Species Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove
eee)
par vrom!/ | prownishl/

Color

Sp. Gravity}

General
character—
istics

Uses

i

Very hard, grain Heavy, hard Heavy and hard. Grain |Fine textured,
variable from and strong.2/ irregular. Texture heavy, hard
Straight to very coarse and uneven. Wood |and strong.2/
irregular. Texture not easy to work not

fine. Wood hard to suitable for lumber on

cut, rather harsh account of laminations

& splintery, takes of unlignified tissue,

a good polish. which upon disintegra-
z /

tion allow the fiber

Strong & durable .£
layers to separate .2/

Venezuela: Fencing |Locally for Pa te locally for [Fuel and

posts, poles for fuel and misc. |fuel.* charcoal.

house construction, |purposes, inthe Rarely for
fuel. round .2/ construction.2/
Ecuador: Boat and

miscellaneous

const. posts,
piling, railway
ties, aes and
fuel.

Formerly, mangle negro and mangle colorado were used for boat
building, house foundation posts and construction timbers; mangle
botén was used for general construction; while mangle blanco was not
esteemed because it is subject to termite attacks. Now, the mangles
are used for charcoal, fence posts or other miscellaneous purposes
as small material in the round. 3/

1/ Local opinion.
2/ "Botany of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands" Britton & Wilson.

3/ "Timbers

of Tropical America" S. J. Record.

aoe

Local opinion varies somewhat relative to the ratings of mangrove wood.
Most all use of the wood has been in the form of round material or squared timbers.
Since, at the present time, there is little mangle timber of any size and since
small material of all species, being composed mostly of sapwood, does not last
long, there is less appreciation of the various mangroves than was true formerly.
Most concur that mangle blanco has the poorest wood but because of its straight
growth is good for handles, etc., which are not exposed to soil and weathering.

An interesting note is their firm belief that timber or poles cut at the
time of the new moon are heavily infested with "polilla" or termites in short
order, whereas the same cut during the waning of the moon are attacked to a much
lesser degree and correspondingly last much longer. However, they state that by
cutting a pole and immediately burying it in the mud of the salt marshes or
lagoons, wherein it is left for 10 or 15 days, it becomes cured and is not attacked
by the "polilla". It would be interesting to know the scientific bases for these
beliefs, if true. We do know that logs or pieces of mangle called "canillas"
removed from the bottoms of the lagoons and canals are practically immune to all
rots and insect attacks and such pieces are highly valued for fence posts or other
uses where durability is essential.

All four species of mangrove reproduce readily from seed and, as mentioned
previously, all except the colorado, by means of stump sprouts. It is this reason
alone which has maintained a forest stand on the areas in spite of the heavy
cuttings in the past. However, there is considerable acreage previously stocked
but now devoid of mangroves which has to be considered in the light. of possible
reforestation. These openings fall into the four following categories:

1. Temporary openings.- Occasionally an opening is made in the manglares
due to clear cutting of mangle colorado, to charcoal-pits, or other reasons, where
no natural reproduction is present. When conditions for seeding in of the area
are favorable prompt natural regeneration of the areas occursand, since this usually
happens in less than a year, little notice is taken and such an opening is of
correspondingly little importance from the angle of artificial regeneration.
However, the creation of any such areas of appreciable size should be avoided
because they may possibly develop into the following two classes.

2. Areas similar to temporary openings which do not regenerate readily.-
Certain areas which appear very similar to the above fail to regenerate and even

artificial reforestation by planting is sometimes difficult. The reason is not
readily apparent but it seems to be dependent in some measure on the water level.
In the above temporary openings it appears that the normal high tides do not

cover at all or cover only part of the surface. The abnormal tides which come in
September and October occasionally cover the whole area and, since the dropping of
seeds corresponds with such high water, an excellent job of direct seeding is
accomplished. In the areas which do not regenerate readily the normal high tides
apparentiy cover all or a large part of the areas. Thus, when seeds are brought
with the abnormal tides, they are very apt to be carried away by the same water.

During normal tide periods there is considerable shallow water left in
Shallow pools. This water and the wet mud is said by the natives to heat up by
insolation enough to kill the trees. There may be some basis for this belief or
it may be that here similarly to the later discussed "salistrals", there is a
high concentration of salt, toxic to young mangles. Attempts to reforest with

Boy po

seedlings of black and white mangrove, as mentioned above, have not been very
successful. More recent plantings with red mangrove appear satisfactory.

3. Marunguey or marsh fern areas.- The most conspicuous herbaceous plant
found in the manglares of Puerto Rico is a fern, Acrostichum aureum L., which is
locally called marunguey. Normally, a few plants of this species are found
scattered through the manglares and as long as a forest canopy is maintained,
they are kept under control. But if heavy cutting of the mangroves occurs, admit-
ting abundant sunlight, the marunguey finds conditions excellent for growth and
may overrun the whole opening. In such a patch, the sterile fronds grow up to a
height of 6 feet or more from large tussocks of rhizomes and root-masses. The
dead and half fallen fronds soon make a dense thicket.

With the advent of the high tides bearing mangrove seeds, the same masses
of fronds effectively keep out the floating seeds. The mangroves could undoubtedly
recapture these areas but it would be a slow centripetal movement brought about by
border shading and seeding in amongst the resulting less vigorous ferns. The number
of years for such a succession to take place might run into a great many decades
dependent on the initial size of the opening. Such areas are rather extensive in
the San Juan District and have undoubtedly resulted from overcutting in the past.

Since conditions for mangrove growth are satisfactory except for the
competition of the marunguey, there is a possibility of reforestation. The main
problem is, of course, the removal of the dense fern cover. Project work in the
San Juan District during 1937 showed that such removal can be done most effectively
in the following manner:

Between January and April when the dry season is in progress, set fire to
and burn through the patches of marunguey. Fortunately, the fire will not burn
into the manglares at even the driest time of year but a border strip should be
cleared previous to burning to prevent heat injury to existing trees, or the
passage of fire to drier land in the event that the marunguey areas are located
on the swamp borders. Complete consumption of the green fronds is not attainable
but such a large proportion of the material is burned that later clearing with a
machete is greatly facilitated.

The next step is the clearing or "talado". The most important operation
to be carried on, which should be firmly impressed on the workmen, is the cutting
through of the fern rhizomes as far back from the growing point as the earth
permits, since the rhizomes are only partly epigean.

The cost of cutting border strips and burning varies in accordance with
the size of the openings but should run less than $3 per acre. Machete work will
average between $5 and $8 per acre. The same process carried on at another time
of the year will probably be more expensive due to poorer burning. A second
going over the area with machetes should take place about two months after the
first clearing to cut back any rhizomes missed the first time, which will be
indicated by new leaves. This should cost less than $1 per acre. All labor
costs given are on the basis of $1 for an 8-hour day.

The remaining cleared area may be planted direct with seedlings to be
discussed later or left for natural seeding by the high tides in September and
October. Once established the area should need very little care until the time
for the first thinning.

ey

However, on the basis of these ecological observations, future cutting
plans should be drawn up with due consideration given to the marunguey. Where
it occurs in the understory of a stand any cutting done should be lighter and
more freguent or some cutting back of the fern should be carried on contempo-
raneously with the mangle felling.

4. "Salitrals" or areas of high saline content.- Along the south coast
and more especially in the Boquerdén district, one finds areas within the mangrove

swamps devoid of all vegetation. These vary in size but sometimes comprise an
area of over 10 acres. Here there is no doubt that the lack of plant life is
due to the toxic effect of a high saline content of the soil. Walking across
the area in full sunlight, one notices the dazzling brightness caused by the
reflection of the light from myriads of crystals.

These areas usually border the higher ground above the tides and are
evidently one stage in the land-building process of the mangles. Due to the
accumulation of silt and organic matter, the soil level about the roots of the
mangroves is being built up gradually towards the high-—tide mark. With the
attainment of each unit of height there is a correspondingly greater length of
time of exposure above water and a longer period of evaporation from shallow
water and the wet mud. In other parts of the island due to heavier rainfall
there is less insolation and a greater precent of fresh water coming from the
land side which tends to counteract the process by less evaporation and solution
of the salt. In this region, rainfall approximates 40 inches per year, more or
less concentrated in the months of August to October, which at our latitude
results in arid conditions. It is along the same coast on the southwestern
corner of Puerto Rico that one finds the commercial extraction of salt by means
of solar evaporation of sea water being carried on. As the concentration of
salt increases, the trees are slowly killed, due to their inability to obtain
water and food solutes. The curve of tree death is graphically depicted on the
borders of the areas where tall mangles are fronted by trees of gradually
decreasing height and increasing weakness to the point zero where mangle growth
is impossible. Such areas must start at focal points along the shore or dry
land, spreading slowly towards the sea and more rapidly along the coast because
most all of the areas have a much longer dimension parallel to the dry land.

Undoubtedly, these areas are impossible to reforest and there is littie
that can be done to restrict their increase in size. In the future, eroded soil
will gradually wash down from the highlands to spread a layer of fresh soil over
the salt and eventually nature will again use a gradually increasing portion of
the area for the growth of dry—land vegetation.

Direct seeding

The red mangrove possesses a most peculiar fruit especially adapted to
the environment of this species. The fruit itself is small, about 1] to 2 inches
long, but from this is developed, while still attached to the tree, a pencil-
shaped, acute-pointed radicle from 6 to 15 inches in length. This accounts for
their local name "tabacos" or cigars, and the tree name "chifle de vaca" or
"cow's horn" used in the Gudnica section. When mature the embryo literally
drops out of the fruit. If it falls on a muddy surface, the point of the
radicle is driven into the silt and rooting and growth takes place immediately.
If it falls into the water, it floats vertically, with the tip of the radicle
downwards, and may strike root when it comes in contact with mud in shallow water.

BODE ts

Whether these seeds become heavier than water after some period of floating and
sink to the bottom, and if so, whether they are still capable of rooting and
growing is not known, but such might account for clumps which become established
separately in deep water.

Such a seed as this lends itself exceptionally well to direct—seeding
purposes. It fruits quite abundantly, can easily be collected from a boat along
the water edges, and is planted without benefit of tools by simply pushing the
pointed radicle into the mud or soil. The lower portion of the radicle becomes
russet—brown in color when mature. Several thousands of this fruit have been
planted in the San Juan Manglare District, some in open places along the canals
and others in clear patches of mud where reproduction was absent. Germination
and survival obtained was over 90%. At Cayo Santiago, near the Playa of Humacao,
a very small plantation was made in shallow water where at no time in the year
is the mud exposed to the air, and there too survival was exceptionally high.
The direct seeding of the mangle colorado is a cheap, practicable method of
reforesting normal open spaces in the manglares where no other vegetation is
present and where the water level is predominantly high and can be used for
reforesting the shallow waters of lagoons or other bodies of brackish water if
protected from high seas and provided the bottom is more or less at rest.

The seeds of the mangle botén are considered too small to make any direct
seeding practicable with this species.

Mangle blanco and mangle negro might possibly be used in direct seeding,
although up to the present time, no trial or experiment to determine such pos-
sibility has been undertaken. The fruit of the mangle negro looks and is
similar in size to the seed of lima-bean. It starts to germinate while still
attached to the tree and floats readily on the surface of the water. Mangle
blanco fruits are one-seeded, grey in color and slightly smaller than the mangle
negro, They too float in water and are widely dispersed by such means. Natural
seeding of this species occurs much more readily than in any of the other three.
Some of the marunguey areas which were cleared and planted were later seeded
naturally during the period of high tides by this species and the present
resulting stand consists of thousands of these seedlings per acre. They
averaged between two and three feet in height when not quite one year old.
Farther back from the canals, in the same areas, such seeding was much lighter
probably because the water did not cover such areas,

Planting with natural seedlings or wildlings

Planting of natural seedlings of both mangle blanco and mangle negro was
carried on in the San Juan District. These seedlings occur in natural beds
throughout the manglares or in the small, open patches, and due to the softness
of the soil, can be pulled out by hand without much damage to the roots. These
trees were transported the short distance to the open areas and planted 8 ft. x
8 ft. in a regular hole dug by a mattock. Reexamination of some of these areas
during August or about 10 months after planting showed excellent survival and
rapid growth of the mangle blanco. The average height of the trees when planted
was about 2 feet, some of which were already 5 feet in height at 10 months.
Surprisingly, some of these trees 10 months after planting, or less than two
years old from seed, are already flowering and seeding.

The mangle negro gave very poor results and further general planting
with this species should not be carried out without previous experimentation
to determine whether lifting with a fork to prevent damage to fine roots or
any other technique is necessary to obtain a satisfactory survival.

Growth and yield

Mangrove growth or at least that of seedlings and saplings is rapid and,
considering the purity of the stands and the high number of stems per acre, the
yield should be high. However, no definite figures for growth or yield of
Puerto Rican stards are available. Cuttings in later years have been in the
order of clear cutting for charcoal or the removal of selected material for
special uses, such as fence posts or hoe handles. No definite management or
cutting plans have been in force. Whenever a certain amount of charcoal or
posts were to be cut, a site was selected which contained the largest material.
Income from the manglares for the last 10 or 15 years is bound to be misleading
due to the fact that a part of this income represents a depletion in stock.

How far this depletion has gone can readily be seen in the San Juan District
where one would have to cover a large area in order to find a 6-inch D.B.H. tree.
It is hard to believe that the most profitable time to cut a species, which at
maturity attains a diameter of 2 feet or over, would be when the tree had not
attained a D.B.H of 6 inches.

To give a better picture of the conditions of the stands, let us consider
for a moment the counts obtained in setting up a thinning and growth experiment
in the San Juan District in 1938. Tally of the stems on 5 quarter-acre plots
in a typical repeatedly cut stand, now largely composed of mangle blanco, gave
an average of over 17,000 stems per acre. Of these, about 60% were less than
one-half inch in diameter and the largest stem was only 3.7 inches D.B.H. On
the basis of examination of these plots and the manglare in general, the
following cutting plans are suggested for initiation of management plans until
more Gata on growth and merchantable age can be secured.

Assume a growth rate of 2 inches in diameter in every 5 years which
should approximate the average on the island. Divide each manglare district
into 5 blocks or compartments on the basis of acreage and natural boundaries
such as lagoons, canals, etc., with a cutting cycle of 5 years and set a
rotation temporarily of 25 years. Thinnings and selective cutting are possible
due to local markets for all sizes and the abundant labor available. Consider
the stand by 2-inch diameter classes such as 1.1 to 3.0 inches, 3.1 to 5.0
inches, etc., which roughly correspond to the desired sizes of saleable material
and thin out approximately the same percent from each diameter class present to
leave a satisfactory density of stand for growth during the following 5-year
period.

During the first rotation, sufficient data could be accumulated to work
out exact figures on growth, merchantable age, etc., and such refinements as
percent of the various species to be left, etc. The system is proposed as a
safety measure to prevent overcutting and as a means of increasing production.
It is felt that if such a cutting plan is put into effect the manglares will
be considerably more productive following the first two cutting cycles.

Protection

Trespass.— Due to the location of the manglares in the lowlands, adjacent
to heavily populated districts, a strict vigilance is necessary to prevent timber
theft. The present system of guards appears to be efficient and adequate although
sometimes local courts are very lenient to trespassers and tend to propagate a
disregard for boundary lines. Possibly some educative material, respective to
the value of these areas for Insular prosperity,would help to remedy the latter
situation.

Diseases.— At the present time, no important disease is known to affect
the various species of mangroves. Removal of material infected by secondary
wood rots during silvicultural operations might lessen somewhat the loss of
timber from this source.

Insects.- Termite damage to living trees is very common in the manglares.
The nests of these insects are found above ground, attached to the stems of the
trees, and can easily be poisoned. Best control is secured by making a hole in
the nest and inserting Paris green. It is not always effective and a later check-
up should be made.

There are two species of insects which cause considerable damage in their
larval stage by boring through the mangle stems. These are a buprestid beetle,
Chrysobothris tranquebarica Gmelin, and a lepidopterous borer, Psychonoctua
personalis Grote. Little data as to the extent of their damage is available
except that personal observations show a rather high percent of infected stems.

Summary

The mangrove swamps of Puerto Rico, comprising an area of approximately
16,000 acres, are highly productive and suitable for profitable management.
About 11,000 acres are administered by the Insular Forest Service.

- White, black, red, and button mangrove make up the greater part of the
stand. The red mangrove occurs in the wettest spots or even in the water, the
button mangrove on the dry edge of the swamps or on the adjacent high ground
with the black and white mangrove in the swamp areas between the former two
species. The woods are not of high value, but find a ready market for miscel-
laneous uses.

Various openings in the mangrove swamps consist of areas of clear-cut
red mangrove, the one species which does not sprout readily from the stump,
of areas covered with the fern, Acrostichum aureum, or of highly saline areas
in the drier parts of the island. The first areas may be reforested by direct
seeding with red mangrove while burning and clearing of the fern areas followed
by planting with wildlings of the white mangrove has given excellent results.

Beye ta

Based on the local market and an estimated growth of 2 inches in 5 years,
a selection system of cutting with a 25-year rotation and 5-year cutting cycle
is recommended.

Protection from timber theft is necessary due to the adjacent concentra-
tions of people. Diseases and insects present no severe problems.

Resumen

Los manglares de Puerto Rico, que comprenden aproximadamente 16,000 acres,
son sumamente productivos y apropiados para una explotacién lucrativa. Cerca de
11,000 acres son administrados por el Servicio Forestal Insular.

La mayor parte del rodal esta formado de mangle blanco, negro, colorado y
botén. El mangle colorado se encuentra en los sitios mds htimedos y hasta en el
agua, el mangle botdén en las orillas secas del pantano o en los terrenos elevados
adyacentes, y el mangle blanco y el negro, en las dreas pantanosas entre las dos
primeras especies. Las maderas no son de un gran valor, pero tienen buen mercado
para usos diversos.

Los diferentes claros en los manglares consisten de dreas en donde se ha
cortado el mangle colorado, la unica especie que no retofia después de cortada,
de dreas cubiertas del helecho Acrostichum aureum, o de dreas demasiado salinas
en las partes mfs secas de la isla. Las primeras dreas pueden repoblarse con
semilla de mangle colorado por medio de siembra directa, mientras que quemando
y limpiando las dreas de helecho, seguido de siembra con plantulas silvestres
de mangle blanco, ha dado excelentes resultados.

Basado en el mercado local y un estimado en crecimiento de 2 pulgadas en
cinco afios, se recomienda un método de seleccién bajo una rotacién de veinticinco
afios y ciclo de cortas de cinco afios.

Es necesario la proteccién contra el robo de madera debido a la aglomera-
cién de personas en los sitios adyacentes. Las enfermedades e insectos no
presentan un problema serio.

NOTES ON THE PACIFIC COAST REGION OF NICARAGUA

R. E. Harding, Managua, Nicaragua

Nicaragua may be divided roughly into three zones: (1) the Pacific coast,
(2) the highlands of the interior, and (3) the wet Atlantic coast.

The Pacific coast region comprises a long,wide plain extending from the
Gulf of Fonseca on the north to the Costa Rican boundary on the south. Down the
center of the plain and dividing it into two parts stretches a chain of detached
volcanic mountains. They attain their highest elevations in the volcanic peaks
of El Viejo in the north, and Ometepe in the south, both of which reach an
altitude of 6,000 ft. above sea level. Between this volcanic range and the sea,
there is a line of hills of high elevation in the center but low to the north
and south. The highest elevations of approximately 3,000 ft. are reached in
the Sierras de Managua.

The climate is dry in the center of the area with greater precipitation
in the north, Chinandega, and in the south, Rivas, although neither of the
latter may be called wet areas. The seasons are well defined, with the rainy
season from May to November and the dry season from December to May.

The plain has been largely deforested and is now made up of pastures,
secondary forest growth and large areas of "jicarales" or gourd plains. These
"jJicarales" are covered with a rank grass growth and spiny plants. The ground
is swampy during the rainy season and becomes dry and cracked in the dry season,
making it unfit for agricultural use. In other parts of the plain, especially
in Chinandega, Leén, and Rivas, the soils are very fertile and large crops of
maize, rice and beans are grown.

The richest parts of the Pacific coast section are the Sierras de Managua
and the high tableland of Carazo. Here, the chief crop is coffee, the ground
is fertile, and the climate is cool, averaging from 60° to 65° F.

The Sierras are well wooded in the valleys, but a mistake has been made
in cutting the trees on the ridges causing the rainy seasons to become erratic.
For the last three years we have had no real rainy season. Nothing is being
done to correct this situation and deforestation continues. There is a large
number of tree species in the region, the chief kinds being cedar - Cedrela

odorata L., mahogany - Swietenia mahagoni Jacq., guapinol - Hymenaea courbaril L.,
panama — Sterculia apetala (Jacq.) Karst., ojoche, and several kinds of Ficus.

I have planted cedar, roble, and other trees, but owing to the lack of
rains in the last two years, they have not done very well. At first, direct
seeding was tried, but most of the trees dried up or were trodden down. Now,
seedlings are raised in nurseries and transplanted when they are about thirty
inches high.

For coffee-shade trees, I am planting Inga and Erythrina. The former
seem to be the best for Nicaragua as the Erythrinas lose their leaves during
the dry season and have spiny trunks, Other shade trees used in Nicaragua with

aT Koes

varying success are: madero negro - Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Steud.,
guanacaste - Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.) Griseb., pisquin - Albizzia
moluccana Mig., and the original forest trees.

One species that I have found to be a wonderful shade tree is a kind of
Ficus, locally called "copel". I am sorry I am unable to give the specific
name for this tree, but as far as I know, the "Ficus" group has never been
studied here and it is not mentioned in Goyena's "Flora Nicaraguense". The
leaves are a light laurel green in color. The tree is propagated from branch
cuttings and grows very fast. It is the only coffee shade tree here which will
resist the effects of volcanic fumes and ashes. This may be of interest to
planters in Hawaii and the Philippines where they are bothered by volcanic
activity. Coffee grows very well under this tree, always looking fresh and
bearing evenly. The extreme height to which this shade tree grows is probably
its only defect.

Resumen

La regién de la costa del Pacifico de Nicaragua estd compuesta de una
lianura larga y ancha dividida por una cadena de montafias volcdnicas con montes
mas bajos entre éstas y el mar. El clima es seco y las estaciones del afio bien
definidas.

La llanura tiene grandes dreas inservibles para la agricultura. La
tumba del bosque en las laderas de las feraces Sierras de Managua, donde el
café es el producto principal, es muy seria. La regidén es fecunda en d4rboles
tales como cedro, caoba, guapinol, ojoche, panamd, y varias especies de Ficus.

El que suscribe esta sembrando 4rboles forestales y de sombra para el

café. El copel es un drbol de sombra de interés, el cual se propaga por medio
de esquejes de ramas y resiste muy bien las cenizas y vapores volcdnicos.

= eoie2

SELECTION OF SPECIES FOR REFORESTATION

The selection of tree species for reforestation purposes constitutes one
of the first problems which confront the forest worker in this region. Too
often in the past there has been a tendency to use a high percent of exotic
species in preference to local trees, probably because printed data on the
technique of handling and favorable results of plantations in other regions
were available for the former.

The following observations are so fundamental to the proper selection of
species and so well expressed that they merit more attention. They are copies
verbatim from the "Report on the Forestry Problems of Jamaica" by A. Wimbush,
Chief Conservator of Forests, Madras and Forest Advisor, Jamaica, 23rd December,
ng 3D

"Tt is necessary to be very chary of trying to lay down the
species of tree to be grown in any special locality. Experiments
are required, and this is one of the main reasons why a trained
Forest Officer is necessary. A few commonsense rules may, however,
be laid down:-

(1) Consider first the object of management. If it is merely
to clothe an area for protective purposes, the species most easily
and quickly grown are indicated. In the catchment area roseapple
(Eugenia Jambos) and bamboo appear to grow like weeds, and Cassia
siamea would also grow quickly from seed, if the soil were loosened.

(2) Study the species growing in the locality naturally, and
choose those which are doing best. Height growth is an indication
of the depth of soil, and if the existing trees on any area are all
stunted and small, it is not a bit of use expecting that planted
trees will do any better.

(3) Invariably consult the old, local, residents, however humble.

(4) Realize that it is no more reasonable to expect a bad seed-
ling to grow into a good tree, than it is to expect a half-starved,
stunted slum child to grow into a fine man. Thus if poor, lanky tree
seedlings, with an undeveloped root system, are obtained from a
nursery and then have their roots exposed to the air, and are then
planted with their roots doubled up in too small a hole, they cannot
be expected to flourish.

Opes

SELECCION DE ESPECIES PARA REPOBLACION

(Traduccién del articulo anterior)

La seleccién de especies de arboles para fines de repoblacién forestal
constituye uno de los primeros problemas con que se confronta el silvicultor en
esta region. Muy a menudo en el pasado ha habido tendencia a utilizar un alto
por ciento de especies exdédticas en preferencia a las nativas, probablemente
debido a la influencia de literatura al efecto y de los resultados favorables
de plantaciones de tales exdticos en otras regiones.

Las siguientes observaciones son tan fundamentales para la propia selec-
cidén de especies y han sido tan bien expuestas que merecen mds atencidén. Se han
copiado textualmente del "Report on the Forestry Problems of Jamaica" por A.
Wimbush, "Chief Conservator of Forests, Madras" y "Forest Advisor, Jamaica", y
fechado a 23 de diciembre de 1935:

"RS necesario ser muy precavido al escoger las especies de
arboles a sembrar en cualquier localidad. Esto requiere experi-
mentos, lo cual hace necesarios los servicios de téenicos forestales.
Sin embargo, se pueden adelantar algunas reglas ldégicas:

(1) Considérese primero el objetivo en mente. Si éste es mera-
mente cubrir cierta drea con fines de proteccién, se recomiendan
aquellas especies de desarrollo mas fdcil y rdpido. En el 4rea de
recogimiento de los arrastres, la pomarrosa, Eugenia jambos, y bambu
parecen crecer con gran rapidez y Cassia siamea desarrollaria igual-

mente de semilla si el suelo recibiera cultivo.

(2) Observe las especies gue crecen espontdneas en la localidad
y seleccione las mejores. El crecimiento indica la profundidad del
suelo y si los arboles existentes en cualquier drea estan estacionados
y pequenos, no es de esperarse que los que se siembren crezcan mejor.

(3) Invariablemente consulte los vecinos de més antigua perma-
nencia ne importa lo humilde gue sean.

(4) Considere que no es mds razonable suponer que una pldntula
inferior desarrolle en un arbol fuerte, que un nifio desnutrido y poco
desarrollado se convierta en un hombre vigoroso. Asi, si a arbolitos
endebles con un sistema radical poco desarrollado, se le exponen éstas
al aire y luego se siembran con las rafces dobladas en un hoyo muy
Pequefio, no es de esperarse que tales arbolitos prosperen."

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