: - BIOLOGY RA G \ METAMORPHOSES OF THE PKOCESSIONARV MOTH (Cnethocampa processioned) AND OF CALOSOMA SYCOPHANTA. 61 C ASSELL'S NATURAL HISTORY EDITED BY P. MARTIN DUNCAN, M.B. (LOND.), F.R.S., F.G.S. PROFE880K OF GEOLOGY IN AND HONORARY FELLOW OF KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON ; CORRESPONDENT OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES, PHILADELPHIA VOL. VI. ILL US T It A TED CASSELL AND COMPANY, LIMITED LONDON, P All IS & MELBOURNE 1896 ALL KIOBTS RE8F.RVKIJ HYMENOPTERA (concluded). W. S. DALLAS, F.L.S. NEUROPTERA. W. S. DALLAS, F.L.S. LEPIDOPTERA. W. F. KIRBY. DIPTERA. W. S. DALLAS, F.L.S. APHANIPTERA. W. S. DALLAS, F.L.S. RHYNCHOTA. W. S. DALLAS, F.L.S. ORTHOPTERA. W. S. DALLAS, F.L.S. THYSANURA. W. S. DALLAS, F.L.S. MYRIOPODA. W. S. DALLAS, F.L.S. ARACHNIDA. W. S. DALLAS, F.L.S. CRUSTACEA. HENRY WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., ETC. VERMES. PROFESSOR P. MARTIN DUNCAN, M.B. (LoND.), F.R.S., F.G.S., ETC. ECHINODERMATA. P. HERBERT CARPENTER, M.A. ZOOPHYTA. PROFESSOR P. MARTIN DUNCAN, M.B. (LOND.), F.R.S., F.G.S., ETC. SPONGLdE. PROFESSOR W. J. SOLLAS, F.G.S. RHIZOPODA. PROFESSOR T. RUPERT JONES, F.R-S. INFUSORIA. PROFESSOR P. MARTIN DUNCAN, M.B. (Loxn.), F.R.S., F.G.S., ETC. 265342 CONTENTS. CLASS IXSECTA.— ORDER HYMENOPTERA (concluded}. CHAPTER VII. THE ENTOMOPHAGA AND PHYTOPHAGA. PACK ENTOMOPHAGA, OR "INSECT-EATERS "—Meaning of the Term— THE ICHNEUMONID.E— Characters— Immense Number of Species— Parasitism— Habits of Various Genera- THE PROCTOTHUPIIXB— THE CHALCiniD*— THK CYNIPID*:, OR GALL FLIES— Characters— Habits -The Galls— Different Genera-THE PHYTOPHAGA- THE I"i'KocEKin.-E, OR TAILED WASPS— Characters— The Great Tailed Wasp— Habits -THE TENTHREDINIIXE, OR SAW FLIES— Characters — Various Species ....•• ORDER NEUROPTERA. CHAPTER VIII. THE FLAT-WINGED NET'UOPTEUA AND THE CADDIS-FLIES. NEUROPTERA— Characters — Habits — Classification— PLANIPENNIA — MEGALOPTERA — Characters— THE MYRME- LEoxTin^E, OR ANT-LIONS— Habits— Capture of their Prey— THE HEMEUOBin.E— The Golden-eyed Fly— The Genus Ncmoptera— THE MANTISPID.E— THE SIALID.*:— The Sialis luturia—The Snake-flies, or Camel flies— THE PANOR- i-iD.E The Scorpion-fly— Habits— Genus Bittacus— Genus .Bomfs— TRICHOPTERA— Caddis-flies— Difficulty of Assigning their Proper Position — McLachlaii's Classification— Characters — Distribution — Metamorphoses — The Phryganeidte— The Limnophilidm— The Sericostomidae— The Leptoceridae— The Hydropsy chidse— The Rhyaco- pniiidie— The Hydroptilidae ORDER LEPIDOPTERA (BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS). CHAPTER IX. THE METAMORPHOSES OF THE LEPIDOPTEIIA. Characteristics of the Order — EGG STATE —Structure and Development of Eggs — LARVA STATE — Shape and Structure — Stinging Larvae — Internal Anatomy — Food — Enemies— Growth and Development — METAMORPHOSIS— Pupation of Vanessa vrticce—Ot other Butterflies — Of Moths which form a Cocoon — PUPA STATE— Structure of Pupa- Development — Emergence of the Imago — IMAGO, ou PERFECT STATE— Wings -Neuration — Scales — Legs— Head and Body — Internal Anatomy — Food — Senses— Geographical Distribution — Collecting — Killing — Setting — Relaxing — Localities . ...... 21 CHAPTER X. BUTTERFLIES. The Brush-footed Butterflies— Butterflies distasteful to Birds— Mimicry— Transparent-winged Butterflies of South America — Brown Butterflies frequenting Marshes and Meadows — Silvery Butterfly from Chili — The Great Blue Butterflies of South America — Great Owl-like Butterflies Flying at Twilight— An African Group of Spotted Butterflies Passion Flower Butterflies of South America — The Fritillaries — The Comma Butterfly- Leaf Butterflies --Dissimilarity of the Sexes in some Butterflies -Red, Blue, and Green Butterflies of South America - Elegant NA TURAL HI8TOR Y. PAGE Flight of the White Admiral — Lofty Flight of the Purple Emperor— Long-snouted Butterflies— A Large Group of Small and Elegant Butterflies almost peculiar to South America — Copper Butterflies— Small Blues— Hairstreaks —Long Tails of some of the Allied Eastern Species— The White and Yellow Butterflies— Some of this Group Brightly Coloured — Mimicking South American Butterflies — Small and Large Yellow Butterflies of the Tropics — Garden Whites — White Indian Butterflies with Red Spots on the Under Side— Indian Butterflies with the Front of the Wing Eidged like a Saw — The Brimstone and Clouded Yellow Butterflies— Orange-tips— Swallow-tailed Butterflies — The Apollo Butterflies— Magnificent Tailed Butterflies from the Himalayas — The Great Bird-winged Butterflies of the East — A Croesus among Butterflies — South American Butterflies with Iridescent Spots — Mimicking Butterflies again — Gold-dusted Butterflies — Great Blue Butterflies of the Eastern Islands— The True Swallow-tailed Butterflies — Extraordinary Difference between the Sexes of an African Butterfly — Very Long Tails of a Small Indian Group— The Skippers — Their Resemblance to the Moths— Tailed Skippers of South America — The Fire-tailed Skippers— The Grizzled Skipper — The Pearl Skipper .32 CHAPTEK XI. The Pages— The Castniidce— Moths with Clubbed Antennas— Humming Bird Hawk Moth— Bee Clear-wings— Lovers of the Vine— Eyed Hawk Moth— Death's Head Hawk Moth -Scented Hawk Moths— Hornet Clear-wing— Currant Clear-wing— The Green Foresters— The Burnets— Day-flying Moths of the East Indies— The Footmen —The Tigers— The Gold-tail Moth— The Gipsy Moth— Case-bearing Moths— The Puss Moth— The Prominents— The Lobster Moth— The Processionary Caterpillars— The Silkworm— The Atlas Moth— The Ailanthus Silkworm— the Tusseh Silkworm— Long-tailed Moths -The Emperor Moth— The Lappet Moth— The Oak Eggar— The Lackey Moth— The Wood Leopard Moth— The Goat Moth— The Swifts— The Night Moths— The Wainscots— The Dark Arches-The Cabbage Moth— The Cut-worms— The Yellow Underwings— The Chestnuts— The Angle Shades—The Sharks— Beautiful Yellow Underwing— The Gamma Moth, or Silver Y— The Burnished Brass Moth— The Old Lady— The Red Underwings— The Orange Moths of Australia— The Great Owl Moth— The Snout— The Loopers- The Swallow-tail Moth— The Brimstone Moth— The Thorns— The Emeralds— The Waves— Heath Moths— The Soldier Moths— The Magpie Moth— Winter Moths— The Pugs— The Carpets - Erateina— The Pearls— The Meal Moth— The Crimson and Gold— The China Marks— The Small Magpie— The Knot -horns— Their Webs— The Grass Moths- The Bell Moths— The Green Oak Moth— Pests of the Orchard— Jumping Seeds— Clothes' Moths— Long- horns- The Smallest Moth known— The Plume Moths— The Twenty-plume Moth— Fossil Butterflies and Moths . CHAPTER XII. D I P T E H A — A P H A N I P T E R A. DIPTERA — Characters — The Proboscis — Structure — Metamorphosis — Internal Anatomy — Habits — Parasitism — Distri- bution—Classification— TRIBE NEMOCERA— THE CULICIDJE, OR GNATS— Metamorphosis— Habits— Blood- thirstiness — The Mosquito — Other Gnats — THE CHIRONOMID^E — THE TIPULID^E — THE CRANE FLIES, or Daddy Long-legs — The Giant Crane Fly — The Genus Ctcnophora — Midges — Other Genera — THE MYCETOPHIUIME — Fungus Midges — The Army Worm — THE CECIDOMYIDJE, or Gall Midges — The Hessian Fly — Its Destructiveness The Wheat Midge— Another Pest — The Galls — Dr. N. Wagner's Observations on the Genus Miaxtor — THE PSYCHO- DIIME— THE BIBIONID.E— "Garden Flies"— "Sand Flies "—The Columbalsch Fly— TRIBE NOTACANTHA— THE STRATIOMYID.E— TRIBE TANYSTOMA— THE TABANIRE, or Breeze Flies, or Gad Flies— Habits— The Ox Breeze Fly — The Golden-eyed Breeze Fly — The CLKGG — A " Blood-drinker " — THE ASILID^E — THE THEIIEVID.E — THE EMPID/E— THE ACROCEHID.E — THE BOMBYLIID^E - -THE LEPTID.E— THE DOLICHOI'OIUD.K THE Pi ATYi'Kzm.n -THE SCENOPINID.E— TRIBE ATHERICERA— THE SYRPHID/E— Parasitism— The Volucellce— The Genus Eristalis—THE MusciD.fi— Characters — The Tachinarke — The Muscaricc — The Common House Fly — The Bluebottle— The Flesh Fly— The Greenbottle Flies— The Tsetse Fly— The A calyptera— Various Genera— The Phorides—The CEstride*— The (Estrus lovis—The Cephalomi/icE—Gasirus—T'RIVE PUPIPARA— THE HIPPOBOSCID.E— THE NYCTEUTBIIIXE —THE BRAULID.E— APHANIPTERA, THE FLEAS— Characters -Classification— Transformations -Habits — Various Species — Their Muscular Energy — Trained Fleas— The Jigger— Its Pernicious Parasitism . . . .70 CHAPTER XIII. THE RHYNCHOTA, OR BEAKED INSECTS. THE RHYNCHOTA— The Rostrum— General Form— Internal Anatomy— Imperfect Metamorphosis— Distribution- Fossil Species -Classification— HETEROPTERA, OR BUGS— Characters— LAND BUGS-ScuTATA, OR SHIELD J'.rns -CoiiEin.-E— L\-GJEIT>M— PYRRHOCORID>E— PHYTOCORID/E, OR PLANT BUGS— ANTHOCORID/E — MEMBRANACEA —The Bed Bug— REDUVIID.E-GERRID^E— HYDROCORES, OR WATER BUGS— GALGULID.E— NEPID.E, OR WATKR SCORPIONS— NOTONECTIU.E— HOMOPTERA— CiCADiixt— Characters — Distribution -The Organs of Stri- dulation— FULGORIIXE — The Great Lantern Fly— MEMBRACID.E— CICADELLINA — Cuckoo Spits - -Froghoppers — APHIDID.E— Plant Lice— Hop Fly — Reproduction — COCCIU.-E — Cochineal -PEDICULINA . . . 101 CONTENTS. vii CHAPTER XIV. ORDER ORTHOPTERA. PAGE ORTHOPTERA —Characters — Structure — Internal Structure — Metamorphoses — Distribution — Classification— THE OKTHOPTERA GENUINA— TRIBE SALTATORIA— THE GRYLLID.E, OR CRICKETS— The House Cricket— The Field Cricket— The Mole Cricket— THE LOCUSTIIXE— The Great Green Grasshopper— THE ACRIDIID.E, OR GRASSHOPPERS —Locusts— TRIBE CURSORIA— THE MANTIIXE— Praying Insects— Soothsayers— THE PHASMID.E, OR WALKING STICKS— Walking Leaves— THE BLATTIIXE, OR COCKROACHES — The Common Cockroach — The Gigantic Cockroach, or " Drummer "—TRIBE EUPLEXOPTERA— THE FORFICULID.*:, OR EARWIGS— THE PSEUDONEUROPTERA— TRIBE SOCIALIA — THE TERMITID.E, OR WHITE ANTS — TRIBE CORRODENTIA — THE EMBIID.E — THE PSOCIIXE — TRIBE PLECOPTERA—THE PERLID.E— The Stone Fly— Pteronarcys— TRIBE SUBULICOHNIA— THE EPHEMERIIX-E, OR DAY FLIES -May Fly— THE LIBELLULID.E, OR DRAGON FLIES— THE PHYSOPODA— Thrips -THE MAL- LOPHAGA— THE THYSANURA—Lepismz—THK COLLEMBOLA— Spring-tails— Podura 118 CLASS MYRIOPODA. THE CENTIPEDES AND MILLEPEDES. Definition of the Class— External Structure— Internal Structure - Reproduction — General Habits— Fossil Forms — Classi- fication—Order CHILOPODA— Structure— Distribution— Habits -Family ScuTiGERiD.E— Family SCOLOPENDRIIXE — Centipedes — Lithobius forficatus — Scolopcndra cingulata — Geophilus — Phosphorescence— Order CHILOGNATHA — Family JuLiDvE— Millepedes — Julus sabnlosus — Family POLYDESMHXE — Family SIPHONIZANTIA — Family GLO- MEUID.E— Order PAUROPODA— Pauropus huxlcyi— Order ONYCHOPHORA— Pcripatus 150 CLASS ARACHNID A. CHAPTER I. SCORPIONS AND SPIDERS. ARACHNIDA— General Characters— Internal Structure— Habits — Distribution — Fossil Forms— Classification —Order ARTHROGASTRA— Lung-sacs— Classification— Family SCORPIONID.E— Scorpions— Family PHRYNID.E— Family CHELIKEHID.E— False Scorpions — Family PH A LANGIID.E — Harvest-men — Family SOLPUGIDA: — Galeodes — Order ARANEIDA — -True Spiders — General Characters — Internal Structure — Spinning Apparatus — Habits — Classifica- tion— TETRAPXEUMONES— Family MYGALID.E— Bird Spiders— Mygale- Trap-door Spiders— DIPNEUMONES— Family SALTICTIXK — Saltigradae — Family LYCOSID,E — Citigradae — Tarantula— Family THOMISID.E — Latcrigradre — Crab Spiders — Family TEGENARIID^E— Tubitelre — House Spider — Water Spider — Family THERIDIDJE — Insequitelse — Malmignatte — Family EPEHID^E — Orbitelae— Garden Spider 158 CHAPTER II. ORDERS ACARINA, TARDIGR ADA, LINGUATULINA, AND PANTOPODA. .U'ARIXA -The Mites and their Allies— Characters— Classification — BDELLIIXE, OR BRAKED MITES — TROMBIDIITXE, OR HARVEST MITES— HYDRACHNIIXK, OR AVATER Mrrr.s -ORIBATIIXE, OR BEETLE MITES— GAMASIIXE— IXODIIXE, OR TICKS— ACARIU.E, OR TRUE MITES— TARDIURADA— LINGUATULINA— PANTOPODA ... .179 CLASS CRUSTACEA. CHAPTER I. ANATOMY OK CRABS AND LOBSTERS. Characteristics of the Crustacea— Their Mode of Existence— External Covering -Body Segments— Locomotory and other Appendages — Nervous System— Digestive Organs— Respiration and Circulation — Reproduction and Development — Metamorphosis— Exuviation— Reparation— Classification 130 CHAPTER II. CRUSTACEA (contiin(cd).— CRABS, LOBSTERS, AND SHRIMPS. BHACHYURA, CRABS— Cephalisation— Sizes of various Crabs— The Spider Crabs— The Great Crab— The Common Shore and Harbour Crab— The Swimming Crabs -The Velvet Fiddler Crab— The Masked Crab— Land Crabs— The Pea NATURAL HISTORY. PAGE Crab— ANOMOURA, HERMIT CRABS— Their Houses— The Land Hermits— The Robber Crab— MACROURA, LOBSTERS —The Common Spiny Lobster— The Common Lobster— The Norway Lobster— The Common River Crayfish— The Eye of Crustaceans— The Brown Shrimp— The Common Prawn— Blind Crayfish l'J7 CHAPTER III. CRUSTACEA (concluded). STOMAPODA — Squilla — Mysis — ISOPODA — Bathynmnus — Tanais — The " Gribble " — Ascllus — Arcturus — Sphccroma— Parasitic Forms — A.MPHIPODA — The "Sand-hopper" — Orchcstia and other Forms — Aberrant Amphipods — XIPHOSURA— King Crabs — Character — Habits — EURYPTEKIDA — TRILOBITA — PHYLLOPODA — Character CLADOCERA — OSTHACOD A— COPEPODA— Parasitic Forms— CIRRIPEDIA— RHIZOCEPHALA— BALANIP.E— LEPADID^;— Baruacl es . 200 GRAND DIVISION, OR TYPE.— VERMES (THE WORMS). CHAPTER I. THE RINGED WORMS. The Various Sorts and Conditions of Worms -Characters— Classification -ANNELIDA, THE RINGED WORMS— OLIGOCH^ETA— The Earth Worm Characters— Structural Peculiarities- Habits -Other Species— The Xui.hr —The Tubificidw— POLYCH^TA— Marine Worms— Characters— ERRANTIA— APHRODITIIXE - Sea Mice— Scale Backs— The Eunicidse-The Sao— Habits— The Nereidie— The White-rag Worm— The Syllid;e- The Phyllodocida; — THE TUBE-MAKERS — Characters — The Lug Worm — Habits— "Baiters" 011 the Search — CIRRATULIDJE— Characters — The Terebellida? — Their Larva;— The Serpulidse — The Fan Sabella — Serpula Vcrmicularis — Its Array of Hooks — The Protulae and other Tube-makers — THE LEECHES — Appearance— Action of Sucker — Characters — Different Kinds — The Horse Leech — The Glutton Aulostoma 224 CHAPTER II. THE GEPHYREA, THE WHEEL ANIMALCULES, THE ROUND AND THREAD WORMS, THE FLAT WORMS. GEPHYREA— Bolster-shaped Worms— Characters— ROTIFERA, THE WHEEL ANIMALCULES-Structurc— ( 'lassification— The Philodinidre— The Brachionidte— Other Families— THE NEMATHELMINTHA, ROUND AND THREAD WORMS -Characters— The Thorn-headed Worm- THE THREAD WORMS— The Genus Trichina— The Trichina spiral is — Description — Reproduction — Their Effects — The Whip Worm — The Genus Filaria — The Guinea Worm— The Ascaris— The Lung Worm— The Genus Mermis— THE FLAT WORMS— The Tape Worms— Characters —Reproduction—The Beef Worm— THE TREMADOTA— THE TURBELLARIA— Classification of Venues . . .243 THE PRICKLY-SKINNED ANIMALS (ECHINODERMATA). Position of the Echinodcrmnta in the Animal Kingdom— Characters distinguishing them from the other Ihuliatn —Sub- divisions of the Group -The Limestone Skeleton : its Various Forms— The Digestive Tube— The Nervous System —The Blood-vascular System— The Water-vascular System— The Body-cavity and its Contained Corpuscles -The Various Forms of Echinoderm -larvae — Direct Development of some Echinoderms in the Southern Seas— Distribution of the Group in Space and Time— The Echinozoa— Structure and Habits of Starfishes, Ophiurids, Urchins, and Holothurians— The Trepang-fisheries of the Tropical Seas— The Crinoidea— Structure and Mode of Life of a Feather-star— The Palaeozoic Crinoids — Cystids, and Blastoids 259 THE GROUP ZOOPHYT.A. CHAPTER I. THE II YDRO/O A, OR II Y I> R O M E D U S M. The Group ZOOPHYTA— Class HYDROZOA, OR HYDROMEDUS.E -Characters— Colonies— Reproduction— Order CTENOPHORA— Characters— Venus' Girdle—Order DISCOPHORA, MEIH'S.K, OR JELLY-FISHES -Appearance -The Disc —Method of Reproduction— The Lucernariw— Order SiPHONOPHORA— Characters —The "Portuguese Man-of- War" — The Calycophora— The Physophorse— Vdclla — Order HYDROIDA — Genus Hydra — Characters— Gemmation — Power of Reparation— Sub-order TUBULARIA — Perif/onim tt-ts — Characters —Other Tubularians — Sub-order CAMFANULAKIA— Sertulariiclse— Plumulariidaj- Sub-order TRACHOMKDT.S.K Order HYDROCOHALLINA— Milleporidiw — Description — Characters — Stylasters— Other Hydrocorallinre— Classification of the Hydrozoa .... 277 CHAPTER II. THE A X T II O Z O A. PAGE Zoantharia and Alcyonaria- Characters— THE ZOANTHARIA— The White Stony Corals or Madreporaria -Structure— The Coral— Development— The Reef-builders Coral Islands- -MAD KEPOKAKIA APOROSA— Turbinolid;e— Oculinidaj — Astrajida; — Eusmilinse — Eupliylliaceae — Stylinaceae — Lithophylliaceae— Astrseaceas— Cladocoracerc— Fungidm- - MADREPOKAKIA PERFORATA— Eupsamminse— Poritidae- Other Groups of the Madreporaria— ANTIPATHAKIA OR SCLEKOBASIC ZOANTHARIA— ACTINARIA OR MALACODERMIC ZoANTHAKiA— Characters- Actuiidse— Minyadiuaj— Acfciniiue— The Sea Anemones— THE ALCYONARIA— Characters— Helioporidae— Penuatulidae or Sea-Pens — GORC; >XID.E— Red Coral — Formation - Gorgoninaj— Characters —Various Genera — Alcyonidse — Distinctive Features Organ-pipe Coral — Alcyoninae — Dead Man's Fingers— Classification of Anthozoa 294 THE GROUP SPONGLSJ. The Turkey Bath Sponge as a Type —Its Structure and Embryology - Its Mode of Life— Specific Distinction and Existing Distribution— Sponge-farming— Forms and Colour of Sponges— The Individuality Question— Different Types of Canal System— The Three Primary Layers— The Skeleton— Spicule Forms— Embryological Development— Affinities of the Sponges —Their Classification— General Characters of Existing Families - Their Distribution in Space and Time 312 THE RHIZOPODA. The Rhizopods— Appearance— Protoplasm or Sarcode — Its Character and Functions — The "Contractile Vesicle " - Amvcba and Moncra— True " Cells "—Assimilation of Food— Contents of the Endosarc — The ' ' Vacuoles "— Food of the Amoeba- Naked Lobose Rhizopods — Shelled Lobose Rhizopods— Sun-animalcules — Actinophrys so?— The Kadiolaria- -The Polycistina— The Reticularia — The Foraminifera — Imperforate or Porcellanous Foraminifera — Perforate or Vitreous "Forams" — The Flagellata — Grega rinse— The Link Connecting the Rhizopods and Verte- brates— Bibliography — Classification 332 TYPE PROTOZOA.— CLASS INFUSORIA (INFUSORY ANIMALCULES). Microscopic Animals — One Cause of the Phosphorescence of the Sea and ef the Discoloration of "Water — The Life in Infusions — Characters of the Infusoria — Example of Ciliate Infusorians — The Slipper Animalcules — Their Con- struction— The Flagellate Order — Features — Cercomonas — The Cilio-flagellate Infusorians — Characters — The Animalcules of the Ponds in Phoenix Park, Dublin — Mdodinium — Cerctium — The Order Tentaculifera — Characters — Afincta — Classification — The Ectoplasm —The Endoplasm — Origin of the Cilia, Flagella, and Ten- tacles—How Infusorians Feed — Action and Function of the Contractile Vesicle — The Nucleus or Endoplast— The Colours of Infusoria — The Coloration of Waters - Trichocysts — Reproduction by Fission, Gemmation, and otherwise - Distribution - TENTACULIFERA — SUCTORIA — AcTlNARlA— CILIATA — HOLOTRICHA — Paramecium — Prorodontidiu — Trachelocercidse — Ichthyophthiriidffi — Colepidse — Ophryoglenidaj — Pleuronemidse — Lembidae — Family Discovered by Leidy — Opalinidre — HETKROTRICHA — The Largest Infusoria— Spirostomum ambitjuum — Conili't'ixtoiint /Kitcn-s—Stcntor jwlitmorjih us- PERITRICHA — Haltcria i/randinclla—Uroccntrum turbo — The "Bell ' Animalcules— Genera with Vorticella-like Animalcules— HYPOTRICHA— CILIO-FLAGELLATA— FLAGELLATA — Noctiluca miliaris . . 353 VOL \l.-b LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Metamorphoses of the Processionary Moth and of Calosoma sycophanta . . . Frontispiece. Ichneumons ........ 1 Wing of Ichneumon 2 Paniscus virgatus 3 Teleas Lteviusculus — Callimomc bedcguaris . . 4 Gall Fly ; Interior of Gall ; Oak-gall produced by Cynips 5 Lophyrus pini ....... 8 The Common Ant-Lion .9 Palpares libeliuloides . . . . . .12 Nemoptera coa and Ascalaphus longicornis . .13 Sialis lutaria — Larva and Pupa of Sialis lutaria . 1 4 Scorpion-fly 15 Boreus hiemalis • .16 Larva and Nymph of Species of the genus Limno- philus . . . . . . . .17 The Metamorphosis of the Caddis Flies, Limno- philus flavicornis, L. lunatus, and L. rhombicus 18 Larva, Larva-case, Cocoon, Pupa, and Imago of Rhyacophila vulgaris . ... 20 Mouth of Larva of the Privet Hawk Moth . . 22 Chrysalis magnified and partially opened . . 26 Scales of different Genera of Lepidoptera . . 27 Mouth of the Privet Hawk Moth — Antennas of Lepidoptera 28 Danais chrysippus ; Hypolimnas misippus . . 33 Euploea midamus 34 Leptalis thconoe ; Ithomia flora — Erebia euryale — Morpho cypris ....... 35 Transformations of Queen of Spain Fritillary . 37 The Comma Butterfly — The Cambcrwell Beauty — The Small Tortoiseshcll Butterfly . . " . 38 Leaf- Butterfly of India ,39 Acra>a gea ; Pseudacraja hircc — The White Admiral 41 Apatura ilia — Charaxes jasius . . . .42 Lycauia phlscas ....... 44 Lycama gordius — Polyommatus corydon . .45 The Green Hair-streak . .... 46 Dismorphia orise ; Methona psidii . . . .47 The Orange Tip Buttcrfly-The Orange Tip Butter- fly at Rest 49 Parnassius apollo 50 Leptocircus curius ; Ornithoptera amphrisus . .51 Papilio merope ....... 52 Amauris niavius ; Papilio merope . . . .53 The Humming Bird Hawk Moth — The Oleander Hawk Moth ....... 5-5 The Eyed Hawk Moth— Chrysalis of Death's Head Hawk Moth 56 Caterpillar of Death's Head Hawk Moth— The Death's Head Hawk Moth .... 57 Sphccia bembeciformis — Zyga>na filipendulas — Co- coon of Zygrcna filipendulaa — Psyche muxclla . 58 Puss Caterpillar and Male Moth . . . .59 The Lobster Caterpillar and Moth . . . .60 Caterpillar, Cocoon, and Moth of Bombvx mori . 61 Caterpillar, Chrysalis, and Moth of Saturnia cyn- thia. - .... 62 Moth and Caterpillar of Saturnia pyri— The Lackey Moth and Caterpillar 33 The Wood Leopard Moth— The Clifden uoniiare.il . 64 The Great Owl Moth of Brazil . . . .65 Ennomos illustraria and Caterpillars . . .66 The Clothes' Moth 68 Alucita hexadactyla ; Pterophorus pentadactylus . 69 Dipterous Insects— Volucella pcllucens and" Ceria conopEoides— Head of Female Gnat . . .70 Dipterous larvae ; Musca meditabunda ; Boletophila fusca— Common House Fly Emerging from the Pupa 72 Dipterous Flies .... To face pay a 73 The House Gnat 76 Chironomus plumosus ...... 77 Larvrc of Wheat Midge in Flower of Wheat ; Larva attached to Grain of Wheat ; Larva ; Perfect Insect 80 Cecidomyid with Viviparous Larva . . .81 Bibio marci . 82 The Metamorphoses of Stratiomys Chanuelcon . 84 The Metamorphoses of Tabanus bovinus. . . 86 Asilus crabronifonnis .... 87 Bombylius major . 89 Dolichopus discifer; Side View of the Extremity of the Abdonun of the Male .... 90 Wing of Syrphus — Syrphus pyrafctii, Larva, and Pupa ' 92 Eristalis tenax and its Rat-tailed Larva . . .93 Conops flavipes ..... 94 Musca vomitoria — The Tsetse Fly . . . .95 Chlorops tiuniopus 96 Gastrus equi— Hippobosca cquina — Melophagus ovinus — Lipoptena ccrvi . . . . . 97 The Metamorphoses of the Common Flea . . 99 Sarcopsylla penetrans 100 Head of Cicada plebeja 102 Pentatoma dissimilo 103 Pyrrhocoris apterus 106 The Bed Bug 107 Reduvius personatus ...... 108 Ranatra linearis and Ncpa cinerea . . . .110 Notonecta glauca — Larva and Pupa of Cicada. . Ill Under Surface of Male Cicada . . . .112 Exotic Rhynchota .... To face page 113 The Great Lantern Fly . . . . . .113 Bocydium tintinnabuliferum 114 The Rose Aphis 115 Cochineal Insect 117 Pediculus capitis 118 Head and Mouth Organs of Cockroach . . .119 Alimentary Canal of Cockroach . . . .120 Metamorphoses of Gryllus campcstris . . .122 The Mole Cricket 124 Locusta viridissima and its Metamorphoses . . 125 Migratory Locust 126 Auditory Apparatus of Grasshopper — Female Locust depositing Eggs 127 Empusa pauperata and its Metamorphoses . .129 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. r.v;K Bacillus rossii . . . . • • • . 1 o I The Eggs and immature and Adult Forms of 1'hyllium siccifolium . . To face page 132 Cockroaches . • • . • • • .133 Common Earwigs ....... 135 Different Forms of White Ants . . . .137 A Female Termes 138 Caecilius fenestratus 140 Ferla marginata and its Pupa 141 Ephemera vulgata . 142 Larva and Pupa of Ephemera vulgota . . .113 Libellula depressa 144 Agrion puella — Nymph of Libellula, and the Per- fect Insect Emerging 145 The Larva and Imago of Thrips cerealiura . . 146 Philopterus selcifrons . . . . . .147 Lepisma saccharins ...... 148 Orchesella cincta 149 Parts of Mouth of a Scolopendra . . . .150 The Development of Julus terrestris . . . 152 Scolopendra cingulata 153 Scutigera forceps 154 Julus terrestris 156 Panropoa Huxleyi— Peripatus capensis . . . 157 Under Surface of Scorpio occitanus. . . . 160 Androctonus (or Scorpio) occitanus. . . .161 Phrynus reniforinis — Chelifer cancroides . .163 Galeodes araneoides 165 Lycosa andrenivora . . . . . .167 Cteniza fodiens and its Nest . . To face page 170 Salticus scenicus 171 Dolomedes mirabilis 172 Thomisus citretis — Drassus cupreus . . .173 Argyroneta aquatica 174 Theridion nervosum . . . . . .175 The Common Garden Spider . . . . .177 Gasteracantha arcuata . . . . . .179 Trombidium holoseiiceum — The Metamorphoses of Hydrachna globulus . . . . .182 Gamasus coleoptratorum 183 Ixodes flavomaculatus . . . . . .184 Tyroglyphus domesticus — Demodex folliculorum . 185 Macrobiotus hufelandi — Pentastoma toenioides . 18G Ammothoa pycnogonoides — Larva of Nymphon . 187 Diagram of the Body Segments of a Lobster . . 190 Appendages of the Head and Thorax of a Lobster . 191 The Third Ring of the Abdomen of the Lobster — Side View of Common Crab . . . .192 A few of the Eggs of the Common Crab — Diagram- matic Section of • a Lobster's Body — Gastric Teeth of Lobster and Crab . . . .193 Three Stages in the Metamorphoses of the Common Shore Crab 194 Metamorphoses of a Prawn of the Genus Penaeus . 195 Nerves of Maia squinado — Nerves of Amphipod, Isopod, and Lobster 197 The Slender-beaked Spider Crab . . . .198 Maia squinado . . . . . . .199 The Common Shore Crab — Henslow's Swimming Crab 200 The Masked Crab 201 Violet Land Crab of Jamaica — Pinnotheres pisum . 202 A Group of Hermit Crabs . . To face page 203 Birgus latro 203 Hermit Crab in Shell 204 The Spiny Lobster . . . . To face page 205 Larva of Palinurus vulgaris — The Common Lobster 205 Young Lobsters— The Norway Lobster . . . 206 Structure of Eye of Lobster— Eye of Trilobite . 207 The Common Brown Shrimp — The Common Prawn 208 Squilla mantis 209 Opossum Shrimp — A Gigantic Isopod . . .210 Tanais — Parasitic Isopods : Bopyrus, Phryxus, Cryptothyria 211 An Amphipod ... .... 212 The Spectre, or Skeleton Shrimp- -The Horseshoe Crab— The King Crab 213 Phyllopoda 215 Forms of Cladocera, Ostracoda, and Copepoda . '217 Ciiripedia . . . . . . . .219 Larval Forms of Cirripedia 220 The Earth Worm 225 Spine and Spinet of Lumbricus terrestris . . 226 Northia tubicola— Foot of Nephthys . . . 228 The Sea Mouse . . . - . .230 The Nervous System of Nereis . . . .231 The Lurg— Phyllodoce kinbergii .... 232 Lug Worm ." 233 Transverse Section of Lug Worm — Arenia fiagilis 234 Eunice and Cirratulus . . . To face page 235 Trophonia plumosa 235 Terebella emmalina 236 Orthonia fabrici — Nervous System of Serpula con- tortuplicata ....... 238 Serpula vermicularis . . . . . .239 The Medicinal Leech . . . . . .241 Intestinal Tube of Sanguisuga ; Nervous System of Malacobdella grossa 242 Larva of Gephyrea — Sipunculus Bernhardus . . 244 Larva of Phascolosoma and of Sipunculus — Rotifer vulgaris 245 Monolabis gracilis — Brachionus amphiceros . . 247 Jaws of Brachionus brevissimus — Polyarthra pla- typter . . . . » . . . 248 Floscularia trifolium 249 Echinorhynchus angusta ; Echinorhynchus nodu- lata . . 250 Intestinal Canal of a Nematoid — Trichina spiralis . 251 Filaria Bancroftii 252 The Thread Worm — Strongylus pergracilis . .253 Head of Echinococcus 255 The Tape Worm . ..... 256 Development of Liver Fluke — Digestive Apparatus of Eurylepta sanguinolenta .... 257 Astropecten irregularis . . . . . .259 Pluteus Larva of the Purple Egg-Urchin — Pluteus paradoxus, the Advanced Larva of an Ophiurid 262 Side View of the Advanced Brachiolaria Larva of a Starfish — Larva of Holothuria tubulosa . . 263 Diagram of a Side View of Holothurian Larva represented in preceding Fig. — Dorsal View of the Larva of the Rosy Feather-star . . . 264 Pentacrinoid Larva of the Rosy Feather-star . . 265 Diagrammatic Representation of a Cross-section of an Arm of the Common Cross-fish — Diagram of the Blood- vascular System of a Starfish . 266 The Common Brittle-star 267 Diagram on a Longitudinal Section through the Disc and an Arm-base of an Ophiurid . . 268 Diagram on a Cross-section of an Ophiurid arm . 269 A General View of the Test of an Urchin — Internal View of the Test of Echinus microstoma ; the Dental Pyramid 270 View of the Interior of the Bisected Test of the Purple Egg-Urchin 271 A Holothurian with its Buccal Tentacles Expanded 272 A Stalked Crinoid or Sea-Lily . . . .273 The Rosy Feather-star — Longitudinal Section through the Body of an Irregular Feather-star 274 Cross-section of a Pinnule of the Arctic Feather- star — Diagram Showing the Course of the Axial Cords proceeding from the Chambered Organ within the Calyx of a Feather-star . 275 Beroe pileus . . . . . . . 278 Venus' Girdle 279 Jelly-fishes To face page 281 Aurelia aurita — Strobila of Aurelia flavidula . .281 Reproduction of Discophora — Lucernariaj on Piece of Seaweed 282 Physalia utriculus 283 A TU11AL HISTOR Y. Praya diphyes — Vtlclla limbosa .... 284 Diagrammatic Section of Hydra — Nematocyst of Hydra viridis 285 Hydra viridis — Perigonimus vestitus . . . 286 Lizzii Floating Beneath the Surface — Euden Irium insigno . . . . . . . .287 Podocotync camca , ...... 288 The Straw Tubtilaria 289 Plumularia halccoides — Medusa of a Hydroid . 290 Margin of a Medusoid — Eucope diaphana . .291 Cannarina (Gcryonia) hastata .... 292 Millepora 293 Caryophyllia cyathus 297 Favia pallid* . 298 Diploria cerebriformis ...... 299 Dcndrophyllia ramea 300 Madrepora plantaginca 301 Antipathes arborea — Vertical Section of Sea Ane- mone ........ 302 Sea Anemones .... To face page 303 Thread-cells of Sea Anemone — Actinia mcsembry- anthemum . 303 Edwardsia callimorpha ...... 304 Pennatula (Pteroeidcs) spinosa .... 305 Umbellularia groenlandica ..... 306 Corallium rubrum — Corallium spicule . . . 307 Enlarged Section of Stem of Corallium rubrum . 308 The Sea Fan — Tubipora musica .... 309 Tubipora musica . 310 Section of Turkey Bath Sponge . . . .313 Poriferous Surface of a Sponge . . . .314 Fac-simile of .Grant's First Figure — Flagellated Chambers of Turkey Bath Sponge . . .315 Flagellate Collared Infusorian Feeding — Ectoderm, and different Forms of Endodermic Cells from Scycandra raphanus . . . . .316 Spermatozoa . . . . . . . .317 Ascetta piamordialis 318 Sponges To fnce pnge 319 Euplectella suberea ; Hyalonema Sieboldii ; Po- terion; Siphonia pyriformis; Dactylocalyx Stuchburyi 319 Various Forms of Sponge Spicules . . . .321 Various Smaller Forms of Sponge Spicules . . 322 Development of a Silicious Sponge .... 323 Development of a Calcareous Sponge . . . 324 Statoblasts of Spongilla 327 Section through the Rind of a Geodine Sponge — Section through the Wall of Euplectella . . 329 Separate Spicules of a Lyssakine Sponge ; Spicular Network of a Dictyonina: Dictyoiiine Network with Octahedral Knots 330 Amoeba protcus . . . . . . o33 Protamoeba primitiva Amu-ba protcus ....',.. Mastigamoeba aspcrsa ...... Actinoplirys sol ....... Clathriilma elegans Acanthometra echinoidcs . Xiphacantha Murrayana — Radiolxrian Skeletons . Eucecryphalus Schultzei — Groinia terricola Miliola — Discorbina ...... Various Forms of Foraminifera . . . . Foraminiferal Shells — Foraminifcral Shell", figured with the Aperture downwards Foraminiferal Shells — Section of the Shell of Kotalia Schru'teriana ....... Infusoria in the Field of the Microscope Paramecium aurelia ...... Cerconi''nas typica . Genera of Cilio-flagellate Infusoria Acineta tuberosa ....... Dendrosoma radians — Tintinnus lagenula Stylonychia mytilus ; Euroleptus — Lembus vclifer Prorodon margaritifer ; Pharyngeal Rod-fascicle of P. niveus; ditto of Nassula — Diagram of Vor- ticella nebulifera; Phases of Longitudinal Fission ; Phases of Attachment ; Phases of In- corporation of Free Embryo of V. microstoma; Encysted Stage of V. marii.a . . . . Condylosoma patens ...... Coleps hirtus Ichthyophthirius multifiliis ..... Ophryodendron pedicellatum on a I'lumularia Stem; O. multicapitatum ...... Enchelys farcimen — Tra< heloccrca olor . Trichonomorpha agilis— Opalina ranarum — Anoplo- phrya prolifera Bursaria truncatella— Spirostomum ambiguum— Stentor polymorphus ..... Folliculina ampulla — Halteria grandinella Urocentrum turbo ; Transverse Fission— Vorticella nebulifera ....... Zoothamnium niveum ; Single Animalcule; Episty- lis umbilicata ; Branchlet of Carchesium poly- pinum; An Epistylis growing on a Cyclops — • Ophrydium eichhorni • — Pyxicola pyxidi- formis ........ Chlamydodon mnemosyne — Dysteria arm;ita — Strihotricha remex— Euplotes charon Monas Dallingeri ....... Cladoncmalaxa; Animalcule Dividing ; Anthophysa vegetans; Sporocyst Liberating Germs — Khi- pidodondron splendidum. . Collared Monads .... To face page Noctiluca miliaris ....... 339 341 342 343 344 345 347 348 349 350 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 374 1. Snouted Iinperi.il Butterfly (Teinofalfus im- perialis. Two-thirds nat. size). 2. Fiery Burnei Moth (Kmpyreiima lirhas. Nat size). 3. Indian Empi-ror Moth (Sa'urnia zuleika. Two thirds nat. size). 4- Carbuncle Beetle (Sagm cnrbuncttlus. Two and half nat. size). INSECTS. 5. South American Bee (Eulema dimiriiata}. 6. Blue Australian Fly (Apiocera mcemis. Nat, size). 7. Carrier Bug (Combophora beskii. Twice nat. size). 8. Linear Dragon-fly (Agrion tiiifaris. Half nat. size). Walking-stick Insect (Sfhvniitn actrvon Half nat. size). Mying-leaf Locust (Plerochroza brul, Half nat. size I. Blue Goliath Beetle (Hftcrorhina elegn Nat. size). Harlequin Beetle (Acrocinus longiman Half nat size). CASSELL'S NATURAL HISTORY. ICHNEUMONS (Pitnpla manifestator). MALE IN FLIGHT, FEMALES ON TUBE. CLASS INSECTA. CHAPTER VII. ORDER HYMEXOPTERA (concluded) :— THE ENTOMOPHAGA AND PHYTOPHAGA. ENTOMOPHAGA, OR "INSECT-EATERS "—Meaning of the Term— THE ICHNEUMOXID.E— Characters— Immense Number of Species — Parasitism — Habits of various Genera — THE PROCTOTRUPIM: — THE CHALCIPID^E — THE CYNIPHXE, CR •GALL FLIES— Characters— Habits— The Galls -Different Genera-THE PHYTOPHAGA— THE UROCERID*:, OR TAILED WASPS— Characters— The Great Tailed Wasp— Habits -THE TENTHREDINID,E, OR SAW FLIES— Characters — Various Species. TRIBE II.— ENTOMOPHAGA. FAMILY ICHNEUMONID^. rPHE term Entomophaga, or "Insect-eaters," does not strictly apply to all the insects included in the -L tribe so named by entomologists, but so great a majority of them are parasitic in the larva state upon other insects, that the name is a perfectly admissible one. The group may be at once distinguished by the possession of a petiolate abdomen and two-ringed trochanters. The largest and most important family of this tribe is undoubtedly that of the Ichneumonidae, 239 2 £ S te-£t"» •*•'!" j NATURAL HISTORY. the larvae of which are all parasitic. In this family, which includes the largest species of the group, we find a great variety of characters, but the insects composing it have the antenna; thread-like or bristle-like, generally long and many -jointed, and the wings with from one to three complete submarginal cells. The body is long and thin, and the abdomen shows at most seven segments. The ovipositor issues from the extremity of the abdomen of the female. This enormous family of insects is at the same tims one of the most difficult to study systematically, and although we know that the number of species must be very great, it is almost impossible to estimate what it may be. It has been calculated that there are not less than 4,000 to 5,000 known species of Ichneumons, but the data are very untrustworthy. They occur in all parts of the world, and their importance in the economy of nature is very great. WING OF ICHNEUMON. The females deposit their eggs in or upon the bodies of other insects, especially the larvae of Lepidoptera and plant-eating Beetles. The larvae hatched from these eggs feed upon the substance of their host, avoiding the vital parts, so that the unfortunate animal goes on assimilating food for the benefit of the parasites dwelling within him until he completes his term of larval existence, and sometimes even attains the perfect state ; but sooner or later the parasites either break out of the body of their host, or spin their cocoons within it, with a result that in either case is equally fatal. No stage of the insect's life is safe from these active enemies; they attack all, from the egg to the imago, but the larvae receive most of their attention. A great number of the species are confined to particular families of insects in the choice of their victims, while others infest only particular genera or even species, and the charge of parasites introduced into the body of an individual host is always proportionate to the relative sizes of host and parasite. Thus the eggs of insects are attacked only by the smallest species of Ichneumons, and only a single egg is deposited in them ; the larger Ichneumons also frequently place only one egg in the caterpillars or other larvae which they attack, and the Ichneumon larva then spins its cocoon within the emptied pupa case of its victim. On the other hand, many small species deposit their eggs in large caterpillars or other larvae, and then the number of eggs is proportioned to the size of the host, and the Ichneumon larvae either fill up the empty cocoon with a mass of close- packed cocoons, or break out of the infested larva as it is preparing to change, and spin their cocoons separately around it. But perhaps the most remarkable circumstance connected with this parasitism is that the parasites are themselves subject to be attacked by parasites belonging either to this family or to one of the succeeding ones, the females of these having the instinct to recognise the presence within the host of a parasitic larva, and possessing the art of passing their eggs through the integuments of the former into the latter. "We have thus in the history of these insects a series of checks and counterchecks of the most astonishing complexity. As the Ichneumon larva uses up all the material it derives from its host in building up its own body, it naturally grows pretty rapidly, and the host may perhaps be stimulated to increased assimilation by the presence of hungry parasites in its interior. The respiration of the latter is provided for in a curious way ; the principal tracheal stems open at the hinder extremity of the body, and this is brought into connection with one of the stigmata of the host, thus opening a free communication with the external air. The development of the ovipositor is very different in the females of different genera and species of Ichneumons, and this stands in direct connection with their habits. In the females of some forms the ovipositor scarcely projects from the extremity of the abdomen, whilst others have a long, bristle-like organ two or three times the length of the body, and between these two extremes every gradation occurs. The short ovipositors are possessed by species which deposit their eggs in or upon easily accessible larvae ; the long ones characterise those which seek concealed larvae, such as the grubs of wood-eating Beetles. The species of Ophion, Paniscus, and some allied genera which have long antennae, only two submarginal cells, a compressed abdomen, and a very short ovipositor, possess a very curious history. They deposit small stalked eggs (see figure), much resembling little seeds, upon the surface of various caterpillars, and these eggs adhere to the skin of the caterpillars by little hooks at the extremity of the stalk. After a time the egg splits into two valves, from between which a minute grub issues, and proceeds at once to push its head through the integuments of the caterpillar, so as to feed upon tha THE ICHNEUMONS. contents of its body. In. some cases the Ichneumon larva makes its way within the body of its host, and becomes an internal parasite ; in others it remains permanently on the outside, its hinder extremity beino- always enclosed between the valves of the egg-shell, and then, its body being very translucent, the transfer of the substance of the host to the parasite may be observed going on very actively. In the genus Evania and its allies we find a very curious arrangement. The abdomen, instead of springing from the back of the thorax immediately above the hinder coxae, is lifted up, so that its thin petiole is attached just beneath the back of the metanotum. In Evania the abdomen is so small as to appear only like an appendage to the thorax ; hence the best-known species has been named E. appendigaster. It is a small black insect found in the South of Europe and in all tropical countries. It is parasitic upon Cockroaches. An allied British genus (Fcenus) has a very long, slender abdomen, and the prothorax produced into a thin neck. Fcenus jaculator is a not uncommon species found haunting the burrows of Crabronidae, upon which it is probably parasitic. The American genus Pelecinus, which has been placed with these forms, although its abdomen is attached in the ordinary position, is remarkable for the very disproportionate length and slendemess of the abdomen in the females. P. polycerator, which inhabits both North and South America, attains a length of two inches, five-sixths of which consist of abdomen. In the group of typical Ichneumonidae, we have already referred to the genera Ophion and Paniscus, and their peculiar habits in the larva state. Many species of these, and allied genera, in which the abdomen is compressed, and the ovipositor short, are to be met with in Britain. In the genus Ichneumon proper, and many others allied to it, the ovipositor is also short, but the abdomen is either depressed or convex above. Cry plus has a nearly ovate abdomen and a projecting ovipositor ; whilst in Pimpla and a number of other allied genera we find a long ovipositor for attacking concealed larvae. A species of Pimpla (P. manifes- tator) is figured on p. 1. It is a handsome black insect with red legs. The body measures thirteen lines, and the ovipositor seventeen lines in length, so that the whole insect is two inches and a half long. Many exotic species are larger, and have still longer ovipositors. In these insects the sheaths of the ovipositor serve as guides for the instrument itself when penetrating into hard bodies. A large group, chiefly consisting of small species, is that of the Braconides, which differ from the typical Ichneumons in having the first submarginal cell more or less separated from the discoidal cell, and only one recurrent nervure, instead of two. Some of them have the ovipositor projecting ; in others it is concealed. The abdomen is generally more or less ovate. The typical genus Bracon includes an immense number of species, and these are among the largest of the group. One of the best-known species is the little Microyaster c/lomeratus, which is parasitic upon the caterpillars of the common White Butterflies. The larvae burst forth from the body of the caterpillar when it is ready to change, and form round its empty skin a little heap of yellowish cocoons. Aphidius and some nearly allied genera include minute species which are parasitic upon Aphides. FAMILY PROCTOTRTJPID^E. A vast multitude of small parasites form this family, distinguished from the preceding by the structure of the fore wings, which have a distinct stigma on the anterior margin, but no complete cells, the veins being generally reduced to a few hardly perceptible longitudinal ones. In a great many species the wings are altogether wanting. The antennae vary in structure, being either straight or bent, and they usually consist of fourteen or fifteen joints, but sometimes only of eight. The eyes TANISCUS VIRGATUS (A), WITH YOUXG (B) AND OLD (c) LARVJE. «, EGG-SHELL. 4 NATURAL HISTORY. are not notched, the ocelli are indistinct, the prothorax is produced on each side as far as the insertion of the fore vfings, and the abdomen consists of from five to seven rings, with the ovipositor issuing from its extremity. The hinder thighs are generally not thickened. Tiie great majority of the species of this family are minute black insects, with opaque, hairy, whitish wings, and often, notwithstanding their minuteness, of exceedingly elegant form. Like the Ichneumonidte, they are parasitic in their habits, the females depositing their eggs in the eggs and larvae of other insects, and attacking especially the larvae of the Tipulidae, Aphides, Gall Flies, and Lepidoptera. The species are spread over the whole earth, and their number is incalculable in the present state , w- of our knowledge. It may be observed, however, that over 150 genera have been established for the German forms alone. The larvae, when full fed, spin a little cocoon for their protection dining the pupa stage. As TELEAS L^EVIUSCULUS, . „ ,, ™ 7 » • ? \ MAGNIFIED. an example of this family we figure a small species (I elects (ceviusciUus), which deposits its eggs in those of certain Lepidoptera. It is a minute shining black insect, with brownish legs. The species of the genus Mi/mar have slender wings, terminating in a broad expansion like a battledore. The expanded part is fringed with long hairs. FAMILY CHALCIDID^E. This is another large family of parasites distinguished from the preceding by several characters. The antennae are always short and kneed, and consist of from six to fourteen joints ; the fore wings have a costal vein, but scarcely any indication of others ; the prothorax is not produced at the sides to the base of the wings; the hinder thighs are thickened, so that the hind legs are fitted for jumping ; and the ovipositor, which may be either long or short, issues from the ventral surface of the abdomen at some distance from its apex. The abdomen consists of six segments in. the females and of seven in the males. The species are excessively numerous, as may be judged from the fact that in England alone some 1,200 species have been recorded. These insects, which are nearly all of minute size, species of half an inch long being giants among them, are parasites in other insects of the most various orders, and attack them in all stages of their existence, from the egg to the pupa. In all their habits they resemble the smaller Ich- neumonidae, but among them we find the great majority of the species which are parasitic upon the parasites of other insects. They generally have the abdomen more or less compressed, and their surface usually shows metallic colours, but this is subject to exceptions, especially among some of the larger species. Thus the South European Leucospis dorsigera, which is parasitic in the nests of Bees, and measures four or five lines in length, is black, with bands on the prothorax and scutellum, three bands on the abdomen, the shaft of the antenna? and the legs yellow ; and Chalcis sispes, a generally distributed European species, measuring one-third of an inch, is black, with more or less of the legs red. This last insect has been bred from a larva of Stratiomys. In Eulophus pectinicornis, a minute brassy-black species, a twelfth of an inch long, which is abundant upon oak trees, the antennae consist of only three joints 1 ... . . CALLIMOME BEDEGt'ARIS. in the female, while the male has nine joints, three of which (the third to the fifth) bear each a long branch. The species of the genera Blastophaya and St/cojjhaga, which are common in the South of Europe, frequent the figs, and assist in the impregnation of the female flowers of those curious trees. Many of the species with elongated ovipositors are parasitic upon the larvae of Gall Flies. The one figured infests the curious shaggy galls (Bedeguars) of the briar. FAMILY CYNIPID^E, OR GALL FLIES. In this last family of the Petiolated Hymenoptera, which is referred to the Entomophagous tribe from its structural characters, we find exceedingly few insect-eating species, by far the greater number feeding upon peculiar morbid excrescences of plants, known as galls, the growth of which is caused apparently by the puncture of the parent insect, and the presence of the egg or larva within the tissues. Thus, while they distinctly hold to the Entoinophaga by their structure, they seem in their habits to lead towards the plant-eating forms constituting the following tribe. THE GALL FLIES. The Cynipidse are characterised by their iinbent antennae, which are usually thread-like, and composed of from thirteen to sixteen joints, the number being frequently greater in the males than in the females. The wings show no submarginal cells, except the apical one, and sometimes a very small one just within the stigma, at the apex of the discoidal cell. The abdomen, which is usually short, is strongly compressed, and only the first, or first and second segments, are greatly developed, the remainder being retracted within these, so that only their edges project. These fully- developed segments are much longer at the back than towards the ventral surface, so that the posterior margins of the segments, and that of the abdomen, become very oblique, especially in the female, and thus the ovipositor comes to issue from near the middle of the lower surface of the abdomen. Its arrangement is very peculiar. The last visible segment is produced within the others nearly to the base of the abdomen, where it has articulated to it a small triangular chitinous plate, to which the sheath of the ovipositor is also movably articulated. This sheath, as in the other Entomophaga, consists of two flattened joints on each side of the "ovipositor, and the apical joints project from the abdomen, and, passing up along its posterior margin, produce the appearance of a sort of cleft. Within this the ovipositor lies, so that its point is directed upwards. By the action of muscles upon these parts, the ovipositor, which, in repose, is bent more or less in a spiral form, is pushed out from between the side-pieces forming the sheath when it is being employed in egg-laying. It consists, as in the Ichneumons, &c., of a principal superior piece, and two smaller pieces below, the whole arranged so as to form a triangular tube, for the passage of the egg. The latter is remarkable in its structure. It is considerably too large to pass easily through the narrow tube which has to convey it to its destination, but it is prolonged into a narrow tubular part capable of extension, and during deposition a portion of the contents of the egg is forced up into this tubular part, to rejoin the main mass when the process is completed. The number of species in this family is very considerable, although in this respect it is far inferior to the parasitic families just described. Of the great majority of the species, the females pierce with their ovi- positor the tissues of plants and trees, and there deposit their eggs, from which the larva? are soon hatched. The irritation caused by this intrusion of a foreign body into the tissues would seem to give rise to a morbid state of the part affected, mani- fested by the production of an excrescence, which varies in size, form, and structure, according to the species of the Gall Fly pro- ducing it. The insects are generally confined to one species of plant, and to a particular part of it. The larva? feed in the interior of the galls, sometimes singly, sometimes several in the same gall, but in the latter case each larva occupies a separate cavity. When full grown, the larvae either undergo their change to the pupa state within the gall, or eat their way out, and, dropping to the ground, bury themselves under the surface, and there pass through their transformations. The galls produced by different species differ greatly in form and structure. Some of them are round and smooth like fruits, such as the cherry galls of the oak leaves, produced by the puncture of Cynips quercus-folii ; others show processes, or excrescences, of various kinds, such as may be seen in the well-known ink gall, the gall-nut of commerce, which is formed upon the twigs of a peculiar species growing in the Levant (Quercus infectoria), in consequence of the attacks of a rather large species, the Cynips tinctoria. This same oak also produces the so-called Dead Sea apples, which have been often celebrated poetically. They are as large and round as a good-sized apple, and each of them contains a single larva of a species described as Cynips insana. The most singular of all these galls is perhaps the Bedeguar, which is formed on the stems of wild roses by the puncture of a small species (Rhodites rosce). It is of considerable size, contains numerous larvae, each in a separate chamber, and has its whole surface covered with compound bristles, like those on the calyx of a moss-rose, so that it closely resembles a ball of moss stuck on the stem or INTERIOR OF GALL. OAK-GALL PRODUCED BY CYNIPS. 6 NATURAL HISTORY. branches of the rose-bush, The well-known oak-apples, which many people still wear on King Charles's Day, are another form of galls. They are produced on the twigs of oaks by the puncture of Teras terinincdis. A very curious form of gall, which would generally be taken rather for a parasitic fungus than a gall, is to be found upon oak leaves in every wood. This is a little flat round disc attached to the surface of the leaf by a very small portion of its lower suiiace. Such galls are produced by two or three species of Neuroterus, which may be easily bred from them, if the leaves are collected in the autumn. JBiorhiza aptera, a wingless species, lives on the roots of the oak. Singularly enough, we have in this family once more to record cuckoo-like habits, many species of Gall Flies depositing their eggs in the galls produced by other species. The larvae hatched from these eggs feed upon the substance of the gall, and in the end devour the rightful possessor. These parasites belong to the genus Synergus, a common species of which (S. vulyaris), black, with the mouth, antennae, and legs red, breeds in the galls of Cynips quercus-folii. The truly parasitic species form several distinct genera. Ibalia cultellata, a large species, measuring half an inch long, black, with a red, knife-shaped abdomen, is parasitic upon the larva? of wood-boring Beetles, or, according to some writers, upon that of the Tailed Wasp (Sirex). The species of Figites live upon the larvae of Flies, and those of Allotria upon Aphides. None of them appear to attack insects belonging to their own family, but the true Gall Flies by no means have an immunity from parasites. Many Ichneumonidae, and especially Chalcididae, pierce the substance of the galls with their long ovipositors, and place their eggs in the contained larva. Thus Callimome bedeguaris (p. 4) haunts the Bedeguar galls, and another species of the same genus even makes its way underground to place its progeny in the root-galls of Biorhiza. A remarkable circumstance connected with the insects of this family is that of a great number of the supposed species, especially those of the genus Cynips, only the females are known, the most pertinacious investigation having failed to reveal any males. Hence entomologists, headed by Mr. Siebold, long since came to the conclusion that as the unimpregnated females undoubtedly produce galls, we have here to do with a case of parthenogenesis. Recent researches have shown that in some cases, at any rate, what has been called an "alternation of generations" takes place; that is to say, that the parthenogenetic females are the offspring of male and female insects, so different from them in character as to be placed in different genera. TRIBE III— PHYTOPHAGA. FAMILY UROCERID^E, OR TAILED WASPS. The remainder of the Hymenoptera, forming two families, are, as already stated, confined to a vegetable diet in all stages of their existence. The perfect insects are recognisable at once by their sessile abdomen, and the larvae are more or less caterpillar-like, possessing six legs, and generally a number of pro-legs,' and having a hinder opening to the intestinal canal. The two families may be distinguished by various characters, but especially by the structure of the ovipositor. In the present family this organ generally projects considerably from the apex of the abdomen, and consists of essentially the same parts as in the preceding families, that is to say, two lateral plates, and a central, more or less serrated style, grooved along its lower surface. The antennae are filiform, and consist of from eleven to twenty-four joints • the eyes and ocelli are well developed ; the abdomen is elongated, usually nearly cylindrical, and composed of nine segments, with the dorsal plate of the first segment divided ; and the anterior tibiae have only a single spine at the apex. The larvae resemble the grubs of Beetles rather than Caterpillars ; they have six thoracic legs, which are often rudimentary, and generally no trace of pro-legs. These insects present certain rather remarkable peculiarities of structure, such as the division. of the dorsal plate of the first segment of the abdomen already alluded to, the purpose of which is at present unknown ; the exceedingly fi'ee articulation of the neck-like prosternum with the pronotum, which gives the head great freedom of motion ; the movable junction of the meso- and metathorax, which exists in this and the next family, and is a very exceptional chai'acter in the class of insects ; and the presence of two transverse openings on the metaiiotum, the so-called " false stigmata." the function of which is unknown. The family is not an extensive one, and its species occur chiefly in Europe and North America, THE SAW FLIES. 7 in both of which regions the typical genus Sir ex is represented by large species. The best known European species, which is common in some parts of Britain, is the great Tailed Wasp (Sirex gigas, figured on p. 353, Vol. V.), a formidable-looking insect, of which the female often measures nearly an inch and a half in length. The general tint is black, with the antennae, the sides of the head behind, and the tibiae and tarsi reddish-yellow, and the base and apex of the abdomen yellow. In the male the abdomen is reddish, spotted with black at the sides and apex. The maxillary palpi in this and other species of the genus are rudimentary. The general wasp-like aspect of this insect is sufficiently recognisable in our figure to explain the popular denomination that has been applied to it ; indeed, many people mistake it for a Hornet, which they know to be a large Wasp, the long ovipositor of course being regarded as a peculiarly formidable sting. This insect lives in pine and fir woods, and the female deposits her eggs in the woody parts of the trees, into which she bores to a depth of over half an inch by means of her auger-like ovipositor. The larvae hatched from these eggs bore deeper into the wood, forming tortuous passages, which gradually become wider as the larvae increase in size^ until they may have a diameter of a sixth of an inch or more. The larvae themselves are fleshy grubs, with a horny head, and six very short thoracic legs. Of abdominal pro-legs there are no traces. The space left behind by the larva is filled up with a mixture of wood-dust and excrement. The question is not quite settled whether the development of the larva is completed within a single year, but this seems to be the most probable supposition ; but as this period of its existence draws towards a close it prepares a somewhat wider chamber for the pupa, and, according to some entomologists (Ratzeburg, &c.), also makes a passage from this chamber to close under the surface of the stem, in order to facilitate the escape of the perfect insect. The latter comes forth in the summer months, and does not appear to enjoy a very long life. Both Sirex gigas and a rather smaller species (S. juvencus), the latter of a general steel-blue colour, which follow the same mode of life, vary greatly in abundance in different years. Occasionally, when the timber into which the larvae have bored has been worked up into furniture, or employed in the woodwork of houses, the perfect insects will in due time emerge, sometimes in such numbers as to cause no small alarm to the human inhabitants. In flying, they produce a loud humming, much like that of the Hoi-net. The curious little genus Xiphydria consists of a few species which have short antennae, a round head supported upon a singularly long neck, five-jointed maxillary palpi, and an ovipositor shorter than in /Sirex, although of the same general conformation. The commonest species is Xipkydria cnmelus, a black insect with white spots on the top of the head and along the sides of the abdomen, and with red legs ; it is rather more than half an inch in length. This and the other species of the genus bore as larvae in the wood of various trees (beeches, oaks, poplars, willows, &c). This genus in some respects leads towards the next family, and this is still more the case with another genus (Cephus), one species of which (C. pygmceits) attacks different kinds of grain-plants, the female boring into the green haulm at one of the uppermost knots, and depositing an egg there. The larva hatched from this egg is almost footless, but it is able to make its way about in the narrow passage of the interior of the haulm, the inner layers of which constitute its food. The presence of this insect may be recog- nised in the field by the condition of the ears of corn ; those of the stalks infested are light, and stand upright, while their healthy neighbours are heavy and bent down. When full grown, about harvest, the larva makes it way to the lowest part of the straw, and there encloses itself in a silken cocoon, in which it passes the winter, only passing to the pupa state a little before the emergence of the imago, which takes place about May. FAMILY TENTHREDIXID^E. A much more extensive family than the preceding is that of the Tenth redinidae, or Saw Flies, the latter name referring to the peculiar form of their ovipositor. Instead of being a piercing or boring instrument, as in all the preceding families, consisting of an upper channelled piece and two slender pieces closing the channel below, and thus completing the egg-canal, the ovipositor in the Saw Flies is a saw-like blade occupying the apical cleft of the abdomen, and composed of two lateral pieces only. What the precise constitution of this ovipositor may be is rather doubtful, but the two lateral serrated pieces would seem to represent the two inferior bristles of the other ovipositors of Hymenoptera, the impaired median piece being undeveloped. The antennae are usually short, frequently more or less 8 NATURAL HISTORY. thickened at the apex, sometimes pectinated in the males, and composed in different genera of from three to thirty joints; the ligula is broad, and divided by deep notches into three parts ; the maxillary palpi have six joints ; the prothorax is produced at the sides to the origin of the fore wings ; and the anterior tibia? have two spurs at the apex. In their general habits these insects present a considerable uniformity. The females, by means of their saw-like ovipositors, cut slits in the leaves or tender growing shoots of trees and plants ; the two plates of the saw are then separated a little, so as to widen the aperture already made, and then an egg passes down to its destination between them. The irritation produced by this process, assisted, according to some entomologists, by a peculiar secretion which accompanies the egg, causes a flow of sap to the wound, and the egg by contact with this quickly becomes considerably enlarged. The larvre hatched from these eggs are generally very like the caterpillars of Butterflies and Moths in structure and appearance ; they all possess three pairs of thoracic legs, and the great majority have, in addition, from six to eight pairs of abdominal pro-legs. These, however, differ from the corresponding organs in the larvae of the Lepidoptera, by being destitute of the peculiar circlet of generally hooked bristles which the latter possess. The larvae of the Saw Flies also have only a single simple eye on each side of the head. When full grown the larvae spin a cocoon, which is sometimes parch- ment-like in its texture, sometimes lattice-like, and occasionally exhibits a combination of the two characters. These cocoons are either attached to the leaves and twigs of the plants and trees on which the larvae have lived, or placed underground, but in either case the larva remains unchanged within its cocoon until the time for the emergence of the perfect insect approaches, when it undergoes the change to the pupa state, and from this the imago is speedily produced. The number of known species of the family is estimated at over a thousand, a very considerable proportion of which live in Europe. Many of them are inhabitants of Britain. The species of the genus Lyda have long bristle-shaped antennae of numerous joints, a broad head, a flat abdomen, and three spines at the apex of the second and third pairs of tibiae. Two species (L. pratensis], a black insect with yellow markings on the head and thorax, and the abdomen margined with rusty red, and L. campestris, which is blue-black, with the middle of the abdomen reddish, and the antennae, scutellum, tibiae, tarsi, and wings yellow, both about half an inch long, live on pines and firs, the larvae feeding in company under a sort of web which they spin ; another rather smaller species (Lyda betulce), which is reddish-yellow, with the thorax and the base and apex of the abdo- men blue-black, feeds on the birch, and is very generally distributed. Lopliyrus pini is a very common species on coniferous trees. The sexes differ in colour, the male being black with yellow legs, and the female yellow, with the head, three spots on the thorax, and the middle of the abdomen black ; the antennae in the female are serrated, in the male pectinated on both sides. The insect is about a third of an inch long, and, like the species of Lyda above mentioned, sometimes does con- siderable damage. Nematus ventricosus, a small reddish-yellow species, about a quarter of an inch long, with the breast and three spots on the back of the thorax blackish, haunts gooseberry and currant bushes, producing two broods in the year, and sometimes almost stripping the LOfHYRfS PINI. i .1. . , bushes or their leaves. amphylus grossidama?, is another enemy of the gooseberry. Athalia spinarum is a species of a reddish-yellow colour, with the head and tho sides of the posterior part of the thorax black. It measures about a quarter of an inch in length. The larva feeds on the leaves of the turnip and other cruciferous plants, to which it frequently does great mischief. The species of Hylotoma, one of which (//. ros'intm) attacks roses, have only three joints in the antennae, the last joint being longer than the others ; in those of the genus Cimbex, which are among the largest in the family, the antennae have seven or eight joints and terminate in a good-sized club. Tenthredo cethiops, a small black species, deposits its eggs upon fruit-trees, showing a preference for cherry-trees. Its larva is black, and often occurs ill such abundance as to damage the trees. The larvae of certain small species mine the leaves of the plants on which they feed ; while the irritation caused by the presence of others produces small excrescences or galls within which they live. A common example of this last habit is the little Nemattfs saliceti, the larva? of which reside in small protuberances of the leaves of several species of willows. ORDER NEUROPTERA. CHAPTER VIII. THE FLAT-WINGED NEUROPTERA AND THE CADDIS-FLIES. NEUROPTERA— Characters— Habits— Classification— PLANIPENNIA— MEGALOPTERA — Characters — THE MYRMELEON- TIDJE, OR ANT-LIONS— Habits— Capture of their Prey— THE HEMEROBID.E— The Golden-eyed Fly— The Genus Nemoptera — THE MAXTISPIDJE — THE SIALID^E — The Sialis lutaria—The Snake-flies, or Camel-flies — THE PANORPIDA: — The Scor- pion-fly— Habits — Genus Bittacus — Genus Boreus — TEICHOPTERA — Caddis-flies— Difliculty of Assigning their Proper position — McLachlan's Classification— Characters — Distribution — Metamorphoses— The Phryganeidse— The Lamnophi- lidaj — The Sericostomidse — The Leptoceridae— The Hydropsychidse — The Rhyacophilidse— The Hydroptilida;. THE order Neuroptera of the older entomologists included all the insects which possess four membranous wings more or less elaborately veined, but not after the Hymenopterous type, the veins running straight through the wing, with a larger or smaller number of branches, and either simply parallel or united by more or less numerous cross veins. The peculiar arrangement o£ cells seen in the fore wings of the Hymenoptera (see figure on p. 354, Vol. V.) never occurs in these insects. Between the insects thus brought together by the possession of wings more or less similar in character there is, however, a very important difference. Some of them, and the larger number, only pass through an imper- fect metamorphosis, being active and voracious in all stages of their exist- ence ; while the rest have a complete metamorphosis, the larva being quite different in struc- ture from the per- fect insect, and the pupa quiescent. The latter con- stitute the order Neuroptera of mo- dern authors, and they may be defined as insects with a perfect metamor- COMMOX AXT-LION. phosis, a mandibu- late mouth, a free prothorax, and four more or less veined membranous wings. It must be confessed, however, that in, this definition the character of the metamorphosis is the only one separating them from the other membranous-winged insects which were formerly associated with them, but are now commonly referred to the great order Orthoptera ; and further, that from circumstances, especially the remarkable differences presented by the members of both groups among themselves, it is exceedingly difficult to frame a broad definition, applicable to the perfect insects alone, which will serve for the discrimination of the two series. There is one character, however, which almost universally holds good, and this is derived from the structure of the ligula. Throughout the more highly organised Orthoptera the ligula is, almost without exception, divided or cleft in front, either into two or four lobes, and the indications of: division may even continue clown into the basal part of the labium, showing very clearly the original construction of the whole labium out of a pair of organs similar to the maxillae. In the true 240 10 NATURAL HISTORY. Neuroptera, although the ligula is occasionally cleft in front, the general rule is that the parts of the labium are united in the middle line so closely as entirely to conceal the original constitution of the organ of two lateral halves, so that the labium really approaches that of the Beetles more nearly than that of the Orthoptera. The Neuroptera may be characterised generally as rather soft-skinned insects, with a head of small or moderate size, closely applied to the thorax, and having a pair of well-developed compound eyes, and a pair of usually many-jointed, bristle-shaped, or necklace-like antennae, which are sometimes clubbed at the end. The ocelli are frequently wanting. The parts of the mouth are variable in their development ; their characters will be described under the two principal groups into which we divide the order. The prothorax is always free, sometimes ring-like, sometimes considerably developed ; the veins of the wings may be either simple or united by cross-veins ; the tarsi are usually of five joints ; and the abdomen consists of eight or nine segments. In some cases there are tail-like appendages at the extremity of the abdomen, but these, when present, are not jointed organs such as occur in the Orthoptera. The Neuroptera have generally a short intestine, usually provided with a sucking stomach, and in many with a globular proventriculus. The Malpighian vessels are long, and from six to eight in number. The females of certain forms are provided with special glands connected with the oviduct, the secretion from which serves to form an envelope for the eggs, or a long stalk upon which they are supported when laid. The larvae are provided with the usual six thoracic legs, and the abdomen in many species bears peculiar appendages which assist the insect in its movements. Many species, in fact the whole of one of the two great divisions, are aquatic in the larval state. The pupa is some- times free, sometimes included in a cocoon spun by the larva. In character it resembles the pupae of the Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, having all the limbs and other appendages enclosed in separate sheaths, and free ; but the pupae of the Neuroptera usually acquire the power of movement just before the emergence of the perfect insect, and this enables them to get into a suitable position for this final change, which is especially important in the case of the aquatic species. In their habits the Neuroptera present no special peculiarities. They are generally not particularly active in the perfect state ; some of them fly in the day time, while others are chiefly on the wing in the evening twilight. Some are carnivorous in their habits, whilst others either feed on the nectar of flowers or abstain altogether from food. The larvae of one of the two principal groups are carnivorous, those of the other chiefly herbivorous, although animal food does not come amiss to them. The order is but a small one, the number of known species from all parts of the world probably not greatly exceeding 1,500. The geological distribution of the Neuroptera is very difficult to ascertain, owing to the similarity of the wings of these insects, the chief parts preserved, with those of the Orthopterous Pseudoneuroptera, which, as already stated, were formerly included with them in the same order. It would appear, however, that the order is not of ancient date. The Palaeozoic types, which have been described as Neuroptera, seem all to be either Pseudoneuroptera or most nearly allied to that tribe. In the Trias forms which appear to be related to the existing North American genus Cha,ullodes have been met with, and in the Lias and Oolites a few species of different families occiir. In Tertiary deposits they are more plentiful, but the number of recorded fossil species is not great. The Neuroptera as here defined are divided into two principal groups (sub-orders). These are : — I. PLANIPENNIA, having the fore and hind wings similar, usually both in form and structure, the hind wings never broader than the others and folded ; the organs of the mouth fully developed and generally distinct, the mandibles being horny biting organs, the maxillae furnished with two separate lobes, and five- or six-jointed palpi, and the labium generally distinct, with three-jointed palpi ; the prothorax generally well developed, and the other two segments nearly equal. Larvae rarely aquatic. II. TRICHOPTERA, with the wings clothed with hairs or hair-like scales, dissimilar, the hinder ones generally wider than the others and folded, the mandibles reduced to mere membranous rudiments, and the maxillae and labium united into one mass, the former having palpi of from two to five joints, and the latter either three-jointed palpi or none at all, the prothorax ring-like, and the mesothorax much larger than the metathorax. Larvae aquatic. THE ANT-LION. . 11 SUB-ORDER I— PLANIPENNIA. FAMILY MEGALOPTERA. This family, which includes the most typical forms of the Planipennia, or Flat-winged Neuroptera, may be at once distinguished by the position of the head, which is set on perpendicularly in front of the thorax, that is, with the mouth directed downwards, but not produced into a sort of beak. The upper surface of the head usually has no ocelli. The parts of the mouth are all separate, and the ligula is not cleft. The abdomen is long and slender. Although the perfect insects of this family exhibit some divergence in external characters, their larvae present a close resemblance in structure. They are shorter and natter in form than the parent insects, and furnished with six well-developed legs. Their food consists of other insects, in the capture of which some of them exhibit remarkable cunning and contrivance, and their instruments for taking nourishment show a very curious modification of the organs of the mouth. The mouth is in fact closed up, the labium, which bears a pair of jointed palpi, being firmly soldered to the under surface of the head ; above it is a pair of long, curved, and sharp forceps, formed by the mandibles, which are deeply grooved along their lower surface, and the maxillae, which are slender, and exactly close the groove in the mandibles from beneath. In this way the two pairs of jaws become converted into a pair of tubular, sickle-shaped forceps, and when the points of these are plunged into the body of another insect, the juices of the latter can readily pass into the two channels, which open at the base directly into the oesophagus. The pupa is enclosed in a cocoon, the material for which is derived from a gland situated in the terminal part of the intestine. The MYRMELEONTID.E, or ANT-LIONS, are among the most interesting forms of this great family. They may be distinguished at once by having their antennae clubbed at the tip. The larvae have a rather large head, and the inner edge of the mandibles toothed. The common ANT-LION (Myrmeleon europceus, see figure on p. 9), which is abundant in sandy places in the South of Europe, is a slender and elegant creature, with large finely reticulated wings, not unlike a very delicate form of Dragon-fly. It measures rather more than an inch in length, and is of a blackish colour, with a yellowish head spotted with black, and transparent wings with scattered brownish spots. Its larva, to which the name of Ant-lion properly belongs, is of a stout form and a greyish-yellow colour, covered with warty processes and with hairs. It bears seven simple eyes and a short antenna on each side of the head; its- tarsi consist of a single joint, terminated by a pair of strong claws; and it moves in a jerky manner and always backwards. Its food consists of Ants and other small insects, which it captures by a singularly ingenious arrangement, namely, a funnel-shaped pitfall in the sand, at the bottom of which it lies waiting until some unlucky victim, venturing over the margin of the pit, gets upon the treacherous slope of sand, which affords no secure foothold. When the descent of grains of sand reveals the presence of a prey to the Ant-lion patiently waiting below, he throws up a shower of sand which helps the victim in its descent. The labour undergone by the Ant-lion in the construction of his funnel-shaped pitfall is very considerable. He commences by making a circular excavation which marks out the size of the pit, and having completed this, proceeds most laboriously to dig out the space thus circumscribed to the required depth. In doing this he works usually in a spiral direction, always going; backwards. The sand is placed by the action of the legs upon the surface of the shovel-like head, and then by a jerk thrown quite beyond the boundary of the pit, and the larva is so active in its operations than when at work it produces a continuous shower of sand. On completing its dwelling it buries itself in the sand at the bottom, frequently, however, allowing its formidable jaws to project a little. The larva is supposed to live for two years. The perfect insect is rather sluggish. A second species of Myrmeleon, with similar habits (M. formicarius), is abundant in 12 NATURAL HISTORY. Europe ; and the larvae of some other species make no funnel, but simply conceal themselves beneath the sand until their prey comes within reach. There are many exotic species, and some of them, especially in warm climates, reach more than double the dimensions of the European forms, and show a much more vivid colouration. This is the case also with the species of the genus Palpares, which have shorter and stouter antennae than the preceding and the first four joints of the tarsi very short. Palpares libelluloidss, which inhabits the South of Europe, is about two inches long and four inches across the wings. It is of a yellowish colour, with black streaks ; and the wings are clouded with yellow and adorned with large and small brown spots. The Ascalaphi (see figure on p. 13), which much resemble Moths in general form, have the antennae long and slender, and terminated by very dis- tinct clubs like those of some Butterflies. These insects also are adorned with bright and contrasted colours, which adds to their resemblance to Lepidoptera. The HEMEROBIID.E have the antennae either thread-like or necklace-like, and not clubbed; and their larvae are slenderer in form and have a smaller head than the Ant-lions. These insects, like the preced- ing, are of slender and delicate forms, and have very finely reticulated wings, but in general the abdomen is less elongated. Some species are exceedingly abundant and well known in England, such as the beautiful GOLDEN-EYED FLY (Glirysopa vulyaris), which we may take as an example of the group. This is a most delicate green insect, with a body less than half an inch long, which may be seen almost everywhere in warm summer evenings flying slowly about upon four wings having the appearance of green gauze, and consisting of a transparent membrane traversed by a most delicate network of green veins. The prominent hemispherical eyes are of a beautiful golden colour. It emits an exceedingly disagreeable odour. Many other species of this and the nearly allied genus Hemerobius occur abundantly in Britain, and all have nearly the same habits. The eggs, which are little round or oval bodies, like small seed-pearls, are deposited by the females in groups upon the leaves of plants and trees, and in Chrysopa each egg is supported upon a long and slender stalk, giving it something of the aspect of a small fungus, for which, indeed, these eggs have been mistaken. The stalk is formed by the secretion from a peculiar gland connected with the oviduct. The female, on applying the extremity of her abdomen to the spot on which she purposes to deposit an egg, allows this glutinous material to adhere to the surface, and then raising the end of her abdomen, with the egg still retained within it, draws out the viscid secretion into a slender hair-like thread, upon the upper end of which the egg is borne when it quits the body of its parent. The general characters of the larvae hatched from these eggs have already been described ; they are distinguished from those of the PALPAIIES LIBELLULOIDE8. THE NEMOPTERA. 13 Ant-lions not only by their form, but by having no denticulations on the inner surface of the jaws. They devote themselves to the destruction of the Aphides which infest various trees and plants in such numbers, and are frequently so injurious to them, and it v/ill easily be understood that a rapidly growing larva of about half an inch long will commit very considerable havoc among such feeble and sluggish creatures as the Plant-lice. In the hop-gardens these larvae always abound, and one of the speoies has received the name of Hemerobius humuli from this circumstance. The cocoon is attached by the larva to a leaf, and under favourable circumstances the imago soon makes its appearance, so that there are several broods of these insects in the season. These insects may be observed in mild weather until late in the autumn ; and they pass the winter in the perfect state in some sheltered locality. Several other genei'a belong to this group, but of these we will notice only the curious forms consti- tuting the genus Ne- moptera, in which the hind wings, instead of being similar and nearly equal to the fore wings, are very long, forming a sort of strap, of which the extremity is a little dilated, while the fore wings are very much broader than is usual in the family. These insects, which are ex- ceedingly elegant, live in the warmer parts of the Old World, from Southern Europe to Australia. They fly briskly in the hottest sunshine. Their appearance in flight is illustrated in the above figure of the European species (Nemoptera coa), which inhabits Turkey and the adjoining parts of Asia and Africa. The trans- formations are not exactly known, but the larva of AT. coa is supposed to be a singular little creature described by M. Bertram! Roux Tinder the name of Necrophilus arenarius, having an oval body, with an excessively long, slender neck, composed of the prothorax. The MANTISPID.E, including the single genus Mantispa, which appear to be most nearly related to the Hemerobiidse, and, indeed, are referred to that group by some writers, are distin- guishable at the first glance by the structure of the fore legs. These are elongated and converted into raptorial organs, resembling those of the Mantidse, Praying Insects, or Soothsayers, which we shall have to describe under the order Orthoptera, the coxae being much lengthened, the femora freely articulated at their extremity, somewhat thickened, and spined or toothed beneath, while the tibiae are attached to the extremity of the femora by a hinge joint, and with the tarsi shut against the lower surface of the thighs, like the blade of a clasp-knife. To add to the resemblance to the Mantidse the NtMOPTEKA COA AND ASCALAPHUS LONGICORNIS. NATUMAL HllSTUJtY. prothorax is much elongated, and the head is rather broad, with prominent eyes. The species, which are of moderate size and not very numerous, are found in all the warmer parts of the world. A single species (Mantispa payatm) is common in Southern Europe. FAMILY SIALID^E. In this second family of the Planipennia the head is placed nearly horizontally in front of the thorax, so that the opening of the mouth is in its front part instead of beneath. The antennae are bristle -shaped or thread-like ; the ocelli are generally present ; the ligula is membranous, cleft in the middle ; the fore and hind wings are similar, except that the former have a more dilated anterior margin. The larvae of all but one exceptional form live in water, and are furnished with branchial filaments on all the abdominal segments ; the pupa is not enclosed in a cocoon. The common British species (Sialis lutaria) is a blackish-brown insect rather more than half an inch long ; it is well known as a bait to anglers, and may be found abundantly in the spring and early summer upon walls and palings in the neighbourhood of water, and upon the stems and leaves of grasses and other plants growing in the water or upon its brink. In repose the wings in these insects, as in the Hemerobiidae, are laid together in the form of a roof on the back of the insect. They are sluggish and inactive and do not readily take to flight. The female deposits a great quantity of brown eggs, attaching them in a compact mass to the stems of rushes and other aquatic plants ; the eggs form short cylinders which are attached by one end side by side with great regularity ; and the opposite end is suddenly narrowed and terminated by a small slender point. The larva hatched from these eggs is elon- gated, with a large horny head and powerful man- dibles ; the three segments of the thorax are also horny, but those of the abdomen are soft, and each furnished with a pair of articulated bristly filaments which serve as gills, and also assist the larva in swimming through the water, which it does with facility. The abdomen is terminated by a long bristly tail. When full grown the larva quits the water and burrows into the soil of the bank, where it forms a little cell and there undergoes its change to the pupa state. The pupa is not enclosed in a cocoon, and shows all the parts of the future insect, each enclosed in its separate sheath. It remains in this condition showing no signs of life, except a brisk twisting of its abdomen if disturbed, until the time comes for the emergence of the perfect insect, which takes place within the chamber. This insect and a few of its immediate allies have no ocelli ; in the rest of the group three of those organs are present and often of considerable size. The species of Corydalis and Chauliodes (Corydalis ccrnutus is a well-known North American species) are distributed over the warmer parts of the world ; the antennae are more or less pectinated, especially in the males, and this sex is also further distinguished by the large size of the mandibles and the presence of a pair of forceps-like appendages at the apex of the abdomen. Their larvae live in the water like those of Sialis. SIALIS LUTARIA. LARVA AND PUPA OF SIALIS LUTARIA. THE SCORPION-FLY. 16 The Snake-flies, or Camel-flies (Rhaphidice) form a small genus which is now generally referred to this family, but the position of which has given entomologists some trouble. They have a rather large head, with smallish eyes and usually three ocelli, which is attached to a greatly elongated pro- thorax by a thinnish neck, so that the head has considerable freedom of motion in a vertical direction. The insect usually carries its long prothorax a little elevated, and its head bent down, very much after the fashion of a snake with its head raised. The species are not numerous, and the greater part of those known are inhabitants of Europe, chiefly in the southern parts. Four species live in Britain. The larvae reside under the bark of trees, where they feed upon minute insects ; they have a large prothorax like the perfect insect, and are tolerably active, often wriggling about in a serpentine fashion. The pupa is not enclosed in a cocoon. FAMILY PANORPID^E. This family is a curious little group, characterised above all things by the perpendicularly- placed and greatly elongated head, forming a regular beak, at the end of which the free organs of the mouth are seen, namely, a pair of small toothed mandibles, the lobes of the maxillse and the maxillary and labial palpi. The maxiila3 and labium are more or less united, forming the lower surface of the beak. The insects have longish, filiform antennae, moderate, oval eyes, usually three ocelli, a ring-shaped prothorax, and generally four precisely similar wings, showing branched longitudinal veins, but very few cross veins. The legs are long, sometimes much elongated. The larvae, so far as they are known, live in the earth, and are like caterpillars in their general form ; they have a horny head, and three pairs of short, thoracic legs ; their bodies consist of thirteen segments. The pupa resides in a little chamber underground ; in its characters it resembles those of the other Neuroptera, and it has no cocoon. The species of this family are not numerous, but they are pretty generally distributed over the face of the earth, those of the more typical genera, however, being chiefly inhabitants of the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere. They are predaceous in their habits, feeding upon smaller and weaker insects, which they seize in various ways. Of the typical genus Panorpa, the best known species is the Scorpion- fly (P. communis), a common British insect, which may be met with almost everywhere about hedge banks. It is rather more than half an inch long, shining black, with the scutellum and legs yellow, the beak, and in the male the last three segments of the abdomen, reddish. The wings are trans- parent with dark brown spots, which are more or less confluent, and generally form three dark bands. SCORPION-FLY, MALE AND FEMALE. The name of Scorpion-fly is given to this insect in allusion to a peculiarity of the male. In both sexes the segments of the abdomen beyond the sixth become much more slender, and in the females all of them taper gradually towards the extremity, which bears a pair of small three-jointed styles. In the male the seventh and eighth segments are narrow, and generally carried more or less elevated, while the last joint is swelled into a sort of knob, which bears a pair of forceps. When the insect is alive, with this slender tail and its inflated termination raised above the general level of the body, the analogical resemblance to a Scorpion is unmistakable ; the terminal swelling is, however, a far more innocent appendage than the Scorpion's sting, and is only a clasping organ which comes into use during the union of the sexes. The common Scorpion-fly is active during the day, and may be found walking about upon the leaves of the herbage in hedge-bottoms and on small bushes, usually in damp situations. Its appearance as it stands upon a leaf is peculiarly brisk and wide awake, and its movements are also lively. It usually pounces upon its prey by short quick flights, and from some observations which have been recorded, it would appear to be a bold marauder, sometimes attacking insects much larger than itself, and boring into them with its long beak. The female, about four days after pairing, deposits, by means of the extensible terminal joints of her abdomen, a mass of little white eggs in a small cavity in damp earth. In a 16 NATURAL BISTORT. little more than a week the larvae are hatched, and they feed upon decomposing vegetable matters which they meet with underground. They have, besides the three pairs of horny thoracic feet, eight pairs of fleshy pro-legs on the following abdominal segments, and from the last segment the larvae can protrude four short tubes from which a white fluid exudes. The larva is full grown in about a month, and then goes deeper in the earth, where it forms a small chamber, and remains there for a time awaiting its change to the pupa state ; and the pupa stays in the same cavity for about a fortnight, and then makes its way to the surface in order to give birth to the imago. The average tima required for this development is about nine weeks, and there are thus two broods in the course of the year, the progeny of the second brood surviving the ensuing winter either in the larva or the pupa state. Another curious genus of this family is Bittacus, the spacies of which have very long bodies and very long legs, and thus closely resemble the common two-winged flies vulgarly known as " Daddy Long-legs " (Tipula), in everything but their possession of four wings. The tibise of these insects have very long spurs at their apex, and the tarsi have only a single claw ; the beak is shorter and the wings longer than in Panorpa. The genus includes several species which are chiefly inhabitants of warm climates. Bittacus tipularius is the most abundant of the two species found in Europe, and it is con- fined to the southern parts of the Continent. This insect is about an inch long to the tips of the closed wings. It is of a reddish-yellow colour, with a great part of the thorax and the tips of the tibise and the tarsi brownish. The wings are yellowish without any spots. It is a somewhat sluggish insect, flying slowly and waveringly in the twilight. The Bittaci are, nevertheless, as predaceous in their habits as their more active relatives, the Scorpion-flies ; but instead of going in pursuit of their prey, they adopt the lazier method of hanging themselves up to a twig by their fore feet, and seizing with their other long legs any unfortunate flying insect that comes within i*each. Curiously enough, the pairing of these insects takes place when they are suspended as above described, and, as a general rule, the pair are engaged in devouring some small insect which they hold between them with their disengaged feet. This remarkable habit is not altogether peculiar to the Bittaci, the females of several predaceous flies being always engaged in sucking some prey during the time of pairing, the reason being, no doubt in all cases, that if the male ventured to pay any attention to his partner while her mouth was disengaged he would himself fall a victim to his own temerity and her voracity. Besides these amply-winged forms we have to refer to the Panorpidse some very curious little creatures forming the genus Boreus, in which the wings are useless for flight, quite rudimentary in the females, longer and claw-like in the males. These insects have the beak long, the antennae almost as long as the body, no ocelli, and two claws on the tarsi. The female has a projecting ovipositor. To make up for their want of wings these insects possess a considerable power of leaping; in fact, the common European species was described by one of the older entomologists as a cricket on this account. This common species, which occurs, although not abundantly, in Britain, is called Boreus Memalis, both its names referring to its being peculiarly a northern and BOREUS HIEMALIS, MALE. winter insect. It does not exceed a sixth of an inch in length, and is of a metallic green colour, with the beak, antennae, legs, rudimentary wings, and ovipositor, rusty red. From October to March is the season at which this curious little creature is most commonly met with. It is found on the ground among fallen leaves, or upon the snow, and is even met with on the ice of glaciers. The larva lives in moss, and buries itself in dry ground when about to change to the pupa state. Both larva and pupa much resemble those of the Scorpion-fly. Several other species are known, especially in North America, and all have the same habits. SUB-ORDER II.— TRICHOPTERA. The members of this group are the insects commonly known as Caddis Flies, and we have retained them as belonging to the Neuroptera, although some entomologists are inclined to rank them as a distinct order of insects. This, indeed, was done many years ago by Kirby, and he was THE TRICEOPTERA. 17 followed in this course by English writers generally (such as Leach, Westwood, and Stephens) ; and Mr. McLachlan, in his monograph of the European species of the group, also states that his tendency is to separate them from the other Neuroptera. Their relationship to the Saw-flies among the Hymenoptera has been exaggerated ; but, on the other hand, their close affinity to the Lepidoptera, through some of the lower forms of that order, is unmistakable. The systematic study of these insects is attended with very considerable difficulties, owing, to a great extent, to the obscurity and minuteness of the distinguishing marks to which it is necessary to have recourse. In general character, in the nature of the metamorphosis, and in the mode of life of the insects thers is such an agreement as would seam to mark them as one family, and by most entomologists they are so treated. To divide them up into subordinate groups (families or sub-families) it is necessary to appeal to very minute distinctive features. Nevertheless, it will be of use to the reader to have a classification of these insects to refer to, and we therefore reproduce here, with some modifications, the table of families given by Mr. McLachlan in his admirable " Monographic Revision and Synopsis of the European Trichoptera," which has already been alluded to : — DIVISION I.— IN^EQUIPALPIA. Maxillary palpi, differing in the number of joints in the two sexes- five-jointed in the females: — A. Form of maxillary palpi similar in both sexes ; those of the male not very pubescent : — 1. Maxillary palpi of the male four-jointed ...... 2. Maxillary palpi of the mule three-jointed ...... B. Maxillary palpi of males two- or three- jointed, very different from those of the females, usually very pubescent ......... DIVISION II.— ^EQUIPALPIA. Maxillary palpi, five-jointed, and usually similar in form, in the two sexes : — • A. Maxillary palpi, strongly hairy, usually ascending, the last joint long but simple ; wings pubescent ; antenna) long and slender ....... B. Pa!pi either rudimentary or long, more or less bent down, with the last joint whip-like, composed of numerous minute jointlets ; antennae variable .... C. Palpi bent down, rarely hairy, last joint like the others ..... D. Palpi simple in structure, very hairy ; antennas short and stout ; insects minute, very pubescent and hairy ......... The Trichoptera are for the most part moth-like insects, having a smallish head, with the mouth downwards, and usually three ocelli at the vertex ; the antennae are bristle-shaped, generally long, and the first joint is thicker than the rest and more or less elongated ; the eyes are hemispherical ; the wings differ in form, the hinder ones being wider, shorter, and more rounded than the anterior; in repose the wings wrap round the body, and, in consequence, the hind wings are folded. The number of transverse veins in the wings is always very small, and the surface of the wings is, with very few exceptions, clothed with hairs. In the males of a few species the hinder wings are rudimentary, and the females of Enoicyla are almost destitute of wings. The legs have large, conical coxae, meeting in the middle line of the body; and the tibiae are spurred at the apex, and also generally in the middle. Species of this group are found in nearly every part of the earth, but they seem to be most abundant in temperate climates. Mr. McLachlan, in the work already cited, enumerates in all 474 species from the European region, which, as limited by him, includes certain parts of Western Asia. If we assume that these constitute about one-half of the known species, we may estimate the total at about 1,000. No doubt this is very far from the whole number of Trichoptera existing on the earth. They are insects which do not greatly attract the PHRYGANEID.E. LlMNOPHILID^E. SERICOSTOMID^E. LEPTOCERIDJE. HYDROFSYCHIDJE. RHYACOPHILIDJE. HYDROPTILID.E. LARVA AND NYMPH OF SPECIES OF THE. GENUS LIMNOPHILVS, ENLARGED. 241 18 NATURAL HISTORY. travelling collector, and judging from Dr. Fritz Miiller's article on the dwellings of tin; Trichoptera of the neighbourhood of Santa Catharina, in Southern Brazil, we may fairly assume that when the Caddis-flies of tropical countries have been better studied, the present apparent prepon- derance of the species of temperate climates will at any rate be considerably diminished. The insects are found about water, generally resting upon the leaves of plants or upon the trunks of trees and palings. Some of them are tolerably active in the day-time, whilst others move about only in the evening and night. The females deposit their eggs upon plants growing in or close to the water, or upon stones similarly situated. The eggs are enclosed together in a gelatinous mass, formed by the secre- tion from a pair of large glands connected with the oviduct. We have already noticed the resemblance of the perfect insects to Moths, and the larvae also present a similarity to the cater- pillars of many Lepi- doptera. They are elongated, more or less cylindrical, soft-bodied creatures, having only the head, the segments of the thorax, or some of them, and the six thoracic legs horny ; and the segments of the abdomen, from the second onward, are usually amply pro- vided with branchial filaments, two or three of which spring from a point on each side of the segments on the dorsal or ventral surface. To protect this soft body the larva makes himself a little habitation, which is composed of the most various materials by different species. Fragments of wood and leaves, short lengths of reeds, and other hollow stems, small stones and grains of sand, little shells, often with their owners still living in them, and sometimes even the cases of other smaller Caddises are made use of; but each species usually employs the same materials, or, at any rate, the same class of materials in the construction of its dwellings. These materials, whatever they may be, are held together by means of silky threads produced by glands which have their opening in the labiuni of the larva. The cases are often at first tapering ; but in most instances the larva prefers a cylindrical dwelling, and after a time removes the slender posterior end and uses the materials, along with others, to add to the length of the case at the wider end. The cases are open at both ends, and in some instances the larva appears to turn round in his THE METAMORPHOSIS OF THE CADDIS PLIES, LTMNOPHILU8 FLAVICORNIS, L. LUNATUS, AND L. RHOMBICUS. THE TRICHOPTERA. 19 house. Some larvae have fixed cases, others move freely about by protruding the head and first two thoracic segments from the mouth of the case, when they are able to walk upon the feet attached to those segments. Their hold of the interior of their dwelling is secured in part by the legs of the third pair, which are often much elongated, and in part by certain more or less hook -like appendages to the apex of the abdomen. The long hind legs are mainly instrumental in drawing the larva back within its case, which they can do very rapidly should any danger threaten, the Caddis-worms, aii they are commonly called by anglers, being not unwelcome articles of food to fishes and other predaceous aquatic animals. We must add that the larvae of different species live in all sorts of water, from the most stagnant pond to the mountain torrent, and that their food consists chiefly of aquatic plants, although occasionally they will not disdain animal food. When full grown, the larva prepares for its change to the pupa state by shortening its case, and closing both apertures of its dwelling with silk and vegetable materials or small stones, but so that the water still has free access to the interior, the closure being sometimes effected by a circular grating of very ingenious construction. The case is also attached and often strengthened at this time. The change to the pupa then takes place within the case, and after a longer or shorter time the pupa breaks out of its dwelling and makes its way out of the water, in order to cast off its last covering, and give birth to the perfect insect The Phryganeidae include the largest species of the order, although found only in northern regions. Thus Neuronia jjhalcenoides, a north European species, which occurs in Northern Asia, but does not extend its range so far west as Britain, measures nearly an inch long in body, and has an expanse of wing of about two inches and a half. It is a black insect, with white wings, variegated with numerous black spots. One of the largest British species is the Phryganea grandis, which measures four-fifths of an inch in length, and over two inches in expanse of wing. It is an abundant insect, of a brown colour, with yellow rings on the antennae, and the anterior wings ash-coloured, clouded with brown. The larvr>Aro nnrl tn flif» incirlo ]> -> Papilio machaon: 3, 4, Morpho menelaus; 5, Cyclopides aracynthus: 6, Rphocia apiformis ; 7, Zygaena ve, d,uu filipendulie; 8,9, 10, Sphiuxligustri; 11, Pterophorus peutadactylus. of the thorax beneath. Between these lie the nwscles, which raise the wings, and which run from the inner side of the back of the thorax to the legs. During flight, the thorax expands and contracts rapidly and constantly. The scales which cover the wings resemble a fine dust, which easily rubs off on the fingers ; but if the wing is placed under a microscope, it is found to be covered with a great number of elegantly formed scales of various shapes, some of which are represented on the adjoining woodcut. These are laid over each other, like the tiles on a roof, and are attached to the wing by a small stalk, which, in 11 10 SCALES OF DIFFERENT GENERA OF LEPIDOPTERA. 23 NATURAL HISTORY. MOUTH OF THE PRIVET HAWK. MOTH. a, Upper Lip- 6, Mandibles; r. Proboscis! (I, Uudcr Lip ; e, Antenna;; /, Eyes. some Morphince, &c., seems to be fixed on the principle of a ball and socket joint. The scales consist of a double membrane, finely striated. Between the striae, and parallel with them, are arranged pigment cells ; but this is not the sole cause of their beautiful colours, for the edges. of the scales frequently refract the light, and thus produce the most brilliant metallic lustre. If the scales are rubbed off a colourless membrane remains, with branch- ing nervures running through it. In this state it does not greatly differ from the transparent wings of other insects, except for the sockets from which the scales have been removed. Butterflies and Moths have six legs in the perfect state, but in some families of Butterflies the front legs are rudimentaiy, and in the males of a few Moths the hind legs are shorter than the others.* The tibiae are not unfrequently furnished with spines in the middle or at the ex- tremity. The tarsi are usually five-jointed, and generally terminate in a pair of claws. Having noticed the legs and wings, it now becomes necessary to describe the structure of the head and body, before proceeding to notice the internal anatomy. As in all other insects, a fully-developed Moth or Butterfly is composed of thirteen divisions, or segments, the first of which forms the head, segments 2 — 4 foi-m the thorax, and the remainder form the abdomen. The distinction between the thorax and abdomen is always well marked in the perfect insect, although it is not sharply indicated in the larva. The head is rounded, and generally rather broader than long. There are two large eyes on each side, formed of a great number of facets, and therefore called compound eyes. Their surface is covered with short hairs in some species, and is naked in others. In addition to these, there are sometimes two small simple eyes (often called stem- mata, or ocelli) situated on the vertex or top of the head ; but these are not present in many groups of Lepidoptera. The forehead is sometimes provided with a small horn or crest. Ths antennse are placed in two small hollows near the eyes, and appear to be organs of touch, hearing, and smell. They are composed of a great mimber of joints, and in Butter- flies they are long and straight, and are thickened into a club at the extremity. In Moths the antennae are sometimes simply filiform or thread-like, but are more frequently pro- vided with appendages, varying in shape and size. The antennae are called dentated, or toothed ; serrated, or saw-like; pectinated, or comb-like; and plumose, or feathery, according to the various appearances assumed by these appendages. The sexes often differ in the development of the antennae, * The aborted hind legs of the male of Hepialiis are said to be used as brushes to scatter round him the odour contained in two pouches with which his abdomen is provided. ANTENN7E OF LEPIDOrTEIlA, GKEATLY MAGNIFIED. STRUCTURE OF LEPIDOPTERA. 29 and in this case those of the male arc always more developed than those of the female. An herma- phrodite of such a species presents a very remarkable appearance when the antenna on one side is pectinated, and that on the other is simple. The antennae are often clothed with hair or scales, and the basal joint is larger and thicker than the others, except in the Butterflies and Sphinges. In some genera of Tineina it is expanded into a scale, which partially covers the eye when at rest, and is called the eye-cap. The parts of the mouth which ai*e best developed in Coleoptera and Hymenoptera are very slightly developed in Lepidoptera, and are almost rudimentary. The only organs which demand attention are the large and overhanging clypeus, the proboscis, and the labial and maxillary palpi. The upper part of the mouth is formed by the small labrum, which is nearly concealed by the overhanging clypeus, and the rudimentary mandibles. Below these is the proboscis, or tongue, which is generally horny. It forms a spiral tube when not in use, but can be stretched out and plunged into the corolla of a flower when the insect desires to feed. It is made of t\vo separate pieces throughout its entire length, so that it can be separated and cleaned if there is any danger of its becoming clogged. In many Bombyces the proboscis is nearly obsolete, whereas in the Sphingidce it is often several times as long as the body, and is sometimes liable to become fixed in flowers and broken. The proboscis corresponds to the maxillae of other insects. At the base of the proboscis are placed the maxillary palpi, which vary in shape and size, and are usually composed of three joints, the last being generally pointed. The lower portion of the mouth is formed by the small triangular labium, on which the labial palpi are placed, which consist of from one to three joints, and are rudimentary in most of the larger Lepidoptera. The structure of the thorax differs little from what we find in other insects. The prothorax is very narrow above, but is broader below, where the fii'st pair of legs are attached to it. The mesothorax is very large, and is divided longitudinally above. It bears the first pair of wings and the second pair of legs. The former are attached beneath small thin plates called scapulae. The metathorax is short, and generally consists of five small plates above. The last pair of wings and legs are attached at the sides and on the lower surface respectively. The abdomen consists of nine movable segments, the hinder margin of each covering the base of the next. The last segment contains the anus and the sexual organs. The male organ is enclosed by two folds, and the female is sometimes provided with an ovipositor. Scent-fans, or scent-pouches, are sometimes placed at the bass or extremity of the abdomen in the males. The whole body is more or less densely clothed with hair or scales, which sometimes form conspicuous crests on the thorax and abdomen. The nervous system of the larva becomes much modified in the perfect insect. All Lepidoptera have two cephalic ganglia, and the supra-oesophageal ganglion is furnished with convolutions. In most cases there are two distinct thoracic ganglionic masses, the first simple, and the second composite. Sometimes these are close together, and at other times they are more or less widely apart. There are always four abdominal ganglia, the only known exception being in the case of Hepialus humidi, which has five. The digestive system is also modified in the perfect insect. The intestine is much longer than in the larva, and the long and narrow oesophagus is dilated into a large crop in the thoracic segments which is generally filled with air. The stomach is short, oval, and very muscular, and the ilium is long and narrow, and forms several convolutions, and is covered by the Malpighian vessels throughout its whole length. The colon is large, and is often dilated into a caecum in front. The salivary glands are simple elongated tubes, and correspond to the silk glands of the larva. The food of Butterflies and Moths in the perfect state consists of the honey of flowers, honeydew, the exuding sap of trees, over-ripe fruit, &c. The great Death's Head Hawk Moth (Acherontia, atropos) will sometimes enter beehives, to feast upon the honey. Nor is this the only enemy which Bees have to fear among Moths; for there are several species of small Moths, the caterpillars of which feed on wax in bee-hives, and often commit great havoc. Many Butterflies are attracted by putrid substances, and others are fond of assembling, sometimes in great numbers, to suck up the moisture from the damp ground. The senses of Lepidoptera are very acute. They are not unfrequently attracted by artificial or 30 NATURAL HISTORY. painted flowers, evidently mistaking them for real. A large number are provided with organs fitted for producing a sound, though it is inaudible to our ears in most cases, although the Death's Head Hawk Moth, and several allied species, are capable of uttering a very audible squeak. The males of those Moths which have highly-developed pectinated antennae will gather round a box which contains a virgin female, and it is believed that they can be thus attracted from a distance of a mile or more. The males of various species are also provided with tufts of hair, which emit a distinct odour. These are sometimes placed between the wings, and sometimes on the antennae, legs, or abdomen. This is specially noticeable in the British Privet and Convolvulus Hawk Moths (Sphinx ligustri and convolvuli), the males of which emit a musky scent. In these cases the odour is believed to be attractive rather than protective but some of the insects which are refused by birds appear really to owe their immunity to their disagreeable smell or taste, and sometimes the same insect emits two distinct odours from different parts of its body — one protective, and the other, perhaps, attractive. Insects so voracious as caterpillars frequently commit great havoc in our fields and gardens. Perhaps the most formidable of all are those called " Cut-worms " in America, which live beneath the surface of the ground, and eat through the roots of plants which come in their way. Most of these develop into dark-coloured Moths, belonging to the genus Agrotis. As a set-off against the mischief caused by Butterflies and Moths, we have the valuable product called silk ; and in some parts of Australia cakes formed of a particular species of Agrotis form a staple food of the inhabitants. We do not eat insects in Europe, but may derive much pleasure from studying their structure and habits, and from admiring their beauty. Butterflies and Moths are found in all parts of the world, and are exceedingly numerous in species. There are about 2,000 different kinds in the British Islands, out of which only sixty-five are Butter- flies and the remainder are Moths. Islands are always poorer in species than continents ; and if we take Europe into consideration, we find 5,000 species of Moths, and nearly 300 of Butterflies on the lists. Iceland alone is said to produce no Butterflies, but only a few Moths, but both Butterflies and Moths (though not more than about a dozen different kinds) have been met with in the polar regions, as far north as our explorers have yet penetrated. Insects are far more numerous in the warmer parts of the world, abounding most where the vegetation is most luxuriant and varied. About 10,000 species of Butterflies and 40,000 of Moths have been described at present, and hundreds of new species are added to our lists every year. Butterflies are particularly numerous in tropical America, and more than half of all the species known inhabit this part of the world. Upwards of two thousand different kinds have been collected in the valley of the Amazon alone, but a great number of these are small and incon- spicuous species, and it is the aggregate and not the comparative number of lai-ge and brilliant species which makes us consider size and colour as so characteristic of the Butterflies of the Tropics. If we compare two species belonging to corresponding groups, one of which is found in Europe or Japan, and the other in India, we shall generally find that the Indian insect is the smaller. Nor does the abundance of species depend on heat alone, but rather on the variety of the vegetation, and therefore Butterflies and Moths are far more numerous in Switzerland, where the variety of elevation gives rise to a greater variety of vegetation, than in the peninsulas of Spain or Italy. Andalusia, with its sub- tropical climate and vegetation, hardly produces more Butterflies than Sweden. Many of those which occur on the plains in Lapland are met with in the Alps in Switzerland ; and many common Central European Butterflies are mountain insects in Andalusia, and the number of species peculiar to the extreme South of Europe is comparatively small, and by no means compensates for the almost total disappearance of the numerous Alpine species of Central Europe. The opposite coast of North Africa is even poorer in species than Southern Spain. Before closing this chapter, some of our readers may wish for a few hints in regard to forming a collection of Butterflies and Moths. It is easy to make a beginning, and the utensils required are neither numerous nor expensive — a net, pins, setting-boards, and boxes being everything which is required in the first instance. The most convenient kind of net is, perhaps, the ring-net. This consists of a net of green gauze, attached to a ring fixed on the end of a stick. The net should be gradually tapering, but rounded at the end, so as to contain no corners, and should be about three times as long as the width of the ring. It should not be sewn directly on the ring, but attached to a strip of some stouter substance at the COLLECTING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. 3i top, which can be sewn on the ring, for this will make the net last much longer. The ring should be about a foot in diameter, and it is usual to employ a jointed iron ring, which can be folded up when not in use and put in the pocket. It may be made to screw on the end of a common walking-stick, for which a cap must be provided, to screw on when the net is not wanted, to keep out the dirt. If a net is required in a hurry, it may simply be sewn on a ring of willow-twigs, and fixed at the end of a forked stick, and such an arrangement will answer very well on an emergency. A very portable but more expensive net is the umbrella-net. This is formed of a large ring of whalebone, with a stick through the middle. It is made to open and shut like an umbrella, and goes into a similar case when not in use ; but it is too short for many purposes, and the stick in the middle is another objection. Having caught your Butterfly or Moth, you next proceed to secure it. The pins used by entomologists are long and slender, and are sold by dealers in objects of natural history under the name of " Entomological pins," for those used for common purposes are generally too short and thick. The pins are made of different sizes ; choosing one proportioned to the size of the insect, it must be pinned exactly in the middle of the thorax. You then pin it into a small box, lined with cork, which you carry in your pocket. But if you like to bring your specimens home alive, as can be done in the case of most of the smaller Moths, you must be provided with a supply of strong chip-boxes, into which to put your captures. You must take care only to put one insect into each box, and to keep the full and empty boxes in separate pockets, to avoid mixing them. But Butterflies, Sphinges, Bombyces, and, generally speaking, all large and active insects, must be pinned on the spot ; for if you put them into a box they will knock themselves about in it, and when you open it you will find only a mass of fluff, and your specimen spoiled. In putting these insects to death, of course the speediest means will be adopted. Small or slender-bodied insects, including most Butterflies, may be killed by a sharp nip under the wings, but this method will not answer for thick-bodied insects. These may be killed by being pierced with a pin dipped in a strong solution of oxalic acid, or may be stupefied with chloroform, and afterwards killed by being placed in a jar half filled with bruised laurel leaves, and tightly stoppered. Ammonia, sulphur, and cyanide of potassium, which some collectors use, are liable to discolour many insects. If you are on a journey, and short of boxes, you may keep your insects in " papers." These are constructed of square pieces of paper folded diagonally, and doubled over at the side, so as to form a triangular envelope open at one end. In this case the insect is simply killed and dropped into the envelope, which is then folded over and put away loosely in a box with cotton wool and a little camphor. But this method is not to be recommended when you are able to pin and set your insects at once. In order to set your captures you will require setting-boards. These are proportioned in width to the size of the insects to be set, and may be of any convenient length ; those most commonly used are about ten inches long. There is a corked groove in the middle to receive the body of the insect, and the sides are also formed of cork. The boards may be flat if you prefer it, as used on the Continent, but they are generally bevelled off on each side in England, which gives the wings of the insect a sloping appearance in the cabinet. Having chosen a board proportioned to the size of the specimen you wish to set, you pin the Butterfly as nearly as possible in the middle of the groove. The body lies in the groove, and you then spread out the wings on each side in as natural a position as possible, and keep them in their places by pressing them down with strips of cardboard, secured by a pin at one or both ends. Only practice will enable you to do this neatly, and you will soon find that some insects are much easier to set than others. It will sometimes happen that your specimens pinned in the field become too stiff to set properly when you get home. These, as well as any specimens which have been pinned or papered and left unset, will require to be relaxed. This is effected by putting them into any covered vessel partly filled with damp sand or sawdust, and placing them in a warm place. In a day or two they will become sufficiently limp to set, and must then be attended to at once, for if left too long they may become mouldy or rotten. In all cases insects must be left on the setting-boards till their wings have completely stiffened in the position which you have given them. When the specimens are thus prepared they must be placed in store-boxes, or in cabinets made 33 NATURAL HISTORY. for the purpose. The boxes or cabinet-drawers must be lined with cork, and the tatter are usually provided with tightly-fitting glazed lids. Any box used for insects should be tightly-fitting, and furnished with plenty of camphor, or mites and other pests will soon reduce your collection to dust. Many preventives have been recommended, but camphor, plentifully used, and the supply well kept up from the first, appears to be the most successful of all. Butterflies in glass cases would form a very pretty ornament on the wall ; but although they will preserve their colours for more than a century if kept in the dark, they bleach very rapidly if constantly exposed to the light. You will find Butterflies and many Moths flying in gardens and other places where there are plenty of flowers, and these may be captured with the net. As it grows dusk the Butterflies disappear, but the Moths become more numerous, and they may be caught in the same way until it grows too dark. Later in the evening it is a good plan to daub over the trunks of trees with some sweet compound — a mixture of brown sugar and beer, flavoured with a few drops of rum, is most commonly employed — and afterwards visit the trees with a lantern and catch the Moths which are attracted by the bait. This mode of collecting is called "sugaring," and is somewhat uncertain, as on some nights the sugar will be covered with Moths, and on others you will scarcely find one. In the country many Moths may be attracted by a light placed at an open window. During the day you will not see many Moths, except those which are habitually day-flying species, but if you look about a little you will sometimes find Moths sitting on the shady side of the trunks of trees, especially early in the day, and by beating a hedge to windward you will generally dislodge a great variety, chiefly slender-bodied or small Moths, which you can catch as they fly out. There are no Butterflies to be found on the wing during the depth of winter, but there are several species of Moths which only appear at this season of the year, and a considerable variety may be caught in the evening, both in early spring and late autumn, at the blossoms of the sallow and the ivy respectively. CHAPTER X. BUTTERFLIES. The Brash-footed Butterflies— Butterflies distasteful to Birds— Mimicry— Transparent-winged Butterflies of South America— Brown Butterflies frequenting Marshes and Meadows— Silvery Butterfly from Chili— The Great Blue Butterflies of South America— Great Owl-like Butterflies Flying at Twilight— An African Group of Spotted Butterflies- Passion Flower Butterflies of South America — The Fritillaries — The Comma Butterfly— Leaf Butterflies — Dissimilarity of the Sexes in some Butterflies — Red, Blue, and Green Butterflies of South America- Elegant Flight of the White Admiral — Lofty Flight of the Purple Emperor— Long-snouted Butterflies— A large Group of Small and Elegant Butterflies almost peculiar to South America— Copper Butterflies— Small Blues— Hairstreaks— Long Tails of some of the Allied Eastern Species— The White and Yellow Butterflies— Some of this Group Brightly Coloured— Mimicking South American Butterflies— Small and Large Yellow Butterflies of the Tropics— Garden Whites— White Indian Butterflies with Bed Spots on the Under side— Indian Butterflies with the Front of the Wing Ridged like a Saw— The Brimstone and Clouded Yellow Butterflies— Orange-tips— Swallow-tailed Butterflies— The Apollo Butterflies— Magnificent Tailed Butterflies from the Himalayas— The Great Bird-winged Butterflies of the East— A Croesus among Butterflies— South American Butterflies with Iridescent Spots— Mimicking Butterflies again— Gold-dusted Butterflies— Great Blue Butter- flies of the Eastern Islands— The True Swallow-tailed Butterflies— Extraordinary Difference between the Sexes of an African Butterfly— Very Long Tails of a Small Indian Group— The Skippers— Their Resemblance to the Moths— Tailed Skippers of South America— The Fire-tailed Skippers— The Grizzled Skipper— The Pearl Skipper. THE first five families of Lepidoptera are called Butterflies in England, and their antennae are nearly always thickened into a knob at the extremity. All the European species, and the great majority of the foreign ones, fly only by day, though some species prefer the shades of the forests, and some tropical Butterflies fly only at dusk. There is reason to believe that others fly more or less at night, but this requires to be confirmed by further observations. FAMILY I.— NYMPHALIDJE. Half the known Butterflies belong to the first family, that of the Nymplialidce, which is divided into several sub-families. The front legs of these Butterflies are rudimentary in both sexes, forming a THE 33 kind of paw, quite useless for walking, and hence some writers have called them Brush-footed Butterflies. The pupa is generally suspended freely by the tail. The caterpillars differ in structure, some being hairy or spiny, others furnished with long fleshy filaments, and others again are almost naked, with a forked tail. The first group, the Danaince, is almost confined to the tropics. Most of the species of Danais inhabit the Old World, though a few are met with in America, one species being abundant over almost the whole of that Continent. They are large broad- winged Butter- flies, generally either of a warm reddish-tawny colour, with blackish bordei's, or brownish-black, the centre of the wings being green, divided by the veins. The only European species {Danais clirysip- pus) is found in Greece, but is also one of the commonest Butterflies in the East Indies and Africa. It is reddish-tawny, with black borders dotted with white, and the tip of the fore wings is broadly black, and marked with a band of large white connected spots. There are also four black spots in the middle of the hind wings. There is scarcely any Butterfly which is more interesting than this insect, as it illustrates some of the most remarkable pro- blems of insect life in a pre-eminent degree. The Danaince are rarely attacked by birds. Their integu- ments are exceedingly tough, and most of them possess the power of protruding two strongly-smelling processes from the abdomen. But it would scarcely be imagined beforehand that the colours and markings of a species thus pro- tected would be repeated, with more or less accuracy, in six or «ight other Butterflies and Moths, bearing a much closer resemblance to the species which they thus " mimic " than to any of their own allies. What is still more strange is that in several of these instances it is the female only which resembles the species "mimicked," the male being utterly different. The principal species which thus " mimic " Danais chrysippus are as follows : — (1) Elymnias undularis, belonging to the sub-family Elymniinve. In this species the male is of a rich brown, with bluish marginal spots, while the female is tawny, with broad brown borders spotted with •white on all the wings. On the fore wings the white spots coalesce into a band towards the tip. ^2) Argynnis niphe. This species, which belongs, like the two following, to the sub-family Nym- phalince, has a tawny or fulvous male, spotted with black, and resembles its allies, the ordinary Fritillaries ; but the female is paler, with a black border and a broad black tip, crossed by a white bar like Danais chrysippits. A. niphe is a common East Indian species, but the Australian form (A. inconstans) has a female resembling the male. (3) Hypolimnas misippus. This case is 243 1, DANAIS CHRYSIPPUS J 2, HYPOLIMNAS MISIPPUS, MALE ; 3, DO., FEMALE. NATURAL HISTORl. more remarkable than the last, for the male is of a rich brown colour, with a large white spot on each wing, shading into blue at the edges, while the female is scarcely to be distinguished from D. chryslppus at first sight, except that there is only one black spot instead of four on the hind wings. There is a species of Danais closely allied to D. chrysippus, in which the white transverse band at the tip of the fore wings is wanting (D. dorippus), and there is a variety of the female of H. misippus corresponding to it (H. inaria), in which the white band is also wanting. (4) Euphcedra eleus. Most of the species of this genus are green and black, but E. eleus is rich tawny, with black borders spotted with white, and a white bar across the tip of the fore wings. (5) Papilio merope. This Butterfly, which is a creamy-white Swallow-tail with black borders, is common in Africa, and the form found in Madagascar (P. meriones) has a female similar to the male, but no female resembling the male has ever been found on the continent of Africa, where the females are tailless Butterflies, resembling several different species of African Danaince, and one of these (P. dionysus) has a close resemblance to D. chry- sippus. (6) Caryatis phileta. This insect, a Moth allied to the Lithosiidce, likewise re- produces the colours of D. chrysippus, being of a rich tawny, with black borders spotted with white. .In addition to the scent-glands at the ex- tremity of the abdomen, the males of most species of Danais and Euplcea possess a patch of raised scales on the hind wings, ETJI-LCEA MIDAMUS: A, MALE J B, FEMALE. which is likewise a scent-producing organ. The genus Euplcea is confined to the tropics of the Old World. The species are generally of a rich dark brown, with bluish-white spots near the borders of the wings and in the middle of the hind wings beneath, and are often splendidly glossed with purple. The wings are longer and narrower than in Danais. With the exception of Danais, all the South American Butterflies now included in the Danainas were formerly classed with the Heliconince, on account of their superficial resemblance to the genus Heliconius. They are insects with very long and slender bodies, and very long and narrow wings, and have sometimes been compared to Dragon-flies. The greater number of these Butterflies belong to the genus Ithomia, and a large proportion are more or less transparent, except on the borders of the wings. Some of these are mimicked by Pierince. The second sub-family of the Nymphalidce, the Satyrince, contains at least 1,000 species, but most of these are small or middle-sized Butterflies, of sombre colours. The great majority are marked with eye-like spots on the under surface of the wings, and sometimes on the upper surface also. Nearly one-third of the European Butterflies belong to this sub-family, but they are by no means so well represented in other parts of the world. Their caterpillars are generally green, THE MORPHINE. A, LEPTALIS THEONOE ; B, ITHOMIA FLORA. with a forked tail, and feed on different kinds of grasses. The Butterflies frequent marshes, meadows, and mountains, and many are among our commonest Butterflies, flying in every field. Many species of the genus Erebia ai-e found in the Alps, the great majority of which are brown, with a row of more or less contiguous red spots towards the margins, marked with a series of black spots, which often, again, show a small white dot in the middle. The Scotch Argus Butterfly (Erebia meclea) is the best known repre- sentative of this genus in Britain. Some foreign Satyrince are of a brilliant blue, though this colour is rare in the sub-family ; but one of the most remarkable Butterflies known, as regards ' O colour, is Argyrophorus argenteus, a Chilian insect, which is of a uniform pale silvery colour above. The small sub-family of the Elymniinoe consists of the two genera Elymnias and Dyctis. We have already noticed the female of Elymnias undularis as one of the mimics of Danais chrysippus. All the species of Elymnias, except two, which are African, are East Indian or Malayan. They are generally dark- coloured insects, averaging about three inches in expanse ; the fore wings are often spotted with blue and white, and the hind wings are bordered with orange. Most of the species are striated with brown on the under side, and the group has a strong family likeness, which renders it easy to recognise it. Nearly all the Elymniinoe mimic other Butterflies in the arrangement of their colours on the upper side of the wings, but their wings are always dentated, and often angulated, whereas all the Butterflies which they super- ficially resemble have rounded wings. The next sub-family, the Morphine?., though including some con- spicuous East Indian species, is best represented by the typical genus Morpho, which contains the magnificent blue Butterflies of South America. The most brilliant of all known Butterflies is, perhaps, the male of Morpho cypris, a dazzling sky-blue Butterfly, five inches in expanse, which can be seen at the distance of half a mile in the sun. A white band across the centre of the wings only enhances its beauty. The female sometimes resembles the male, and sometimes, as is often the case in MorpJio, is of a tawny or orange colour. Some of the species of Morpho fly near the ground, and fre- quently settle, but nearly all the largest and most splendid species fly at a great height. The next sub-family, the Bras- solince, consists entirely of tropical American species, but these are dull-coloured Butterflies, which fly at dusk. The great Butterflies of the genus Caligo resemble Morpho in size and appearance, but are brown, with the upper side of the wings suffused with dull blue. The under surface is curiously marbled and speckled with brown and grey, and on the under side of the hind wings is an enormous oval dark spot, in a broad pale ring, resembling an owl's eye. The sub-family Acrceince chiefly contains African species of the genus Acrcea, though one or two inhabit India or Australia, and the genus Actinote is South American. The wings of the Acrceince are EREBIA EURYALE. MORPHO CYPRIS. 36 NATURAL UlSTOJiY. rather long, and are generally of some shade of fulvous, with black spots, or black with white or yellowish markings ; and the hind wings are either striated or spotted with black at the base beneath. Although these Butterflies are not closely allied to the European Fritillaries, yet they completely replace them in Africa, resembling them not only in colour and appearance, but also in the spiny larvae. The fore wings of several species of A crcta are more or less transparent ; in others the wings are entirely opaque. In Actinote the wings are always opaque, and destitute of the black basal spots so conspicuous in Acrcea, but the hind wings are always strongly striated, at least on the under surface. The colouring, too, in one section of this genus is very dissimilar to that of Acrcea, being bluish-black, with the centre of the fore wings pink or red, this colour sometimes extending to the base. The Heliconince are a group of South American Butterflies, much resembling the Acrceince in structure, but their wings are much longer, and are generally rounded at the extremity. Their closed wing-cells will prevent their being confounded with the typical Nymphalince, and although some of them closely resemble the American Danaince, which were formerly classed with them, the submedian nervure of the fore wings is simple in the Heliconince, and double in the Danaince. Their caterpillars are spiny, like those of the A crceince, and many of them feed on different species of passion-flower. The genus Heliconius includes a great number of beautiful species. Some are black, with a large red blotch on the fore wings. Sometimes this is the only marking, as in //. melpomene; but in other species the hind wings are rayed with red, or marked with a basal stripe of yellow or white. In other species the fore wings are marked with yellow, and the hind wings are red, or banded with red. //. charithonite, the commonest species in the West Indies, is black, with yellow stripes on the wings ; other species are black and fulvous, spotted or banded with yellow, and many of these resemble some of the larger opaque species of American Danaince, both in colour and markings. The species of Heliconius vary from two to four inches in expanse, and the antennae are long and slender. The only other genus of this sub-family (Eueides) has much shorter antennae, and the species, which are generally black and tawny, varied with dull yellow, seldom exceed an inch and a half in expanse. The great sub-family of the Nympkalinrr, which comprises about 130 genera of Butterflies, exhibiting every variety of colour and pattern, differs from all the foregoing groups, except the Morphince, by the discoidal cell being open, or imperfectly closed, either in all the wings or in the hind wings only. The first two genera, Colcenis and Dione, are long- winged South American Butterflies, the caterpillars of which feed on passion-flowers, vanilla, and other tropical plants. They resemble the Heliconince considerably in size, shape, and habits, and form a very good connecting link between these and the Nymphalince ; and some entomologists regard them as more properly belonging to the former sub-family. The species of Colcenis are fulvous above, more or less banded with black. On the under surface they are either coloured as above, or are indistinctly marked. One species (Colcenis dido) is of a most beautiful green, with black markings above, and brown and silvery markings below. Dione juno resembles the genus Colcenis in shape, but most of the species of the former genus have much shorter and broader wings. They are rich fulvous, spotted or veined with black, and the hind wings and the tips of the fore wings are literally covered with large silvery spots beneath. The East Indian genus Cethosice includes a number of closely-allied and very similar species, which may be distinguished at once from any other Butterflies by their elegant festooned black and white markings, especially on the under surface of the hind Avings. They somewhat resemble Danaince, being tawny above, with black, white-spotted borders, and some species appear to mimic Danais chrysippus, &c. The true Fritillaries are well known to all collectors of Butterflies. The genus Argynnis is well represented throughout the Northern Hemisphere, but there are none in Africa, beyond the Mediter- ranean district, nor in South America, except one or two small species in the Andes or in Chili. There are six beautiful species in England, all fulvous, with black spots and streaks above, and more or less spotted or streaked with silver on the under surface. ]n the North Chinese A. sayana the male THE FRIT1LLARIES. 37 resembles A. paphia, while the female is olive-green marked with white, and might well be supposed to be allied to Apatura or Limenitis. A new genus was actually formed for its reception when it was first discovered. Among the most striking of the North American species are A. diana, with a black male, broadly edged with orange, and a green female, spotted with whitish, and A. idalia, one of the largest Butterflies of the genus, which has reddish fore wings, and blackish hind wings, with two rows of whitish spots above. The caterpillars of Argynnis are spiny, and mostly feed on different kinds of violets. Melitcea is another genus of small Fi itillaries, of which we have three representatives in Great Britain. They are tawny, with black lines and spots above, and the under side of the hind wings is more or less banded or chequered with yellowish or reddish, being marked with black lines, and some- times spots. The British species are local, though common where they occur. Several others are found on the Continent, two of which are black with white markings ; but the greatest variety and the largest known species of Melitcea are to be met with in California. Many of these are black, with transverse rows of yellowish spots, some- times alternating with reddish ones. The European spe- cies of Vanessa, «kc., are less numerous than the Fritillaries, but pre- sent a much greater variety of colour and markings. Their larvte are spiny, and feed on nettles, thistles, elms, willows, &c. The smallest species of this group, though common on the Continent in damp woods, is not British. This is A raschnia prorsa, a Butterfly which ex- hibits the phenomenon known as " seasonal dimorphism " in its greatest perfection. It expands less than an inch and a half. The hind margins of the fore wings have two slight projections, and the hind wings have one projection in the middle, making the outer margin nearly rectangular. The spiny black caterpillar, which is sometimes striped with brown, lives gregariously on nettles. The spring brood of the Butterfly is found in April and May. It is fulvous, spotted with black. There are three white spots near the tip of the fore wings, and rows of black spots across all the wings. The under surface is brownish-red, varied with violet and pale yellow, with pale yellow veins and transverse lines. But the summer brood of the same Butterfly, which is met with in July and August, is utterly different, and until the specific identity of the two was proved by breeding and observation, it was naturally supposed to be a totally distinct species. It is black, with a red marginal line, and a white transverse band, which is interrupted on the fore wings. The under side is redder than in the spring brood, with white instead of yellow markings. Intermediate varieties are occasionally met with. This Butterfly is called " the Map " in France and Germany, probably in allusion to the character of the markings on the under surface of the wings. The Comma Butterfly (Vanessa C -album} has strongly dentated wings, more so than any other British Butterfly, giving it at first sight the appearance of being very tattered. It is of a deep fulvous, with dark brown spots and borders. The under surface is brown, black, greyish, or greenish, but the hind wings are always marked with a white C beneath. There is only one other species of TRANSFORMATIONS OF QVEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY (ArfJ-jnnis 38 NATURAL HISTORY. COMMA BUTTERFLY. this section of the genus in Europe, but in North America there are several, all very similar to the insect we have just described. Although local, the Comma is not unfrequently met with in many parts of England, but it is the least common of the British species of Vanessa, except the large chocolate-coloured, yellowish-bordered Camberwell Beauty ( Vanessa antiopa), which, although abundant in America, as well as in many parts of Europe, is a great rarity in England, but like many other Butterflies is met with much more frequently in some years than in others. It has lately been noticed by various observers that the Small Tortoiseshell and Peacock Butterflies (Vanessa urticas and V. io) have the power of stridulating, or producing a sound which has been compared to the friction of sandpaper. The credit of dis- covering the apparatus which causes the sound is due to Mr. A. H. Swinton. The hinder vein of the fore wings is bare of scales at the base beneath, and serrated, and this works upon the front vein (or costal vein, as it is called) of the hind wings, which is likewise bare, smooth, and curved outwards at the base. The elegant brick-red, or pale salmon-coloured Painted Lady Butterfly (Pyrameis cardui), is the last European species of this group which we shall notice. The caterpillar feeds on thistle, and the Butterfly is generally common in waste places at the end of summer, not in England only, but over a great part of the world. It is much com- moner in some years than in others, and is occa- sionally sufficiently numerous to migrate in vast swarms from one district to another. Among the commonest and most widely dis- tributed of the exotic Butterflies allied to Vanessa are those of the genus Junonia. A s now restricted, it includes several species with smooth eyes (those of the Vanessce are hairy), and with slightly dentated wings. They are insects about the size of the Vanessa urticce, and the wings are black, brown, or grey, generally adorned with two eyes on the hind wings, and one towards the hinder angle of the fore wings. Several species are common in every collection of insects from the East Indies. J. laomedia is of a slightly iridescent grey, with transverse zigzag brownish lines, and a row of rather small eyes beyond the middle, of which two towards the tip, and one cowards the hinder angle of each wing, are more distinct than the others, and consist of an outer brown ring, an inner grey or buff one, and a black pupil surrounded with orange. Although the East Indies form the head-quarters of the genus Junonia, several species closely allied to the Indian ones are met with in Africa and America. The genus Precis, formerly included in Junonia, comprises many beautiful African Butterflies, and one or two Indian species also. The wings are generally dentated, the fore wings more or less angulated, and occasionally almost hooked, and the hind wings often produced at the anal angle. Instead of large eyes on the wings, as in Junonia, there is sometimes a marginal row of small ones on the hind wings. The beautiful blue P. rhadatna of Madagascar, however, has eyes placed as in Junonia. The species of Precis are generally brown, sometimes almost without paler markings, but more frequently banded with some shade of fulvous, and occasionally with blue or red. The genus Kallima is one of the most remarkable of the Nymphalince, from the extra- ordinary resemblance of the under surface of the insect to a dead leaf. The Indian species are nearly four inches in expanse, bluish or purplish above, with a small transparent spot in the middle CAMBERWELL BEAUTY. SMALL TORTOISESHELL BUTTERFLY. THE LEAF BUTTERFLIES. 39 of the fore win<*s, beyond which a broad orange band in some species, or a bluish-white one in others, runs obliquely from the middle of the costa, or front edge of the fore wings, nearly to the hinder an«le. The fore wings are more or less pointed, and the anal angle of the hind wings is produced into a short blunt tail. The under surface is brown, with a dark streak resembling a mid-rib running from the tip of the fore wings to the tail of the hind wings. The surface is irregularly streaked and mottled and Mr. A. R. Wallace describes the Sumatran Kattiina paralekta as being invisible when at rest, from its resemblance to the dead leaves among which it always perches. The Butterfly sits with its wings over its back, and its head and antennae raised and hidden between them, while the tails of the hind wings rest upon the branch, corresponding exactly in appearance with the stalk of the leaf. The genus Eunica contains a number of moderate-sized species. They are nearly all Tropical American Butterflies, of a brown or velvety black colour, and are often more or less suffused with blue, purple, or violet. One species (E. margarita) is sil- very white above, with the tip black, spotted with white, and a double row of dark spots on the borders of the hind wings. The outline of the wings in Eunica is very various, but is generally dentated, and the tip of the fore wings is often trun- cated. The under side of the hind wings is always marked with a row of eyes beyond the middle, but this varies very much in dis- tinctness. The South American genus CatonepJiele is very remarkable for the great difference between the sexes, for the females are so unlike the males that they were not only regarded as differ- ent species, but were even placed in different genera for many years. Thus the male of C. obrinus is black, with a broad blue band across the fore wings, and a broad orange band across the hind wings. The female is brown, with an additional blue spot near the tip of the fore wings, and one or two red spots, bordered with black, towards the base. The hind wings have three obscure narrow black stripes, the outermost sometimes marked with one or two blue spots. The handsomest of the smaller South American NympJialinoe are probably those belonging to the genus Catagramma and its allies. The first of these is the genus Callicore. The species are all of a rich dark brown or black above, and the fore wings, which are often suffused with purple towards the base, are crossed by a bar of changeable bluish-green, blue, or purple. The hind wings are generally bordered by a metallic green or blue stripe. The under surface of the fore wings is of a rich scarlet towards the base, followed by a curved black band, varying in breadth, and the tip is silvery white, or buff, intersected by a black line. The hind wings are silvery white or buff, with two oval black rings in the centre, each of which contains two black spots, varying in size, and sometimes connected. These are enclosed by two large black rings, which run round the whole wing, except on the costa, where the circle is not complete. LEAF-BUTTERFLY OF INDIA (Kallima. in 40 NATURAL HISTORY. The genus Perisama much resembles Callicore in size and shape, but the band of the fore wings is frequently incomplete, and combined with more distinct basal stripes. The fore Avings are black beneath, generally spotted with blue, with the tip pale, and intersected by a black line, and the basal portion is frequently more or less broadly red or yellow. The under side of the hind wings is yellow, silvery white, or buff, and is nearly always crossed by two black lines, widest apart in the middle, between which runs a row of black dots. The genus Catagramma, resembles the last two genera, but the eyes are naked instead of hairy. There are a great number of species, differing very much in colour and markings, and the name alludes to the elegant markings of the under surface, meaning " written beneath." These Butterflies are of a deep black, adorned with rich shades of crimson or orange on the upper side, and are frequently glossed with purple over the black, and sometimes over the crimson. In some species the sexes differ little ; in others, the males are crimson and the females orange, or even, occasionally, black above. But the sexes differ much in their habits. The females generally live a retired life in the forests, and are often very rare, even when the males are abundant. There are a great number of species, all with a strong family likeness, though more varied in colour above and in patterns below than either of the two preceding genera. The pattern of the under side of the hind wings varies very much in different species. Sometimes they may be striped with black and yellow, or the centre may be black with an irregular row of blue spots, or the centre may be yellow, enclosing two large black spots, each marked with a variable number of eyes. Callithea, the most splendid genus of the Catagramma group, contains larger species, found towards the west of South America. In C. sapphira the male is of the richest blue, while the female is blue only at the base, followed by a broad transverse orange band in the fore wings, while the hind wings are bordered with dull green. Some of the other species are similarly marked, while others are bluish-black towards the base ; and a pale bluish band runs round the borders of all the wings. The under side of all the species is green, sometimes more or less broadly orange at the base, and marked with transverse rows of black spots or lines. Batesia hypochlora, and its allies or varieties, are also large and splendid insects, from the Upper Amazons and Ecuador. The fore wings are black, with the basal third blue, and a very large red oval transverse spot or band running nearly across them. The hind wings are blue above, with a rather narrow black band near the border ; and beneath they are olive-yellow, or greenish. The genus Ageronia contains many common and well-known insects from Tropical America. These Butterflies frequent forests, and their habits were studied by Mr. Darwin. He met with A. feronia in the orange groves of Brazil, and describes it as a high flyer, but fond of alighting on the trunks of trees with its head downwards. It is remarkable for using its legs for running, but still more so for the clicking or crackling sound produced by the wings during flight. Mr. Darwin's observations have been subsequently verified by other naturalists, and the stridulation proves to be common to both sexes. It has not yet been ascertained whether the sound is produced at rest as well as when flying. Although several other Butterflies are now known to stridulate, yet this species is interesting as being the first on which this observation was made. The species of Ageronia expand from two to three inches. A. feronia and its allies are mottled with black, bluish, and white, and are sometimes marked with dull reddish spots; and there is generally a submarginal row of black eyes with white pupils on the hind wings. Other species are velvety-black above, spotted with blue, or very deep blue, spotted with paler, and with an oblique white band in the fore wings in the females. The under surface of the hind wings may be pale silvery-grey, with a row of submarginal brown rings, bordered on each side with a brown line, or may be yellow, red, brown, or steel-blue spotted with red, in various species. Cyrestis includes several delicate Butterflies confined to Tropical Asia and Africa. The hind wings are generally produced into a lobe at the anal angle, and there is a shoi-t projection or tail at the lower part of the hind margin, where the wing is angulated. Some of the species are white, marked with transverse dark or yellow lines towards the base ; others are tawny, with dark lines, or dark brown, with a transverse band of white. Cyrestis is represented in South America by the genus Megalura, which is remarkable for the superficial resemblance which the species bear to the true Pajnlioninw, or Swallow-tailed Butterflies, THE WHITE ADMIRAL BUTTERFLY. A, ACRJEA GEA; B, PSEUDACR^EA HIRCE. from which, however, they may ba at once distinguished by their imperfectly developed front legs. They are brown, tawny, or yellowish-white, marked with slender transverse lines, most conspicuous on the under side, which is generally of a paler colour. There is a lobe at the anal angle of the hind wings, and a long tail at the lower part of the hind margin. There is another group with much longer wings, somewhat re- sembling the tawny species of Colcenis in colour, size, and shape, except that there are three tails on the hind wings, that in the middle being the longest. We have already spoken of Hypo- limnas misippus, and the extraordinary resemblance of the female to Danais chrysippus. Several of the smaller species of Hypolimnas resemble the genus Euplcea, but others are among the largest and handsomest of the Butterflies inhabit- ing Asia and Africa. One of the com- monest African species is H. salmacis, which averages four inches in expanse. It is a dark brown Butterfly, broadly banded with white and blue. An African genus allied to this is called Pseudacrcea, from the great similarity of several of the species included in it to those of the genus Acrcea. The White Admiral (Limenitis sibylla) is a black Butterfly with white markings, and is considered a rather scarce insect in England. Its elegant sailing flight has long been? celebrated ; and Haworth tells a story of an old entomologist who was too infirm to chase Butterflies any longei-, but who would sit for hours together on a stile which commanded a view of a spot much frequented by this Butterfly, for the pleasure of watching its graceful evolutions on the wing. There is another European species of Limenitis (L. Camilla), which is more sharply marked than the English, and is of a bluish-black. It appears rather later in the summer, and I have generally met with it flying round detached bushes, rather than in woods. The larva? of both these Butterflies feed, on honeysuckle. Many handsome species of Limenitis, differing very much from the English, and generally much larger, are found in India and North America. NepLis and Athyma are genera closely allied to Limenitis. The species are very numerous ia the East Indies, but a few are African, and two species of }Neptis are European. They are dark brown Butterflies, with a white streak, often divided into two or three, running from the base of the fore wings. Rather beyond the middle of the fore wings is a transverse white band, more or less divided into spots, and more widely interrupted in the middle of the fore wings. Towards the margins is an outer row of smaller white markings. This general description will apply to almost all the species, except that the white markings are often replaced with tawny. Hamanumida dcedahis is a common African Butterfly, not remarkable for its beauty, but curious for its resemblance in colour to a Guinea-fowl, being grey, with several rows of white spots, edged with black. The under surface is more yellowish, but varies a good deal in intensity of colour. The obscure colouring of this insect must make it very inconspicuous, especially as the variations are said to correspond to the colour of the soil in the district where it occurs. The splendid genus Apatura includes the Purple Emperor (A. iris), one of the finest of the 244 WHITE ADMIRAL. NATURAL HISTORY, APATURA ILIA. British Butterflies. It measures from two to more than three inches in expanse, and is ot a dark brown above, spotted and barred with white, and there is a red ring near the anal angle of the hind •wings. In the nearly allied Continental A. ilia there is a similar eye on the fore wings as well. The male is shot with rich purple, and is remarkable for his lofty flight, usually perching on the tops of the tallest trees. It is common in Central Europe, but is confined to the south-east of England. Although ordinarily very difficult to capture, it will sometimes descend to the ground to drink at a puddle, or may be attracted by carrion. The caterpillar, which feeds on sallow, is green, with two horns on the head. Aganisthos odius is a grand South American But- terfly, measuring five inches across the wings. The fore wings are long, and almost "hooked at the tip, and the body is unusually stout. The wings are of a rich black, with the basal third of 'the fore wings tawny, this colour projecting in a large, slightly-curving lobe, ,almost to the hind margin. It is a Butterfly of very powerful flight, and that of Frepona, an allied South American genus, is said to be so rapid that the eye can scarcely follow it. Sometimes these Butterflies perch suddenly on the trunks of trees, closing their wings and remaining immovable. But if alarmed they dart away for a moment, and then return suddenly to the same spot. These Butterflies are similar in shape to the Purple Emperor, but much larger, and with much stouter bodies. They are black, with a broad bluish-green band across both wings, which is divided, •contracted, and turned inwards towards the tip of the fore wings. The upper side of most of the species of Prepona is similar to this, the under side is brown or grey. Near to this genus, and almost as large, measuring over three inches in expanse, is .another South American genus (Ayrias), which resembles a gigantic Catagramma in .appearance. A. cedon is brown, with a broad transverse scarlet band across the fore wings, and a large blue blotch near the anal angle of the hind wings. A. pkalcidon is dark blue, broadly bordered with green. Char axes is a genus almost confined to Asia and Africa, though one species (C. yasius), which feeds on the arbutus, is found all round the shores of the Mediterranean. It is a large Butterfly, expanding about three inches. The body is stout, the border of the fore wings is deeply excavated, and the hind CHARAXES JASIUS. wings are dentated, with two rather long tails. It is of a dark brown above, bordered with deep orange ; and the under side is red, banded with white and orange, and marked with black spots, edged with white. It is a Butterfly of very powerful and rapid flight, turning about like a Swallow to avoid any obstacle. It is very shy, and delights in the hottest localities, avoiding the shade of deep woods, and preferring dry hills or the idry beds of torrents, up and down which it courses without stopping to rest. But like other THE £RYCIX1D.V. 43 jiymphalince, it has a great preference for the same spot or twig, to which it will return day after day. It is fond of strongly-smelling substances, and rotten cheese is sometimes employed as a bait to attract it. Protogonius, the last genus of Nymplialinw which we shall notice, is South American. It is remarkable for its colouring, which resembles that of some of the Helicomnce, as well as for its peculiar shape, which is unlike that of any other insect. P. hippona measures about four inches across the fore wings, which are much longer than the hind wings. They are black, with a large tawny blotch running from the base to the middle, and widest on its lower side. Beyond this is an irregular transverse yellow band, and nearer the tip a white spot. The hind wings are tawny, and their lower border is black, with a row of long white spots. The long fore wings are strongly arched, curving over to the tip, which is pointed, but not long, and followed by a concavity, below which is a longer and sharper projection ; and another concavity brings us round to the hinder angle of the foro wings. At the outer angle of the hind wings is a long linear tail. FAMILY II.— ERYCINID^E. This family is intermediate between the NymphaMdae and the Lyccenidoe, for while the front legs are perfect in the females, they are rudimentary in the males. It is divided into four sub-families, of which the first, the Libytheince, containing only one genus and a very few species, has much resemblance to the Nymphalirue, but may be distinguished from almost all other Butterflies by the enormous length of the palpi, which are four times as long as the head, and are contiguous throughout their whole length, forming a kind of beak, as in the Crambidce. The fore wings have an angular projection below the tip, and the hind wings are dentated. One species is found in South Europe, which is brown, with a fulvous basal streak and large fulvous blotches. It measures about an inch and three-quarters across the wings. Several other species closely resembling this are met with in Asia, Africa, and America, and a blue species is found in the Moluccas. The pupa is suspended by the tail, as in the Nymphalidce. The three other sub families, forming the Erycinidce proper, have very short palpi, and their pupae are attached by the tail, and by a silken belt round the body as well. Very few species are met with out of South America, where they are exceedingly numerous, and are insects of rather delicate texture, unfitted for strong and sustained flight, and fond of settling on leaves rather than on flowers. The second sub-family — or the first of the true Erycinidce — is that of the tfenieobiinre, and is distinguished by the subcostal nervure of the fore wings dividing into four branches instead of three. To this group belongs the British Duke of Burgundy Fritillary (Nemeobius lucina), which has a superficial resemblance to a small Melitcea. It is a local insect in the South of England, and measures about an inch across the wings, which are brown, and marked with rows of dull orange spots. On the under surface it is reddish-brown, with black marginal clots, and two rows of whitish spots on the hind wings. The East Indian species of Nemeobiince are larger and handsomer Butterflies, and the hind wings are either rounded and dentated, or end in a lobe, or short, blunt tail, or are square, with a projection at the outer angle. They are generally streaked or spotted with white on the under surface. The principal South American genus of this section is Mesosemia, to which belong a great number of little brown or blue Butterflies, marked with black lines, especially on the hind wings, and nearly all have a large round black spot in the middle of the fore wings, marked with two or more white dots. The Euselfisiince only include one genus of importance (Euselasia). Their neuration is irregular, but the discoidal nervure is so closely united to the subcostal nervure that it appears to be an addi- tional branch, or a continuation of the subcostal itself. This is difficult to explain in words, but the Butterflies themselves may be easily known, having rather short fore wings and long hind wings, often marked with lines or eyes on the under side. Some are brown, some blue, and others again are fulvous, and several species strongly resemble the small South American Satyrlnce of the genus Euptychia. The last sub family, the Lemoniince, contains species with only three branches to the subcostal nervure, and with the subcostal and discoidal nervures completely distinct. We need notice only a few of the principal genera. The species of Limnns have rather long fore wings, often with crimson 44 NATURAL HISTORY. spots at the base. They are generally black, with orange borders or markings. The species of Necyria and Ancyluris are among the most beautiful of the group. They are black, with red or blue stripes, and the hind wings are often prolonged into a lobe, or a short tail. They are comparatively large Butterflies, expanding nearly two inches across the wings. Zeonia includes smaller Butterflies, with transparent wings, the black veins and borders excepted. The hind wings are marked with red, and terminate in a long narrow tail. Helicopis includes some very delicate cream-coloured Butterflies, with three tails on the hind wings. They are varied with black or yellow above, and the under surface of the hind wings is spangled with metallic golden spots, as is also the case with several species of allied genera. The species of Emesis are mostly very dull, dark brown Butterflies, with darker transverse lines, and the fore wings slightly pointed. The under surface is lighter, being dull brownish-yellow, or ochreous. Mesene includes a number of small red Butterflies, not expanding more than, an inch across the wings, generally with black borders, or black markings on the costa of the fore wings. A very characteristic and easily recognisable genus is Ni/mphidium, the species of which are nearly all white, with the costa of the fore wings and all the borders more or less broadly brown, and frequently marked with red lines or spots on the borders. Several long-winged genera have very little resemblance to the group to which they belong, but are more like species of Ithomia, or the allied genera. Such are some of the species of Stalachtis, It/to miola, &c., while Chamcelimnas includes a number of Butterflies with a lemon-yellow basal stripe, and a transverse band of the same colour near the tip of the black fore wings, and the hind wings are yellow, with black borders. These closely resemble an extensive group of day-flying Moths, also South American, both in shape, size, colour, and markings. Passing on from this large group of delicately-marked, but rather uninteresting Butterflies, we come to another extensive and more familiar family of small Butterflies. FAMILY III.— LYC^NID^E. In this family we find the legs of the males nearly as well developed as those of the females, except that they are rather smaller, and the last joint of the tarsi terminates in a simple hook. Their larvae are short and stout, somewhat resembling a Woodlouse in shape. The great majority of these Butterflies are of small size, the largest seldom expanding more than an inch and a half or two inches, and the prevailing colours are blue, copper-red, or brown. The under surface is generally marked either with black eyes enclosed in pale rings, or with pale trans- verse lines ; and the hind wings frequently end in a short and slender tail. This family is well represented in all parts of the world, especially in the Northern Hemisphere and in South America ; but the number of distinctly defined genera is small, although the species are very numerous. Miletus symetlius is a small brown Butterfly, with a white spot on the fore wings, and a grey under surface, marked with obscure lines. It is common in the East Indies, and its legs are unusually stout ; but what is much more remarkable is that it is said to inhabit Ants' nests. Strange as this habit is, it is by no means unexampled, for it is well known that a great variety of insects do inhabit Ants' nests, and among them is a small Scottish Moth (Tinea ochraceella), belonging to the same genus as the Clothes' Moths. The species of Zeritis are red, with brown borders, and with metallic spots on the under surface of the hind wings. They are found in Africa, but do not equal the splendid colouring of the European Copper Butterflies of the genus LYC.ENA PHL^IAS. LyccKna. The Small Copper (L. phlceas) has bright coppery- red fore wings, with black spots and borders, and the hind wings are black, with a marginal copper band. It abounds almost everywhere in dry, sunny, flowery places, and is found throughout Europe, North Africa, Northern and Western Asia, and a great part of North America. It is a pugnacious little Butterfly, often attacking and driving away much larger insects, if they approach the flower on which it is resting. The caterpillar is green, with red lines on the back and sides, and feeds on sorrel. THE BLUE BUTTERFLIES. LYC7ENA GORDIU8. Another species (Lyc&na dispar, the Large Copper) used to be common, in the fens of the Eastern Counties of England. It expands about two inches, and the male is brilliant copper, with rather narrow black borders, and two spots in the discoidal cell of the fore wings. The female has copper-coloured fore wings, with three discoidal spots, and an outer row of large black spots. The hind wings are dark brown, with black spots, and a submai-ginal copper band, and are bluish-grey beneath. The caterpillar used to feed on the great water-dock, but the insect has not been seen alive in any stage for some thirty- five years, and is believed to have be- come quite extinct in consequence of the draining of the fens. L. dispar is the largest species of the genus ; yet the males of some others surpass it in the brilliancy of their colouring, and in some instances the copper is strongly glossed with blue or purple, as, in L. gordius, for example. But these species are not British, though com- mon in some parts of the Continent. The small blue Butterflies, so familiar to all residents in the country, belong to the genus Polyommatus* so called from the majority of the species being decorated with numerous " eyes," or black spots in white rings, on the under surface of the wings. In most of the species the males are blue and the females brown, but in some cases both sexes are brown, and some few species white. But there are no white species in England, nor is there (except P. bceticus, as an occasional visitor) any representative of the section of the genus in which the hind wings are furnished with a short tail. The Common Blue (Polyommatus icarus) is a Butterfly about the size of the Small Copper, and of very similar habits. The male is lilac blue, with white fringes, and the female is blue or brown, with a marginal row of red spots. The under surface is brownish-grey on the fore wings, and yellowish-brown on. the hind wings, with a marginal row of red spots, bordered with black ones, and a central row of eyes. There are also two or three spots nearer the base both on the fore and hind wings. In the Clifton Blue (Polyommatus adonis) and the Chalk-hill Blue (P. cwydon) the fringes of the wings are spotted with black. The males of these insects are bright sky-blue and pale-blue respectively, and, like most of the British species of the genus, they are common on the chalk in the South of England. The Azure Blue (P. argiolus) is found in woods, flying about holly trees, but is not common everywhere. The male resembles the Common Blue above ; the female is blue, with broad brown borders to the fore wings. The under surface is pale blue, with a central row of small black spots. The Silver-studded Blue (P. cegon) is common on heaths, and much resembles the Common Blue, but the outermost of three rows of black eyes on the under side of the hind wings is conspicuously dusted with bright metallic blue. Throughout this group of Butterflies the species are best to be distinguished by the colour and markings of the under side of the hind wings. In some Continental species, the upper side of which differs little from that of English species, the hind wings are green beneath, or brown with large white spots. The caterpillars of these Butterflies generally feed on vetches, trefoil, and similar plants, and a singular discovery has been made respecting them in America. They exude a liquid from their bodies of which Ants jare very fond, and these attend upon them for the sake of it as they do upon the Aphides. This * Many-eyed. FOLYOMMATUS CORYDON. 46 NATURAL HISTORY. is an indirect confirmation of the statement which we have already mentioned, that Miletus aymethus is found in Ants' nests. The genus Hypochrysops, which is confined to Australia and the Malay Archipelago, contains blue or orange Butterflies, rather larger than the species of Folyommalus. The hind wings are dentated, but are chiefly remarkable for the gaudy colouring of the under surface, which is red in some species, with yellow and silvery spots, while it is banded with green and brown, or red, green, and yellow, and intersected with silvery lines, in others. The genus Thecla, which includes the Butterflies known as Hair-streaks, except the group to which the Brown and Purple Hair-streaks belong, is the largest in the family. There are probably six hundred species known at present, but it is likely that they will iiltimately be divided into smaller genera. Polyommatus is not quite so large a genus, but is more compact. These Butterflies are exceedingly numerous in tropical America, but are poorly represented in other parts of the world, and are not found at all in Africa (except on the Mediterranean coast) nor in Australia, where they are replaced by other genera. They are generally rather small Butterflies, of a blue or brown colour above, and with a short tail on the hind wings. The under surface is brown, grey, or white, and often marked with pale lines, whence the Butterflies derive their name of Hair-streaks. There is often an orange spot above or below at the anal angle of the hind wings. The White Letter Hair-streak (Thecla W album), a rather uncommon species in England, is brown above, and the under surface is paler, and marked with a very distinct white line across all the wings, forming a large W at the anal angle of the hind wings. Nearer the margin of the hind wings beneath is an orange band. Like most of the other species of the genus, this Butterfly may be looked for in woods, and its larva feeds on the elm. The Green Hair-streak (T. rubi) is a commoner insect, found in open woods and heaths in spring and early summer, flying about, and settling upon brambles. It differs from the other European Hair-streaks by wanting the tail on the hind wings, and by the bright green colour of the under surface. On the upper side it is uniform brown. There are several South American species allied to this, which are blue above. The South American Butterflies of this genus present a great variety of colour and pattern on the under surface, but eye-spots, which are almost universal in Polyommatus, are seldom to be met with in Thecla. Some species resemble Satyrince, being streaked below in such a manner as to resemble Butterflies of the genus Eupty cilia. Some of the largest species expand about two inches across the wings, and are most beautifully coloured on the under surface. Several of these have two tails to the hind wings, and are gorgeously spangled with golden green beneath, and are sometimes varied with reddish or GREEN HAIR-STREAK.. purplish markings. Thecla marsyas, on the other hand, is of a greenish-blue above, with the costa and tip of the fore wings black, and the under surface is very pale shining violet-grey, marked with black spots bordered with white. The species of Thecla have only ten nervures on the fore wings, but those of the next genus (Zephyrus] have eleven, the subcostal nervure emitting two branches before the extremity of the discoidal cell, and a third, which bifurcates, beyond. In Thecla, three simple nervures are emitted before the end of the cell, and none beyond. The Zephyri are not numerous, and are all found in Europe or Asia, except one species, which is Calif ornian. The Purple Hair-Streak (Z. quercus) is common in oak woods. The male is purplish-blue, with black hind margins, and the female is brown, with a rich purple blotch on the fore wings. The under side is silvery grey, with a white line towards the hind margin, and some orange and black spots towards the hinder angles of all the wings. Several of the Japanese and North Indian species of Zephyrus are of a beautiful brassy green on the upper side. Most of the remaining genera of the Lyccenidce are found in Asia or Africa, and are blue, brown, or white above, and adorned with one or two tails on each hind wing. These are generally very delicate and easily broken off, and are sometimes of very great length, equalling or exceeding the total length of the wings themselves. THE PIERIN^E. One of the commonest genera in the Eastern Archipelago is Amblypodice. These are blue Butter- flies, often with brown borders, resembling the European species of Thecla in shape, and, like them, generally with a short tail on the hind wings. But they are much larger, many of the species measuring two inches across the wings, The under surface is brown, with darker bands and markings, bordered with pale lines. Finally, JEumatus is a small South American genus, containing a few dark brown Butterflies more or less marked with green on the upper side. The hind wings are bordered by a green band, and on the under side by three nearly contiguous rows of spots of the same colour. FAMILY IV.— PAPILIONID^E. The Papilionidce may be at once distinguished from all other Butterflies (except the Hesperiidw, which we need not now consider) by their possessing six perfectly-developed legs in both sexes. The pupa, or chrysalis, is not only attached by the tail, but is generally fixed in an upright position by a belt of silk round the body. There are two sub-families. In the first (the Pierinte) the inner margin of the hind wings is not concave, and the larvae are slender, and covered with fine hair. In the second sub-family (the Papilionince) the inner margin of the hind wings is concave, and the larvae have always a retractile fork on the neck. The Pierince, to which many of our commonest Butterflies belong, are, with few exceptions, white or yellow, with black spots and borders. They are Butterflies of about the middle size, seldom measuring less than an inch and a half, or more than three inches across the wings, and the wings are very rarely dentated, and though furnished occasionally with angular projections in the middle, or towards the anal angle of the hind wings, are never tailed, in the strict sense of the term. The more aberrant genera are South American, and sometimes re- semble other Butterflies, but the first (Pereute) stands quite by itself. These are black Butterflies, measur- ing nearly three inches across the rather broad wings, and most species have a transverse red bar across the fore wings. Many of the species of Archonias resemble some of the smaller Nymphalida}, being black or brown, with a yellow or white band, often broken, into spots, run- ning across the middle of both pairs of wings. The hind wings are often more or less dentated, and are fre- quently ornamented beneath with numerous yellow spots and festooned markings of brown, black, and white. The genus Disniorphia is likewise South American. It includes a number of long-winged Butterflies with narrow wings, which have no resemblance to the family to which they belong, but " mimic " various species of Danaincc. Many are black and yellow, others are marked with red, and some are even transparent, with black bands and borders. Most species can readily be distinguished from the Butterflies which they resemble by their very broad hind wings, but in some instances they are so much like the long-winged Danaince that they might readily be passed over for them, but for the structure of their legs. A, DISMORPHIA ORISE ; B, METHONA PSIDII. 48 NATURAL HISTORY. Most of the small white and yellow Butterflies of the Tropics belong to the genus Eurema. Many of them measure an inch, or under, across the wings, and few expand as much as two inches. They are never spotted, but the wings are more or less broadly bordered with black ; and in some of the larger South American species the hind wings project below in an acute- angle. The genus Pieris includes the White Cabbage Butterflies, which are too well known to need description. Their green caterpillars may often be seen feeding on cabbage, &c., and the pupae are found on walls and palings, and are not unfrequently surrounded by the little yellow cocoons of an Ichneumon Fly (Pimpla manifestator]. The foreign species of Pieris, though numerous, call for no special notice, but the East Indian species, belonging to the allied genera Tachyris and Delias, are often very beautiful. Tasbyris nero has i-ather pointed fore wings, and is of a uniform red, with black nervures. On the under surface it is yellowish. Other allied species are blue, and others, white, with brown borders. Most of the species of Delias are white, with a row of red spots along the borders of the hind wings beneath, and another East Indian genus (Prioneris) is remarkable for the costa of the fore wings being ridged like a saw in the males. Perrhybris, the last of the sections of the old genus Pieris which we need notice here, is found in South America, and is remarkable for the difference between the sexes. The male of Perrhybrls pyrrha is white, with black borders above, but on the under side it is banded with white, black, and red. The female is streaked with black, yellow, and fulvous, giving it very much the appearance of one of the Heliconince, or of those Danainfe which most resemble them. This Butterfly is very common in America, but there are several other- species of the genus which exhibit a similar disparity in the sexes to a greater or less extent. The collection of the late Mr. Hewitson, now in the British Museum, contains a very singular specimen of P. pyrrha. It is a male, in which the right-hand wing is coloured as in the female, with the exception of one or two white spaces. Most of the larger yellow Butterflies of the Tropics belong to the genus Catopsilia. They generally measure about three inches across the wings, though some are larger or smaller. The fore wings have the costa arched, and the hind margin nearly straight, and the hind wings are rounded, very slightly dentated, and occasionally obtusely pointed at the anal angle of the hind wings. The antennae are of moderate length, and of a black colour. A few species are dull white, irrorated with brown on the under surface, but the greater number are of some shade of yellow or orange. The under surface is generally irrorated with reddish, and there is often a reddish-brown ring (frequently double) surrounding a silvery-white spot. One of the prettiest Butterflies is the Brimstone (Gonepteryx rhamni), which is common in* woods in most parts of England almost throughout the year. The male is sulphur-yellow, and the female whitish-yellow, and there is a small orange spot in the middle of each wing. The antenna; are short, thick, and of a reddish colour, and the body is black, clothed with long white hair. The Butterfly hibernates, and appears very early in spring ; the green caterpillar feeds on buckthorn. An allied species (G. cleopatra) is common in South Europe, in which the fore wings are orange in the male, and there are one or two species of Gonepleryx in tropical America which are remarkably (similar to G. rhamni, but are double the size. The Clouded Yellow Butterflies of the genus Colias ai^e found in every quarter of the globe, but in the tropics are only to be met with in the mountains. They are most numerous in temperate climates- and are Butterflies of moderate size, averaging about an inch and a half in expanse. The wings are moderately broad and more or less rounded, and are always of an orange or yellow colour, with a black border varying in width, which is generally lined with yellow in the male, and spotted with yellow in the female. There is a black spot in the middle of each fore wing, and there is often a. single or double silvery spot surrounded with darker on the under side of the hind wings, as in Catopsilia.. The caterpillars feed on clover and other leguminous plants, and the Butterflies are commoner in. some years than in others, and are most frequently met with in autumn. Our commonest species, the Clouded Yellow (Colias edusa], is of a bright orange-yellow, with black borders, and is swifter on the wing than almost any other species. It flies low, but with such rapidity that it IB very difficult to run down, though when not alarmed it will often settle on a flower, when it is easily captured. Some of the foreign species allied to this have a pink or purple flush over the orange^ THE ORANGE TIP BUTTERFLY. ORANGE TIP BUTTERFLY. which is occasionally visible in very fine specimens of C. edusa. And this species, as well as all the other orange species of Colias known, has two varieties of the female, one orange, and another — much scarcer — of a whitish colour. The Pale Clouded Yellow (C. kyale) is of a pale yellow colour, with narrower borders, and is a much scarcer insect than C. edusa in England, though more abundant on the Continent. The Orange Tip (Euchloe cardamines) is a very pretty spring Butterfly, found in woods and meadows in April and May. It is white, with a black spot at the •end of the cell of the fore wings, which are likewise tipped with dusky, and there is a large orange blotch filling up the whole space between, in the male only. The under surface of the hind wings and of the tip of the fore wings is chequered with green and white. It is an insect of weak flight, and very easily captured , but it is fond of settling with its wings closed on the flowers of umbelliferous plants — as observed by the late Mr. T. W. Wood — and as the colour of the under surface of the Butterfly is very similar to that of the plant, it is reasonable to suppose that it often escapes observation in this manner. The caterpillars are green, with a white stripe on each side, and feed on various cruciferous plants. The pupa is pointed at both ends, and somewhat resembles a boat in shape. Orange Tips, belonging to the nearly allied genus Teracolus, are common in Africa, but most of these have either a black band on the inner margin of the fore wings, or a black border, or black mar- ginal spots on the hind wings, and are not mottled with white and green beneath. In some species, however, the orange blotch on the fore wings is replaced by the most beautiful violet. The species of Hebomoia are rare insects, found in the Moluccas. One species only (H. glaucippe) is also common in India. It measures upwards of four inches across the wings, which are of a slightly yellowish- white. The outer portion of the fore wings is triangularly black, filled up by a broad band of connected orange spots, indented outwardly by the black border, and marked with an irregular row of small black spots in the middle. The Papilioninae, are in general much larger and hand- somer Butterflies than the Pierince. They exhibit great varieties of form and colouring, and the hind wings are gener- ally dentated, and often tailed. The caterpillars are of various shapes, but are usually rather stout, and sometimes thicker in the middle than at the extremities. They have always a retractile fork on the segment behind the head, which is believed to be serviceable in driving away Ichneumon Flies, or other enemies. The genus Parnassius more resembles the Pierince than any other of this group. The Butterflies -are all mountain insects, and are confined to Europe, Asia, and the west of North America. The 245 ORANGE TIP KUTTERFLY AT REST. 5^ NATURAL HISTORY. best known species (Parnassius apollo) is abundant in the Alps. It is white, thinly scaled towards the extremities of the wings, and the fore wings are marked with several black spots. On the hind wings are two large round red spots, whitish in the middle, and enclosed in black rings. Most of the other species of Parnassius closely resemble this ; but P. mnemosyne, also an Alpine species, has no red spots, but only two black spots on the fore wings, and even these disappear in the Siberian P. stubbendorfii. The few known caterpillars of this genus are black, with rows of red spots on the sides, and feed on different species of saxifrage. The genus Teinopalpus is distinguished fr-om any other of the sub-family by the unusual length off its palpi. T. imperialis is one of the rarest and most PARNASSIUS APOLLO. beautiful of Himalayan Butterflies, and measures about five inches across the wings, which are black,. dusted all over with velvety green, and banded with purple. The hind wings are very strongly dentated, with one long tail in the male, and three in the female. The great genus Prpilio, which includes the well-known Swallow-tail Butterflies, may be known from the other genera of the family by its longer antennae and very short palpi. There are about 500 species known at present, but only four are European, and the genus attains its maximum of size, beauty, and variety in Africa and the Eastern Archipelago. It is in the latter region that the splendid Bird-winged Butterflies, belonging to the sub-genus Omithoptera, may be found. AIL the species included in it are very large insects, with long fore wings, measuring from five to. eight or nine inches across, and short, more or less dentated hind wings, which, however-, are not tailed. The first groiip have velvety-black wings, with a broad green stripe running parallel to the costa, and a narrower bar running near the inner margin and curving up along the hind margin. The hind wings are green, with a row of round black spots, and the abdomen is golden-yellow. Such are the males. The females are large black Butterflies, with two rows of white spots on the fore wings, and a row of very large oval ones, marked with round black spots, near the border of the hind wings. In one species (Omithoptera urvilliana), which has been brought from Duke of York Island, the ordinary green of the male is replaced by the richest blue ; in another (P. craesus) it has been changed for the most brilliant golden-orange. The latter- species is conflned to the two small islands of Batchian and Gilolo, in the Northern Moluccas, where it was discover-ed not many years ago by the enterprising traveller and naturalist, Mr. A. R, Wallace. After having only caught an occasional glimpse of this magnificent species, flying far out of reach, he succeeded in finding a beautiful shrub with yellow flowers which was. frequented by the insect; and subsequently his native collector met with it flying along the bed of a large rocky stream, and settling occasionally on stones and rocks in the water. Mr. Wallace thus describes his first capture of the insect : — " None but a naturalist can understand the intense excitement I experienced when I at length captured it. On taking it out of my net, and opening the glorious wings, my heart began to beat violently, the blood rushed to my head> and I felt much more like fainting than I have done when in apprehension of immediate death. I had a headache the rest of the day, so great was the excitement produced by what will appear to most people a very inadequate cause."* The second group of Ornitlioptera is not confined to the islands, but extends to India and South China. The fore wings are narrower than in the preceding group, and are black, while the hind wings are yellow or golden-yellow in the centre, with black borders, or conical marginal spots, and often a row of round black spots within them. The third group contains but one species — another grand discovery of Mr. Wallace's — Omithoptera brookeana, from Borneo and Sumatra. It is black, with a row of large green spots on the outer portion of the fore wings. They are of a long triangular form, the apices extending to the margins. * "Malay Archipelago," ch. xxiv. THE PAPILIONIN^E. 51 The collar is broadly The hind wings have a broad continuous band of green across the centre, red. There is a very large and difficult group of South American Papilios, resembling Ornitkopterce in form, but less than half the size, only averaging about three inches across the wings, which are black, often with a large white or green spot on the fore wings, and with a crimson band on the hind wings, which is not unfrequently glossed over with the most beautiful pale iridescent bluish or greenish violet. Another South American group resembling these has a short pointed tail on. the LEPTOCIRCUS CURIUS. ORNITHGPTERA AMPHRISUS. hind wings ; and a third group from the same country includes brown species of larger size, with one or two rows of ochreous yellow spots running round ail the wings. The hind wings are dentated but not tailed. Among the East Indian species there are some brown Butterflies, glossed with blue and spotted with white in the same manner as in the genus Euplcca, which they resemble in shape and size as well as colour. A second East Indian group is black, with a large white spot, divided by the veins on the hind wings, which are tailed ; and a third section, closely resembling this, contains black species, dusted all over with golden-green. Both these groups contain species of considerable size, often measuring four inches or more across the wings. These lead us on to the splendid Papilio uli/sses and its allies, which are met with, like the Ornithopterce, in the Eastern Islands. These are large blue Butterflies, with black borders, and tails on the hind wings. Mr. Wallace describes one species as darting down in openings of the forest from the tops of the trees for a moment,, and 52 NATURAL HISTORY. then soaring out of sight with equal suddenness. All these large Butterflies appear to have a very- lofty and powerful flight, and the difficulty of obtaining them is frequently the chief cavise of their rarity in collections. The commonest of the European Swallow-tails, and the only one found in England, is Papilio machaon. It is a sulphur-yellow Butterfly, with black markings, and borders to the fore wings. The hind wings are tailed, and their dark border encloses a row of large bluish spots, :uid there is a large red spot at the anal angle. The cater- pillar is green, with black stripes spotted with orange on the sides, and feeds on various umbelliferous plants, includ- ing the common carrot. In England this Butterfly is confined to the fenny districts in the east, but on the Con- tinent it is quite a common species in gardens, clover- fields, and woods. Many East Indian or African species are black, spotted or banded with green, and several of the latter feed on the orange-tree ; but a far more remarkable African But- terfly is P. merope. The male is a cream-coloured Butterfly, with black borders to the fore wings, marked with a pale spot near the tip. The hind wings are tailed, and marked with a more or less connected row of black spots ; but the females are all tailless, and have no resemblance whatever to the male in either shape or colour, but resemble various African species of Danaince. One female is black, with ochreous spots and mark- ings ; another is black, with a very broad white band across the hind wings (sometimes extending nearly to the base), and continued on the inner margin of the fore wings. There is also a broad white transverse band towards the tip of the fore wings, and several smaller white spots. Another female is similar to this, but the pale markings are deep ochreous-yellow, the hind wings being wholly of this colour, except a black border. In others, again, the fore wings are black and white, and the hind wings are of some shade of yellow, with black borders. Other species of Papilio are known in which the females differ equally from the males, or which are polymorphic; but this Butterfly is peculiarly remarkable, because a closely allied species occurs in Madagascar, in which the female only differs from the male by the presence of a broad black bar on the costa of the fore wings. The genus Leptocircus includes a few small black, green, and transparent East Indian Butter- flies, of a very peculiar shape, which will be seen in the figure on p. 51. FAMILY V.— HESPERIID^E. The Hesperiidce, the last family of Butterflies, although numbering at least 1,500 species, need not detain us long, as very few are found in Europe, and the foreign species call for but little remark. They are mostly small Butterflies, with thick bodies and comparatively small wings. The six legs are all fully developed in both sexes, and the head is large. The antenna?, instead of being placed close together, as in other Butterflies, are placed widely apart, and are often hooked at the tip. The caterpillars are short, tapering at both ends, and the head is large. They generally live between leaves loosely spun together, and construct a slight cocoon in the same manner. The Butterflies are called Skippers, from their short jerking flight. The first genus (Thymele) is confined to tropical America, and may be known by the hind wings being produced into a rather long, broad tail. The Butterflies are brown, often greenish towards the THE HESPERIID^E. 53 base, and with transparent dots or spots on the fore wings. Telcgonus is another American genus, containing rather larger species, with a lobe instead of a tail at the anal angle of the hind wings. These are brown Butterflies, with yellowish-tawny markings. Casyapa is an East Indian genus, also brown, with large yellowish spots on the fore wings, but the hind wings are not produced at the anal an^le. These Butterflies are among the largest of the family, measuring three inches in expanse, but they are surpassed by the African Ismene ipkis, the giant of the Hesperiidce, which sometimes measures as much as four inches across the wings. This is a black or bronzy-greenish Butterfly, with rather long fore wings and long hind wings, lobed at the anal angle ; the collar and part of the head are scarlet. Other species of Ismene, usually of rich dark colours, but much smaller than /. iphis, are common in Asia and Africa. The genus Pyr- rhopyga is South American, and includes several black or blue-black species, generally with a red head and tail, and sometimes with reddish or yellowish borders. The hind wings are often slightly pro- duced at the anal angle. They generally expand rather less than two inches, but some of the larger species are black, with their bodies striped and banded with black and white, or black and green, and their wings marked with transverse bands, some green and some transparent. The great genus Pam- phila, the most typical of the family, contains small species, seldom exceeding an inch and a half in expanse. Most of the species are brown, with tawny markings, and there is nearly always a black longitudinal patch of raised scales on the fore wings of the male. In many species, as in the Pearl Skipper (P. comma), a common Butterfly on the chalk in the South of England, the hind wings are green beneath, with white spots. The species of Hesperia are small Butterflies resembling the Grizzled Skipper (H. malvai), which is common in woods in spring. It is blackish- brown, with many white spots, which form irregular bands on the fore wings, and the fringes are also spotted with black and white. Several allied species are found on the Continent. The South American genus Pythonides is allied to this, and contains species of about the same size. Some of these are white, with dark borders and dark veins ; others are dark brown, with bluish or transparent spots on the fore wings, and a blue band or border on the hind wings. The Dingy Skipper (Nisoniades tages), a dull brown butterfly, with very obscure markings, is found in England, and several of the foreign genera are also very obscurely marked. The South American Achlyodes busirus is a blackish Butterfly with obscure darker markings and a rather irregular outline. The hind wings are bordered with yellowish beneath. At the end of the Hesperiidce we may place a few species of doubtful position, intermediate between Butterflies and Moths. One of these (MegotJiymus yuccai) is a rather long-winged insect, expanding nearly three inches. It is brown, with tawny markings, and is found in the Southern A, AM AURIS NIAVIUS; B, PAPILIO MEKOPE (FEMALE). 54 NATURAL HISTORY. United States and Mexico, where its caterpillar lives in the stems of the American aloe. Another species (Eusc/temon rafflesice) is an Australian insect of nearly equal size. It is of a rich velvety black, with bright yellow markings on the hind wings, and is remarkable for having the fore and hind wings connected by a bristle at the base, an arrangement frequently met with in Moths, but not occurring in any other known Butterfly. CHAPTER XL MOTHS. The Pages — The Castniidce — Moths with Clubbed Antennae — Humming Bird Hawk Moth — Bee Clear-wings — Lovers of the Vine — Eyed Hawk Moth — Death's Head Hawk Moth — Scented Hawk Moths — Hornet Clear-wing — Currant Clear- wing — The Green Foresters — The Burnets — Day-flying Moths of the East Indies— The Footmen— The Tigers — The Gold-tail Moth— The Gipsy Moth— Case-bearing Moths— The Puss Moth— The Prominents— The Lobster Moth— The Processionary Caterpillars — The Silkworm — The Atlas Moth — The Ailanthus Silkworm — The Tusseh Silkworm — Long- tailed Moths— The Emperor Moth— The Lappet Moth— The Oak Eggar— The Lackey Moth— The Wood Leopard Moth —The Goat Moth— The Swifts— The Night Moths— The Wainscots— The Dark Arches -The Cabbage Moth— The Cut- worms— The Yellow Underwings— The Chestnuts — The Angle Shades- -The Sharks— Beautiful Yellow Under wing — The Gamma Moth, or Silver Y— The Burnished Brass Moth— The Old Lady— The Red Underwings— The Orange Moths of Australia — The Great Owl Moth — The Snout — The Loopers — The Swallow-tail Moth — The Brimstone Moth — The Thorns— The Emeralds— The Waves— Heath Moths— The Soldier Moths— The Magpie Moth— Winter Moths— The Pugs— The Carpets -Erateina— The Pearls— The Meal Moth— The Crimson and Gold— The China Marks— The Small Magpie— The Knot-horns— Their Webs— The Grass Moths— The Bell Moths— The Green Oak Moth— Pests of the Orchard — Jumping Seeds — Clothes' Moths — Long- horns— The Smallest Moth known — The Plume Moths — The Twenty-plume Moth — Fossil Butterflies and Moths. MOTHS are many times more numerous than Butterflies. In Britain we have about thirty Moths to every Butterfly ; and although the same proportion does not hold good elsewhere (for there are only seventeen Moths to one Butterfly on the Continent), yet, taking the whole world, we are at present acquainted with about 40,000 or 50,000 Moths, and only 10,000 or 12,000 Butterflies, although com- paratively little attention has yet been bestowed on Moths either by collectors or entomologists. In discussing the Moths, therefore, we must here content ourselves with briefly noticing the principal families, and a few of the more interesting species. But the classification of Moths is at present much less satisfactory than that of Butterflies, and it is not pretended that the families of Moths about to be enumerated follow in natural order. But we find throughout nature that many groups of animals and plants combine the characters of others in varying proportions, and that it is frequently impossible to arrange either families, genera, or species in a linear series which is also natural, even in the case of groups which are much better understood than the Moths. The old groups, Sphinges and Bom- byces, the first of which included the families up to the Zygcenidce inclusive, and the latter the remaining families to the ffepialidce inclusive, are now abandoned by most entomologists as scientifically accurate terms, though still frequently used for convenience in a general manner. The Uramidae, or Pages, include a small number of very beautiful Moths, formerly regarded as Butterflies, and still of doubtful position. The typical genus Urania is South American. The species are all transversely banded with black and green, and there is a long tail, sometimes edged with white, on the hind wings. They measure about three inches across the wings, and but for the long and slender antennae might well pass for true Papilios. They fly by day, and one species (Urania fulgens) migrates in large flocks at certain seasons across the Isthmus of Panama. Several genera allied to this, but of duller colours, are found in the East Indies, but one of the most beautiful insects known is the splendid Chrysiridia madagascariensis, which is banded with black and green. The hind wings are three-tailed, and a great part of their surface is of a flame-coloured red, shading into orange on the under surface, and with black markings. This insect, which measures four inches across the wings, is common in Madagascar and at Zanzibar ; and it is stated that if the Moth emerges from the chrysalis in the shade the wings take much longer to develop, and are much less brilliant than when it emerges in the sunshine. These Moths are referred by some writers to the Geometridce. The Castniidce are another group of day-flying Moths, common in the East Indies and America, which used to be regarded as Butterflies by early writers on entomology. They have robust bodies, TEE HAWK MOTHS. and broad wings ; the antennae are stout, and thickened gradually before the extremity, which ends in a slender hook. The South American species of Castnia are large Moths, measuring from two to six inches across the wings, and in many cases the fore wings are dark, and the hind wings banded with white, and spotted towards the borders with red. But they vary considerably, both in form and colour. Some few species of the family are transparent; and in the Australian genus Synemon the antennae are clubbed, and the Moths, which expand about an inch and a half across the wings, might easily be mistaken for Hesperiidce, We now come to the great family of Sphingidce, or Hawk Moths, which may be known by their large head, prominent eyes, stout antennge, more or less thickened in the middle, and often serrated, but not pectinated, in the males, and their long, narrow, pointed wings. The caterpillars ai'e smooth, often green, with, transverse stripes on the sides, and there is nearly always a horn on the back of the last segment but one. They change to pupse either on the surface of the ground or in a cell under ground, which they form for the purpose. Every one is familiar with the Humming Bird Hawk Moth (Macroglossa stellataruni), which may often be seen buzzing over the flowers in our gardens, and rifling them of their sweets by means of its long proboscis, without ever resting. It is not uncommonly mistaken for a real Humming Bird, and some of the allied South American species. actually resemble Humming Birds so closely in flight that they cannot be distinguished from them on the wing ; and during his travels on the Amazons Mr. Bates often shot one of these Moths by mistake for a Humming Bird. Our common species has brown fore wings, and reddish tawny hind wings, and the abdomen is tufted at the extremity. Most of the foreign species are very similarly coloured. The Bee Hawk Moths. (Sesia fuciformis and bombyli- formis) are of about the same size and shape as the Hum- ming Bird Hawk Moth ; but their bodies are yellow, with a reddish-brown belt, and downy, and the wings are OLEANDER HAWK MOTH. (Cterocampa nerii.) transparent, with brown or reddish-brown borders. They are not uncommonly seen flying over flowers in woods in spring, but their flight is much less rapid than that of M. stettatarum. There is a beautiful Continental Hawk Moth about the same size as. 66 NATURAL HISTORY. these, with green fore wings and yellow hind wings, and the borders of all the wings are strongly dentated. It is called Pterogon proserpiua, and flies at dusk. Many of the larger Sphinges feed on the vine, the best known of which is the Sharp-winged Hawk Moth (Chcerocampa celerio), which is common in many parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, though rare in Britain. It has pale brown fore wings, with a waved silvery stripe running from near the base of the inner margin to the tip ; the hind wings are rose-colour, with the hind margins and a central streak broadly black. The caterpillars of the genus to which this insect belongs have the front segments tapering and retractile, which gives them a fancied resemblance to a hog's snout or elephant's trunk, whence they derive their Greek name of C/werocampa (hog's snout), and their English name of Elephant Hawk Moths, generally applied to two smaller and commoner species of this genus. There is an American genus allied to these, called Philampelus (or vine- __ loving), because most of the species feed =^-_ on this plant. One of the most singular species is Philampeku labruscce (the lover of the wild vine), which is common in Central and South America. The fore wings are dull green, and the hind wings are pale blue and black at the base, with broad pale yellow borders. It measures about five inches across the wings. Our only genus of Hawk Moths with dentated wings is Smerinthus, to which the Eyed Hawk Moth (/£ ocellatus} belongs. The fore wings are light brown, and the hind wings are pale pink, with a large round blue spot in a black ring towards the anal angle. One of the allied North American species (/&'. geminatus) has a double eye in a similar position. One of the most remarkable species of this group is the Death's Head Hawk Moth (Ackerontia atrupos), the largest Moth found in Britain. The fore wings are dark brown, varied with black, grey, and yellowish, and the hind wings are dark yellow, with two black bands. On the back of the thorax is a pattern in grey and black, not unlike a skull. The abdomen is banded with black and yellow, with a longitudinal bluish-grey band on the back. The body is very stout, the antennae are thick and rather short, and the wings expand about six inches. The enormous yellowish-green caterpillar, with dark stripes on the sides, feeds on various plants, including the potato, and has actually been sometimes mistaken for the Colorado Potato Beetle ! The Moth is capable of producing a sound resembling the squeaking of a mouse, and will sometimes enter hives to feast on the honey. It is supposed that its squeak -overawes the Bees, in the same manner as the voice of their own queen. I may here mention that I once knew a German artisan who was an enthusiastic collector of Butter- flies and Moths, and when he was dying he requested a friend to place a specimen of this insect on his breast in his coffin, which was accord- ingly done. The type of the Sphingidce is the Privet Hawk Moth (Sphinx ligustri). It measures about four EYED HAWK. MOTH. CHRYSALIS OF DEATH'S HEAD HAWK MOTH. THE ZYG^ftlVJE. 57 CATERPILLAR OF DEATH'S HEAD HAWK MOTH. inches across the wings, which are pale brown, varied with darker brown and black ; the hind wings are pale pink, crossed by three black bands. The green caterpillar, with white and lilac streaks on the sides, and a black horn on the back, feeds on privet and Jilac, and the position which ^g&jfl it assumes when at rest suggested that of the mytho- logical Sphinx to the old naturalists, who applied this name to the insect. The small family of the jEgeriidoe, or Clear-wings, con- tains a few Moths with trans- parent wings, the caterpillars of which feed on the stems of trees or plants. In the first genus (Sphecia) the body is stout, and not tufted ; S. apiformis, which may often be found sitting on the trunks of poplars in early summer, looks very much like a large Wasp, being black and yellow, and of about the same size. Another species (S. bem- beciformis) feeds on osiers. The species of the other genus (Trochilium) are much smaller insects, with long slender bodies, tufted at the extremity. The commonest species, the Currant Clear-wing (T. tipuliformis), which measures about three-quarters of an inch across the wings, has transparent wings, with black borders slightly vailed with orange, three yellowish rings on the abdomen, and a black tuft at the extremity. &It is common and sometimes in- jurious in gardens, where its caterpillars live in the shoots of the currant, but the Moth is very liable to be mistaken for some kind of fly. The family Zygcenidce con- tains the Green Foresters and the Burnets. The former have thick and obtuse, or slender, antemife, sometimes slightly pectinated; in the Burnets the antennee are strongly thickened before the tip. They are all small insects, with rather long fore wings and shorter hind wings, and rather stout bodies : they fly heavily and grega- riously in meadows or waste places by day. The Green Foresters (Ino) have green fore wings and brown hind DEATH'S HEAD HAWK MOTH. 246 wings ; the Burnets NATURAL HISTORY. SPHECIA HEMliECIFOUMIS. ZYG^ENA FILIPENDULJE. have steel-blue or greenish fore wings, spotted or streaked with bright red, and the hind wings are of the same colour, which, however, is occasionally liable to be replaced by yellow, as an accidental variation. The yellowish cocoon is often met with attached to the stems of grass, &c. Many of the East Indian species of this family have transparent spots on the fore wings, and some of the South American species are completely transparent. The family Chalcosiidce is allied to the last, but the species are larger and adorned with very bright colours. They fly by day, and some species resemble Papttio in shape and colour, while others might be mistaken for Euplo&a. The antennae, however, are generally simple, and are always unmistakably those of a Moth. These species are East Indian. The Lit/tosiidce, or Footmen, are a group of Moths with simple .antennae, rather narrow fore wings, and broad hind wings, which are folded beneath when at rest. In the net they usually simulate death. The fore wings are generally grey, with the costa yellow, and the hind wings pale yellowish. The Moths expand about an inch and a quarter, and some species are marked with a few black dots. The Arctiidce, or Tiger Moths, are the most beautiful family of Moths found in Europe. The common Tiger Moth may be taken as typical of the group. It measures from two to three inches across the wings, which are black, with interlacing white markings ; the hind wings are red, with large black spots bordered with yellowish. The abdomen is also red, with black markings. The caterpillar is often called " the Woolly Bear," being covered with tufts of long hair, which is black, tipped with white on the back, and reddish-brown on segments 2-4 and on the sides. When disturbed, it rolls itself up into a ball. Most of the other species of this family are similarly coloured, having dark fore wings, with white or yellow markings, and red or yellow hind wings, with rovind black spots. But some species are less gaudily coloured, and the White and Buff Ermines (Spilosoma mentkastri and hibricipeda), which are common in gardens, are white or yellowish, with black dots. Many of the Liparidcn are white Moths, more or less marked with black. The bodies of the females are thick and tufted at the extremity. This tuft is very con- spicuous in the Gold-tail and Brown-tail Moths (Porthesia chrysorrhoea, and aurifluci). They are white, with or without a black spot near the anal angle of the fore wings, and measure about an inch and a half in expanse. The eggs are laid in a cluster, and covered by the female with down plucked from the tuft with which she is provided for the purpose. The Moths are common on hedges on summer evenings. The male of the Vapourer Moth (Orgyia antiqua) is about the same size, but has broader and shorter wings. It is orange-brown, with a white spot near the hinder angle of the fore wings, and is a most abundant insect, flying everywhere, about bushes, and even in the streets of London, where there are trees in squares or gardens within any reasonable distance. The female has rudimentary wings, and looks something like a spider. The Gipsy Moth is a larger insect, very abundant and destructive on the Continent, but rare in Britain. The male, which expands rather more than an inch and a half, has a slender body and broad wings. The female is white, with a thick body and longer wings, and is very much larger than the male. She is generally found resting on hedges or tree trunks in the day-time, while the male flies rapidly by day, like that of Orgyia antiqua. In most of the Liparidce the antennae are strongly pectinated in the males, and are more simple in the females. The Psychidas are a family of small Moths, in which the males expand an. PSYCHE MUXELLA. inch or less, and have uniform blackish or whitish wings, rounded at the ex- tremities. They fly in grassy places by day, and the caterpillars construct movable cases of bits of grass, leaves, &c., not unlike those formed by the larvae of Caddis Flies. In these they change into pupae, and the females of some species never leave them, for the females of all the species are apterous, and in some genera the legs and antennae are undeveloped too. COCOON OF ZYG^ENA FILIPENDULJE THE PROUESSIONARY MOTH. 59 The Notodontidce are a family of larger Moths, measuring from half an inch to two inches and a half across the wings, which are rather long, and rounded at the extremity. Many of them are called "Promi- nents," from a projection on the inner margin of the fore wings. The Moths are generally of dull colours — white or brown, with darker markings, or tawny, with dark lines or white spots on the costa. But the caterpillars are far more interesting from their strange shapes and habits. The first which we shall mention is the Puss Moth, a common insect, of which the caterpillar feeds on poplar and willow. The Moth measures nearly three inches across the wings, which are white, suffused with greyish, with zigzag blackish transverse lines. The thorax and abdomen are spotted with black. The caterpillar is green, with a large retractile head bor- dered with red, and a dark mark on the back, varied with greyish-brown or red, and bor- dered with white. This mark is very broad in the middle (where it is some- what greenish), and then tapers off towards the tail. The caterpillar has only fourteen legs, the claspers being replaced by two long, slender tubes, from which soft threads can be protruded. This large, green, hump- backed caterpillar, with its forked tail, can hardly be mistaken for any other. There are three species of the same genus found in Britain, which are sometimes called " Kittens " by collectors, but they are much smaller as well as much rarer. One of the prettiest Moths of this family is Microdonta bicolera, which is snow-white, with orange spots on the fore wings, and expands about an inch and a half. It is a great rarity in England. The Lobster Moth (Stauropus fagi) is also rather a scarce insect, though much commoner than the last. It is of a brownish-grey, with darker markings, and expands about two inches and a half. The caterpillar is chestnut-brown, with enormously long legs and two projections at the extremity of the body. It feeds on a great variety of trees, and when at rest it stands on its prolegs, and lifts up both extremities of its body, giving it, as may well be supposed from its long front legs, and its two anal appendages, a very odd appearance, which has given the Moth its English name. The Processionary Moth (Cnethocampa processioned) is an obscure, yellowish-grey insect, with darker markings, and expands rather more than an inch. It is only doubtfully British, but is frequently met with on the Continent, where the caterpillars, which are bluish-black on the back and whitish on the sides, feed gregariously on oaks. They form large webs, and go out to feed in regular order, first one, then two, then three, &c. They are covered with fine barbed hairs, and these, as well as the dust in the webs, are so terribly irritating to the skin, that it is scarcely safe to approach the nests ; and it is even said that death has sometimes been caused by the swelling and inflammation thus produced. Another larger species feeds on fir-trees, and is not found so far north as the last (C. pityocampa). PUSS CATERPILLAR AND MALE MOTH. GO NA'lVliAL II1STOEY. The hairs of the caterpillars are just as irritating as those of C. processioneu, or even more so. These caterpillars march in single file, instead of in an increasing series. The great enemy of both species is a large green Beetle, called Calosoma sycophanta. The only European species of the small family of the Bombycidce is the Mulberry Silkworm (I)Oinby.c mort). The caterpillar is creamy white and naked, with a hump on the last segment but one. Its real food is the white mul- berry, but in Eng- land it is often fed on lettuce. The Moth measures about two inches, or rather less, across the wings, which are some- what falcate, and are of a yellowish- white colour, with indistinct dusky transverse lines. The cocoon is yel- low or white, ac- cording to the breed, and it is from this that the greater part of the silk used in com- merce is obtained. The Silkworm was originally a native of China, and Chinese historians attribute the discovery of the use of silk to the Queen of the Emperor Hwang-te, who lived about 2640 B.C., and the rearing of Silkworms formed one of the principal duties of the queens and ladies of the court for many centuries afterwards. A great deal of silk is also reared in those parts of India where the climate is sufficiently favourable to the growth of the insect. The Silkworm was first introduced into Europe in the reign of Justinian by some missionaries, who smuggled the eggs to Constantinople concealed in canes. The rearing of Silkworms soon became common, and has ever since formed one of the staple industries of Southern Europe, where the insect has become naturalised in many places. The caterpillar is, however, subject to many diseases, which have greatly diminished the yield of silk of late years. The Moth is not reared in England, except as a curiosity, although it is perfectly able to bear the climate. I am informed that English-grown silk is of very good quality, but that the thread is too short to be of any commercial value. The domesticated Moth is a heavy insect, quite incapable of flight, but if reared in perfect freedom in the open air it recovers the power in a few generations. Although Bombyx mori is the only Moth reared for its silk in Europe, several other species belonging to other families are used for the same purpose in China, India, and Japan. Most of these belong to the Sattirniidce, a family which includes many of the largest Moths known, nearly all of which have either a large transparent spot, or a large round eye-spot in the middle of each wing. The antennae are strongly pectinated, especially in the males, and the body is stout, and often very short. The Atlas Moth (Attacus atlas) sometimes measures nearly a foot across the expanded wings, which are of a tawny fawn-colour, with a large triangular transparent spot on each. The Ailanthus Silkworm (Attacus cynthia] belongs to the same genus, but is a much smaller insect, only measuring about five or six inches across the wings. The Moth is of a dull olive-green, with a large transparent bunule, edged below with yellow, on each wing. There is also a broad suffused pink band, edged within LOBSTER CATERPILLAR AND MOTH. SILKWORM MOTHS. 61 with white and then black, running across all the wings. The caterpillar is yellow, greyish-blue, or green, according to age, and spotted with black. When half-grown it becomes studded with long white tubercles, which secrete a waxy powder. It forms a cocoon resembling brown paper, folded in a leaf of the tree, which is connected with the branch by a silk riband, so that there is no danger of the cocoon falling from the tree when the leaf dies. This insect, which is a native of China, feeds on Ailanthus glandidosa, a naturalised tree, is very easily reared, and has been introduced into England, and many parts of the Continent, and has become wild in some places. But as there are great difficulties in successfully winding the silk, speculators have rarely attempted to rear it on a sufficiently large scale to test its actual value as an article of commerce. A great deal of the silk which is used in Japan is produced by the Oak-feeding Silkworm (Anthercea yamamai), which yields a large and beautiful green cocoon of excellent quality. The Moth is a large yellow insect, measuring about seven inches across the wings, which are narrower than in the genus Attacus. In the middle of each wing is a round transparent spot. The Japanese Government long re- served the monopoly of this insect to Japan, its exportation being prohibited on pain of death. But notwithstanding this, eggs were smuggled out of the country from time to time, and there is now no restriction on their exportation. Never- theless, Europe has not yet profited by the introduction of the insect, for although great hopes were based upon it, it is very difficult to rear, and rapidly degenerates in Europe. The cause of its failure has not yet been discovered. Several other closely- allied species are used for the production of silk. Among these is Anthercea pernt/i, a Silkworm which feeds on the oak in North China ; and Anthercva mylitta, the Tusseh Silkworm, a common Indian insect, which yields a rather coarse-looking silk, which requires to be carded, for it cannot be wound, but which is so durable that a dress made of it frequently descends from mother to daughter, as it takes more than one lifetime to wear it out. Several of the Moths of this family have long tails on the hind wings. These are not mere pro- jections, as in many Butterflies, but are more like prolongations of the wings themselves. In the genus Actias all the species are tailed, and are of a green or yellow colour, with an eye on each wing. They expand from three to six inches, and most of the species are found in the East Indies, though single species are met with in Spain, Natal, Madagascar, and North America. The genus Eudcemonia includes a few smaller insects, of a brown or yellow colour, found in Africa and South America ; and although they do not measure more than about three inches across the wings, the tails alone are nearly six inches in length in some species. The only British species belonging to the family Satiirniidce is the well-known Emperor Moth (Saturnia carpini). It measures between two and three inches across the wings, which are grey in the female, whereas the fore wings of the male are reddish-brown, and the hind wings rusty yellow. CATERPILLAR, COCOON, AND MOTH OF BOMBTX MORI. 62 NATURAL HISTORY. There is a large black eye in the middle of each wing marked with a white crescent inside, and surrounded with yellow and black rings. The caterpillar is green, with black transverse bands and reddish tubercles, studded with short hair. It feeds on heath, &c., and constructs a hard pear- shaped cocoon. The Emperor Moth is not an uncommon insect, but it is allied to the Great Peacock Moth (Saturnia pyri\ which measures six inches across the wings, and is the largest Moth found in CATERPILLAR, CHRYSALIS, AND MOTH OF SATURNIA CYNTHIA. Europe, but has not been met with farther north than Paris or Vienna. It is a dark- grey Moth with white borders, within which the wings are much darker than elsewhere. The eyes resemble those of S. carpini, but are dusted with blue, and the caterpillar is green, with blue warts instead of red ones, and it feeds on different kinds of trees, especially fruit-trees. The Lasiocampidce are large or middle-sized Moths, with stout, hairy bodies, and strong wings, and the caterpillars are clothed with soft hair. The Moths are generally of dull colours — brown, reddish-brown, or yellowish predominating. The Lappet Moth (Gastropachi quercifolia), which is not very common in England, may be known by its reddish-brown dentated wings, marked with zigzag transverse lines. The Oak Eggar (Laslocampa quercus), which is of about the same size, is a much commoner insect, and the hind margins are not dentated. The male is chestnut-brown, and the female ochre-yellow ; across the wings runs a broad transverse band of pale yellow, which is much more distinct in the male than in the female, but there is a white spot in both sexes about the middle of the fore wings. The cater- pillar is black, with paler hairs, and a white stripe on each side. It feeds on many plants, including oak, and forms an egg-shaped cocoon, whence its name. The male flies very rapidly in the daytime, but may easily be decoyed within reach, if the collector has bred a female from the caterpillar, and carries her alive to a spot frequented by the males. It is not necessary to set her at liberty, or even to keep her in an open box ; she will attract the males just as readily if carried in a closed box in the pocket. The Lackey Moth (Clisiocampa neustrici) is a smaller representative of this family, only expanding about an inch and a half across the wings. The fore wings are either ochre-yellow, witli two brown transverse stripes, or brownish-red, with pale yellow ones ; the hind wings are paler than the fore wings, and unstriped. The caterpillars are striped with blue, red, and yellow, with a white THE 63 MOTH AND CATERPILLAR OF SATURNIA PYRI. line on the back, and they live gregariously on trees under a common web. The Moth is very common in many parts of England, and the female lays her eggs closely glued together in a broad ring round a slender twig. The Zeuzeridw are rather large Moths, whose caterpillars feed 011 wood, inside the trunks of trees, often causing consi- derable damage. The Wood Leopard Moth (Zeuzera aesculi) appears to be commoner round London than elsewhere in Eng- land. It is white, with many steel-blue spots on the wings and thorax, and its caterpillar, which is yellow, with a black head, infests apple, ash, and other trees. The Moth measures two inches or more across the wings, and the abdomen is long, and furnished with an ovipositor in the female. The Goat Moth (Xyleutes cossus) is a com- moner insect. It is shaded with grey and brown, and marked with many irregular black transverse lines. It measures three inches or more across the wings, and is a very heavy- looking Moth, with a thick body, which scarcely extends beyond the hind wings. The caterpillar is dirty flesh - colour, with the back brownish- red. It lives in trees, especially poplars and willows, and is not full- grown until it is three years old. Some writers have supposed that this caterpillar was the Cos- sus which was consi- dered a gi-eat dainty by the Romans ; but it is much more probable that their Cossus was the larva of some large wood-feeding Beetle. The HepialidcK are a small group with narrow rounded wings, very short antennae, and very long bodies. The largest species is the LACKEY MOTH AND CATERPILLAR. Ghost Moth (HepidluS humuli), which mea- sures about two inches across the wings. The male is white above and brown beneath, and the female has dull -yellow fore wings, with two oblique red stripes, more or less broken into spots, 64 NATURAL HISTORY. WOOD LEOPARD MOTH. and reddish hind wings. The Moth flies in fields, with a peculiar hovering flight, on summer evenings, and its pale yellow caterpillar feeds on the roots of grasses. The other species are much smallei1, and are called " Swifts " by collectors. They are brown or yellowish, with white streaks or spots on the fore wings, and their caterpillars feed on the roots of plants. In some species the Moths have the same peculiar hovering flight as in //. hnmuli, but others fly very rapidly near the ground in the evening. The great group of Moths known as JVoctuce, or Night Moths par excellence, consists of many families, of which we will notice only a few of the most important. Speaking generally, their bodies are rather stout, and extend beyond the hind wings ; their antennae are simple (rarely pectinated), and their hind wings are broader than the fore wings, white, grey, or brown, without markings, or with only a dark spot in the middle, and a dark border, and are folded beneath the hind wings in repose like a fan. The Leucanidce, or Wainscots, mostly frequent marshy localities, and measure about an inch and a half across the wings. The fore wings are ochreous or reddish, rarely with transverse lines, but generally with longitudinal white veins and black dashes, and a few scattered black dots. The caterpillars feed either on grasses or in the stems of reeds. Many of our commonest Moths belong to the Apamidce. . One of these is the Dark Arches (Xylophdsia polyodon), a brown Moth, measuring nearly two inches across the wings ; the abdomen is rather long, and tufted at the extremity. The markings are r-ather ill-defined, but there is a white line near the border of the fore wings, the lower portion of which forms a W. We find this in many other NoctucK. The hind wings are paler, and where they join th.3 fore wings are smooth and rather iridescent. This Moth is very common in gardens at dusk, and its caterpillar feeds on the roots of grasses. The Cabbage Moth (Mamestra brassicte) is an equally common but much more destructive insect. It is smaller and much darker- coloured than the last species, and there is a whitish U-shaped mark on the fore wings. The caterpillar feeds in the heart of the cabbage, and is just as mischievous as those of the common White Butterflies. The family Noctuidce includes a great number of dull-coloured Moths, which expand about an inch and a half across the wings. The fore wings are generally brown, with dark spots bordered with palei'. The pale submar- ginal line does not form a W, and the abdomen is not crested, or tufted. The caterpillars feed on low plants, and many of them, most!} belonging to the genus Agrotis, feed on the roots of grasses at or below the surface of the ground, and are called by the Americans " Cut-worms." The Moths belonging to the genus Triphcena are handsomer and more conspicuous than the other species of this family, as the hind wings are yellow, with a black band, varying in width according to the species, before the hind margin. They are called " Yellow Undcrwings." The Orthosidce, or Chestnuts, include a number of smaller species, expanding about an inch and a CLIFDEN NONPAREIL. THE 65 quarter. Most of these have grey, reddish, or yellowish fore wings, and whitish hind wings, and the abdomen is rather short. They may be met with in spring and autumn, and frequent the flowers of the sallow and the ivy. One of the largest species is the Satellite (Scopelosoma satellitia), which sometimes expands nearly two inches. The fore wings are reddish, and there is a white or orange spot in the middle, between two small dots. The hind wings are reddish-white. The caterpillar is blackish, with white lines on the back, and white spots on the sides. It feeds on a vai-iety of trees, but will also devour any other caterpillars in whose company it may find itself. The Hadenidce are a group of Moths much resembling the Apamidte, and generally with the pale subterminal line forming a very distinct W. But the beautiful Angleshades Moth (Phlogophora meticulosa) is an exception. The triangular and slightly dentated fore wings are olive-brown, or ochreous, varied with rosy, and the outer pale line is indistinct ; the hind wings are yellowish-white. The Xylinidce are a small family, including, among other genera, the genus Cucullia. The Moths belonging to it are called "Sharks" by collectors, and their fore wings and abdomen are long and pointed. The former are generally ochreous or greyish, with hardly any markings, the costa and hind margin alone being bordered with a darker colour. In some Continental species, however, the fore wings are beautifully marked or streaked with silver, and sometimes with green. These Moths expand about one inch and a half. The Heliothidce are day-flying insects, and one of the commonest species is the Beautiful Yellow Underwing (Anarta myrtilli), which is found on heaths. The fore wings, which expand about an inch, are red, with white lines, and the hind wings are orange, bordered with black. Two other species are found in Scotland ; but many others are found in Lapland, and other countries in the north of Europe and America. Of these, some have yellow, and others white hind wings. Several of the Plusidte are also day-flying Moths. The well-known Gamma Moth, or Silver Y (Plusia gamma), is one of these. The fore wings are violet-grey, with a silvery Y-shaped mark in the middle. The hind wings are of a paler grey, without markings. Other species of Plusia fly in the evening, among which is the Burnished Brass Moth (P. ckrysitis), the fore wings of which are pale brown, but almost covered by a large irregular brassy-green patch. Most of the other species of the genus are either marked or spotted with silvery, golden, or brassy in a similar manner. The Amphipyridce are a small family with rather short and broad wings ; and as the British representative of it, we have chosen a larger Moth than any Noctuw yet noticed — Mormo maura — a dark grey insect, with blackish bands, measuring about two inches and a half across the wings. It is very common in gardens on summer evenings, and often flies into houses. Its flight is rather heavy, and it is called " The Old Lady " by collectors. The Catocalidce, so called from two Greek words, meaning " beautiful beneath," are the largest and handsomest NoctiuK found in Europe. The fore wings are grey, varied with lighter and darker zigzag lines and blotches, assimilating them to the appearance of the lichen-covered trunks of trees, on which they prefer to rest. But the hind wings are black, with a pale blue band across, in the rare Clifden Nonpareil (Catocala fraxini), while the other species have red hind wings, with black borders, and a black band across the middle. They are all large insects, measuring from two and a half to 247 GREAT OWL MOTH OF BRAZIL. NATURAL, HIS TOST. four inches across the wings. Many of the European species have yellow hind wings (and these are generally smaller than the red species), and in North America, where there is a much greater variety of Catocahi- than in Europe, many species have black hind wings, with a narrow white border. The caterpillars have the first pair of prolegs imperfectly developed, and arch their backs a little in walking. Thoy are sometimes called " Half-Loopers." The Ophideridce are a family of tropical Moths, generally measuring about three inches across the wings, which are long, rather narrow, and a little pointed. The hind wings are yellow, partly bordered with black, and with a thick curved black mark in the middle. The palpi are long, and curved upwards, and the proboscis is short, and very strong. These Moths are very destructive to oranges in Australia ; but it has not yet been ascertained with certainty whether they perforate the rind themselves with their strong proboscis, or whether they avail them- selves of any injury which the fruit may have previously received, in order to suck out the contents. The largest Noctua, and one of the largest Moths known, is the Great Owl Moth of Brazil (Tkysania ayrip- pina), which belongs to the family of the Erebidce, It measures nearly a foot across the wings, which are pale grey, with darker markings, and the hind margins are scalloped. But the wings are not remark- able for their breadth, so that the Atlas Moths are larger insects on the whole. The small family of the DeltoidcK, which is sometimes placed with the Noctuce and sometimes with the Pyrales, may be illustrated by the " Snout " (Hypena proboscidalis), a brown Moth, with rather slender body, and very long palpi, resembling a beak. It measures about an inch and a half across the fore wings, which are broad and triangular, and is a very common insect among nettles. The Geometrce (or Land Measurers) are an extensive group of Moths known as " Loopers " in England, on account of the peculiar structure of the larvae, which have only ten legs, the two first pairs of prolegs being absent. When they wish to walk, they fix themselves firmly by their last pair of prolegs (the only pair which they possess) and their claspers, and stretch out their bodies to their greatest length ; then, fixing themselves by the six true legs, they loosen their hold with the four hinder ones, which they draw closely up to their front legs, thus arching their body into a loop ; they then fix themselves again by their hind legs, stretch out the front of their bodies, and proceed as before. This peculiar mode of walking is very rapid ; and their mode of rest is not less singular, for they fix themselves by their four hind legs, and stretch their bodies stiffly out, sometimes remaining motionless for hours. In this position they present a remarkable resemblance to a dead twig, and thus often elude the observation of birds and other enemies. The Moths are generally broad-winged insects, with slender bodies. They fly at dusk, but may often be disturbed in the daytime by beating hedges. The wings are rarely dentated or angulated, and are often brightly coloured, the pattern of the fore wings being generally continued on the hind wings. The family Urapterydce contains only one British species, the Swallow-tail Moth (Urapteryx sam- bucaria), which measures about two inches across the wings; the hind wings are angulated outwards into ENNOMOS ILLUSTHARIA AND CATERPILLARS. THE LOOPERS. 67 a short tail. It is of a very pale yellow, with two olive-brown lines on the fore wings, and one on the hind wings, and two small brown dots at the root of the tail. The family Ennomidce includes smaller insects, mostly of a yellow colour. Among these is the well-known " Brimstone Moth " (Kumia cratv- >jata}, so common in hedges. It measures about an inch and a half across the wings, which are sulphur yellow, with rust-coloured spots on the costa. The genus Ennomos includes insects of a paler yellow, i narked with transverse lines. Their bodies are rather thick, the thorax is covered with a close fur above, and the hind margins of the wings are irregularly dentated. The family Arnphidasidce includes dull coloured Moths with stout bodies. They appear in spring, and one of the commonest is the Pepper and Salt Moth (Amphidasi-s betidaria), which is white, speckled with black, and with more or less distinct black costal spots and transverse lines. Some of the allied species have apterous females. The family Geometridce includes a number of broad- winged green species, with whitish transverse lines. Their bodies are rather slender, and the wings, which expand from one to over two inches according to the species, are seldom angulated. These Moths are usually called " Emeralds," on account of their colour. The Acidcdidce, or " Waves," comprise a large number of small species, generally of white, ochreous, brownish, or reddish colour, with dusky, or occasionally reddish lines. The Heath Moths, or Fidonidce, fly by day, and several species, tessellated with cream-colour and black, are very common. The Euschemidce are an East Indian group of large Moths, which have only lately been referred to the Geometrce, on account of the discovery of their transformations. The Soldier Moth (Euschema militaris) is the commonest. It expands about three inches, and the wings are bright yellow, with bluish-black lines and spots, and the fore wings have a broad bluish-black border, spotted with white. The Magpie Moth (Abraxas grossulariata) belongs to the family Zerenidce. It is common in every gai-den, and varies very much, but is generally white, spotted with orange and black at the base of the fore wings, and with an orange stripe across the middle, bordered with black spots on each side. The hind margins of all the wings are spotted with black, and there are several other black spots. The body is yellow, spotted with black. The Moth expands rather more than an inch and a half, and the caterpillar feeds on gooseberry and currant bushes. Several brownish or yellowish Moths, with darker transverse lines, belonging to the families Hybernidw and Larentidce, are found only in winter. It is remarkable that most of these have apterous females, as is likewise the case with some of the Amphidasidce, which appear in very early spring. The large family Larentidte includes a great number of other Moths with brown and white wings, arranged in festooned patterns, which has led to their being called " Carpets." Some of these are white, with black lines ; and in the genus Lobophora, there is so large an additional lobe to the hind wing as to give them the appearance of having six wings, whence they are called " Seraphims " by collectors. These Moths seldom measure more than an inch and a half across the wings, but the great genus Eupithecia includes a number of smaller species (called " Pugs "), seldom expanding an inch across the wings, which are generally brown, with darker transverse markings, though a few ai-e varied with white or green. Their small size, and the indistinct character of the markings, render most of the species difficult to distinguish from each other. The Erateinidce are a South American family of Moths, ornamented with bright colours, such as red, black, and white. The fore wings are triangular, and the hind wings are produced and often tailed. These insects look very unlike Moths, and, but for the filiform antennae, might readily be mistaken for Erycinidce. The Pyrales are a group of small Moths, with rather long wings, and long and slender bodies. The Meal Moth (Pyralis farinalis), belonging to the family Pyralidce, is one of the commonest. It measures about an inch across the fore wings, which are dark chocolate brown at the base and tip, and dull yellow in the middle, the colours being separated by white lines ; and the hind wings are bluish- grey, with white lines. The caterpillar feeds on flour, as well as on straw, &c., and is sometimes found in meal-tubs. The most beautiful species of this group belong to the Ennychidcv. The species of Pijrausta are common in waste places in many parts of the country, flying by day. They are small Moths, not exceeding three-quarters of an inch in expanse, and the fore wings are red, with golden yellow lines or spots. The Hydrocampidw are small white Moths, about an inch in expanse, found in marshy places or ponds ; the caterpillars feed on water-plants. They are white, with black, and occasionally yellowish, lines or markings, and are known as " China Marks." The Botydce are often called "Pearls," on account of the slightly shining appearance of some of the species. Two of 68 NATURAL HISTORY. these (Botys verticalis and urticalis] are common among nettles, on which the caterpillars feed. They expand about an inch and a half. The former is pale, shining, yellowish-white, with grey markings, and the latter is white, with a row of connected dark spots on the borders, and a row of more separated spots within. The base of the fore wings is yellow, and beyond it are several large dark spots. The Grambi may be known by their very narrow fore wings, and very broad hind wings, which are folded round the body when at rest. The two principal families are Phycidce and Crambidu. The former are small and frequently dull-coloured Moths, many of which live on dried fruits in the caterpillar state, and are consequently common in warehouses. A few years ago an enormous white web, many feet in length and breadth, formed by the caterpillars of Ephestia elutella, was found on the wall of a chicory warehouse at York. The Crambidce, or Grass Moths, generally have brown or straw-coloured fore wings, intersected by a white or silvery longitudinal streak ; the hind wings are brown, and the palpi project in front of the head, forming a kind of beak. They are easily disturbed when we walk through long grass, but they soon settle again, when the long cylindrical form which they assume when at rest makes them difficult to find. The small family of the Galleridce are remarkable for their caterpillars feeding on wax in bee-hives, where they sometimes cause great mischief. The Tortricidce, or Bell Moths, may be known by their broad truncated fore wings, which meet together over the back, and give the insect some- what of the shape of a bell when at rest. The caterpillars generally live in rolled-up leaves, but some feed on fruit, roots, &c. ; a few form galls. The maggots which infest our apples and plums are the caterpillars ot species of the genus Car- pocapsa. There is a Mexican species (C. sal- titans}, the caterpillar of which lives in the seeds of aEuphorbiaceous plant, and possesses the faculty of leaping, carrying its house with it. There are aboutthree hundred speci- mens of TortricidtK found in Britain ; one of the CLOTHES' MOTH. commonest is the Green Oak Moth (Tortrix viri- dana). It measures nearly an inch across the fore wings, which are green, whereas the hind wings are brown, and it may often be dislodged in a perfect shower, if an oak tree bo skaken. The Tinece are a very numerous family of small Moths, to which belong nearly one-third of the Lepidoptera of Britain. Their bodies are slender, and their wings are long and narrow, with very long fringes. There is a great diversity of form, markings, and habits among them. The Tineidce, or Clothes' Moths proper, generally feed on driel animal substances, such as cloth, hair, or feathers, though some species feed on corn, &c. They often feed both on and in their food, those that attack clothes forming a tube of the substance on which they feed, in which they live, and which they enlarge when necessary. The Adelidce, or Long Horns, are green, sometimes streaked or spotted with yellow. They may be known by their very long antennae, which are about three times as long as tha expanse of their wings. The genus Depressaria, belonging to the great family Cfelechidce, con- tains dull-coloured Moths, with rather broad and flattened bodies. They are rather large for Tinece, FOSSIL LEPIDOPTERA. 69 ALUCITA HEXADACTYLA. (.Natural Size and Magnified.) PTEROl'HORHS PENTADACTYLUS. (Natural Size ana Magnified.) many species measuring nearly an inch across the wings. Many of the larvae of the Coleophoridw form cases on various plants, like the Pst/chidce ; those of the Elacliistidm live in the stems of grasses. Those of many groups of Tinece live in blotches or galleries made in the interior of the leaves of different plants. Among these are the Nepticulidce, to which family belongs the smallest Moth known (Nepticula microthe- riella), which measures only about the eighth of an inch across the wings, which are purplish - brown, with a whitish mark beyond the middle. The caterpillar feeds in the leaves of the nut, &c., and twenty or thirty mines may often be seen in a single leaf, accord- ing to Mr. Stainton. The perfect insect has never, so far as I know, been observed at large, on account of its very small size. All the specimens in collections are bred. The Plume Moths (Pterophoridce) may be known from all other Moths by the fore wings being cleft into two distinct feathers, and the hind wings into three. Most of the species are brown or grey, but the commonest, the White Plume Moth, found in gardens, is nearly pure white Jt expands rather more than an inch across the wings, and is a very delicatelv-formed insect, with long slender legs. The only British repre- sentative of the family, Alucitidce (Alucita hexadactyla, the Twenty-plume Moth), is a small brownish insect measuring three-quarters of an inch across the wings, each of which is split into six separate feathers. It is common in gardens, , palpi ; r, proboscis. 3. Antenna of the male still more magnified. 4. Egg- noat. 5. Larva, magnified. 6. Head of larva still more magnified. 7. Mandibles and labrum further enlarged. 8. One of the comb-like hairs from the mandibles. 9. Side view of pupa, magnified; a, case of antenna; (, I', I", cases of the limbs; w, wing-case; c, caudal leaves, front view. 10. Gnat issuing from pupa. "for its evening meal, the little animal enters our apartments, and, instead of whirling, like the Moths, around the light, it betakes itself to its employment, sounding an approach, however, by a tolerably loud humming,* which, in our chambers, at least, is often sufficient to banish sleep. Taking its station upon an uncovered part of the skin, with so light a motion as not to be perceptible when it alights (although it will not hesitate to make its attacks occasionally through our thick clothing), it lowers its rostrum and pierces the skin by means of its exceedingly slender needle-like lancets, which are barbed at the tips, and, as by degrees it pushes these deeper into the skin, the lower lip or sheath, in which they were enclosed when at rest, becomes more and more elbowed towards the breast, until the whole length of the lancets is introduced into the skin. It is supposed that, at the same time, it instils into the wound a venomous liquid, which, while it enables the It is only the females that produce this humming or trumpeting noise, and it has been calculated that the winga vibrate 3,000 times in a minute. THE MIDGES. 77 blood to flow faster, is the chief cause of the subsequent irritation." The insect, when undisturbed, will gorge itself with blood until the abdomen is considerably distended. The habits of all the insects of this family are so nearly alike that the above description, which applies specially to the common English species, will serve pretty well for them all. Of the typical genus Gulex there are about nine British species, the commonest of which are the House Gnat (C. ciliaris) and the Ring-footed Gnat (C. annulatuti), both of which frequent houses. The latter is rather the larger, and appears to produce a greater amount of irritation by its bite. The Wood Gnat (C. nemorosus) frequents woods and does not come into houses. Culex pipiens, with which the commonest British Gnat was formerly identified, is especially an inhabitant of Northern Europe. It was originally described by Linnaeus from Lapland, where it abounds in company with other species, some of which occur in Great Britain. Its bite is said to be extremely irritating. The term Mosquito, signifying merely a little fly, is applied in many places to other biting insects than the Culicidae, but the insects against which travellers have generally to take precautions belong to the present family. Many species have been described from different parts of the world. FAMILY II.- The remainder of the insects forming the first tribe of Diptera, which are frequently united into a single great family, differ from the Gnats in the structure of the proboscis, which is short and fleshy, and has the extremity generally furnished with a pair of fleshy lips, whilst the internal organs are generally reduced in number, or more or less amalgamated with each other and with the proboscis. The eyes are generally rounded or more or less oval, and the ocelli, with very few exceptions, are deficient as in the Culicidae. The CHIBONOMIDJE, which we place as the first family of this group, are more or less Gnat-like insects, with slender antennae considerably longer than the head, very strongly feathered, especially in the males, in which they usually form two triangular bushes projecting from the front of the head. In the males these organs usually consist of thirteen joints ; the females have a smaller number of joints, and their antennae are usually shorter. The eyes are lunate, and there are no ocelli ; the legs are very long and slender, and the tibiae are not armed with spines ; the veins in the wings closely resemble those of the Gnats. Many of these insects are so Gnat-like that they are very commonly termed Gnats. They resemble the members of the preceding family also in many of their habits, especially in having the larvae and pupae aquatic, and in the custom of collecting in great swarms and dancing in the air. They do not, however, in general possess the formidable offensive weapons of the Gnats, and most of them are quite harmless. The best English name for them is that of Midges. The nearest approach to the true Gnat is made by the genus Corethra, one species of which (C. plumicornis) is very generally distributed in Britain. It is a small insect, about a quarter of an inch long, of a brown colour, with the antennae paler and banded with brown, and the feathery hairs of the male antennae entirely pale ; two bands on the sides of the thorax, and the halteres are white. The larva of this species, which may be met with almost every- where in standing waters, is so beautifully transparent that it can hardly be distinguished from the water in which it swims. It is long and slender, with the thoracic region considerably enlarged ; at the extremity of the body there is a delicate fan of hairs which appears to have a respiratory function. The pupa much resembles that of the Gnat, but is straighter, and has the respiratory appendages of the thorax pointed. The genus Ckironomns, which gives its name to the ^ / % \ ^ P family, includes an immense number of species ; one hundred CHIIIOXOMUS PLUMOSUS. and ninety-five are recorded by Mr. Walker as inhabitants of A. head magnified, shmvine tho antennae, tin- proboscis T> -. • Vr\- pond that they inhabit, making a sort of U-shaped double .gallery with two openings to the water, which flows into them, so that the inmate can go in and out without the inconvenience .of turning jn his abode. If the insects of this family have but a short existence in the perfect state, they make up for this by .considerably longevity in their earlier stages, which appear .usually ,to occupy two or three years, during which the changes of skin are very numerous. Sir John Lubbock found that a small two-winged species (Cloeon dimidiaturn) moulted twenty times in the course gf its aquatic existence, and that each moult was .associated with greater or less structural changes, until the final condition in which, the wings have attained considerable develop- ment within their cases. The stage succeeding this is, however, ,the most extraordinary in the life of the insect. The creature .that emerges from the so-called " nymph " is apparently an imago, and is able to use its wings sufficiently to fly to some resting-place, but it is not yet quite mature ; all its parts are covered by an exceedingly delicate pilose pellicle, which completely masks •the true colour of the perfect insect, and has still to be stripped off before the imago appears. This '" subimagq," or "pseudirnago," as it has been called, attaches itself to various objects on the shore, -such as the trunks of (trees, palings, the stems and leaves of grasses and other plants, and even the .clothes of passers-by • then, after a longer or shorter interval, the outer pellicle is ruptured and the ;insect comes foj-th, w^th brighter wings and much longer caudal bristles, and flies away, leaving the .delicate skin s^ljl clingjug by its claws to the chosen resting-place. Of British s[>ecies of this group the best known are the May Flies (Ephemera vulgata), of which the subimago is called the Green Drake and the imago the Grey Drake by anglers. These are large species. The little two-winged Cloeon diptera and several species of Baetis in which, as in Cloeon, ithere are only two caudal bristles, are also common. FAMILY XIII.— LIBELLULID^, OR DRAGON FLIES. In this second family of the Subulicornia, the hind wings, as already stated, are approximately of the same size as the anterior pair, a character which at once serves to distinguish them from the Ephemeridse. The insects have a large broad head very freely attached to the thorax, and large, convex, prominent eyes, which often meet upon the crown of the head, and have the facets of the upper part larger than those of the lower. Between the eyes are three ocelli, two of which always rest upon the vertex, and the third sometimes upon a bulbous projection of the front of the head, above which originate the short., iiwl-shaped antenna?, consisting of six or seven joints, of which the first two or three are stouter than the rest. The large labrum conceals the other organs of the mouth, which consist of a pair of strong, horny, toothed mandibles, and a pair of maxillae, showing a single horny lobe, and a palpus of one joint, unless the palpus be really wanting, and the organ usually so called represent the galea. The mouth is closed below by a broad labium, which is of peculiar construc- tion, the oute.r ,lpbes .being amalgamated with the two-jointed palpi, and the inner lobes either LARVA (A) AND PUPA (K) OF EPHEMERA VL'LGAIA. 144 NATURAL HISTORY. separated or united into a single piece. The structure of the thorax is also peculiar. The prothorax is small and ring-like, and the meso- and meta-thorax are of large size, and placed almost horizontally one above the other, so that the true back to which the wings are attached is quite behind, and the breast, with the legs, thrown forward towards the head. The wings are closely reticulated, and the legs of moderate length and strength, and terminated by three-jointed tarsi. The abdomen is elongated, sometimes very long and slender, and is composed of eleven segments, of which the last but one bears a pair of unjointed claw-like or leaf-like appendages. These insects, which are for the most part of moderate or large size, constitute a very numerous group, some fourteen hundred species having been described from all parts of the world. They are numerous and abundant in temperate climates, but become still more so within the tropics, where also the finest species are met with. Nevertheless, the warmer regions have not so much advan- tage over extra-tropical countries in the case of this group as of some others ; some of the European and British species may vie in si/c and colouring with all but a few of their exotic relatives. Their habits are everywhere much the same. Like the Ephemeridse they are gener- ally found in the vicinity of water, in which element their preparatory stages are passed, but quite unlike those abstemious creatui'es} LIBELLULA DEPRESSA. they are exceedingly voracious in their habits, continually hawking about upon their long and powerful wings in pursuit of their prey, which consists entirely of weaker insects captured in the air. Thanks to a particularly powerful arrangement of muscles and tendon-like pieces contained in the large thoracic segments which bear the wings, those organs are capable of almost incessant action, and the Dragon Flies may be seen throughout a summer's day continually sweeping about over the surface of some pond or stream, or poising themselves motionless in the air from time to time by excessively rapid vibrations of the wings. They rest at night, and sometimes by day,, especially in dull, cloudy weather, upon the twigs of trees and bushes, and the stalks and leaves of grasses and other plants, and it is singular to observe how easily the insect when thus resting escapes observation, notwithstanding its considerable size and often striking coloration. Their- courtship is one of the most singular points in their history. The male seizes the female by the neck with the claspers appended to the last abdominal segment but one, and thus united the pair may often be seen in flight. After a time the female curves the end of her abdomen forward until it comes in contact with the second abdominal segment of the male, which is singularly inflated and cleft, and contains an organ by means of which the fertilising male elements are introduced into the- proper position for fecundating the eggs ; and what renders this arrangement still more singular is, that in the male the ducts leading from the organs secreting the fertilising fluid open near the end of the abdomen in the ninth segment, so that he must, before going in search of his mate, purposely charge the reservoir in the second segment of his abdomen. After the completion of the process, the pair usually separate, but in some instances the male continues to clasp the neck of the female, so as. to assist her in flying over the surface of the water in order to deposit her eggs suitably. In their general form the Libellulidse present very considerable differences, and in accordance with these we may distinguish three principal groups. In a very great number the head is. short and transverse, forming a sort of cylindrical piece, on the two ends of which the eyes are situated, separated by a wide crown on which the ocelli are placed ; the abdomen is cylindrical and very slender ; and the wings, which are of equal size, are closed together over the back of the abdomen in repose. These, forming the sub-family AGRIOXIDES, are the most elegant of all the species, and it is no doubt in allusion to the graceful slenderness of their forms, and to the mode in which they are as it were draped in gauze when their wings are closed, that French collectors have bestowed upon the Dragon Flies in general the fanciful name of Demoiselles. Sevcr.il species are exceedingly- THE I) RAG OX FLIES. 14.3 AGKION PUELLA. abundant in Britain. Agrlon puella in which the abdomen of the male is banded with azure blue, while that of the female is almost entirely brassy black, is an insect about an inch and a quarter long that occurs almost everywhere; and the beautiful Callepteryx viryo, of which the male is steel-blue with a large brown patch with steel-blue lustre on each wing, and the female rather greenish with brownish wings, is to be met with frequently about running waters. Some American species have the abdomen of inordinate length, extending far beyond the closed wings. These form the genera Meyaloprepes and Mecistoyaster, species of which attain the length of four or live inches. In a second group, that of the ^EscHMD.*:, the abdomen is still cylindrical, but stouter in proportion than in the Agrionides. The head also is large and nearly hemispherical in form, and the eyes are enormous, usually covering the whole upper and lateral surfaces, and meeting on the crown in the middle line. The wings are always extended at the sides of the body. These are large and strong insects, possessing a wonderful power of flight, and several species are common in Europe and Britain. The Great Dragon Fly (^Eschna grandis) is one of these. It is nearly three inches long, and is of a light rusty brown colour, with a few paler markings. Another is Gomphas vulyatissimus, a black insect nearly two inches long, with yellow bands on the thorax and a line of the same colour along the back of the abdomen. Some of the tropical species attain a considerably larger size. Finally, in the true LIBELLULIDES we find the head, eyes, and wings showing the same general characters as in the last group, but the abdomen is either broad and more or less flattened or comparatively slender, and then triangular in section. In some forms the abdomen shows an approach to the type of the ^Eschnides, but then recourse may be had to a small character pre- sented by the wings, which have a marked tri- angular space a little way from the base, and this is alike in both pairs of wings in the latter, but different in the Libellulides. The best-known English species of this group is the Libelhda depressa, vulgarly known as the Horse Stinger, an insect nearly two inches long, with a rather broad depressed abdomen, which is yellowish- brown with yellow spots on the sides in the female, and coated with a beautiful violet-blue powder in the male. It may be seen almost everywhere hawking about over rivers and ponds." The larvse of these different forms, although not very closely resembling their parents, never- NYMPH OF LIBELLULA, AND THE PERFECT INSECT EMERGING. theless differ from each other in general form, somewhat after the same fashion as the perfect insects, but all agree in one character, namely, that of being among the most predaceous of the insect inhabitants of the water. The apparatus by which they capture their prey is of the same general nature in all, and consists of a peculiar modification of the labium, which has been called the " mask." In repose the chin-piece is folded back towards the breast, and to its extremity the broad labium is attached by a hinge-joint, and the anterior margin of this bears a pair of forceps-like organs, repre- senting the outer lobes of the labium united with the palpi, and articulated so as to close towards the middle of the labium. Sometimes these terminal pieces are so large as to cover a great part of the face when the labium is retracted ; in all cases the labium with its appendages completely closes the 257 146 NATURAL HISTORY. mouth. In seizing a prey it is darted out towards the victim, which is firmly grasped by the apical forceps, and then easily conveyed within reach of the other organs of the mouth. Besides the difference of form, these larvae also present important differences in their respiratory apparatus. In the Agrionides the larvae are always provided with external branchial organs appended to the extremity of the abdomen, sometimes alone, sometimes in conjunction with an internal breathing apparatus similar to that prevailing in the other two groups, which consists of a peculiar arrangement and ramification of tracheae in the walls of the rectum or terminal portion of the intestine. The water is drawn into and expelled from this by the action of special muscles, and the expulsion is so forcible that the creatures are slowly moved through the water by its recoil. The insects are active and voracious throughout their preparatory stages, in the last of which they show large wing-cases behind the thorax. When full grown they crawl up the stems of some aquatic plant into the open air, and after resting there for a longer or shorter time, the skin splits along the thoracic region, and the perfect insect by degrees struggles out of its investment. The wings, at first, have not attained their full development, but this is soon reached, and the Dragon Fly starts off to continue in the air the same scene of rapine that has characterised its subaqueous existence. SUB-ORDER III.— PHYSOPODA. The Physopoda are a curious group of insects, the true position of which has been always doubtful. Some writers place them with the Orthoptera, others with the Rhynchota, and others again in a separate order, side by side with one or other of those just mentioned. We have preferred here to follow Burmeister and those entomologists who have adopted his view of the matter. These insects have a narrow flattened body, and two pairs of narrow wings, which sho\v few or no veins, but have their margins fringed with longish hairs, whence the name of Thysanoptera (or "fringed wings") was applied to the group by the late Mr. Haliday. In repose, these wings lie flat over one another iipon the back of the abdomen, leaving the margins of the latter exposed. The head is of a somewhat cylindrica* form, and bears a pair of large eyes, a pair of antennae consisting of eight or- nine joints, and three ocelli placed; between the eyes. The w^ngs and, ocelli are deficient in so,np,e species. The mouth is bent back; tpwards. the breast, and pointed-, so as to> remind one of the character of the rostrum in the Homoptera, and LARVA (A) AMD IMAGO (B) OF THRIPS CEREALIUM. Stiil more in tllG WotonectO!, but . .. ' its structure is very different. Thus the mouth is closed in front by a pointed labrum, behind which is a pair of bristle-like, mandibles more or less dilated at the base. Within these again are found two simple maxillee, bearing palpi of two or three joints; and the whole apparatus is completed by a membranous labium, pointed in front, and furnished with short two-jointed palpi. The legs are of moderate length, or short, and have tarsi of two joints, the second of which bears no claws, but terminates in a bladder- like disc, by means of which the insects adhere to the objects upon which they walk, Hence arises the name of Physopoda, and the action of these little suckers causes the insects, to, produce a very uncomfortable tickling sensation when they run upon the skin of people's faces. The insects of this group are all small. The ordinary run of species are about one4wel£th of an. inch long, many less, and those of an eighth of an inch may be looked upon as large. From this point of view the species of Jdolothrips, which inhabit Australia, are gigantic, measuring from a quarter to a third of an inch in lengch. The Physopoda are no doubt abundant in all parts of the world, but comparatively few extra-European species have been recorded. In Europe, however, they are numerous, and may be found throughout the summer upon the leaves and flowers of plants, especially the latter, where they often look like so many black streaks scattered over the bright petals. Many of them, however, are not black, and some seem to copy the colours of their favourite flowers. The larvae, in all stages, are fcund in the same situations as the perfect insects, which they THE MALLOPHAGA. 147 closely resemble in general form and structure, differing chiefly (besides the want of wings in those of the -winded species) in "reater softness of the skin, in the shortness of the antennae, and in having agglomerated instead of compound eyes. In the last, or nymph stage, the wings are usually seen in their cases but the antennae are turned back upon the head. There is a filmy integument about the joints of the limbs, and the insect is more sluggish than in the larva or perfect state. Although the mouth, as we have seen, is constructed upon a maiidibulate type, the insects appear to use it for suctorial purposes, although the precise mechanism by which it acts does not seem to have been made out. There are two principal groups or families of these insects, in one of which, the TUBULIFERA, the last segment of the abdomen in both sexes forms a little tube ; while in the other, the TEREBRAXTIA, the females are provided with a regular ovipositor composed of foui minute valves concealed in a groove of the last two ventral segments. In the former the antennae are eight-jointed ; the latter usually have nine-jointed antennae, and they possess the power of jumping by the a^encv of the abdomen. These insects are generally known to gardeners by the name of the Thrip or Thrips, the latter being the name of the most typical genus. Some of them occasionally prove injurious to cultivated plants. This is especially the case with the Corn Thrips (Thni>a cerealium), which generally attacks the ears of corn, and when numerous may be mischievous. SUB-ORDER IV.— MALLOPHAGA. These insects may be denominated " mandibulate lice," that is to say, both in appearance and general habits they somewhat resemble the true Lica, with which they were formerly arranged, but differ in the possession of biting mouths, and in the diet to which such a structure adapts them. They are small flat insects, with the upper surface more or less horny in its texture ; the head is broad and horizontal ; the thorax narro f? and destitute of all traces of wings ; the abdomen usually broad and of nine or ten segments ; and the legs short and stout, with tarsi of two joints furnished with one or two claws. The eyes are small and usually simple ; the antennae consist of from three to five joints; and the mouth, which is situated beneath the head, contains a pair of short hooked mandibles, a pair of small maxillae with or without palpi, and a labium with palpi of two joints. A great number of these curious little insects have been recorded, and they inhabit all parts of the world, in fact it would seem as if there were few birds at any rate to which no parasite of this group is attached. They live among the hairs of the Mammalia and the feathers of birds, each species of parasite being usually attached particularly to some species or small group of species of these warm-blooded Vertebrates ; but unlike the true Lice they do not feed upon the blood of their hosts, but upon the finer hairs and downy feathers. Frequently they occur in considerable numbers, and may then perhaps, to some extent, be injurious. Here again two principal families may be distinguished. The PHILOPTERID.E have thread-shaped antennae of three or PHILOPTERVS SELCIFEONS. five joints, and no maxillary palpi. The species with five- jointed antennae (Philopterus, Xii-mus, Docophonis, &c.) infest birds; and those with the antennae of three joints (Trichodectes, &c.) are found upon mammals of various groups. In the second family (LIOTHEID.E) the antennae are clubbed and composed of four joints, and the maxillary palpi are present. Species with distinct labial palpi, and two claws on each tarsus (Liotheum, and allied genera), live upon birds ; and those with no labial palpi, and with only one claw on each tarsus, on mammals. The common fowl, clucks and geese, game-birds of all kinds, and pigeons are very commonly infested by these parasites, as are also the dog and cat, the sheep and the guinea-pig. ORDER THYSANURA. We have now reached the last order referred to the class of true insects, and it is a group of no small interest from a philosophical point of view. The forms composing it are reckoned to present the nearest resemblance to the theoretical progenitors of the Insecta— in fact, Sir John Lubbock hints that they might well be regarded, not as insects at all, but rather as the surviving 148 NATURAL HISTORY. and perhaps modified representatives of a group formed by the ancestors of the whole multitude of insect types which we have here attempted to pass in review. The Thysanura have been considered by different entomologists to form either a distinct order or a section of the Orthoptera, while some writers have even thought that they might rather be united with the next class. Considering this diversity of opinion, and the real peculiarities of organisation from which it springs, it seems best to treat these little creatures as actual members of the class of insects, with which they most nearly agree in structure, but to give them prominence by ranking them as a distinct order. At the same time, while an undoubted close relationship runs through all the members of the order, there is sufficient difference in the groups of which it is composed to render it difficult to formulate a set of characters which shall apply pretty equally to the whole. One primary character is to be found in the entire absence of wings, and of any metamorphosis ; and a second, in the feebleness of the organs of the mouth, which are also generally concealed within the cavity of the head. The eyes, when present, are almost invariably ocelli or simple eyes, either placed singly or aggregated in groups on the sides of the head ; true compound eyes occur only in one genus. The body is generally rather soft in texture, and has its surface clothed with peculiar hairs and scales somewhat resembling those of the Lepidoptera, but of course much smaller*, some of them being among the most delicate objects for the microscope. The lower surface of the abdomen is usually furnished with appendages, as also the apex of that region in some species, and these, which vary considerably in structure, serve in the majority as saltatorial organs. The members of this order generally frequent obscure places, and some of them show a preference for moist localities, while others delight in dryiiess and warmth. Their food consists of decaying vegetable matter. Sir John Lubbock divides them into two orders, the THYSANURA and the COLLEMBOLA. At the same time, he shows that some members of the former group are very neai'ly related to those of the second, and therefore we may take the two groups, which really agree precisely with the families generally accepted by previous writers, and regard them as forming two great tribes of the same order. TRIBE I— THYSANURA GENUINA, OR BRISTLE-TAILS. This group is distinguished by having long antennae composed of many joints, tarsi of from two to four joints, and more or less exposed mandibles and maxillae. The maxillary palpi are often long, and composed of five or seven joints, sometimes shorter, and only two-jointed ; the labium is more or less cleft in front, and bears four-jointed palpi ; the prothorax is large ; and the under surface of the abdominal segments, or of some of them, bears pairs of appendages (rods or tufts), besides, in general, two or three long, jointed, caudal bristles. The body in these insects is almost always clothed with metallic scales, which closely cover the whole sur- face, and give the creature a beautiful silvery appear- ance ; but, unfortunately, these scales are rubbed off by the lightest touch, and it is very difficult to capture one of these insects without sadly spoiling its beauty. In some respects, especially in the conformation of the organs of the mouth, the more typical members of this tribe, forming the family LEPISMID^E, approach most nearly to the Orthoptera, and among the latter the LEPISMA SACCHARIXA. alliance would seem to be closest with the Blattidaa. Of this family a good many species are known, chiefly from different parts of Europe and the neighbouring countries, the largest of them being rather more than half an inch long. Lepisma saccharine, a silvery creature like a little fish, is not un- common in Britain, living in decaying wood, and also frequenting houses, where it commonly takes up its abode in the sash-frames of the windows. It runs rapidly, but does not leap. In the genus Machilis, two species of which inhabit Britain, the ventral segments are nearly all furnished with paired appendages, and those of the ninth segment are converted into a springing fork homologous with that characteristic of the next tribe. One British species (M. polypoda), which is brown with a metallic lustre, is found in woods and dry places ; the other (M. maritima), a mottled brown species, occurs under stones on rocky shores. These insects are about half an inch long. They have com- THE COLLEMBOLA. 149 pound eyes. Campodea stapJtijlinus, a small elongated species about a sixth of an inch long, with two caudal bristles, is common in loose, damp ground both in England and on the continent. It has the palpi short, and all the parts of the mouth minute, and is regarded by Sir John Lubbock as a sort of central type, from which many others have been derived. It is the type of the family CAMPODEID.E. Both this and the family JAPYGID.E show a strong affinity to the second tribe (the Collembola). Japyx solifitt/xs. a white species less than half an inch long, is found under stones in different parts of the south of Europe. It is much elongated, and the abdomen terminates in a pair of little horny forceps, closely resembling those of the Earwigs. Another species (Japyx giyfis), from Cyprus, is the giant of the Thysanura, sometimes measuring more than an inch long. TRIBE II— COLLEMBOLA, OR SPRING-TAILS. The Collembola. which correspond to the family Podurida? of most authors, have the antennte comparatively short, and composed only of from four to six joints ; the organs of the mouth concealed within the buccal cavity, and destitute of palpi, except a pair of rudimentary organs, which Sir John Lubbock identifies with the maxillary palpi in certain species ; the prothorax small ; the tarsi of a single joint, and the abdominal appendages represented by a single pair springing from a segment near the apex (the last but one, or the last but two), united at the base to form a springing fork, and bent forward in repose, so as to reach nearly or quite to the head. By the action of this fork, the arms of which are frequently jointed, and furnished with adhesive hail's, the insects thus endowed are enabled to spring to a considerable height in the air, the process being precisely analogous to that by which the common toy frogs are made to jump. In form these insects are sometimes irregularly globose, but more commonly rather elongated, although never presenting the rather elegant, fish-like shape of many of the preceding tribe. Their surface is covered with hairs or scales, or with a mixture of both. The tarsi are terminated by a single curiously-cleft claw. The abdomen con- sists of six segments, on the ventral surface of the first of which there is a very peculiar organ. This consists of a cleft tubercle, or a short tube divided at the free end into two lobes, from which the animal can protrude two long, delicate tubes, covered with minute glands, by means of which, and of a viscous fluid produced by these curious organs, their fortunate possessors are enabled to adhere with facility to smooth vertical objects upon which they may be walking. Accord- ing to some writers, there ai-e four pairs of stigmata upon the first foiir segments, leading into a regular tracheal system ; but the exist- ence of the latter is by no means demonstrated in all the forms of this tribe. Sir John Lubbock seems to have detected trachea? only in one genus examined by him (Smi/nthnrus), and he declares that the stigmata leading into these trachese are situated upon the under side of the head. This is a most unusual situation for the tracheal openings. The Collembola are all small insects, a length of a quarter of an inch being considerably above the avei-age. They are found commonly in loose earth, under decaying leaves in woods, in moss, under the bark of dead trees, and in rotten stumps. They always prefer damp situations. Cold seems to have but little effect upon them ; they will recover their activity after being frozen. One species (Desoria gfiirioUn) is found enjoying itself upon the Swiss glaciers ; and another (Degeeria nircdis) occurs upon the surface of snow in many parts of Europe. Some also may be met with hopping about upon the surface of standing water ; Podnra aquatica, a minute blue- black species, is common in such situations in England. Orchesella cincta, one of the finest and handsomest species, a quarter of an inch long, distinguished by having a black band on the third segment of the abdomen, is found commonly under dead leaves, and in moss; Toxocerus phimbeus, a rather smaller species, is found under logs of wood. W. S. DALLAS. OKCHESELLA CIXCTA. 150 CLASS MYRIOPODA. THE CENTIPEDES AND MILLEPEDES. Definition of the Class — External Structure — Internal Structure — Reproduction — General Habits — Fossil Forms — Classifica- tion— Order CHILOPODA— Structure — Distribution — Habits - - Family SCUTIGERIDA: — Family SCOLOPENDRID.K — Centipedes — Lithobius forficatus — Scolopetidra cingulata — Geophilus — Phosphorescence— Order CHILOGNATHA— Family JuLiD.E— Millepedes — Julus salulosus — Family POLYOESMID.E — Family SIPHONIZA>'TIA — Family GLOMEKID.E — Order PAUROPODA— Pauropm huxleyi— Order ONYCHOPHORA— PerijMtus. THE Myriopoda, commonly known as Centipedes and Millepedes, form one of the most interesting groups of the whole animal kingdom. In the general structure of the body, which in most of them consists of a considerable number of similar segments, they present a close resemblance to the highest forms of the Vermes, the Annelida, and indeed one type that we must refer to the class (Peripatus) would seem to constitute a complete transition between the two classes ; whilst, on the other hand, in the organisation of the uiouth, and the presence of only a single pair of true jointed antennae, we find a transition equally complete towards the true Insecta. Some zoologists have dwelt with perhaps undue force upon the analogy between the Myrio- poda and the larvae of insects with a perfect metamorphosis ; but too much importance can hardly be ascribed to the fact that the youngest larvae of some of the Myriopods are furnished only with three pairs of legs, and in other respects much resemble the young of insects with an im- perfect metamorphosis, and above all the Collem- bolous group of the Thysanura. The Myriopoda may be defined as Arthropods with a distinct head, and most of the other seg- ments almost pi-ecisely similar to one another, with a single pair of aiitennie, and nearly always with simple eyes, with no distinct thorax, and with- out wings, but with limbs attached to all, or nearly all, the segments of the body. The respiration, as in the insects, is effected by means of tracheae. The head, as already stated, is a distinct part, and agrees in general with that of the Insecta, bearing a single pair of antenna?, which are almost invariably simple, jointed organs. The organs cf vision generally consist of simple eyes (ocelli), which, however, are often closely grouped together on the sides of the head. In one family true compound eyes are present. As in the Insecta also, we find three pairs of jaws represented in the mouth, the mandibles being distinct, while the maxilla; and labium are united to form a sort of lower lip, and are thus deprived of all lateral motion. No palpi are recognisable \ipon any of these parts. In one of the orders into which the class is divided the limbs of the first two body-segments take part in the formation of the mouth. The segments of the body are nearly alike throughout ; they are generally horny, and furnished with a pair of jointed limbs. The number of segments varies greatly in the different groups, and even in the genera, the lowest being ten, the highest about one hundred and sixty. In the Centipedes (Chilopoda) we find a slight difference in the character of the first two segments, of which the dorsal part is suppressed or concealed by the head, while the limbs, as already indicated, take part in the formation of the mouth. In the remaining groups the segments are uniform in their development, except that they may become broader towards the middle of the body. The legs, which are usually short, are attached sometimes at the sides of the ventral plates, sometimes close to the middle line of the lower surface of the body. In the latter case each segment bears two pairs of legs, and it becomes a question whether we should not regard the apparent segments as really formed by an amalgamation of two primitive segments. These limbs consist of six or seven joints, of which the last, except in one singular worm-like type, bears a single claw. If we name these joints in accordance with the nomenclature of the parts of the PARTS OF MOUTH OF A SCOLOPENDRA. A, Mandible ; B, united maxilla; and labiuiu ; c, ttret lair of legs ; D, second pair of legs. STRUCTURE OF THE MYRIOPODA. 151 limbs in insects, the first three will be the coxa, trochanter, and femur, the fourth and fifth will represent the tibia, as in the Spiders, and the sixth, or sixth and seventh, which usually differ more or less in form from the preceding ones, will form the tarsus. In their internal structure the Myriopoda closely agree with the insect type. The intestinal canal shows the same parts as in the Insecta, but usually drawn out to a greater length, to correspond with the general elongation of the body, through which it passes nearly in a straight line. A narrow oesophagus gradually expands into a stomach, which, however, is only a widened part of the tube, and this is followed by a straight intestine running to the extremity of the body. As appendages to the intestinal canal, we find from one to three pairs of salivary glands, and one or two pairs of Malpighian vessels, the former opening into the cavity of the mouth, the latter into the intestine not far from its termination. The nervous system of these animals consists of a ventral chain, which shows the same uniformity of general construction that is observed in the larvje of insects with a perfect metamorphosis, the ganglia corresponding in number with the body-segments, except that in most cases the commissures uniting the successive ganglia are very short, often so short that the central system forms a cord rather than a chain. The ganglia of the first three segments following the head are regularly united into a continuous mass. In the head there is the same nervous ring embracing the oesophagus as in insects, and from it are given off nerves to the antenna? and eyes, the latter of considerable thickness when the organs of vision are greatly developed. In the worm-like genus Peripatus, which is placed with the Myriopoda, but in all probability represents a survival of a type intermediate between the Annelida and the Myriopoda, the ventral nervous cords are widely separated. As in the Insecta, the central organ of circulation, the so-called heart, is a dorsal vessel, divided into successive chambers agreeing in number with the segments of which the body is composed, and each chamber is attached to the walls of its segment by a pair of triangular muscles. The blood penetrates these chambers through a pair of lateral slits, and, according to Newport, a portion of it is again driven out through a small artery situated in front of the slit, but the greater part is driven forward and discharged into the cavity of the head through an aorta which divides into three branches. Respiration, as already stated, is effected, as in the Insecta, by the agency of trachea}, which open by regular stigmata, usually placed either towards the middle of the ventral surface close to the articulations of the legs, or in the membrane uniting the dorsal and ventral plates of the segments. In one type, however, the stigmata form a single row of openings in the middle of the upper surface of the body, one being placed close to the hinder margin of each of the dorsal plates; and in Peripatns the trachea? are short and open irregularly in all parts of the skin of the animal. The reproduction of the Myriopoda is always by eggs, and the young animals, on quitting the egg, although allowing the general characters of their parents to be recognised, present certain rather important differences from them. Thus the numbers of the body-segments, of the joints in the antenna? and of the ocelli are always less, and the young Myriopod, when first hatched, has only three pairs of legs attached to the three segments immediately behind the head. With each change of skin undergone by the larva the number of each of these parts increases until the adult construction is attained ; new segments are formed in the body between those already in existence, new joints are added to the antenna? in the same way, new ocelli make their appearance on the sides of the head, and the number of leg-bearing segments steadily increases. In their habits the Myriopoda are generally darkling creatures, living a concealed life in the ground, under stones, in crevices of rocks and buildings, and under the loosened bark of trees. They are distributed in all parts of the world, but the largest and finest species are all inhabitants of hot, climates, where some of them attain gigantic dimensions. The food of some of them is of a vegetable nature, although it would appear that even these will not disdain animal food 011 occasions ; others confine themselves to the latter diet, and are most formidable predaceous creatures. The oldest known members of the class, in fact almost the only ones known to occur in the fossil state, belong to the vegetarian forms above mentioned (the Chilognatha). Remains of several species apparently belonging to this order, although showing very peculiar characters, have been discovered in the Carboniferous formation of North America, some of them even contained in the ho' low trunks of trees of the genus Sigillaria. One or two allied forms have also been detected in the Coal Measures of Britain. The Permian rocks of Germany, immediately succeeding, or, perhaps, concluding the 152 NATURAL HISTORY. Carboniferous period, have also furnished a peculiar species. A species referred to Geopkilus, and therefore to the carnivorous order Chilopoda, occurs in the lithographic slates of Solenhofen. A few Tertiary fossil species are known, and many occur enclosed in amber. DEVELOPMENT Of JULUS TERRESTRIS. (After Newport.) 1, Embryo at rupture of egg ; 2, at end ot first day; 3. on third day : 4, on ninth day; 6, ncwly-lmiched Jiiluson seventeenth day; 6, on nineteenth day; 7, on twentieth day; g, on twenty-sixth day. We divide the Myriopocla, including the abnormal type Peripatus, into four orders, as follows : — • * Breathing Apertures regular Stigmata. 1. CHILOPODA (Centipedes), with the antennae simple, the body depressed, the dor.-al and ventral plates horny, united by a membrane ; the legs inserted in single pairs at the sides of the segments, with the exception of the first two pairs, which are converted into mouth organs. 2. CHILOGNATHA (Millepedes), with the antennae simple, the body usually convex, or even cylin- drical, the dorsal plates bent round so as to meet the narrow ventral plates nearly in the middle line of the body, each segment, after the fifth or sixth, with two pairs of legs. 3. PAUROPODA, with branched antennae. t Breathing Apertures scattered. 4. OXYCHOPHORA, worm-like, with a soft skin, simple antennae, and legs terminated by two claws. ORDER I— CHILOPODA. The leading characteristic of the Myriopods of this order has been already indicated (p. 150). It consists in the conversion of the first two pairs of legs into auxiliary organs of the mouth. In general the dorsal part of the first two segments is reduced to a rudimentary condition, and their limbs are always curiously modified. Behind the lower lip, of which the middle part is formed by the united halves of the labium, while the lateral portions consist of the maxillae, the whole united into a single plate, the limbs of the first body-segment make their appearance, the coxal portions being united in the middle line so as to represent a sort of second labium, from which springs a pair of three-jointed organs like palpi (the homologues of the first pair of legs). These parts are feebly developed, but the limbs of the second segment attain a large size and a very remarkable structure. Their basal parts are expanded into two broad, irregularly triangular plates, united in the middle, each of which bears a sickle-shaped organ composed of four joints, representing the true limb. The basal joint of these hook-like parts is of large size, and is followed by two broad but very short joints, and these again by a long, powerful, THE CHILOPODS. 153 curved, tapering joint, terminated by a sharp, perforated claw, through which the poison secreted by a gland can be poured into the wounds inflicted by the point. The whole of this apparatus lies flat upon the under surface of the head, usually closing the mouth from beneath entirely. The segments behind the head, which vary in number between sixteen and over a hundred, are formed by separate horny dorsal and ventral plates, joined at the sides by a membranous part in which the stigmata are usually situated. Each of these plates more or less overlies the one behind it, and in some forms the alternate dorsal plates are so large as to cover those between them, causing the number of segments to appear only half what it really is. In these cases, however, the ventral plates indicate the true number of seg- ments. The rudimen- tary condition of the dorsal plates of the first or first and second segments has already been mentioned ; and these, and the third segment, are to be regarded as constitut- ing a thoracic region homologous with that of insects. Each seg- ment of the body, from the third on- wards, bears a pair of jointed legs, which spring from the borders of the ventral plates and stand out from the sides of the body. They are usually of moderate length, but sometimes very long. The legs attached to the last segment are generally much longer and stronger than the rest, and differ from them also in being directed back- wards nearly in a line with the body. The antennae are long, composed of many joints, and tapering in form. The stigmata are usually placed on the alternate segments, and lead into a system of tracheae closely resembling the type seen in insects. The organs of reproduction open at the posterior ex- tremity of the body, and the impregnation of the females is said to be effected by the agency of sper- matophores, which the males attach to irregular webs which they spin close to the ground. The Chilopods are spread over all parts of the earth, but the species of temperate countries are mere pygmies when compared with some inhabitants of the tropics. They are all shannon of light, retiring during the day to hiding-places in the ground, under stones and the bark of trees, and in the crevices of rocks, buildings, &c., and coming forth at night in search of their food, which consists of insects, worms, and other small animals. When disturbed, most of them run with considerable rapidity, and with an undulating, more or less snake-like, movement of the body ; and if seized or otherwise interfered with they have no scruples about making use of the formidable nippers formed by the second pair of limbs. The poisonous secretion which, as already stated, is poured forth through the perforated point of these organs, renders the bite of the larger species very formidable ; but even the small British species, such as Litkobius forficatus, will attempt to bite the fingers of their captor in a most savage manner. The order may be divided into two families, the first of which includes only a comparatively small number of curious forms, while the second comprises the great majority of the species, which vary considerably in character. 258 SCOLOl'EXDHA CIXGULATA. 154 NATURAL HISTORY. The antennae, They are FAMILY I.— SCUTIGERID.E. Myriopocls forming this family are remarkable for the great length of their limbs and the latter, and frequently some of the former, being longer than the body of the animal, further distinguished by the possession of a pair of regular compound eyes, by the great length of the jointed part of the first pair of limbs, which project like palpi from the sides of the head, and by the small number of body-segments. These would appear to be fourteen, besides the thoracic segments, but the dorsal plates are enlarged so that the alter- nate ones cover those lying immediately behind them, and thus the body shows eight dorsal and fifteen ventral plates. The dorsal plates are rounded behind and deeply notched in the middle, and in each notch a stigma is situated. The legs correspond in number to the ventral plates, and are long and slender, increasing in length towards the posterior end of the body. The tarsi are very long, whip-like, of two- parts, and finely annulated. These curious creatures, although by no means numerous, are spread over the greater part of the earth's surface, but abound more especially in warm countries. They are exceedingly active, and run freely up perpendicular surfaces. The largest known species is the Scutigera nobilis from India and the Mauritius, which measures two inches in length ; the best known European species is Scutiyera. coleoptrata, which inhabits the south of Europe and north of Africa, and is about four-fifths of an inch long. FAMILY II.— SCOLOPENDRID.E, OR CENTIPEDES. The members of this family are more elongated and have a greater number of body-segments than those of the preceding group ; the antennse are shoi'ter than the body ; the organs of vision, when pre- sent, consist of groups of ocelli placed on the sides of the head ; the jointed appendages of the first thoracic ring do not protrude, and have a small claw at their extremity; the legs are of moderate length and inserted close to the ventral plates, which reach the sides of the body ; and the stigmata are placed in alternate segments, in the membranous portion which unites the dorsal and ventral plates. The tarsi consist of one or two joints, which are not annulated. These creatures, the best known of which are called Centipedes, or Galley Worms, are distributed nearly all over the world, and everywhere they display the same general habits, being ferocious, animals of prey, lurking in dark places and in the ground, and using their formidable footjaws for the destruction of their prey and their defence against enemies. The tropical species are gigantic in com- parison with the European ones, which are not numerous. The best known European species belong to a genus (Lithobius), which is the type of a peculiar sub-family LITHOBIIDES, characterised by having numerous ocelli on the sides of the head, and the second thoracic segment represented by a dorsal plate. Thus there are sixteen segments with dorsal plates behind the head, and fifteen of these are provided with ambulatory legs. Several species occur in Britain, and of these the commonest (Lithobius forficatus) is found all over Europe. It is usually about an inch long and of a shining reddish- brown colour, with the head and antenna redder and the legs yellowish, and it occurs almost everywhere in the ground, under stones and the bark of trees, and in cellars and dark outhouses. In the true SCOLOPENDRIDES, a few of the smaller species of which occur in Europe, while the majority and all the largest forms are inhabitants of tropical and sub-tropical regions, the ocelli are never more than four in number, but the segments of the body are more numerous than in Lithobius., being always over twenty. One of the largest European species (Scolopendra cingulata, p. 153) is three inches and a half long, and is found in the south of Europe, and especially in France. It is of a rusty yellow, with the head and antennae and a central band and the margins of the segments green. In India and South America several species attain a length of nine or ten inches, and we have seen SCUTIGERA FOHCEPS FROM NORTH AMERICA. (Nat. Size.) THE MILLEPEDES. 155 specimens from the forests of the equatorial part of the latter region over a foot in length. According to Ulloa, Centipedes were to be seen in Carthagena in his day three feet long and four or live inches broad. The GJEOPHILIDES, which are entirely destitute of ocelli, differ further from the preceding in having the body extremely long and slender, composed of from fifty to over one hundred segments. The tarsi are of a single joint. Some of the exotic species of this group attain a great length and an enormous number of segments. Thus Geophilus cumingii, from the Philippines, is five inches long, and contains 160 segments, and G. gabrielis, from the Canaries, grows to a length of over seven inches, and shows 163 pairs of legs. A good many Geophili inhabit Europe, and we have several in Britain, such as Geophilus lonyicornis, which grows to a length of three inches, and has fifty-five pairs of legs, and G. subterraneus, a species half an inch longer and with a considerably larger number of segments (seventy-eight to eighty-three). Both these species are common, and may frequently be turned up in garden ground, where they live upon the larvae of insects and other soft-bodied creatures met with in such situations. Geophilus lonyicornis is luminous in the dark, and another British species has received the name of Geophilus electricus, on account of its manifesting the same property very strikingly. ORDER II.— CHILOGNATHA. In this second order of Myriopoda the head is usually large and placed perpendicularly, and all the three so-called thoracic segments have the dorsal part freely developed; nor are the limbs of the first two segments converted into organs connected with the mouth. The number of body-segments varies between nine and eighty or more, and the form of the segments is also very variable, but each apparent segment beyond the fourth or fifth is furnished with two pairs of legs, and with two pairs of regular stigmata placed near the origin of these limbs. The limbs are sometimes deficient on the first thoracic segment. In internal structure the Chilognatha present some peculiarities. The main tracheae do not unite after the insect type, but form branching tufts, the fine ramifications of which run to the neighbouring organs; and the organs of reproduction in the great majority do not open at the posterior of the body, but in the coxae of the second or third pair of legs. The males are provided with peculiar copulatory organs in the sixth or seventh segment, which in this case wants one or both pairs of legs. The eggs are deposited in a mass in a cavity of the earth. The form of the newly-hatched young, and its progress towards the adult condition, have already been indicated (see figures on p. 152). The presence of two pairs of limbs upon each ring of the body would seem to show that these may be really equivalent to two segments united. We may recognise the following four families : — FAMILY I.— JULID^, OR MILLEPEDES. The Julidae, commonly known as Millepedes, from the great number of their legs, sometimes called Galley Worms, a name which more properly belongs to the Scolopendridae, and sometimes, erroneously, Wire Worms, have usually a long cylindrical body, composed of segments which form a complete horny ring, the dorsal plate surrounding the whole body, with the exception of a very small sternal piece firmly united to it by sutures, in which piece are situated the inser- tions of the legs and the small stigmata. The bases of the legs are thus brought close together and to the middle line of the body. The head is large, with short antennae, and aggregated ocelli, •which, however, are sometimes entirely wanting ; and the mouth is formed for biting. These animals are distributed in all parts of the world, the largest species occurring in the tropics. They are nocturnal, and live in. or on the ground, and under stones and the bark of trees. They move slowly, creeping along by means of their short and slender legs, the motion of which presents a curious spectacle. Their food consists of both animal and vegetable matters ; they also attack fleshy, growing roots, a propensity that often causes them to be mischievous. The species are numerous, and most of them have the power of emitting an acrid fluid of disagreeable odour from small apertures pierced in the dorsal part of the segments, which have been mistaken for stigmata by some observers. One of the best known species is the Julus sabulosus, a dark greyish- brown or blackish creature, about one inch and a half long, with the borders of the segments lighter, and two reddish lines down the back; and another, perhaps equally abundant, is the Julns teri'estris, which is similar, but rather smaller, and destitute of the two reddish dorsal 156 NATURAL HISTORY. lines. Both these species are common in Britain and most parts of Europe. Some British and European species are considerably larger than these, but the giants of the family are to be sought within the ti-opics, species of the genera Spirostreptus and Spirobolus inhabiting India, Africa, tropical America, and the West Indies, attaining a length of from six to nine or ten inches. All the species have the power of rolling themselves up into a spiral form with the legs concealed. FAMILY IT.— POLYDESMIDJE. These animals are very nearly related to the preceding, but although the dorsal plate is continued on to the ventral surface, it is JULTJS TERRESTRIS. generally furnished with a dilatation at the sides, and the insertions of the limbs are In general habits they resemble the Julidse, and are chiefly They generally have no eyes, and the separated by a distinct sternal piece. found under bark, where they are often abundant. number of segments is twenty ; they are also more or less depressed, and thus present a general resemblance to the Scolopendridse. FAMILY III.— SIPHONIZANTIA. This is another family allied to the Julidse, but differing from it in more important characters than the preceding. The body is semi-cylindrical, and the dorsal plates of the segments encroach only a little upon the under surface. The head is small, and concealed beneath the margin of the first segment; and the clypeus in combination with the organs of the mouth, which are united, forms a sort of conical sucking organ. The legs are short, and do not project beyond the sides of the body. The species, which are few in number, are of comparatively small size, but consist of numerous very short segments. They are found in rotten stumps of trees. One species (Polyzonium germani- cum), about half an inch long, is found on the continent of Europe, especially in Germany and Poland. The rest are for the most part exotic. FAMILY IV.-GLOMERID^]. The Glomeridse are short ovate forms much resembling the common Wood Lice, with some of which they also agree in their power of rolling themselves into a ball. They are convex above, and composed of twelve or thirteen segments, of which the dorsal plates extend only to the margins, within which, on the lower surface, there are pleural plates separating the dorsal plates from the points of insertion of the legs. The number of pairs of legs varies between seventeen and twenty-one. Several species inhabit Europe, and most of the exotic forms belong to the Eastern Hemisphere. They may be compared to abbreviated Julidae, and ai'e like them in their habits. ORDER III.— PAUROPODA. This order has been established for one or two curious little creatures discovered by Sir John Lubbock during his investigations on the Thysanura, to which, apart from the presence of limbs on all the segments, they present a considerable analogical resemblance. These little animals consist of eight segments besides the head, and these segments bear a good many short and a few long bristles. The head also is sprinkled with hairs. The first segment of the body has a single pair of legs, while each of the following segments to the fifth bears two pairs, and may consequently be regarded as double ; in fact, the divisions are recognisable beneath, and Sir John Lubbock, reckoning the head to be composed of two segments, assigns fourteen primitive segments to the whole body. The most remarkable character, however, is to be found in the antennse, which are five-jointed and branched, with one branch terminated by a long, minutely-jointed lash ; while the other has two shorter ones, between the bases of which is placed a peculiar appendage, sometimes supported on a footstalk. Such a structure of the antennae reminds one rather of the Crustacea than of any air-breathing Arthropod. THE PE RIP ATI. 157 PAUROPUS HCXLEYI. A, enlarged 40 times B, antenna, enlarged 25C times. Another peculiarity of these animals is that they appear to possess no respiratory organs. There are no stigmata, and although the skin is very transparent, Sir John Lubbock could detect no tracheae in the interior of the body. The commonest British species (Pauropus huxleyi), which attains a length of one-twentieth of an inch, is an active little white creature, which may be found throughout the year among dead leaves and decaying vegetable matter in general. Two oval spots on the head are supposed to represent eyes. It appears to breed in the early autumn, and the newly-hatched young have only three pairs of legs. Sir John Lubbock describes a second but rarer British species (P. peduncu- latus), and others have been obtained in North America. ORDER IV— ONYCHOPHORA. Many years ago the Rev. Lansdowne Guilding discovered in the island of St. Vincent a curious worm-like creature frequenting dead wood and the stumps of trees, which he regarded as probably a worm, and described (in 1825) under the name of Peripatus juli- formis. Its true position has been frequently discussed, and for a long time it seemed to hover between the Annelids and the Myriopods, until the investigations of Professor Moseley, during the voyage of the Challenger, caused the scale finally to descend on the Myriopod side. These creatures are convex and worm-like, with their segmentation not particularly distinct, and the integuments of all parts of the body soft. On each side of the body are a number of short legs, terminated by a rudimentary jointed part, and a -pair of hooked claws. The head bears a pair of simple, annulated antennae, and a pair of simple eyes ; the mouth, which is below, has tumid lips, and within these two pairs of horny jaws. Respiration is effected by means of tracheae, which, however, are not connected into a regular system, but each respiratory aperture, of which a great number are scattered over the skin of the animal, gives origin to a small branched tuft of breathing tubes. As Professor Moseley says, we have here probably the first stage in the evolution of tracheae, which would in- dicate that the " air-tubes were developed in the first tracheate animal out of skin glands scattered all over the body." Of the internal structure of Peripatus we need only say that it differs from that of normal Myriopoda in the wide separation of the ventral nervous cords, and that it has greatly developed glands, called by Professor Moseley " slime glands," probably homologous with the salivary glands of other Myriopods, which secrete in abundance a clear viscid fluid. This is ejected by the animal from a pair of papillae placed at the sides of the mouth, in fine, thread-like jets, which combine to form a sort of network in front of the animal. It would appear that the emission of this slime is partly for defensive and partly for offensive purposes, as it takes place when the creature is irritated or handled, and is also employed, according to some observers, in the capture of insects for food. The Peripati are viviparous. They reside prin- cipally in rotten wood, are nocturnal in their activity, and walk in the manner of caterpillars, with the body much extended. According to Professor Moseley's observations on the Cape species (Peripatus capensis), the food consists of vegetable matters ; but according to Professor Huttoii the New Zealand one (P. novce-zealandia>) feeds partly upon insects. The Peripali must be regarded as representing a very early stage in the evolution of the Arthropods from the Vermes, and hence their form is probably of great antiquity. Their peculiar geographical distribution would also point in the same direction, seeing that species of the jrenus are found in Central America and the West Indies, in Chili, New Zealand and Australia, and at the Cape of Good Hope. \V. S. DALLAS. PERIPATUS CAPENSIS. (Nat. Size.) 158 CLASS AEACHNIDA. CHAPTER I. SCORPIONS AND SPIDERS. ARACHNIDA — General Characters — Internal Structure — Habits — Distribution — Fossil Forms — Classification —Order ARTHROGASTRA — Lung-sacs — Classification — Family SCORPIONID.E — Scorpions — Family PHRYNID^E — Family CHE- LIFEKID.E— False Scorpions — Family PHALANGIID.E — Harrest-men — Family SOLPUGID.E— Galeodes— Order ARA- NEIDA — True Spiders — General Characters — Internal Structure — Spinning Apparatus — Habits — Classification— TiTRAPNEUMONES— Family MYGALID.E— Bird Spiders— Mygale— Trap-door Spiders— DIPXEUMONES— Family SALTI CID.E— Saltigradae— Family LYCOSID.E - Citigradae — Tarantula —Family THOMISID.E— Laterigradae — Crab Spiders — Family TEGENARIIDJE— Tubitela? — House Spider — Water Spider— Family THEUIDIID.E— Imequitelse — Malmignatte — Family EPEIRIIXE— Orbitelae — Garden Spider. IN both the preceding classes of air-breathing Arthropods, the head is furnished with a pair of jointed organs recognisable as antennae ; in the Arachiiida we find no antennae of the same kind, but the corresponding parts, when present, are converted into a pair of more or less jaw-like organs. Except in two groups the head is always intimately united with the thorax to form a single mass, called the cephalothorax, which bears in front all the organs pertaining to the head, and on its lower surface the thoracic limbs ; in many cases even the distinction between thorax and abdomen is effaced. There are 110 wings. The organs of respiration, when present, consist either of tracheae, or of peculiar sac-like modifications of tracheae, to which the name of lungs or pulmonary sacs has been given. The abdomen is always destitute of limbs. The range of organisation is so great in the Arachnida that it is somewhat difficult to give any general description of the class, and we shall therefore only indicate briefly what is necessary to make the following descriptions of the orders and families intelligible. The cephalothorax is usually covered above by a single plate, upon the anterior part of which the eyes, when present, can be seen. These are always ocelli or simple eyes, and they vary in number between two and twelve. The organs representing the antennae are articulated to the front of the cephalothorax above the opening of the mouth, and receive their nerves from the supraoesophageal ganglion ; they usually take the form of jaws, often of formidable dimensions, and in function replace the true mandibles, which are absent. They are commonly called falces. Of the two pairs of organs representing the maxillae and labium of insects, the former (maxillae) retain their position as organs of the mouth, their basal parts closing the mouth behind either as separate pieces, or united into a single plate, while their jointed palpi project, and frequently acquire the form and size of an additional pair of limbs. Of regular limbs the Arachiiida have four pairs, of which the first may be considered to represent the labial palpi, and the others the three pairs of legs of the Insecta. The bases (coxce) of all these limbs surround the sternum, but possess apparently little power of motion. The limbs springing from these coxae consist, in the higher Arachiiida, usually of seven joints, namely, a troc/tanter, which is sometimes elongated, but generally very short, a stout femur, a tibia composed of «two unequal joints, and a tarsus, also consisting generally of two joints, which are sometimes annulated, and the last of which bears the claws and often other subordinate organs. In the lower types of the class of course the limbs are frequently simpler in construction, and occasionally they are represented only by rudimentary parts. The abdomen is attached to the cephalothorax sometimes by a slender peduncle, sometimes by its whole width ; and in certain of the lower forms of the class the whole animal shows 110 traces of divisions. In some instances also the abdomen itself is clearly divided into a larger or smaller number of segments, whilst in others no trace of segmentation is apparent. The skin covering the body of the Arachnida is generally soft and leathery, with the exception of the limbs, the joints of which are more or less horny tubes. In other cases the whole surface is horny. The skin is changed repeatedly and throughout the life of the animal, there being no fixed period for the final moult, as in the insects ; thus the Arachnida, after having reached the reproductive stage, may continue to live and increase in size, and produce successive broods of young. The mouth in the Arachnida leads into a narrow oesophagus, which in some forms (Scorpions) passes directly into the stomach, while in the majority it is clearly separated from the latter. The stomach itself presents the remarkable peculiarity that in most cases it gives origin on both sides to several caaca, often of the same number as the limbs, which in many cases actually penetrate STRUCTURE AND HABITS OF ARACHXIDA. 159- more or less into them. The length of the intestine generally corresponds with that of the abdomen, at the extremity of which it opens. The amount of convolution is not great. Before its termination it generally enlarges into a rather lai-ge cloaca, immediately above which the Malpighian vessels open into the intestine. The so-called fatty body of the Insecta does not occur in this class, but the body-cavity is filled with the lobes of a greatly-developed liver, in which the other internal organs are- imbedded ; the numerous gall-ducts proceeding from this liver unite to form eight or ten main ducts, which open into the sides of the intestine at some distance behind the stomach. Salivary glands, discharging into the cavity of the mouth are also generally present. The organs of circulation and respiration show very great differences in the class Arachnida. The lowest types have no special organs of the kind. Others possess a dorsal vessel of very simple construction ; while the higher forms, such as the Spiders and Scorpions, have a regular chambered dorsal vessel or heart, into which the blood penetrates through valvular apertures, while part of it issues again through small arteries given off by the chambers, and the rest through an aorta, which divides into numerous branches, distributed through the body. In the lower forms again respiration is performed by the agency of trachea? like those of insects and Myriopods ; in the more highly-organised groups, while simple tracheae are still frequently present, the chief respiratory organs, are peculiar lung-sacs, of which the ventral surface has from one to four pairs, and which show in their interior several delicate membranous folds. The nervous system exhibits almost an equal amount of variation, but in its highest development it shows an cesophageal ring with a lai-ge ganglion above the oesophagus, from which nerves are supplied to the eyes and falces, and another below the oesophagus, often united with the great ganglionic mass of the cephalothorax, and from these combined nerves issue to the organs of the mouth proper and the four pairs of legs. When the abdomen shows distinct segments, it also contains a ventral chain of ganglia united by commissures. Except in one small and lowly group, the Arachnida are all of separate sexes, and with but few exceptions they are oviparous. Many of them undergo more or less change of character in advancing towards maturity, and in some parasitic forms we find examples of retrograde metamorphosis. In their habits the Arachnida are nearly all carnivorous, and, indeed, predaceous, living principally upon various insects and other weaker Arthropods, of which they usually content themselves with sucking out the juices, sometimes, however, devouring part of the solid substance. Among the lower forms, some feed upon solid materials of animal origin, and others upon vegetable matters, whilst some are parasitic, not only upon other Arthropods, but even upon vertebrate animals. They are mostly terrestrial creatures, but one whole order consists of inhabitants of the sea, and a few members of other groups are also aquatic in their habits. Their distribution is world-wide, but, as in most other groups, tropical countries possess the greatest number of species, and present us with the largest and most remarkable forms. Geologically, the class is of great antiquity. Unmistakable Arachnida, of forms which stand high in our classifications, occur in the Coal Measures of various parts of the world. Scorpions and true Spiders are recorded from these deposits both in Europe and in Amei'ica, which also contain other forms, the precise location of which is more difficult. Fossil Arachnida also occur, although sparingly, in later deposits containing insect remains, such as the lithographic slates of Solenhofen and the varioiis Tertiary insect-beds, and, as might be expected, Spiders are by no means uncommon inclusions in amber. The vast range of characters presented by the multifarious members of this class, the highest and lowest of which, but for the existence of the intermediate forms, would hardly be referred to the same group, renders the classification of the Arachnida rather complex, and has given rise to considerable diversity in the systems adopted by different authors. Formerly the class was divided into two principal groups, Pulmonata and Tracheata, according as the animals breathed by lung-sacs or by tracheae, but this mode of division has been held to be unsatisfactory on account of the analogy between the so-called lungs and the tracheae, and the further fact that lungs and trachea? co-exist in many forms. The actual difference in the arrangement of the groups by the abolition of this mode of division is so insignificant that it is really of little consequence whether we retain it or not, and as the mode of arrangement in accordance with the general characters presented by the various groups is perhaps more easily intelligible, we may adopt it in the present work. The following table will show the orders into which we propose to divide the class. 160 NATURAL HISTOEY. I. — Abdomen composed of distinct segments ..... II. — Abdomen with no distinct segments or rudimentary: — A. Abdomen distinctly separated from the cephalothorax, pedunculate B. Abdomen not separated from the cephalothorax : — * Furnished with tracheae ...... + With no distinct organs of respiration : — a. Body indistinctly ringed ; four pairs of stumpy legs b. Body worm-like ; internal parasites . c. Cephalothorax of four segments ; legs long ; abdomen rudimentary Order 1. — ARTHROGASTRA. ,, 2. — ARANEIDA. „ 3. — ACARINA. „ 4. — TARUIGRADA. ,, 5. LlNGUATULIXA. ,, 6. — PANTOPODA. The first of these orders includes the Scorpions, and some other Pulmonate forms, together with the long-legged Harvest-men, the Book Scorpions, and some others which breathe by tracheae ; the second is formed by the true Spiders, in which we find lung-sacs as well as tracheae ; the Acarina include the numerous species of Mites, in which tracheae are the sole organs of respiration ; the Tardigrada are the minute creatures known to microscopists as Bear animalcules ; the Linguatulina, when adult, are worm-like creatures, with a couple of hooks as the sole representatives of limbs, but in the young state show arachnidan characters ; and the last order consists of some marine creatures, which may be called Sea Spiders, and which have been bandied about between the Crustacea and the present class. ORDER I.— ARTHROGASTRA. This order includes several distinct types, of which, indeed, separate orders have been made by many zoologists, and it is not without some hesitation that we have accepted it in its present signification. The sole important character by which all its members are held together, is the possession of a distinctly segmented abdomen, which is attached to the hinder part of the cephalothorax by its whole width ; in other respects we find a great variety both in external structure and in internal anatomy. In respect of the respiratory organs especially, we find two perfectly distinct types, some forms belonging to the group breathing exclusively by lung-sacs, while the rest are as exclusively tracheal in their respiration. These lung-sacs, which occur in the highest types of this order, and associated with tracheae throughout the next, are regarded by anatomists as modifications of tracheary organs. They are situated in pairs in one or more seg- ments of the abdomen, and each of them communicates with the external air by a more or less slit-like opening; or stigma, pierced in the ventral plate of the segment. This aperture leads into a small, usually flattened, sac, the walls of which are folded so as to form a number of delicate lamellae (from 20 to 100, in different cases) UNDER SURFACE OF SCORPIO occixANus. dividing the cavity into so many narrow compartments, •an, falces, representing antennae ; mx', first pair; mx", ,, ... , , , . 1 second pair of palpi; pl, p2, p3, true legs; x, comb; st, all opening into a common chamber which communi- cates with the outer air through the stigma. As Professor Huxley remarks, " the organ, in fact, somewhat resembles a porte-monnaie with many pockets." The blood circulates through these delicate membranous folds, and is thus exposed to the influence of the air, which has free access to the cavity of the sac ; it is then con- veyed by sinuses to the pericardial cavity, to pass thence into the heart. According to Pro- fessor Huxley the expiration of the air is effected by the agency of peculiar muscles which act on THE SCORPIONS. 161 Family 1. SCORPIONIDJE. 2. — PHUYNIDJE. the membranous lung-sacs ; some zoologists also believe that inspiration is caused by a similar agency. The true tracheae, when present, are analogous to those of the Insects and Myriopods, open like them by stigmata, and ramify throughout the body. The great diversity of organisation presented by the members of this order renders their division into families exceedingly clear and distinct, and we may recognise with facility the following five groups : — I. — Respiration by lung-sacs (Pedipalpi). a. Maxillary palpi with nippers ; stigmata four pairs ; terminal segments of abdomen forming a slender tail, with a sting at the end ........ b. Maxillary palpi with imperfect nippers, or simple ; two pairs of stigmata ; no caudal sting ...... II. — Respiration by tracheae (Adelartkrosomata). a. Cephalothorax not segmented : * Maxillary palpi with nippers ..... „ 3. — CHELIFERIDJE. t Maxillary palpi simple ..... „ 4. — PHALAXGIID^E. b. Cephalothorax divided into four segments .... „ 5.— SOLPUGIDJE. FAMILY I.— SCORPIOXID-E. The species of this family are exceedingly uniform in their structure. They consist of a rather broad anterior part, composed of the Cephalothorax and seven distinct segments following it, at the hinder extremity of which come five narrower segments forming a sort of tail, terminated by a bulbous piece having a short but sharp point. At the front we see a pair of jointed organs having regular nippers, like the so-called claws of a Crab or Lobster, and behind these four pairs of ambulatory limbs. The type is so interesting and irn- portant,however, that we must describe its structure a little more particularly. The upper sur- face of the cephalo- thorax is covered by a shield-like horny plate, upon which from three to six pairs of simple eyes are to be seen, a pair of extra size being placed ANDROCTOXUS (OR SCORPIO) OCCITAXUS. close to the middle line of the shield, while the rest are arranged variously towards the margin, according to the genera and species. The seven plates which follow this cephalothoracic plate on the back of the animal represent so many abdominal* segments, but are connected with the corresponding sternal plates only by soft skin, with the exception of the seventh, which joins its sternal plate at the hinder part. The other six dorsal plates have only four distinct sternal plates to correspond with them, and 259 * Prof. Huxley speaks of them as thoracic. 162 NATURAL HISTORY. these appeal- to represent the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth ; each of them presents a pair of stigmata leading into lung-sacs. The five segments following these, which form the wider part of the body, consist of complete horny rings, or i-ather short tubes, articulated in such a manner as to give the tail, which they form, considerable freedom of movement. The last joint of this tail, regarded as the equivalent of the telson of the Crustacea, is a bulbous piece, swollen at its base, and narrowed and curved into a hook at the free end ; the bulb contains a pair of glands which secrete a poisonous fluid, which is conveyed by ducts to the minutely but doubly perforated point of the hook, and renders the sting of the Scoi'pion so formidable an offensive weapon. In the Scorpions, as in most Arachnida, the representatives of the antennae, which spring from beneath the front margin of the first dorsal piece, are a pair of organs affiliated to the mouth, but in the present group, instead of forming two-jointed jaws, the chelicene are composed of three joints, the last two of which form small pincers. A large labrum is followed by a very small mouth-aperture, on each side of which ai*e the bases of the maxillae, which are true foot-jaws, having a distinct masticatory surface, while their elongated palpi ai-e the large pincer-like organs which form so striking a chai-acter- istic of the Scorpions. Of the four pairs of walking limbs which follow these chelate palpi two have their basal joints forming part of the boundary of the mouth, a circumstance which has led some anatomists to regard them as representing the maxillae and labium, and the large palpi as belonging to the mandibles. The ambulatory limbs are provided with three claws. Behind the origin of these limbs are traces of the sternal portions of the first and second free segments, the first bearing the valves which cover the generative aperture, while the second supports a pair of very singular comb- like appendages, the function of which does not seem to be very clearly made out. The alimentary canal, which starts from the minute aperture of the mouth, forms a simple tube continued through the whole length of the body, and opening in the segment immediately preceding the sting. The Scorpions are the largest and most formidable members of the class Arachnida, and they are for the most part confined to the warmer regions of the earth. In Southern Europe, indeed, a few species are found, and some of these are of moderate size, such as the Androctonus occitanus, which occurs throughout the Mediterranean region, and measures upwards of three inches in length, but in hot countries there are Scorpions of nearly double this statui-e. The genus (Androctonus) to which the largest European Scorpion belongs, is chiefly represented in Africa, although its members also occur in Western Asia, as well as in Europe. Its name, which signifies " Man-killer," indicates the dread with which these creatures are regarded in Africa, where their sting is certainly productive of very painful consequences, although whether it is ever fatal would seem to be still a matter of some doubt. The European species, at any rate, do not appear to produce any very serious effects. Androctonus occitanus is said to be the least formidable species of its genus ; and the other common European Scorpion (Scorpio europceus) is not half the size of its companion. Both these species are to be met with in the south of France, and the second extends its range northward into Germany. The Scorpions are light-shunning animals, concealing themselves during the day in the ground under stones and in crevices in rocks and buildings. In the twilight they come forth in search of their prey, which consists principally of large insects and their larvae, and spiders, and when thus engaged they carry the long flexible tail elevated over the back of the body, so that the sting is about as far forward as the cephalothoracic plate. The prey is seized by the pincers of the large palpi, and then pierced by the sting and speedily killed. Scorpions generally live quite alone, and select dry places for their abode. Brought together accidentally, they will usually fight, and if one is killed the other will feed upon it ; the male also, being smaller than the female, is obliged to be very cautious in his approaches to the object of his affections, lest he should be treated in the same manner. The females are viviparous, that is to say, the eggs are hatched in the enlarged oviducts, and the number of young produced may reach sixty. In their earliest days the young Scorpions are carried about upon the back of their mother. FAMILY II.— PHEYNID^. The Phrynidae constitute a small family of Arachnida nearly related to the Scorpions, from which they nevertheless differ in some sufficiently striking particulars. The fore part of the body is also. THE CHELIFERIDJE. 163 PHRYXUS REXIFORMIS. occupied by the dorsal plate of the cephalothorax, and this has eight ocelli, of which two, as in the Scorpions, are placed close to the middle Hue. The falces consist of two joints, with an apical claw ; the true maxillary palpi are large and stout, and terminate either in a simple claw or in an imperfect pincer, in which the movable finger is considerably shorter than the other ; while the second palpi, or first pair of legs, are long and slender, and terminated by a finely annulated tarsus. The three pairs of true legs are comparatively stout. Attached to the posterior end of the cephalothorax is the abdomen, which is flat, slightly narrowed towards the base, and composed of eleven or twelve segments ; it has 110 comb-like appendages at its base, and the hinder extremity is not narrowed into a flexible tail armed with a sting, as in the Scorpions, although in one genus (Tkelypltouius) the last three segments are much re- duced in size, forming a short tube, terminated by a long, jointed filament. The respiration is effected by lung-sacs, the stigmatic openings of which are situated near the hinder margin of the second and third ventral plates ; the sacs contain numerous lamellae (about eighty in some species). Although destitute of the formidable sting of the Scorpion, the attacks of these creatures, which are mostly of considerable size, are dreaded by the inhabitants of the countries in which they occur. No doubt the pointed claw of the falces is perforated and connected with a poison gland, as in the true Spiders, and it is by means of these organs that painful wounds are inflicted. In their general habits the Phrynicla? much resemble the Scorpions, with which they also agree in the tubular structure of the alimentary canal. They are not numerous in species, and form only two principal genera, which, however, are represented in the tropical parts of both hemispheres, although the species are most numerous in America. They are generally from an inch to an inch and a half in length, but a species five inches long (TJielyphomis yiyanteus) has been described from Mexico. This, however, includes the annulated tail characteristic of the genus Tkelyphonus, which is often of considerable length. In the genus Phrynus, in which the tail is wanting, the second pair of palpi are very long, sometimes three times the length of the body. The species of Phrynus are viviparous. FAMILY III.-CHELIFERID^E. This family comprises a great number of little creatures, which, in appearance, are exactly com- parable to minute flattened Scorpions that have lost their tails ; they are known as False Scorpions and Book Scorpions. Like the Scorpions they have the first palpi developed into long didactyle chelae, and the second pair in the form of legs, but their basal part forms no part of the boundary of the mouth ; the falces (representing the antennae) are much reduced, and the surface of the cephalothorax, which is often divided into two parts by a transverse furrow, bears only one or only two pairs of eyes. Behind the cephalothorax follows a broad, flat abdomen, composed of eleven similar segments, and without any comb-like appendages at its base. Oil the first two abdominal segments are placed two pairs of stigmata, opening, however, not into lung-sacs but into regular tracheae, which give off branches to the organs of the body in the same way as in the remaining families of the order, and in the second segment is the opening of the sexual organs, close to which are some silk glands, with the secretion from which the little creatures are said to manufacture protective coverings for themselves when they are about to change their skin, or to lie by for the winter. These little creatures, few of which exceed a sixth of an inch in length, are tolerably numerous, and inhabit most parts of the world. They are generally of different shades of brown, and have the limbs and frequently the cephalothorax paler than the rest of the body. Like the preceding groups CHELIFEH CAX- CKOIDES. 164 NATURAL HISTORY. they lead a concealed life, making their way into any confined spaces in search of food and shelter. One of the best-known species, the so-called Book Scorpion (Chelifer cancroides), is very common in old houses, where it often lives in and among old dusty books and portfolios, whence its popular name. It is about an eighth of an inch long. Several allied species (Chelifer nmscorum, pinnerets. B, maxillary palpus of male, much enlarged. 168 NATURAL HISTORY. after a time into two main branches, and sends forth a great number of arteries to the organs of the cephalothorax and the limbs. Respiration is effected, as already mentioned, partly by lung-sacs and partly by tracheae. The former, of which there are one or two pairs, are situated in the basal part of the abdomen, where they open by slit-like stigmata protected by small special plates (opercula). Their structure and mode of action are the same as already described in the Scorpion. The trachea? consist of two main stems, with more or less numerous branches, sometimes possessing more or less distinct internal fibres, sometimes partially or wholly destitute of anything of the kind. The main stems open to the air by a pair of stigmata situated in the lower surface of the abdomen, sometimes close to those of the lung-sacs, sometimes at the extremity of the body. The aperture of the generative organs is placed in both sexes at the base of the abdomen, between the stigmatic openings. The central nervous system is much more concentrated than in the Arthrogastra, con- sisting only of a central or supraoesophageal ganglion and a great nervous mass behind the cesophagus, the latter showing on each side four projecting portions, from which the nerves of the limbs are given off. Besides these internal organs, the Spiders universally possess a set of glands for the production of a viscous fluid which has the property of hardening upon exposure to the air, and forms the silky threads which play so important a part in the lives of thesa animals. Thesa silk-producing glands are exceedingly numerous, and pour out their secretion through a multitude of minute tubes situated on the lower surface of a set of peculiar organs known as spinnerets, placed near the extremity of the lower surface of the abdomen. There are from two to four pairs of these organs, which are sometimes quite short and nipple-like, placed close together in a little bunch, while sometimes one or two pairs are more elongated, and even divided into joints. In the latter case it is only the apical joint that bears the spinning tubes or " spinnerules " on its lower surface. The latter consist of microscopic horny tubes, through the minute apertures at the extremity of which the silky secretion escapes in threads of extreme fineness, a number of which unite before their consolidation to form the threads with which we are familiar. The production of these silky threads is, indeed, the most striking characteristic of the Araneida, and it enters more or less importantly into all their habits of life. By means of it they construct their dwellings, and some of them make most ingenious nets for the capture of prey ; they make use of it continually when prowling about, as a safeguard against falling ; they employ it in the construction of bridges, to cross from one elevated situation to another, and even as a means of aerial transport. The two last-namel uses of the silky material require a few words of explanation here, as they are common to Spiders of several families. For the formation of a bridge from one tree, or other elevated object, to another, the Spider places itself on the summit of its resting- place with its front to the wind, and clings firmly to its support, usually with the aid of a few short threads stretched transversely to the direction in which it is looking. It then attaches a thread to the surface on which it is standing, and elevates the extremity of its abdomen as much as is possible. The wind immediately catches the short thread thus produced and exposed to its action, and draws it out continually, forming a loop of gradually increasing length, which floats away until it comes into contact with some solid body, to which it clings. The Spider has then only to draw the line tight and fasten it, and his communication with the distant point is complete. The same process is adopted with a view to an aerial excursion, a mode of diversion to which young Spiders of several families are very much addicted especially in the fine days of autumn. In this case, however, when the Spider feels that the quantity of silk that it has produced is sufficient to enable the aerial currents to bear it up into the air, it cuts away the original attachment of the thread and allows itself to be carried off.* Sometimes these flying threads are excessively numerous, and on their descent cover everything ; they are particularly striking on hedges, and constitute, at all events, one of the causes of the pheno- menon well known in the country as "gossamer." The Spiders are all oviparous, and it would appear that the female, when once impregnated, pro- duces several batches of eggs at considerable intervals of time. The number of eggs produced at once varies, but they generally form a considerable mass, enclosed by the female in a silken bag, which she sometimes carries about with her, sometimes conceals in her nest, and sometimes attaches to * According to many writers no preliminary attachment of the thread takes place, but the Spider simply emits some fluid from the spinnerets, and allows the air to cany it away. MYGALILM. 169 stones, plants, ana other objects. The young resemble their parents in general form and structure, and undergo no metamorphosis. In their habits the Spiders are all predaceous, arid their prey consists almost entirely of small Arthropods, especially insects. In the capture of these they adopt various devices : some of them creeping about among plants and such objects until they find themselves within reach of a desirable booty, or lurking in dark corners to rush out upon any passing victim, others directly pursuing the fly or other insect that they have selected with a genuine cat-like stealthiness, while others weave most beautiful and ingenious snares for the capture of their prey. In all cases, however, the fate of the victim is the same ; the Spider buries the claw-joints of its falces in the body of its prey, the juices and softer parts of which are then sucked out by the action of the muscular apparatus appended to the ossophagus. Of this order several thousand species are known from all parts of the earth, but they are nearly all of small or moderate size, with the exception of a few tropical members of certain families which attain comparatively gigantic dimensions. In general the species inhabiting warm countries have little advantage in point of size over their relatives in temperate climates. The species are, however, more common in warm regions. Fossil Spiders are not numerous, especially in the older rocks. Nevertheless, species occur in the Lithographic Slates of Solenhofen, and, as in the case of the Scorpions, one or two have been recorded from the Coal Measures of Silesia and Bohemia. They are more numerous in the Tertiary insect- beds, and a great many have been preserved in amber. In the classification of the great number of Spiders forming this order there is not unnaturally some little difficulty, and the consequence is that nearly every original author adopts a method of his own, the results of which, as regards the bringing together of the different forms, are often very divergent. The following division into families, which is a slight modification of Gerstacker's arrange- ment, will serve, we think, to give the reader a good general idea of the mutual relations of the different types : — I. — Two pairs of lung-sacs and two pairs of spinnerets ; claws of falces bending downwards ....... Tribe I.— TETRAPNEUMONES. One family ... ..... Family 1. — MYGALID^E. II. — One pair of lung-sacs ; usually six or eight spinnerets ; claws of falces bending inwards . Tribe II.— DIPNEUMONES. A. Tagabundte. Ocelli usually in three rows ; wanderers which spin no webs : — * Cephalothorax nearly rectangular ..... Family 2. — SALTICID.B. t Cephalothorax narrowed in front ..... Family 3. — LYCOSID^E. B. Sedentaria. Ocelli in two rows ; makers of webs for the capture of prey: — * Abdomen broad and depressed . . Family 4. — THOMISID^:. t Abdomen moderate, or, if broad, very convex : — a. Intermediate pairs of legs shorter than the others ; webs more or less tubular ....... Family 5. — TEGENARIIDJE. b. First pair of legs usually the longest; webs irregular . . Family 6. — THEKIDIIDJE. c. First and second pairs of legs longer than the otbers ; webs with more or less regular radiating and concentric lines . Family 7. — EPEIRID.B. TRIBE I— TETRAPNEUMONES. FAMILY I.— MYGALID.E. The group of the Tetrapneumones, or Four-lunged Spiders, which includes only the single family of the Mygalidse, is distinguished not only by the presence of four stigmatic openings towards the base of the abdomen, but also by the possession of only four spinnerets, two of which are very small, and by having the claw of the falces bent downwards, so that those organs are kneed. This family includes a number of species, for the most part of large or considerable size, and some of them among the very largest of Spiders. They are mostly confined to the warmer parts of the world, only a few, and those comparatively small, extending their range into southern Europe, while a single species alone is recorded as an inhabitant of Britain. 260 170 NATURAL HISTORY. The gigantic species of the typical genus Mygale, in which the body is covered with a rough, hairy coat, and the legs are also stout and hairy, chiefly inhabit the warmer parts of America and the West Indian Islands, although several species of them, and some of them of large size, are found in the Eastern Hemisphere. So far as the observations of naturalists at present go, most of them, at any rate, do not burrow in the ground, but reside in the grooves and fissures of the bark of trees, in the crevices between stones, and in other sheltered places, where they commonly spin a more or less tubular silken dwelling of suitable size, within which also the female deposits her eggs, enclosed in a regular case of white silk, to the number, according to some observers, of 1,800 or 2,000. The Spiders usually go in pursuit of their prey in the evening and during the darkness of the night, when they seize upon and destroy all the insects and other Arthropods that they are able to surprise and overcome, whilst, according to stories which have come down to us from a tolerably distant past, they are not content with insects alone, but even prey upon small birds and other Vertebrates. It would appear, indeed, from an observation of Mr. Bates, that there is some truth in their possession of these bird-catching propensities, in allusion to which Linnaeus gave one of the large Surinam species described and figured by Madame Merian the specific name avicularia. Mr. Bates on one occasion found two small birds hanging in a torn web which was stretched across a cleft in a tree. One of them was already dead ; the other, upon the body of which the Spider was resting, was at the point of death, and died soon after his taking it in his hands. He found that the observation of this habit of the Spider was quite new to the natives on the banks of the Amazon, and thus some doubt still remained as to its powers of bird-catching, and we believe that the gigantic Spiders which have been brought to the London Zoological Gardens from South America have not been experimented upon with birds ; but Mr. Bartlett said that one of them attacked and killed a mouse. At the same time, it is very curious that the formidable falces of the large MygalicUe are regarded with so little dread by the Indian children in the Amazonian region, that Mr. Bates actually found the latter on one occasion leading about one of these monsters by a thread put round his middle. The specimens that have been kept in the Regent's Park were fed chiefly upon Cockroaches and Meal Worms; one that was kept some years ago in Danzig killed and devoured some young frogs and other Amphibians. Several of the species exceed two inches and a half long, and their legs cover a surface of five or six inches in diameter. A considerable number of species of rather smaller size than the above, and chiefly inhabiting the Old World, live in burrows which they excavate in the ground and line with a tube of silk. They generally close their habitations with a regular, closely-fitting door, attached to one side of the aperture by a silken hinge, and, from this peculiar construction of their domicile, they are known commonly as "Trap-door Spiders." The trap-door is composed of earthy particles firmly held together with layers of silk, and, although sometimes it consists of a mere flap falling down over the aperture, it is, in most cases, a regular stopper, accurately fitting into the orifice of the burrow. In some instances the Spider shows still more ingenuity in fitting up its abode as a place of refuge. After making the main nest, it works through at one side, and there digs both upwards and downwards, obliquely, so as to produce a side chamber into which it can retreat should some enemy succeed iix opening the trap-door ; and the lateral chamber is cut off from the main burrow by a silky curtain- like door, which hangs before it, and thus apparently completes the inner lining of the tube. Gteniza. fodiens, figured, with its nest, of the natural size, in our Plate 65, is a well-known South European species, especially abundant in Corsica. These Spiders issue from their nests at night in search of prey, and, after they have retreated into their fortresses, they will resist the opening of their trap- doors by clinging to the lining of the tube and to the inner coat of silk composing the doors. The females deposit their eggs in a silken cocoon at the bottom of their nest, and are said by some naturalists to carry their young about with them for a time after they are hatched. Some of the species, including the single British type of the group (Atypus suheri], construct a somewhat different kind of nest. Atypus sulzeri, a Spider nearly half an inch long, with a large cephalothorax and enormous projecting falces, is found in several parts of England, principally in the south, and excavates as its dwelling-place a more or less cylindrical gallery, almost half au inch in diameter, in moist ground, the direction of which is usually at fii-st horizontal and then vertical for a greater or less part of its length. The interior of this domicile the Spider lines with a compact CTENIZA FQDIENS AND ITS NEST. 65 THE 171 of silk ; but instead of closing its aperture with a trap-door, the nest is finished by continuing the lining-tube beyond its mouth for a greater or less distance, the part thus left free lying upon the surface of the ground. The female deposits her eggs, which number from thirty to forty, in a silken cocoon, which she attaches to the inner extremity of her nest. TRIBE II.— DIPNEUMONES. The Dipneumones, as indicated by their name, possess only a single pair of lung-sacs, and the base of the under surface of the abdomen shows only a single pair of the opercula closing their apertures. The tracheal system has its apertures either immediately behind those of the lung-sacs or near the end of the abdomen. These Spiders, however, have another distinctive character in their falces, which may be placed either vertically or in an inclined plane, but always have the claw-joints articulated so that they bend in towards the middle line of the body. FAMILY II.— SALTICID^, OR SALTIGRAD^E. The first two families of this tribe have the eyes nearly always placed in three transverse rows upon the surface of the cephalothorax. That is to say, we may distinguish two rows of two each and a third containing four, although in many cases an imaginary line may be recognised as combining the two separated pairs into a single curved row. In the Salticidae the general form is compact, and the cephalothorax of nearly equal width from back to front, so that its shape is more or less rectangular. The legs are comparatively short and stout, and usually terminated by a pair of claws, below which there is a bunch of hair-like papillae, termed a scopula, although sometimes this organ is wanting, and there are three claws. The extremity of the abdomen has three pairs of spinnerets. The Salticidse are generally neat and active-looking Spiders, of small or moderate size. The species are exceedingly numerous, and distributed in all parts of the world. Those of warm climates include the largest forms, and many of them display a remarkable brilliancy or iridescence of colouring. They are of wandering habits, preparing no snares for the capture of the flies and other insects on which they feed, but prowling about in search of their prey with a most extraordinary cat- like stealthiness, and often capturing it by means of a sudden spring. Their habit of making little jumps under such circumstances, and even when merely alarmed, has caused the family to receive the name of Saltigradse, and is also alluded to in the name of the typical genus Salticv.-s, upon which the family name Salticidse is founded. They are to be found upon the trunks and leaves of trees and bushes, on railings, and about rocks and walls, in fact, wherever the flies which constitute their principal nourish- ment are to be met with. At the approach of danger they take shelter in holes and crevices, or throw themselves off and drop to the ground at the extremity of a fine silk thread, which it will be found they drag behind them, and attach from point to point all the while they are engaged in their predatory wan- derings. This habit may be easily observed during the summer in the case of the commonest of the British species (Salticus scenicus), which may be met with almost everywhere in abun- dance, running about in the hot sunshine upon brick walls, palings, and the trunks of trees, and even upon the iron railings of balconies and other parts of houses in London itself. This interesting little creature, which is about a quarter of an inch long, and black, with white interrupted transverse bands, has a singularly alert look when engaged in its search for prey. Nevertheless, it moves everywhere with the greatest circumspection, and occasionally, by straightening the fore legs, elevates the front of the cephalothorax, in which we find a pair of enormous eyes, so as to obtain a wider range of vision. Its progress upon smooth and perpendicular surfaces is facilitated by the scopulae, or tufts of adhesive hair-like papillse placed at the extremity of each foot ; and when by this cautious method of approach the Spider has arrived near enough to its intended victim, by a sudden rush and spring the latter is at once seized and soon destroyed. Upon thin iron railings we have seen this Spider advance along the lower surface of the SALTICUS SCENICUS. A, female, enlarged; B, foot from below with scopula ! c, foot from the side ; D, falces of male. 172 NATURAL HISTORY. rail towards a fly sitting unsuspiciously on its upper surface, and peeping up from time to time to see whether it was yet near enough for the final spring, the whole behaviour of the creature reminding one forcibly of the conduct of a cat similarly occupied in pursuit of a mouse or bird. In June, the female constructs one or two cocoons of white silk, containing as many as fifteen or sixteen eggs, which are not agglutinated together. These cocoons, which are of a slight texture, are then enclosed in a compact cell made of white silk in the crevices of rocks, walls, and the bark of trees. FAMILY III.— LYCOSID^E, OR WOLF SPIDERS. The Lycosidse, Wolf Spiders, or Citigradse, like the preceding, are wandering predaceous Spiders, but they run down their prey without springing upon it after the fashion of the Salticidse. Their ocelli are generally placed in three rows, and the cephalothorax is robust, but this part of the body is narrowed towards the front ; the falces are placed vertically ; there are three pairs of spinnerets ; and the legs taper to the extremity, and are usually terminated by three claws, without any scopulse or adhesive hairs, although some species have only a pair of claws, assisted by a small scopula at the end of each tarsus. Although inferior in size to the Mygalidse, they are generally larger than the Salticidse, and many of the tropical, and especially American species, exceed an inch in length of body. They take up their abode under stones, in the crevices of rocks and of the ground, in moss and under fallen leaves, and wander about, especially at night, in pursuit of the insects which constitute their chief food, and which they capture principally upon herbage and low bushes. Many of the species live among woods and on dry commons, but some seem to show a preference for marshy places and the neighbourhood of water, often even running upon the surface of pools, and making their way below the surface by crawling down the stems of aquatic plants. They can remain thus submerged so long as the air confined among the hairs covering the body will serve them for the purpose of respiration. While running on the surface of the water these Spiders freely seize the insects that come in their way, and one British species has received the name of Lycosa piratica, from its having this habit, which, however, is common to many others, and to some species of the allied genus Dolomedes, such as D. fimbriatus, a large and handsome Spider, attaining a length of five-sixths of an inch, that abounds in the fen country. Notwithstanding their well-earned character for ferocity, these, like most Spiders, show a most affectionate care for their offspring. The Lycosce, and some others, place their eggs, from the number of fifty to over one hundred, in a small, flattened, DOLOMEDES MiRABiLis. silken case, resembling two saucers put together by their edges, Female, with egg-bag, enlarged. & ' which they then attach to the under side or the extremity or the abdomen, and carry about with them. The female of Dolomedes places a still larger number (from two hundred to two hundred and fifty) in a rough-looking, globular cocoon, which she also carries about, holding it under her sternum by means of the falces and palpi, but at the same time attaching it to the spinnerets by a couple of strong threads. When the young Spiders are about to be hatched, the mother spins a dome-shaped web among low herbage, and under this the newly- hatched young cluster together on lines which they spin for their own accommodation, and remain there, carefully tended by their parent, until they have become able to shift for themselves. The most celebrated species of the family is th« Tarantula (Lycosa tarantula), varieties of which, or of distinct, but very nearly allied species, occur throughout southern Europe. In some parts, notably in Italy, the bite of these large Spiders, which exceed an inch in length, is supposed to produce most remarkable effects, including a sort of epidemic dancing madness ; bub it would appear that, although their bite may give rise to disagreeable symptoms, the stories told by the older writers are much exaggerated. FAMILY IV.— THOMISID.E, OR CRAB SPIDERS. The Thomisidse constitute the first family in which the eyes are placed in two rows upon the surface of the cephalothorax, and these rows are generally curved, sometimes in parallel lines, the first row sometimes more convex. The first two pairs of legs are generally longer and stouter than THE TEGENARIID^. 173 THOMISUS CITREL'S. the rest, and in the typical portion of the family the front pair are pushed forward quite to the fore part of the cephalo thorax, and the whole body shows a generally broad and depressed form. They usually possess only two claws on each foot, associated with a few adhesive hairs, which some- times form a small scopula. The peculiar short-bodied form and large arms of these Spiders have led to their being called " Crab Spiders." The name of Laterigradse, also given to the family by some writers, alludes to their frequently running sideways, like Crabs, a movement which is facilitated by the great development of the first two pairs of limbs. The species of Thomisidse are exceedingly numerous and very widely distributed, but they seldom run to a large size. Among the British forms a length of a quarter of an inch is considerable, but the American species are as a rule larger. The finest British species (Sparassus smaragdulus) is half an inch long in the female sex, which is of a fine green colour. The male is also green, but banded longitudinally on the back of the abdomen with crimson and yellow. They usually conceal themselves among herbage and in flowers, but sometimes in cracks and crevices of trees, rocks, and waDs, or even in cracks in the ground and under stones. It is in these situations that they lie in wait for the insects which constitute their prey, which they sometimes seize by surprise on their coming close to the lurking- place, especially in the case of the flower-haunting species, and sometimes pursue with great agility. The females deposit their eggs, which vary in number from about thirty to two hundred or more, in a small compact cocoon of silk, usually of a lenticular form, like those of the Lycosce. These are sometimes, but rarely, attached to the lower surface of rocks and stones ; generally the leaves of plants are selected for their reception, and these are either drawn together or bent at the edges, so as to form a protective covering for the cocoons. When alarmed, the Spiders of this family often adopt the crab-like device of simulating death to elude danger, and in this helpless attitude the species here figured may often be detected lying in the hearts of flowers, where its yellowish coloration renders it very inconspicuous. The young Spiders of this family are among those most addicted to float through the air on a support of gossamer in fine autumn evenings. FAMILY V.— TEGENARIID^, OR TUBITEL^E. In this extensive and varied family, of which the common House Spider may be taken as a typical example, we again find the eyes placed in two rows, but they vary somewhat in arrangement. The first and fourth pairs of legs are longer than the second and third, and all the legs taper towards the extremity, where they ai'e generally terminated by a pair of claws, accompanied by papilliform hairs, which sometimes form a small scopula. In some cases there are three claws. All the Spiders of this family weave a more or less complete web for themselves, usually consisting of numerous threads sometimes united into a sort of sheet, but nearly always con- nected with a more or less tubular portion which serves as a dwelling-place and shelter for the Spider. The DRASSIDES, a series generally of small Spiders of compact form and active habits, have three pairs of spinners, and generally only two claws on the tarsi, supplemented by numerous papillary hairs, which sometimes form scopula'. They ai*e numerous in most parts of the world, and reside in silken cells which they build for themselves in the crevices of rocks and walls, among leaves, and under the loose bark of trees. In similar situations, or DRASSTJS CUPREUS. 174 NA TURA L HIS TOR Y. attached to stones, the female deposits her eggs, to the number of forty, fifty, or more, in a firm and compact cocoon of white silk, about which, or within a light outer web surrounding it, the parent Spider remains in attendance on her progeny. This is especially remarkable in the case of some species which bury their cocoons in the earth, and these, as well as the species frequenting leaves, herbage, i i iieiimging to the sixth ot jointed legs belonging to this division ot the animal s body. The first and most anterior pair of appendages in a Crustacean is com posed of the two eye-stalks, each bearing an eye (Fig. 2, A) at its extremity. The mouth, which is placed in the centre of the head, just beneath the rostrum, has a small median plate in front,, called the labrum (Fig. 2, B), or upper lip-plate, and a two-lobed piece behind it, called the meta stouia, or lower lip (Fig. 2, c). The second pair of appendages, following in order after the eyes, are called the antennule?, or inner antennae (Fig. 2, D), each consisting of a protopodite (or root-footlet) bearing two long, slender, many-jointed feelers, representing the two parts of an ordinary jointed limb, one being called the exopodite (or outer footlet), and the other the endopodite (or inner footlet). These undoubtedly serve as important organs of touch, and at the base of each in the protopodite is a small sac, opening externally by a narrow cleft guarded by hairs. At the bottom of this sac is a prominence wherein the auditory nerve terminates, and on which are very delicate hairs with silicious particles which have (apparently) found their way in from the exterior. The third pair of organs are the two great feelers or outer antennae (Fig. 2, E), which exceed in length the entire body of the Lobster. Like the ANATOMY OF LOBSTER. aiitennules, they consist of a stout basal portion, to the side of which a large scale (the exopodite) is articulated, and from its extremity the long single many -jointed lash of the antenna takes its rise. A.t the base of each antenna is a green gland, which, according to Spence Bate, serves as an olfactory organ for conveying a sense of smell to the Lobster's nerves. The next six pairs of organs, which follow in succession after the eyes and an- tennae, are all specially modified to serve the important business of nutrition, and generally to attend upon the mouth, that is, to hold, to cut, or to bite the food brought to it by the great claws. The first or innermost pair (called mandibles) is very strong, and toothed at the edge, and has a small palp or feeler (j)) articulated to its upper border (Fig. 2, F) ; the edge forms a power- ful crushing jaw, like a modified tooth. The next (Fig. 2, G) are called the first maxillw. These are small and delicate organs fringed with hairs, and no doubt serve like- wise as organs of touch, as do also, most probably, the second maxillae (Fig. 2, H). This second pair have a large spoon-shaped " epipodite," or upper footlet, attached to the base (which serves a special office in con- nection with the gills), and is termed the " scaphognathite," or boat-like jaw. The pair which follow (Fig. 2, i), named the first maxillipedes, or "jaw-feet," complete the jointed organs belonging to the head. They differ but little from the first pair of maxillce (G), save that they bear a long and slender epipodite, or upper footlet, attached to the basal joint, the function of which (like that of the scaphognathite attached to H) is connected with the branchice, or gills, to be presently described. Here the seven thoracic appendages commence, and it may be noticed in the two succeeding pairs of jointed organs — although called "the second and third maxillipedes," or jaw-feet— that (Fig. 2, J, K) the inner footlet (en) attains considerable size, and, like that of the five following pairs of limbs, consists of seven joints. The third joint of the outer pair of maxillipedes (K) has a hard and sharply-toothed edge, and can be used either to cut its food or to hold it as in a vice. Both pairs of * The labnun and the metastoma are not considered by carcinologists as paired appendages, but as parts of the mouth : they do not therefore represent body -rings. Fig. 2. — APPENDAGES OF THE HEAD AND THORAX OP A LOBSTER. I.— HKAD. 1. A —The compound eyes fixed on their eye-stalks or protopodites (pp). [u.— The lubrum, or upper lip, placed in front of the mouth.* j. — The meta&toma, or lo'.ver lip, placed just behind the mouth.*] 2 i>. One of the organs of touch : the anUnnulef, or inner pair of anteunse; i, the seat of the auditory nerve. 3. E. One of the great outer pair of antenna, or feelers. 4. jr.— One of the mandibles, or crushing jaws: en, the endopodite ; p, the point of attachment of the muscles of the jaw. 5. o. One of the Urst pair of maxillre, or inner jaws. 6. H. One of the second or outer pair of maxillce: sc, the part named the tcai/lwgnathite, or bortMike jaw. 7. i. One of the first pair of maxillipedes, or inner jaw-feet ; ex, the exopodite ; en, the endopodite ; ep, the epipodite. II.— THOHAX. 1. J.— One of the second pair of niaxlllipcdes, bearing a small gill or branchla on its basal joint. 2. K.— One of the third orouter pair of jaw feet. This pair of appendages also bears eacli a pill orbranchia attached to the basal joint or protopodite. [3. The next paired, appendages which follow are the great chelate claws, or pincers, which are so largely- developed in Lobsters. These are not drawn.] L. — One of the second pair of thoracic legs; ep, epipodire : g, u-ills or branchiae; in, endopodite; p, the protopodite or first foot joint. M. — One of the last pair of ihoracic legs ; p, position of the opening of the vas deferent in the male. 192 NATURAL HISTORY. maxillipedes have branchiae attached to their bases. And now, in the succeeding five pairs of appendages, a marked change occurs, for these are undoubtedly legs, not jaw-feet. They vary at their extremities, the first three pairs being chelate, or clawed, at the end (Fig. 2, L), whilst the two last pairs have simple extremities (M). The first pair (not drawn in our woodcut) are those enormously large clawed nippers, so characteristic of the common Lobster, and which differ in form (like a dentist's forceps), one being very heavy and blunt-toothed, and the other more slender, and having its pincer more sharply serrated. The remaining four pairs of legs are of nearly equal size, and are true walking limbs. The seven pairs of thoracic appendages carry the breathing organs (branchice) upon their basal joints, or attached to the pleurce or side-walls of the thoracic somites (body-rings). There are twenty of these structures on each side of the cephalothorax. They are pyramidal bodies, each consisting of a central ascending stein with numerous delicate horizontal branches through which the blood circulates. They are closely packed against the outside wall of each thoracic body-ring, and are protected from all liability to external injury by the overarching sides of the great carapace or head- shield. To aerate the blood thoroughly it is necessary that the water bathing the branchiae should be incessantly renewed. This is brought about partly by the very movements of the legs, to the first joint of which they are nearly all attached, and partly by those long slender organs we have already noticed, attached to the basal joints of the maxillipedes and also to the legs, called epipodites, or upper footlets. These ascend between the gills, and serve not only to keep them apart from each other, but they also impart a slight degree of movement to them. The main agent, however, is the scaphoynathite, or boat-like jaw, on each side (Fig. 2, H, sc\ which continually spoons out the wa-ter from the gill-chamber in front, and thereby causes a fresh current to enter from behind. The fourteen anterior segments which form the head and thorax in the Crak anc* Lobster being so constantly found blended together in one, are fre- quently termed the cephalothorax, a very convenient name for this compound .-.,, i i • i • i <• 11 /iiij.1 17 \ structure. Ihe seven. body-rings which loJIow (called the abdomen) are . . seldom so much altered that one cannot at once see the separate joints or segments of which the body consists. In the Lobster, as seen by the woodcut (Fig. 1), all the seven rings can be readily examined separately, but in the Crab the abdomen is often quite small, almost rudimentary, and in one family (called the Leucosiadce) the joints are soldered together into one piece, forming a small hollow enamelled lid to protect the eggs. In Fig. 3 is seen the third ring of the abdomen of the common Lobster, which may serve to represent the main characteristics of the second , third, fourth, and fifth body-segments. Each of these has two paired appendages attached to the underside or sternum (s) springing from one " root-footlet " (p), and giving rise to two swimmerets, fringed with hairs, representing the inner (en) and outer footlet (ex). In the sixth body-ring these swimmerets are greatly broadened out, and the outer foot- let is divided into two by a transverse joint. m, , , .., ., ,, Ihese broad swimmerets, with the seventh or terminal somite (before spoken of as the " telson "), together form the expanded termination of the abdomen, which, by its forward projection. through the water, drives the animal backwards. But the appendages belonging to the first abdo- minal ring in the Lobster have their swimmerets modified, in the males, into a pair of grooved processes, each like a small bent marrow spoon, and in the female into flexible soft processes. The primary function of the abdomen in the Lobster, Prawn, and Shrimp, is undoubtedly that of Fig. 3. THE THIRD RING OF THE ABDOMEN' OF THE LOBSTER. pieces) ;" p,r, ibcprotonoiiitff, or first foot-joints, each bear- ing ex an e.ropodite or outer, pddit" or?ol!r^s£immeVTtr Fig. 4. —SIDE VIEW OF COMMON CRAB WITH ITS ABDOMEN EXTENDED, AND CARRYING A MASS OF EGGS BENEATH. 6. THE EGGS. (After Morse ) INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LOBSTER. 193 COMMON CRAB, ENLARGED. B, SINGLE EGG GREATLY ENLARGED, SHOVING MORE PLAINLY THE HARDENED THREAD (t) BY WHICH THEY ARE ATTACHED TO EACH OTHER. THIS EGG SHOWS THE YOUNG CRAB JUST BEGINNING TO FORM. (After Morse.) a powerful swimming organ, but in the Crab it is useless as an organ of natation, being quite rudimentary, especially in the males, but in the females of all these Crustaceans it serves as the nest for the eggs (or " berries," as the fishermen call them). When first extruded by the female, these eggs are coated with a viscid secretion, which thickens into threads, and causes the eggs to adhere to each other and to the fine hairs with which the swirn- merets of the abdomen of the Lobster and of the female Crab are fringed, and, thus protected, they are carried about by the mother until hatched (Figs. 4, 5). If a longitudinal section (Fig. 6) were made through the hard and soft parts of a Lobster, it would be found that its nervous FJg 5 _A? A FEW OF THE E(JGS QF THE system occupies the ventral, or belly surface, of the animal's body, and consists of two parallel chords, so closely united, that, save near the stomach, where they separate to form " the cesophageal ring," they present only the appearance of a simple chord having a single ganglionic enlargement at each segment of the thorax and abdomen. But where the gullet passes to the stomach, the most anterior thoracic ganglion sends forward two dis- tinct chords, which are united by a commissure or cross nerve behind the oesophagus, and have eacli a small ganglion on either side which gives off nerves to the mandibles, the stomach, the heart, the liver, and the intestines. These chords then unite once more in a single large ganglion in front of the mouth, and hence called the supra- oesophageal ganglion. This is the Lobster's brain, and its nerves go to the feelers, the eyes, and the other sensual organs of the animal. Above the nervous system is the alimentary canal, or the great duct or intestine by which the functions of digestion and nutrition are carried on. We have already seen with what an array of weapons, claws, foot-jaws, jaws, and mandibles, for cutting, crushing, tearing, biting, and generally pulling to pieces, a Lobster's mouth is armed ; but, as if still further to insure perfect digestion, the stomach itself is provided with a set of calcareous teeth covered with strong ridges like the grinding surface of the tooth of a small Rodent or Kan- garoo Rat. These gastric teeth (Fig. 7) triturate the food against a fixed calcareous ridge, also set in the wall of the stomach, and are moved by appropriate muscles. In the lower chamber of the stomach, leading to the intestine, and named the pylorus, a series of fine hairs are placed, which prevent the escape of the coarser particles of food, until they have been repeatedly subjected to the molar-like action of these gastric teeth. The liver in both the Crab and Lobster is a very large and highly complex organ, not solid like the human liver. The secreted fluid, or bile, is poured by two openings into the pylorus. Imme- diately beneath the cephalic shield of the Lobster lie the heart and the great main artery which supplies the entire length of the body. The • , f • i , • i «» • -i In, stomach of Crab laid open ; b, b, b, fixed neart consists ot a single ventricle, which sives on six arteries by calcareous piate again?t which the two "-rtric teeth, q, a, are exposed; If/and 6. DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION OF A LOBSTER'S BODY. a', the antennules : a, the antenna; r, the rostrum; h, the heart; ar, the artery ; gl, the pills or branch!®; c, the etnmach ; I, the liver ; g, genital organs or ovaries; in, the intestine; an, anus; n, n, the nervous pysti in with its Severn 1 ganglia or nerve masses; o, the optic ganglion : c the cephalic ganglion; i, oasophageal ganglion. 31, Fig. 7. GASTRIC TEETH OF LOBSTER AND CRAB. gastr &vthe which the arterial blood is conveyed to the various organs of the body ; it also receives by two main trunks the blood which has passed through the branchiae. The arteries have valves at their openings, and after ramifying they end ultimately in capillaries, connected at last with what are called 263 191 NATURAL HISTORY. " venous sinuses." Here the blood is collected, and thence passes up into the gills to be oxygenated, after which it is returned to the heart. With the exception of the CIERIPEDIA (see p. 196), the two sexes in the Crustacea are always distinct. Among many of the Crustacea, the antennae and the great claws are specially developed in the male. This is the case in the claws of Corystes and Macrophthalmus and many others, whilst in Cyclops one of the antennae in the male is specially modified for clasping the female. In the Crab the female lays eggs which have been already fecundated. In the Lobster the eggs are fecundated after their extrusion from the ovaries, whilst adhering to the abdomen of the female. In nearly all the Crustacea the young undergo a series of metamorphoses after they quit the egg. This is especially the case with the truly marine forms. Among the DECAPODA (Crabs and Lobsters) some few species certainly quit the egg in the same form as their parents, with apparently the same number of jointed appendages to their bodies. This is the case with the River Cray-fish with sevei*al Land Crabs (Gecarcinus, &c.), with a species of Dromia, and with the common Garden Wood Louse (Oniscus, Porcellio, and Armadillo), which likewise nearly resemble their parents at birth. One of the most interesting series of metamorphoses undergone by any of the Crustacea is that passed through by the young of the common Shore Crab (Fig. 8). In this species the metamorphosis is a perfectly gradual one, and dissimilar as is the zoea when it quits the egg from the adult animal, yet nevertheless the change at each moult is so small that it is only by a comparison between the earliest and the las'; stages that the amount of the change which has actually taken place can be fully appreciated. Thus, in the zooid state the young Crab has fixed eyes without eye- stalks, a long body, destitute of any appen- dages ; it has no walking legs, but it is a free- swimming form, performing its locomotion with its maxillipedes, or jaw-feet (m), which are greatly developed, serving as a pair of long oars, the long hairs of which probably fulfilling the office of branchiae. Even when by succes- sive moults the true ten-footed character is seen, the young nevertheless present at first a greater likeness to the long-tailed Lobsters than to the short-tailed Crabs. These tran- sient characters displayed by the larvae are found to be persistent in many of the lower and simpler forms now living, and they also charac- terised some of the ancient fossil Crustacea found in the Silurian formation. Thus it may be seen that the stages of development of the individuals of to-day are but a reflection of the life- history of the class in past, geological time. Still more strange are the changes undergone by the brood of some Prawns of the genus Penwus observed by Fritz Miiller (Fig. 9- 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5). These quit the egg with an unsegmented ovate body (2), a single eye in front, and three pairs of swimming feet, of which the first pair are simple, and the other two pairs branched. In this stage, called the ttauplius, there is no trace of a carapace, the paired eyes are wanting, and also the masticating organs, the mouth being covered by a helmet-like hood. After several moults the nauplius becomes a zoea (3), being furnished with maxillae and two pairs of jaw- feet. The third stage of the same Prawn (4) exhibits still more remarkable changes, the paired eyes, the segments of the thorax, the rudiments of the feet are seen, all the appendages of the mouth and head can be counted, and the plates of the tail sprout forth. And now another great change takes 8. THREE STAGES IN THE METAMORPHOSIS OF THE COMMON SHORE CRAB. (Carcinus mcenas.) 1, a newly hatched zoea ; 2, a more advanced Bta^c "f same, 3, side view of still older larva (Jfegalopa stage). (After C. tipence Bate.) METAMORPHOSIS OF CRUSTACEA. 195 place, and the zoea passes into the mysis form (5) ; the antennse cease to serve as organs of locomotion, their place being taken by the thoracic feet, which are furnished with long hairs or bristles. The Fig. 9. — METAMORPHOSIS OF A PRAWN OF THE GENUS Petiteus. (After Fritz Mutter.) , adult, h-K natural size ; 2, nauplius stage of young Prawn as it quits the eep ; 3, zoea of same Prawn ; 4, older zoea of same species ; 5, myiis of ditto. (». 3, 4, and 5, are all magnified forty-flve diameters.) J96 NATURAL HISTORY. abdomen is fully developed but has no appendages. Nothing can well be imagined more diverse than the zoea, nauplius, and adult stages in the life history of this Prawn. Although the young of nearly all the Crustacea pass through numerous moults before altaining the adult state, yet, even after maturity, the shelly envelope is not permanently retained, but is exuviated and renewed as often as the growth of the animal necessitates its enlargement. By this, wonderful provision the otherwise inelastic corselet is prevented from interfering with the continued growth of its wearer. The process of moulting is exactly analogous to the shedding 'of the skin and scales in reptiles. In insects — as all know who have kept silkworms— this moulting takes place several times in the grub or larva before it finally arrives at the perfect state. It then occurs no. more. Insects, therefore, cannot grow after they reach the imago, and their life is consequently soon ended. Crabs, on the contrary, go on moulting and growing larger for many seasons, and each year they lay their eggs, so that they are more prolific, although less highly organised, than the insect tribe. The manner in which Crabs cast off their old shell is very singular, usually without producing any change in their external form, and when they have quitted the old habitation the whole body is already covered with a new suit of armour, which is, however, still soft, and does not acquire its requisite solidity for some hours, or even days after the operation. The Crustacea also possess the power of reproducing injured or lost limbs; if one or mor& distant joints of a limb be torn off, the animal has the power of throwing off the remainder of the limb. This separation always takes place at the base of the first joint. The perfect restoration of' the liinb is not effected at once. After the first moult a new limb is produced of diminutive size. After a second, the new limb is veiy nearly twice as large as at the first, and at the third it advances nearly to its natural bulk and form. It is said that the noise of a thunderstorm or the discharge of a cannon will cause Crabs and Lobsters to throw off their claws ; the same effect is also- produced by the infliction of any sudden injury. The Broad-clawed Porcelain Crab (Porcellana-. platycheles), if seized by the claw, will leave it behind him and beat a retreat without it. The accompanying table may serve to convey a general notion of the Crustacea as a class. CLASS CRUSTACEA. DIVISIONS. I.— THORACIPODA.- Special locomotory organs <( belonging to the thorax. « I f3. PODOPHTHALMIA. — Eyes on mov- able foot-stalks. Branchiae proper almost always present. 3 j <", MACROURA. (Large-tailed.)— Lobsters- Shrimps. II.— GNATHOPODA.— Limbs nearly always be- longing to the head, but not generally specialised, , as their bases perform the ' part of jaws. Branchiae usually exposed and aiding in natation. m.— ANCHORACEPHALA. f>. — Adult (female) attached J by the head, and perma- . nently fixed. l-2. STOMAPODA. (Mouth-footed.) -Squilla, Mysis, &c. EDRIOPHTHALMIA.— Eyes fixed, f ., T,_, Branchi* formed of modified i 3" Ib^°DA' (Equal-footed )-Wood Lice, Omtnu. appendages. Limbs usually { ' seven ]>airs. No cephalothoracic I 4. AMPHIPODA. (Both feet. ) — Sand-hoppers, TuLtrim,. carapace. ( Gammarus. MEROSTOMATA.-The mouth fur- , 5> XlPHOSURA. (Sword-tails. )-King Crabs, Limning nished with mandibles and i maxillae, the terminations of i G. (El'RYPTERlDA. Extinct.}— Eurvptcrm, Pten/yotusr which become walking or swim- [ &c. (7. (TRILOBITA. Extinct. )— Trilobites, Calymene, Pha- BRAN-CHIOPODA.— Most of the COPS> &c- appendages, save those of the ,8. PHYLLOPODA. (Leaf-footed.)-^4/)iw, £rancki(n:»r head and mouth, converted into j &c. lamelliform branch^. |9 CLADOCERA. (Branched horns.)- Water FU»8, (_ Daphnia, &c. LoPHYROPODA.-Locomotory or. ,10. OSTRACODA. (Shell-covered. }-Cypr, gans having stiff ?:airs. Branchiae-; attached to mouth organs. j 11. CoPEPor.A. (Oar-footed )—Ci/dops, [. CetochUas, &c. f!2. RHIZOCEPHALA. (Root-headed.) Parasitic forms - CIRRIPEPIA.— Adult animals per- ! — Peltoc/aster, Sacculina, &c. manently attached to some living • , 0 „ or dead object. Sexes usually < 13 BALANID.E. (Acorn shells. )-Balanus, Coronula, united. | I 14. LEPAPID.-E. (Barnacles.) — Lepas, Scalpettum, 1. PoUicipes, &c. CHAPTER II. CRUSTACEA (continued).— CRABS, LOBSTERS, AND SHRIMPS. ERACHYt'RA, CRABS — Cephalisation — Sizes of various Crabs— The Spider Crabs— The Great Crab — The Common S..ore and Harbour Crab — The Swimming Crabs— The Velvet Fiddler Crab — The Masked Crab — Land Crabs — The Pea Crab— ANOMOURA, HERMIT CRABS — Their Houses — The Land Hermits — The Robber Crab — MACROURA, LOBSTERS — The Common Spiny Lobster — The Common Lobster — The Norway Lobster — The Common River Crayfish — The Eye ot Crustaceans — The Brown Shrimp — The Common Prawn— Blina Crayfish. FIRST LEG I OK— POD OPHTHALMIA. ORDER DECAPODA.-BRACHYURA (CRABS). THE Crab is certainly the highest representative of the Crustacean class, and in this ten-footed order are included some of the most active and intelligent members of the community, the Land Crabs and Shore Crabs, and also the largest representative of the class, the Inachus kempferi, from Japan. Crabs furnish the best illustration among the Crustacea of that concentration of organs around a single nerve-centre, which has been aptly termed cep/ialisation (Fig. 10). Instead of a long body composed of a large number of rings, each having its own nerve-ganglion (Fig. 11), we have in the Crab one large cephalo- thoracic ganglion (T) representing nearly the entire nerve force of the body, the supracesophageal ganglion (c) only giving rise to the nerves of sense and volition. The highest concentrated type of Crustacean is exemplified by Maia and the Spider Crabs, but, as a matter of fact, the Triangular Crabs, of which Maia and Inachus are examples, do not embrace, by any means, the liveliest and most intelligent of the order. The carapace in these is narrow in front, and generally forms a prominent beak, beneath which the mouth is situated. Notwithstanding the length of their legs, their movements are generally sluggish. Many of these Crabs are quite coated over \vith nullipore aud corallines, while others cultivate green and red seaweeds upon their backs, and thus disguised like Indians stalking game, they can readily approach their more active prey, then by a sudden and un- expected snap they will seize upon and hold with extraordinary firmness the small fishes which incautiously venture too near their ambush. Although the British and European examples of Stenorhynchus, Achceus, Pisa, Inachus, Arctojms, and Ilyas, are all quite small forms of Crustacea, and even Maia is by no means a large Crab, yet in the British Museum there are specimens of the InachiLs kempferi from Japan which measure ten feet between the tips of the clawed fore limbs ; the body (like that of other of the Triangular Crabs) is comparatively small and rather convex in shape : the claws are thin and about six feet in length. These monstrous Crabs are said to be eaten in Japan. The Slender-beaked Spider Crab (Stenorhynchus tenuirostris) is one of the most curious of these triangular Crabs. When alive io is of a lovely pink and puce colour, the ova are of a licdit orange-brown. When seen sitting in a group of corallines of darker hue it presents a striking object in an aquarium. This species is frequently to be met with at Torquay in deep water. li is remarkable for the great length of its rostrum, which equals that of the entire carapace. Its small body and ex- ceedingly long and slender limbs make this form the most spider-like of all the Spider 1? c Crabs (see Fig. 12). i. -NERVES OP The Four-horned Spider Crab (Pisa ietraodon) is a good illustration of one of the HI™D ISOPOD commonest of thes« small British Crustaceans. Like all the group, the carapace is tri- 'T- angular and elongated in front ; the rostrum is large, strong, and prominent, and forms two strong horns. The margin of the carapace is also armed with spines, and the surface has numerous tubercles and hairs upon it. The abdomen of the female is very large and broad, and when laden with eggs exceedingly prominent. They are abundant at Bognor and other points along the south coast of England, and being attracted, like their larger brethren, b} the smell of Fig. 10. — NERVES OF MAIA SQU1NADO. 198 NATURAL HISTORY. stale fish, they frequently enter the Crab and Lobster-pots to the number of twenty to thirty, and BO meet with an untimely end. They are usually so overgrown with corallines as to be almost indis- tinguishable. The Spinous Spider Crab (Mala squinado) has a very convex and circular carapace, growing more triangular with age by the increased length of the rostral portion (Fig. 13). The centre of the carapace has a group of seven rounded and swollen prominences, and the whole surface is covered with minute spines and tubercles, with larger spines on the sides and front border. The rostrum has two strong and prominent diverging horns. The antenna; are small. The chelate fore legs are considerably longer and stouter in the adult male and much smaller in the young and in the adult females. There are few Crustacea in which age produces so great a change of form as in the Spider Crab. In the young state the fore legs are slenderer and shorter, and the front of the carapace is broader in propor- tion. Jfaia is common to the western and southern coasts of England, and is also found on the southern coast of Ireland. It is by far the largest species of the family, and, with the exception of the Great Crab (Cancer pagurus), it is the largest of the British Bra- chyura. The carapace of a specimen taken in Plymouth Sound measured eight inches in length and nearly six in breadth, whilst the length of the fore limbs was fifteen inches. It is eaten by the poorer classes, though it is but indifferent food. Like all the other triangular Crabs, the fishermen inveterately term it " spider," and they appear to have very little idea of any affinity between these forms and the Crabs, properly so called. Some years since Professor Bell saw in one of the back streets of Poole, near the waterside, a little girl standing by a small table, on which was a plate containing two of these Crabs of moderate size, cooked and for sale. On being asked by the Professor, " Pray, do they eat these Crabs here1? " she replied, with a look of great surprise at his ignorance, " Theyben't Crabs, sir, them's spiders ! " The Great Crab (Cancer pagurus) is one of the most familiar forms of all the Crustacea, because one meets with it on the stall of every fishmonger, and in England it is largely consumed as an article of food, especially in all the great cities. Its chief feature is that the external antennae have a very long and thick basal joint ; the terminal portion, or feeler, is very short and slender. The great claws have black tips, and are equal in size, and of great strength and thickness. The carapace is nearly plain, with an oblong ovate outline much broader than long, the anterior border being marked by a row of ten square uniform teeth. The great claws and carapace are smooth, and ths four simple walking legs are hairy. This Crab was eaten in the time of the Romans, and has formed an article of diet probably ever since that period. Its excellence is mainly due to the enormous development of the liver, which occupies the two anterior sides of the carapace, and is deemed by most the " tit-bit." Its picture may be seen in one of the beautiful tessellated Roman pavements in the British Museum. The fishery for these Crabs constitutes an important trade on many parts of the coast. The LENDEU-HEAK.ED Sl'IDER CHAM. (Stenorhynchns tenuirostris. Leach.) THE COMMON SHORE CRAB. 199 number annually taken is immense, and as the occupation of procuring them is principally carried on by persons who are past the more laborious and dangerous pursuits of general fishing, it affords a means of subsistence to many a poor man who, from age or infirmity, would be unable without it to keep himself and his family from the workhouse. They are taken in what are termed '; crab-pots," a sort of wicker trap, made by preference of the twigs of the golden willow (Salix vitellina), at least, in many parts of the coast, on account, as the fisher-folk say, of its great durability and toughness. These pots are formed on the principle of a common wire mouse-trap, but with the entrance at the top. They are baited with pieces of fish, generally of some otherwise useless kind ; these are fixed into the pots by means of a skewer. The pots are sunk by stones attached to the bottom ; and the situation where they are dropped is indicated, and the means of raising them provided, by a long line fixed to the creel, or pot, having a piece of cork attached to its free end. These pieces float the line, and at the same time serve to designate the owners of the different pots, one perhaps having three corks near together, towards the extremity of the line, and two distant ones; another may have one cork fastened crosswise ; another two fastened together, and so on. The Common Shore Crab (Fig. 14, Carci- nus mamas), so abundant in very shallow water around the coasts, and so industrious a scavenger between tide-marks, spends really much of its time almost out of water or on the edge of the advancing and the skirts of the receding tide. It is a true running Crab, yet its relations are all swimming Crabs, having their hind pair of feet specially modified for swimming, which is- not the case in Carcinus. The front margin of the carapace is strongly toothed with five teeth on each side, and three lobes in front ; the eyes are larger and certainly more useful " optics " than those of the great Crab. To any one who is a lover of an aquarium this very common Crab is an excellent and amusing species to keep and tame, for it soon loses all idea of shyness, and will " come to be fed " like any other pet, and take its food sharply. When very young these Shore Crabs moult frequently, and, being easily kept in small vessels of sea-water, one can all the more readily study their habits. One which was thus kept in confinement moulted on llth April, 22nd May, the 3rd July, the 30th August, and 26th September of the same year, the acceleration of the last moult being attributed to the creature having been fed " like a prize beast," on purpose to try the effect on its growth. In casting its shell a Crab not only parts with every joint and plate of its many-jointed body, antenna;, foot-jaws, claws, and tail, but the very lining of its gills, of its stomach, of its eyes, and of other parts, is thrown off, and thus, when the creature has escaped, the shell seems as perfect nearly as the animal itself. Pennant's Swimming Crab (Portunus variegatus) has a carapace which is rather longer than wide, and is toothed at its front border. Its fore legs are short, with exceedingly sharp claws (chelae). The last pair of legs are flat and spatulate, and like an oar-blade, well adapted for swimming ; the other three pairs of simple legs are fitted for running. They are common on the shores of the Firth of Forth and the Moray Firth, and in Ireland. Its colour is a dull purple-white mottled with a darker hue. The Velvet Fiddler Crab (Portunus puber) has its front border armed with at least ten spines, and its entire carapace densely covered with hairs. The chelae, or claws, and also the four pairs of simple legs, are thickly coated with a dense pile of fur. All the limbs have raised longitudinal lines or ridges upon their joints. The general colour of the Velvet Fiddler Crab is brown, but the longi- tudinal ridges on the legs are blue. This Crab is not uncommon on the south-west coast of England Fig. 13. — MAIA SQUINADO. 200 NATURAL HISTORY. and on the Irish coast. It is also met with in the Moray Firth, the Firth of Clyde, and in the Channel Islands, where it is known as the Lady Crab, from its velvet coat. " An old male of the Velvet Fiddler is a striking and handsome Crab. His body generally is clothed with a short velvety pile of a pale brown or drab hue, from beneath which here and there shines out the glossy deep black shell, especially where rubbed, as at the edges. The feet, particularly the plates of the oars, are conspicuously striped with black, the large and formidable claws are marked with bright scarlet and azure, as are also the foot-jaws and face, while the eyes are of the richest vermilion, projecting from hollow black sockets." This species, when apprehensive of assault, uses its powerful claws " to strike transversely, as a mower uses his scythe." Henslow's Swimming Crab (Polybius henslowii), the only known species of the genus (Fig. 15), exhibits the natatory structure to the greatest extent of any British species. The carapace even in the female is remarkably flat, and its form is nearly orbicular. The edge of the carapace has five teeth on each side. The eyes are keen and active ; the chelse are exceedingly sharp- edged. The four following pairs of limbs are all adapted for swimming. The colour is of a rich reddish-brown. The texture of the whole shell is far lighter in density than any of the coast species which live inshore. This is, in fact, a truly pelagic or open-sea Crustacean. The writer has seen this Crab in large numbers swimming on the surface of the Bay of Biscay one hundred miles from land ; and far off the coast of Cornwall the fishermen take them in the act of eating the Mackerel, which they pursue and fasten on to with their knife-like nippers, until the terrified fish becomes exhausted and is speedily van- quished and devoured. A much larger species of Swimming Crab than the British, named Portunus pelagicus, occurs in the seas of China and Japan, and extends as far south as the Gulf of Carpen- taria. It preys upon quite large fishes, and is "built," as shippers would say, "for speed and lightness." Its habits were well known to the Japanese, who have depicted this Crab most accurately in one of their many wonderful picture-books, printed from wood blocks, preserved in the British Museum. The Portunus is represented in the very act of catching a live fish many times larger than itself. These predaceous Swimming Crabs are much disliked by the fishermen, because, when they are taken in the nets with a haul of fish, they bite and mutilate all within their reach, as does the Dog-fish and the other small Sharks common along the coast. Corystes casslvelaunus (Fig. 16). In this singular Crab the carapace is longer than it is broad. The surface of the carapace is convex, and the regions somewhat distinctly marked by a groove sur- rounding the heart, the intestinal and genital regions, forming altogether a remarkable resemblance to the features of the human face, from which circumstance it has obtained the name of "the Masked Crab." The sexes of this Crab differ so much in appearance that they have been described as^ separate species. It is frequently to be obtained on the south and west coast of England and Wales. The habit of this Crab is to lie buried in sand with only the antennae visible above the surface. This is a very ancient type of Crustacean ; many representatives of it (Pcdceocorystes) occur fossil in the Cretaceous beds (Gault and Greensand) of England. Fig. 15. — HENSLOW'S SWIMMING CRAB. (Polybius henslowii.) LAND CRABS. 201 As we have already pointed out, the branchiae or gills are enclosed between the side walls of the thorax and the over-spreading head-shield (the " Crab-cart " of peasants' children in the English Eastern Counties), and are borne upon the basal joints of the thoracic limbs. As rapidity of movement necessitates increased activity in the circulation of the vital fluid in the body, we thus find that by this simple arrangement the branchiae are brought directly into connection, with the appendages specially engaged in locomotion. In a precisely similar manner we observe that the pectoral muscles in the bird, by their rapid action, accelerate their respiratory functions, consequently those birds whose flight is swiftest, such as the Swallows, naturally breathe most quickly. Amongst the Land and Shore Crabs, such as the Grapsidce, the Ocypodidce, the Gecardnidce, we find some of the most rapidly moving terrestrial forms of Crustacea. Respiration in these Crabs is, however, carried on essentially upon the same plan as in the aquatic species, that is, by means of moistened branchiae or gills, not by pulmonary sacs, as in the Arachnida, nor by tracheae, as in insects proper. Nevertheless, the aeration of the blood in the branchiae of Land Crabs is so much more complete than it is among the aquatic species, that the Land Crabs are easily drowned by continued immersion in water. Land Crabs are met with in the tropics in vast numbers. Of these, the most common and best known to us is the Gecarcinus ruricola, or" Countryman Crab," once so abundant in the highlands of Jamaica, and still so formidable in Montserrat and other West Indian sugar-producing Islands (Fig. 17). When the season for spawning arrives vast armies of them set out from the hills, and, undaunted by opposition, march in a direct line towards the sea-shore for the purpose of depositing their eggs. Having reached the destined limit of their joui'ney, they deposit their eggs below high- water mark in the sand, and re-commence their toilsome march to- wards their upland retreats. On their seaward journey they are in full vigour and fine condition, and this is the time when they are caught in great numbers for the table. Their flesh, which is of the purest whiteness, is highly esteemed, but, like that of all Crustaceous animals, is rather difficult of digestion. On returning from the coast they are exhausted, poor, and no longer fit for use. They then retire to their burrows, where they exuviate, or shed their shells, a short time after which operation, and while in their soft state, they are considered by black connoisseurs to be a great delicacy. These Crabs, which take up their abode in the vicinity of sugar-cane fields, are very injurious to the planter, some of the species being particularly fond of the cane, the juice of which they suck and chiefly subsist upon. They also attack and destroy the growing shoots of the young plants. Cardisoma carnifex, which usually inhabits the mangrove swamps of the West Indian Islands, lives principally upon the fruit of a species of Annona, which grows in those places. But nothing comes amiss to it. Those individuals whose residence is in the neighbourhood of the cemeteries are said to burrow down to get at the dead bodies, and Dr. Duchassaing tells us that the West Indian burial grounds are pierced in every direction by burrows of these animals. Nevertheless, the Cardisoma is regarded as a luxurious article of food by West Indians, who, however, take care only to eat those which are obtained in the mangrove swamps, as far as possible from the cemeteries. They are caught in box-traps baited with a piece of their favourite fruit, and after their capture they are usually kept some time, and fattened with broken victuals. 264 Fig. 16. — MASKED CRAB. MALE. (Corystes cassivelaunus.) 202 NATURAL HISTORY. Land Crabs are very abundant in the Deccan ; they have been found on the table-lands at an elevation of nearly 4,000 feet. But as they do not perform an annual migration to the sea for the purpose of depositing their eggs, it seems highly probable that the Deccan species frequents the margins of streams, and deposits its eggs in fresh water, in which case the nearest river would serve the same purpose ; for the young must undergo their metamorphosis either in the water or within the egg itself before it is hatched, several authentic instances of which are known. ' Another form, the Calling Crab (Gela- sitmis), is a great bur- rower, inhabiting the coasts of Brazil, ifec. He has one large hand and a small one, and from the way in. which he is compelled to run in order not to overbalance himself with his big claw raised above his head, as if beckoning, he has ob- tained the name of Calling Crab. This powerful hand is used in throwing the earth and sand out of its burrow when digging, which he does most vigorously to a distance of a foot or more from the hole= The Ocypoda, or Horseman Crab, from Rio, is another interesting species of Land Crab. It makes a loud grating sound by means of a series of small ridges on the inner surface of the hand against the pro- minent edge of the second joint of the same pair of legs. There is really no voice organ (truly so called) in any of the Invertebrata. Mosquitoes " sing," Bees " hum," Crickets " chirp," and Beetles " drone ; " but these are all mechanical noises, made by movements of wings or legs, not with such a contrivance as the human throat. Most of these sounds are produced by an arrangement similar to that of the fiddle-bow drawn across the strings of the fiddle, whilst many of the harsher sounds have been aptly compared to the noise produced by street-boys scraping a stick along a row of iron railings. The Pea Crab (Pinnotheres) is an interesting genus, both on account of its diminutive size and from its singular practice of making its habitation within the valves of living bivalve shells. The writer has taken numbers of them alive from shells as small as Astarte and Cytherea at Malaga. One species (Pinnotheres pisum, Fig. 18) is so common on the Irish coast, that Mr. W. Thompson obtained fourteen of them, by opening eighteen of the larger or Horse Mussel, dredged off the shore of County Down ; and in the common Cockle at Youghal Mr. Ball found them so abundantly, that about nine out of every ten Cockles contained a Crab. Two and even three Crabs are occasionally found in one THEUES PISUM. Mussel, or in one Pinna. Pinnotheres veterum is the species found in the Mediterranean, whose history, mingled with much fable, is recorded by some ancient authors. The ANOMOURA, or irregular-tailed Crabs, form the connecting link between the Crabs and Lobsters, for, besides the Hermit Crabs proper, which are generally considered typical of the Fig. 17. — VIOLET LAND CRAB OF JAMAICA. (Gecarcinus ruricola.") GROUP OF HERMIT CRABS. 1, Hermit Crab in Achatina shell ; 2, Hermit Crab in Turbo shell ; 3, Hermit Crab with Sea Anemone attached to its shell ; 4, Hermit Crab in the act of shifting from one Whelk-shell to another. 67 THE ROBBER CRAB. 203 Anomourous type, there are many forms which, save for the abortive character of the posterior pair of thoracic limbs, and their modified jaw-feet, might be placed with true Crabs or true Lobsters — Dromia with the former, and Galathea and Munida with the latter. Others again, like Lithodes, have the plates of the abdomen irregular or partly membranous, whilst in the true Paguri they are entirely unprotected by hard shelly plates. In the East and West Indies, and in the tropics generally, there are many species of Anomoura which live wholly or partially away from the sea, adopting terrestrial habits of life, and even becoming great climbers. They are met with living in forests often miles from the sea, and if land shells are not to be found, one species of Hermit Crab (Ceiwbita brunnea) protects its soft tail with an empty nut-shell, in which it makes itself perfectly at home. The Cenobita diogenes (Fig. 20) is found on bushes a few hundred yards only from the sea living in empty land shells. It is abundant in all the West Indian Islands, and has been more than once brought over to England alive with cargoes of guano. The writer kept one for some weeks in a fern-case in his study. It was housed in an Achatina shell, and no doubt it might have continued to live to this day, but it could not be induced to eat, and it was exceedingly difficult to discover what its proper food should be. This little Crab was a splendid climber, and its feats of agility were often surprising. It burrowed under stones, and seemed fearful of being looked at. Charles Darwin, says, " In every part of Keeling Island one meets with Hermit Crabs of more than one species, carrying on their backs the houses they have stolen from the neighbouring beach. The large claws or pincers of some of these Crabs are most beautifully adapted, when drawn back, to form an opercukan to the shell, which is nearly as perfect as the proper one that belonged to the original molluscous animal. Certain kinds of these Hermits always select certain old shells only to live in." The most remarkable of the Land Hermits is the Birgus latro, or Robber Crab (Fig. 19). Darwin says, " Keeling Island has no quadruped excepting the pig, and no vegetable in quantity excepting the cocoa-nut. On it the pigs, which are loaded with fat, almost entirely subsist, as likewise do the poultry and ducks. Even a huge Land Crab is furnished by nature with a curious instinct and form of legs to open and feed upon this same fruit. It is very common on all parts of the dry land, and grows to a monstrous size. It is closely allied or identical with Birgus latro. This Crab has its front pair of legs terminated by very strong and heavy pincers, and the last pair by others which are narrow and weak. It would at first be thought quite im- possible for a Crab to open a strong cocoa-nut covered with the husk, but Mr. Leisk, one of the two British re- sidents, assures me he has repeatedly seen the operation effected. The Crab begins by tearing the husk, fibre by fibre, and always from that end under which the three eye-holes are situated. When this is completed, the Crab commences hammering with its heavy claws on one of Fig- i9._BiKGus LATRO. these eye-holes till an opening is made ; then, turning round its body, by the aid of its posterior pair of narrow pincers it extracts the white albuminous substance. I think this is as curious a case of instinct as ever I heard of, and likewise of adaptation in structure between two objects apparently so remote from each other in the scheme of nature as a Crab and a cocoa-nut tree." " The Birgus is diurnal in its habits, but every night it is said to pay a visit to the sea, no doubt for the purpose of moistening its branchiae. The young are likewise hatched, and live for some time on the sea coast. These Crabs inhabit deep burrows, which they excavate beneath the roots of the cocoa-nut trees, and here they accumulate surprising quantities of the picked fibres of the cocoa-nut husk, on which they rest as on a bed. The Malays sometimes take advantage of their labour by collecting the coarse fibrous substance and using it as junk. These Crabs are very good to eat ; 204 NATURAL HISTORY. moreover, under the tail of the larger ones there is a great mass of fat, which, when melted, sometimes yields as much as a quart of limpid oil. It has been stated by some that Birgus latro crawls up the cocoa-nut trees for the purpose of stealing the fruit. I very much doubt the possibility of this, but with the Pandanus * the task would be very much easier. I understood from Mr. Leisk that on these islands the Birgus latro lives only on the nuts which fall to the ground." (C. Darwin : " A Naturalist's Voyage Round the World.") The friendship — interested or otherwise — cemented between Soldier Crabs and Sea Anemones is very remarkable. One Sea Anemone, the Sagartia parasitica, seems to be on very friendly terms with the Hermit Crabs, always selecting for its place of attachment the dead shell of some whelk tenanted by one. The Crab who sustains the Fig. 20. — HERMIT CRAB (Ccnobita) IN SHELL. honourable office of porter to this Anemone is in- (Afler Morse.) variably the Pagurus b&rnliardus. Prof. Dana mentions another Actinia from the China Seas — the Cancrisocia expansa — which associates with Dorippe (an anomourous Crab), who holds the Actinia, on its back with its two posterior pairs of legs. DECAPODA— MACROURA. (LOBSTERS.) The Macrourous (or large-tailed) type of the order (DECAPODA) is represented by the Lobster, essentially an aquatic form, and possessed of great powers of locomotion. The hinder segments of the body (termed the abdomen) are very much developed, and of nearly equal growth, being also compressed at the sides, so as to be somewhat cylindrical in form. They present a well-marked difference from the tail of the Crab (BRACHYURA), in which the segments are short and flattened, and expanded laterally. The abdomen in the Lobster is also terminated by a broad swimming tail. The members of this division are very abundant numerically in both marine and fresh water. t The Common Spiny Lobster (Palinurus wdgaris) has thick, extremely long, and stiff external antennae, the basal joints of which are very large, and unite to form the front of the mouth. The three following joints are large, thick, and spinose. Each antennule has three very long and slender cylindrical basal joints with two small feelers at its tip. The outer jaw-feet are formed like feet. The true walking legs are all one-toed at their extremity. The first paii% however, which are thicker and shorter than the others, has a spine on the border of the last joint but one against which the last joint shuts, thus forming a rudimentary chela or nipper. The carapace is extremely rugose, being covered with spines and tubercles. The body segments are large, and the tail-fins well developed for swimming. The family of the Palinuridce are of very ancient origin, going back in geological time to the Solenhofen rocks (Oolitic age). Only one genus now survives. The genus Palinurus comprises several large edible species, one of which, the Common Spiny Lobster (P. vulgaris), inhabits the English western coasts, and is brought thence in large quan- tities to London. They are found chiefly on rocky coasts, and are often taken in the crab-pots- Great numbers of this Lobster are also eaten in France. Its flesh is much esteemed, though by some considered inferior in flavour to that of the Common Lobster (Homarus vulgaris). It reaches about a foot in length, and sometimes as much as eighteen inches. The antennae are very long, just twice the length of the entire body. The carapace is thickly covered with spines of various sizes, and all the species have a large spine over each eye. * Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1832, p. 17. t In his book on the Crayfish, Prof. Huxley mentions, that, in Tasmania, the genus Engceus (one of the Parastacidce), a small kind of Crayfish, lives habitually on land in burrows, which they excavate in the soil (p. 306) and Parastacus pilimanus, from Santa Cruz, in the upper basin of the Rio Pardo, an affluent of the Jacuhy, was obtained " by digging it out of holes in the ground " (p. 308). So that the Crayfish is an exception to the general rule, that all the Macroura are truly aquatic in their habits, and that none are terrestrial. SPINY LOBSTER (Palinurus vulgaris). [Female, bearing eggs attached to the false abdominal swimming-feet.) 66 THE COM VOX LOBSTER. 205 The Palinuri live on mollusca and on other marine animals. They have the power of producing a very loud noise, by rubbing the first joint of their exterior antennae against the projecting border of the cai-apace, or head-shield. Aristotle, Atheiiaeus, and Pliny were acquainted with the animals of this genus, which they named Locusta ; and the Greeks and Romans both used them as food. The development of the Palinuridce seems to be very peculiar (Fig. 21). Glaus observed in the ova of the Spiny Lobster (Palinurus) embryos with a completely segmented body, but wanting the appen- dages of the tail, abdomen, and last two segments of the middle body or thorax. They possess a single median and considerably com- pound eye ; the inner antennae are simple, and the outer are fur- nished with a small secondary branch ; the jaws have no palpi or feelers. The jaw-feet of the third pair, like the two following pairs of feet, are divided into two branches of nearly equal length, whilst the last of the existing pairs of maxillipedes bear only an in- considerable secondary branch. Coste is said to have bred the curious form of larva named Phyllosoma from the ova of Palinurus. The Common Lobster (Homarus vulgaris, Fig. 22) prefers a rocky coast, and being somewhat of an epicure in his tastes, is tempted to such good purpose by the fishermen that as many as 25,000 live Lobsters are often delivered at Billingsgate in one day. If only as many are eaten in the whole of England as in London, this would be at the rate of 50,000 per day, or 18,250,000 annually. From March to August is the period of the greatest catch. Lobsters are sent alive packed in damp moss or heather from the south coast and Channel Islands, from Stornoway in the Island of Lewis, from Fig. 21. — LAKY A OF PALINURUS VULGARIS. Fig. 22. — COMMON LOBSTER (llomarus ruJyarif). Ireland, Scotland, ami the Orkneys. From Norway as many as 600,000 are received annually. Fishermen and salesmen are said to know the South Coast (English), Cornish, Scotch, Irish, or Norwegian Lobsters at sight, just as a cattle salesman knows a Hereford or Devon, a Scotch or Irish beast The common Lobster weighs from eight to twelve pounds, but the great Lobster of the American coast (so largely imported in tins into England) weighs more than twice as much. All the marine Macixmra, or Sea Lobsters, undergo metamorphosis more or less considerable. Perhaps the changes passed through by the common Lobster present a less extraordinary variation 206 NATURAL HISTOJtY. from the adult than in others of the long-tailed Crustacea. They are, however, sufficiently important to mention (Fig. 23). The eyes of the young Lobster are sessile, not mounted upon eye-stalks. The long antennae are not seen, nor the beak or rostrum. The thoracic feet are rudimentary. The abdominal feet are entirely absent, as in the young Crab. At a later moult the jointed thoracic limbs are seen, and the antennae begin to be developed. The hind body, or abdomen, is, however, still without appendages, and the eyes without eye-stalks. Still later these ab- dominal feet make their appearance. In estimating the greater or less extent of metamorphosis undergone by the young of any Crustacean in its passage to the adult animal, it is necessary also to take account of its embry- onic development, for many species, both of the Podophtkalmia (or stalk-eyed) and Edriophthalmia (or sessile-eyed) Crustacea undergo these larval changes in the egg, whilst others (as Asellus and My sis) do so in the incu- batory pouch of the mother. The Norway Lobster (Nepbropt norvegicus, Fig. 24) occurs on both the English and French coast, as well as on that of Norway, and extends as far south as the Mediterra- Fig. 23. YOUNG LOBSTERS. 1, z'va just born: 2, after first moult. nean. The body of this elegant species is long, and the segments extremely cylindrical in form ; the cephalo- thorax is compressed at the sides. The great claws are long, slender, spiny, and ridged strongly down the centre ; the rostrum is long and slender. The scale at the outer base of the antennae is large. The eyes are large and prominent. The colour of this Lobster is much paler than that of Homarus, and there are bands of darker colour on the body-rings. There is only one species known. The Common River Cray-fish (Astacusfluviatilis}, a fresh-water genus, was separated by Milne-Edwards from the Lobsters, and may be readily known from others by the rostrum or beak having a small tooth 011 each side. Its carapace is granulated, and the telson, or median plate of the tail, is divided half-way up by a transverse joint across it, as are also the outer side- lobes of the tail. The outer antennae have the second and third joints roundish, and covered by a broad and movable scale, which is narrowed towards each ex- tremity, and pointed. The last joint or ring of the thorax is movable, whereas in the common Lobster the last thoracic ring is firmly adherent to the rest. The exopodite of the antennae is reduced to a mere scale. All the abdominal appendages are well developed in both sexes, and in the males the two anterior pairs are some- what like those of the male of Homarus, but less modified. Fig. 24. — NORWAY LOBSTER (Kephrops THE CRAY-FISH. 207 According to Huxley, the principal difference is to be observed in the gills, of which there are twenty on each side, sixteen belonging to the limbs and four fully-developed gills attached to the side of the thorax. Six of the former he calls podobranchice, or foot-gills, because they are attached to the protopodite, or first foot-joint, the other ten arthrobranchice, or joint-branchiae, because their origin is on the joint of the leg where it unites with the thorax ; lastly, the four on the sides are called by him pleurobranchice, because they spring from the part of the thoracic somite or body-ring known as the plenron, or side piece, or epimeral portion of the segment. The River Cray-fish (Potaniobius astacus) is largely caught, and when fresh boiled is a dish not to be despised. It is largely imported into London for gar- nishing dishes with. The writer has with a friend taken over 900 River Cray- fish in the Thames and Severn Canal in Gloucestershire in a single evening be- tween eight and twelve, with a series of simple scale-like nets, baited with liver. The Cray-fish is one of those forms which is peculiarly interesting to the zoologist, as, according to the experiments of Ratke, it passes through its earlier metamorphosis in the egg, a circumstance which led Prof. West wood in 1835 to doubt the correctness of Vaughan Thompson's discoveries as to the series of changes which the young of most species of Crustacea undergo after they quit the egg- The most remarkable thing with regard to the genus is that, notwithstanding its inability to survive in salt or even brackish water conditions, its geographical distribution is wider than that of any other living Crustacean. Thus we find that representative species of the Astacus Jluviatilis (which it seems, according to Huxley and others, we shall have in future to call Astacus torrentium) exist over the whole of Europe, save Sweden and Norway and Scotland, and that four T . Fig. 25. — other species inhabit the rivers which drain into the Caspian and the Black Sea. Two others belonsr to Japan and to the basin of the Amur, which sheds its water ia, section of eye, showing ° the several layers (rt — A) into the Pacific. The Astaci occur again in the livers of North America west c?I?,1>08i"!''i';101H'4,11,t'"^-s oi tiic c} tf» yrt_(tLij iii.ijf in* of the Rocky Mountains flowing into the Pacific, and the Cambari on the trom the comcf lctolcti)e eastern or Atlantic side. It is more wonderful still that, separated by a wide . . -101 equatorial belt, Parastacidce, or representative iorms, occur 111 the Southern Hemisphere, in New Zealand, Australia, Madagascar, and South America. The biggest of the Cray-fishes which attains a length of more than fifteen inches, being as large as a full-sized Lobster, belongs to the Murray River, South Australia. The strangest are the genus Eiigceus of Tasmania and the Cambarus of the United States, and Parastacus pilimanus from Brazil, which live habitually on land in burrows which they excavate in the soil. This is the only family of Macroura known to me which quits the water for dry land. Its geological history is as long as its geographical distribution is wide, for its ancestry can carry back their lineage to Pseudastacus pustulosus and Eryma modestiformis in the Jurassic rocks of Solenhofen in Bavaria. The eyes in the higher Crustacea, like those of insects, are exceedingly complex structures (Fig. 25), composed of a great number of separate lenses closely compacted together, each having its cornea, its crystalline cone or lens, Fig. 26. — EYE OP TKI- its pigment, and its nerve-fibre connecting it with the optic nerve. They « the eye^Thl labeiia- Present everv variation, however, between this compound eye in the Decapoda gre»Urau«nifte down to the simple eye spot in the Entomostraca, whilst in some forms, as in Limulus, both simple and compound eyes are present on the same head-shield. These compound eyes existed far back in geological time, and may be seen most beautifully pre- served in the heads of many Silurian Trilobites, notably in the genera JZglinci, Phacops (Fig. 26), and Dalmannia, whilst Pterygotus, like Limulus, had both compound eyes and simple ocelli. The eyes are the most constant and persistent organs possessed by the Crustacea as a class ; indeed, if we except certain parasitic Isopodous forms and the Cirripedia and Rhizocephala, we shall find that the faculty STHUCTURE OF EYE OF LOBSTEK. of "hesurfaceoic the eye; an(* le< secti°n °* same. 208 NATURAL HISTORY. Fig. 27. — COMMON BROWN SHRIMP (Crmitjon vulgarit). of sight is peculiar to the whole class. Even in those exceptional cases in which the eyes are aborted, we find that in the earlier and larval stages of their existence the parasitic and sedentary forms possessed eyes, and it is only as the effect of a kind of retrograde metamorphosis which the animal undergoes that the organs of vision disappear in the adult. " The Brown Shrimp " (Crangon vulyaris) seems peculiarly an estuarine form, being taken in large quantities in Morecambe Bay, Lancashire, the Lynn Wash on the Lincolnshire coast, the Thames from Gravesend to the sea, and in the estuary of the Seine, especially near Honfleur. It is of a drab colour, dotted over with brown spots, and it does not become red by boiling as most other Crustaceans do. Its greatest length is two inches and a half (Fig. 27). The absence of the prominent serrated beak or rostrum, so marked a character in all the Paloemonidce (Prawns and Shrimps proper), at once enables the collector to separate the Crangonidse therefrom. The chela3 of the fore hand are present in Pakemon but absent in Crangon, in which the fixed thumb is rudimentary. !•£-<•, An interesting little shrimp-like Crustacean, named' Alpheus, which occurs only rarely off the English coast, but is abundant on the shores of Guernsey, Herm, and other of the Channel" Islands, and one species in particular of which, the Alpheus ruber, is of a bright pink or salmon colour, has one claw of the first pair much more largely developed than the other, whilst the second pair ai-e weak, slender, and many-jointed. This character in the second pair of legs is also observable in the genus Nika, closely allied to Alplieus. All the members of this family (A Ipheadoe) are remarkable for the loud clicking noise which they habitually emit. It does not seem certain whether this sound, which is always accompanied by a sudden opening of the great claw to the fullest extent, is produced by impact of the heavy movable joint of the chela against the fixed ramus or by the forcible withdrawal of the huge stopper-like tooth from its pit in the penultimate joint of the claw. (Wood-Mason.) Col. Stuart Wortley remarks, " Keeping them as I do in an aquarium, it is startling some- times in the evening to hear the loud snap produced by sharply striking together the two claws on the larger leg." Palcemon serratus, the Com- mon Prawn (Fig. 28), which is so well known as a favourite and delicate article of food, is found in vast numbers on the south coast of England. It appears from various accounts that it approaches the shore in its young state, and multitudes of them are taken in shrimp- nets and sold as Shrimps. At Bognor the fishermen consider them, when young, as a distinct species, and assert that, at certain seasons, they drive the true Prawns from their ordinary place of resort. The probability is that, at the season when the young ones have arrived at a certain size, they separate themselves from the older ones, which at that period of the year retire farther from the shore. At Poole the young ones of this species were commonly found associated with two other species of Palcemon, and the three are ordinarily sold there under the name of " Cup Shrimps," being measured in small cups instead of being sold by tale, as they are when larger. When of middle size Fig. 28. — COMMON PRAWN (Palaimon serratus). THE STOMAPODA 209 they still retain the name of Shrimps at that place, and are only called " Prawns " when they acquire larger dimensions. Calocarls macandrce (Bell). This little Crustacean, which is found living at a depth of nearly two hundred fathoms, is fossorial in its habits, burrowing in sandy mud. Its eyes are quite rudimen- tary, being destitute both of pigment and cornea. Many Crustaceans obtained from great depths in the Swiss lakes prove to be blind. This is also the case with several species of Crustacea met with in the great Mammoth Cave and in the caverns of Camiola and Adelsberg. Dr. A. S. Packard has described a Cray-fish, named Cambarus pellucidits, an Amphipod (Niphargus stygius), and two Tsopods (Titanetlies albus and Ccecidotea stygia), from the Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, all of which are blind. " The eyes," says Dr. Packard, " in Cambarus, are rudimentary in the adult, but are larger in the young. This is evidence that the embryo develops like those of other species, and that the inheritance of blindness is probably due to causes first acting on the adults and transmitted to their young until the production of offspring that become blind becomes a habit." Both Niphargus and Cranyonyx, two forms of Gainmaridce, have been obtained in. England from wells and pumps in the Chalk and Oolite formations. They are wholly or partially blind. Taking Those CHAPTER III. CRUSTACEA (concluded). STOJfAPonA — Squilla — Mysis — ISOPODA — Bathynomus — Tanais — The ' ' Gribble " — A sellus — Arcturus — Sphceroma — Parasitic Forms— AMPHIPODA — The "Sand-hopper" — Orchestia and other Forms — Aberrant Amphipods — XIPHOSURA — King Crabs — Character — Habits — EURYPTERIDA — TRILOBITA — PHYLLOPODA — Character — CLADOCERA — OSTRACODA — COPEPODA — Parasitic Forms — CIRBIPEDIA — RHIZOCEPHALA — BALANID^ — LEPADID^E — Barnacles. ORDER II.— STOMAPODA (MOUTH-FOOTED). IN the STOMAPODA we find a considerable divergence from the DECAPODA already noticed. Squilla as an example, the segments are much less coalesced than in the Lobster, bearing the eyes and antennules are readily separated from the front of the head, and are not covered by the carapace, which only conceals eight segments, whereas in the Lobster it extends over fourteen. The gills are no longer attached to the thoracic appendages, and enclosed in a branchial chamber formed by the head-shield, but they are transferred from the thoracic limbs to the abdominal swimming-feet, and are free and uncovered.* The first thoracic appendages are developed into a pair of robust claws, the terminal joint being furnished with a row of long and sharp re-curved teeth, which can be doubled back upon the penultimate joint, which has a groove to receive it like a pocket-comb. Armed with these two innocent-looking toilet requisites, Squilla goes about seeking whom he may devour. In another genus belonging to this order (Mysis, or the " Opossum Shrimp," Fig. 30) special branchise seem to be absent, their duty being performed by the series of flabelliforai appendages attached to Jw pedi- palps, or thoracic feet, certain of which are modified in the female to form a " pouch," or marsupium, in which the eggs are protected and the young retained whilst passing through their earlier stages of existence. These Opossum Shrimps are frequently met with in countless myriads towards the surface of the Greenland Sea, and, small though they be, they form the chief part of the food of the Common Whale (Balcena mysticetus), by which such a quantity of fat is accumulated. It seems at first sight incredible that so large an animal can be supported on so slender a repast, but, as in eating Whitebait, numbers must count, and doubtless the Whale devours many hundreds of thousands at each mouthful. * Hence they might aptly be termed naked-giUed. Crustacea. 265 Fig. 29. SQUILLA MANTIS. 210 NATURAL HISTORY. Fig. 30. — OPOSSUM SHRIMP (Mysis cUamaleon). From the stalk-eyed Podophthalmia we pass to the sessile-eyed Edriophthalmia, Crustaceans in which (with few exceptions) the eyes are fixed immediately on the surface of the head. As in the higher forms, the eyes are compound, consisting in the young of some ten or twelve lenses only, but in the adult of as many as from sixty to eighty. The head-shield in the Crab and Lobster encroaches so far upon the body- segments as frequently to conceal them, whereas in the EDRIOPHTHALMIA the head-shield only covers the seven first, or head rings, the seven thoracic segments being well developed in both divisions and the seven abdominal also in the Amphipoda, but in the Isopoda they are mostly coalesced together. The body in the Amphipods is compressed at the sides, whereas in the Isopods it is mostly broad and flattened in shape. Thus the Isopods and Amphi- pods form two very natural groups, which are comparable to the Crabs and Lobsters, the Isopods resembling the former and the Amphipods the latter in shape. SECOND LEGION.— EDRIOPHTHALMIA. ORDER III.— ISOPODA (EQUAL-FOOTED). The ISOPODA are so named in allusion to the general conformity in size and function of the seven pairs of legs, the two foremost pairs of which in the AMPHIPODA are equivalent to the two outer pairs of jaw-feet in higher Crustacea. In the DECAPODA, STOMAPODA, and AMPHIPODA, the branchiae (in each case) are attached to the base of the legs. In the Isopoda, on the contrary, the posterior (abdominal) appendages are converted into special organs of respiration, in the form of leaf-like appendages The heart is also near the tail. The body is composed of seven segments, generally nearly equal in size. To these, in the normal Isopods, seven pairs of nearly uniform legs are attached, either fitted for walking, swimming, or as powerful hook-like organs which enable them to adhere firmly to the fishes upon which many of them are parasitic. One group of Isopods, the Oniscidce, familiar to us in gardens under the name of the Common Wood Louse, are all air-breathers — not residing in water, but in damp situations — breathing air, which, however, it is necessary should be saturated with moisture. Several of the species which inhabit caves are destitute of eyes, e.g., Titanellies albus, from the Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. The Great Sea-Slater (Lygia oceanica) is common on the British coasts, running with agility, and folding up, so as to feign death, when attacked. One of these, found in some gardens and woods, the Armadillo (also named the " Pill Bug " in America), from the perfect way in which the segments roll together, forcibly reminds one of the fossil genus Illcenus barriensis, a Trilobite found in the Upper Silurian at Barr, Staffordshire. Prof. Alexander Agassiz, aided by the United States Coast Survey, has carried on extensive deep- sea dredging operations in the American seas, particu- larly exploring the bed of the Gulf Stream and the Straits of Florida, between the south point of Florida and the Island of Cuba. Among other Crustacean treasures obtained was a gigantic Isopod, dredged from a depth of 955 fathoms, on the north-east of the bank of Yucatan, and north of Tortugas. This Isopod has been named Bathynomus giyanteus(Fig. 31) byAlphonse Milne-Edwards. It measures nine inches in length by four inches in breadth, and far exceeds any other living Isopodous Crustacean in dimensions. The gills or branchiae, which in ordinary Isopods are simple leaf-like appendages, formed out of the modified abdominal feet, in Bathynomus consist of a highly complex arrangement of tufts of filaments Supported on tubular peduncles covered by a series of opercular plates. Notwithstanding the vast Fig. 31. — GIGANTIC ISOPOD (Bathyiwmus). a, side view ; 6, front view of head. THE ISOPODA. 211 Fig. 32. — TANAIS, A REMARKABLE ISOPOD. A, the flabelliform appendage under the carapace in the rudimentary branchial chamber. Although its ravages had gone on for centuries, depth from which Bathynomus was obtained, the eyes are greatly developed, each being made up of about 4,000 square facets, and instead of being placed on the upper surface of the head, as in all known wandering Cymothoidce, they are placed below the frontal border of the head at the base of the antennae. Alphonse Milne-Edwards places Bathynomus in a new family of the division Cymo- thoidce, named Cymothoidce branc/tiferce. In Tanais (Fig. 32) — an aberrant form of Isopod — the first pair of legs are converted into chelae, the six other pairs being simple, as in other Isopods. This peculiarity, and the confluence of the head with the first segments of the body, give it a very Macrouran aspect. In some the eyes are prominent, and almost pedunculated. This group also presents many points of affinity with the AMPHIPODA. To the Isopodous division belongs the Lim- noria terebrans, or the " Gribble," as it is commonly called by fishermen. It is a most destructive creature, attacking all woodwork below tide-mark, the only wood which it cannot destroy being teak, it was only in 1811 that it was discovered and described by Dr. Leach. The Asellus aquaticus is a very abundant form, inhabiting fresh- water ponds and ditches. The eggs and the young are retained in the pouch of the mother for about six weeks ; pi-obably half this period elapses before the young quits the egg. Asellus does not exceed six lines in length, and little more than half a line in breadth. It feeds upon vegetable matter exclusively. The leaves of the beech in decay are preferred, and in the parts of the pond where these are most abundant, there the Asellus is most numerous. The animal does not generally swim, it runs freely and expeditiously over the decaying leaves. In Arctiirus the young are carried by the parent in rows upon the long joints of its antennae, the mother remaining in a nearly erect position clinging to a branch of some zoophyte or seaweed, along which she can walk by means of her hind feet. Until the discovery of Batliytwnius giganteus by Agassiz (a form belonging to the Cymothoidce), the Idoteidce were supposed to contain representatives of the largest known Isopods, some of which measure about four inches in length. The hinder segments are welded together so as to form a long caudal shield, beneath which are two plates covering the branchiae. The genus Sphceroma, the members of which are vegetable feeders, are also found guilty of destroying timber. When molested or alarmed, they roll themselves up into a ball. This genus and its allies offer many points of analogy, if not of affinity, with the extinct Trilobites. Several species among the Water Breathers are parasitic, often on members of their own class. Thus in Bopyrus (Fig. 33, A) the female (which is six times as large as the male) is parasitic within the branchial chamber of the Common Prawn, and out of six Prawns, it is no uncommon thing to find on? or more with this parasite distorting the carapace of the Prawn on one side. When the Prawn moults his shell, the Bopyrus manages to retain its situation, and re-appears with the new shell of the Prawn accommodating itself to the form of the Bopyrus. Pacjurus, Galathea, Callia- nassa, Porcellana, Palcemon, and Hippolyte, all have these parasitical Crustacea in their branchial chamber. Another genus (Pkryxus, Fig. 33, B) attaches itself beneath the tail of the Prawn, and we have taken it also from beneath the abdomen of the Common Shore Crab at Torquay. It is more curious still to note a parasitic Isopod, the female of which occupies the cavity within 33.— PARASITIC ISOPODS : BOPYRUS (A), PHRYXUS (B), CHYPTOTHYHIA (c). aa, nmles ; W>, females ; c, larva. 212 NATURAL HISTORY. the shell of the living Balanus balanoides. A second species, also referred to the genus Cryptothyria (Fig. 33, c), is found resident within the body of another Cirripede (Peltogaster), which itself is parasitic on the tail of a Crab (Portunus or Carcinus). Those belonging to the genus ^Ega have all the feet furnished with a robust curved finger, sharp at the tip for seizing and holding on to fishes, as the Codfish, Whiting, &c., to the exterior of which they adhere. The Eurydice pulchra, common in the River Dee in Cheshire, will actually fasten upon bathers if they remain quiet in the water, adhering to the skin even after they emerge from the river. OEDER IV.— AMPHIPODA. In the AMPHIPODA the head is small, representing only the first seven cephalic rings, the seven thoracic and the seven abdominal being nearly equally well developed. The eyes are sessile or fixed, the body-rings are compressed laterally, as in the Lobster, and they possess both swimming and walking legs — indeed, we might add, leaping ones also, for many of them pass much of their time in this mode of progression on the shore. The first and second pairs of appendages become modified, in the male, into strong claspers, by the greater development of the hand and the movable character of the terminal joint, whilst the last pair of limbs are converted into leaping legs, like those of the Grasshopper. The gills are attached to the thoracic feet, as is also the incubatory pouch of the female. The heart lies beneath the dorsal surface of the body. To this division belongs the well-known " Sand-hopper " (the Talitrus locitsta of Linnaeus), one of the most abundant forms everywhere around Britain, living between high and low water-mark, where it feeds on decaying garbage, both animal and vegetable, existing in myriads on some of the sandy shores. They never enter the water, but yet seem to require a certain amount of moisture to enable their branchiae to perform their function. They burrow under moist seaweed and in damp sand. The young Fig. 34. — AMPHIPOD (Orchestia darwinii). MALE. Talitrus usually remains with the parent for some time after they attain to maturity. Another genus (Orchestia) also lives out of the sea, choosing moist places, but not burrowing as Talitrus does. On the British coast Orchestia lives within reach of the sea-spray, but some species in the Southern Hemisphere live many miles inland, choosing terrestrial plants for their abode. They are sometimes found at 1,500 feet above the sea-level (Fig. 34). Sulcator lives along the sea-margin, making tracks upon the sandy shore, which, when in after years they have become hardened into sandstone, form puzzles for the palaeontologist, who finds it sometimes difficult to decide whether they are worm-tracks or impressions of plants. Blind species of Niphargus and Crangonyx are found inhabiting subterranean fresh waters in wells in the Chalk and Oolitic rocks of various parts of England and Europe. One species of Niphargus inhabits the hot springs of Italy. The CMura terebrans is one of the most injurious xylophagous Crustaceans known. It is commonly found associated with another wood-borer, the Limnoria lignorum (the Gribble), an Isopod, which, though smaller, is even more prolific than Chelura. The excavations made by Chelura are larger and more rapidly executed than those of Limnoria. In all these forms an extreme degree of maternal solicitude seems to be developed, which exhibits itself not only in carrying the young, after hatching and brooding over them like a hen over her chickens, but in Podocerus the parent builds a nest in which the young are nurtured and protected, more after the manner of young birds than of such comparatively lowly-organised forms as Crustacea. The KEMODIPODA form (according to Spence Bate and J. 0. Westwood) an aberrant group of AMPHIPODS. The coxal joint of all the legs is fused with the body, and the tail is reduced to a rudimentary condition. The popular name of Spectre, or Skeleton Shrimp, seems very appropriate to Caprella (Fig. 35). It lives amidst seaweeds and zoophytes, and is very active, scrambling from branch to branch. KING CRABS. 213 35--THE SPECTRE, OR SKELETON SHRIMP (Caprella). " Their usual mode of progression is compared by Fabricius, Goodsir, and Gosse, to that of the larvae of the Geometric Moths. They sometimes walk in this way for a considerable time, and then suddenly stop, remaining perfectly motionless, not even moving their antennae. They seldom attempt to swim, and will, when placed in the water, independently of anything to rest upon, generally drop to the bottom." Like all the lower Crustacea, the Caprellce cast their skins often. Before the process commences, the animal lies for a time to all appearance dead. The Skeleton Shrimp carries its ova in an incubatory pouch, which is developed when required. "It consists of four plates, two attached to the third and two to the fourth segment of the body, arising upon the under surface and the inside of the bran- chiae. As soon as the young are old enough to enjoy a separate state of existence they quit the protection of the pouch in which they have been nurtured, and, passing out, climb, gipsy-like, to the back of their mother, where they are seen holding on in every conceivable attitude. In the British Museum is preserved a speci- men of an exotic species in which death has not separated the parent from her offspring. They may be seen attached, as if climbing from the incubatory pouch to the back of the parent." THIRD LEGION.— MEROSTOMATA. ORDER V.— XIPHOSURA (KING CRABS). The Merostomata, or " thigh-mouthed Crustacea," are represented to-day by the Horseshoe Crabs of America (Fig. 36) and the King Crabs of the China Seas (Fig. 37). There is only one living genus (Liimdus), but it is found as far back in time as the Lower Secondary rocks, whilst forms, differing but little from those now existing, occur pretty numerously in the Coal Measures of England and America, and one is found so far back as the Upper Silurian for- mation. The soft parts are encased within a double shield - shaped shell divided into two parts, the first repre- senting the head and the second the thorax and abdomen. The eyes are fixed on the anterior surface of the head - shield, beneath which are the walking limbs. The abdomen, however, is quite rudimentary, being partly represented by the posterior portion of the hind or thoracic shield, and partly by the long ensiform tail-spine. Under the hinder shield the leaf-like gills are placed. But in the larvae we find the body-segments free and unanchylosed, and the tail- spine undeveloped, thus bearing out the characters common to the class, and connecting the living Limulus of to-day with its Fig. 37.— THE KIXG CRAB (Limulus 0 J moluccanus). far-off ancestors in the Coal and Silurian periods. The limbs are all attached to the head, and correspond to the antennae and the jaw-feet of the Crab and Lobster. They are, however, called upon to fulfil the double oifice of jaws and legs, which they do most Fig. 36.— THE HORSESHOE CRAB (Limulits poly- , UNDER SURFACE SHOWING JAWS. 214 NATURAL HISTORY. effectually. All the feet (save the little pair in front of the mouth) act as jaws, and they all have nippers or pincers at their extremities. The limbs of the thorax are converted into broad plates covering the ovaries and gills, and we find the last pair of feet are furnished with brooms with which to keep these delicate organs clean. Its eyes are placed upon the upper and anterior sur- face of the great shield-shaped cuirass or carapace, and it is furnished both with compound eyes, which resemble those of a Trilobite in form and position, being placed on each side of the head-shield, and also with a pair of larval ocelli or simple eyes placed just in the front of the head-shield. Dr. S, Lockwood writes — " The King Crab delights in moderately deep water, from two to six fathoms. It is emphatically a burrowing animal, living literally in the mud, into which it scoops and gouges its way with great facility. The anterior edge of its enormous cephalic shield is not unlike in form to a cheese-cutter. The upper shell of the animal is composed of three parts — the forward shield, which is greatly larger than the posterior shield, and the long bayonet-shaped spine or tail. In the burrowing operation the forward edge of the anterior shield is pressed downward, and shoved forward, the two shields being inflected, and the sharp point of the tail presenting the fulcrum as it pierces the mud, while underneath the feet are incessantly active, scratching up and pushing out the earth on both sides. There is a singular economy of force in this excavating action, for the alternate doubling up or inflecting, and straightening out of the two carapaces, with the pushing purchase exerted by the tail, accomplish both digging and subterranean progression. The Limulus is carnivorous, its food being the soft nereids or sea-worms. The King Crab has six pairs of feet ; the extreme anterior pair are called antennae, being greatly shorter than the others. Of the four pairs between this pair and the last pair, the basal joint of each limb is flattened and smooth on each side, as though they were a series of plates intended to work upon each other. The external edge of each is rounded, and bevelled like a carpenter's chisel. Thus these flattened haunches lie against each other, their rounded edges directed backward at a considerable angle. The bevelled edges of these projections are covered with very sharp incurved spines, overhanging and pointing into the oral aperture, for it is between these five pairs of spine- clad haunches that the creature's mouth is situated. These, then, are the true jaws of the animal's mouth, and as there are five pairs of these manducatory joints, the creature's mouth is set in a line between ten joints. These spiny teeth have, by their articulation, an amoiint of mobility in their little pits which is eminently serviceable. Of these chewing teeth an individual can scarcely have less than one hundred and fifty." It is extremely interesting to notice the occurrence at the present day of two living species of Limulus, one confined to the Moluccas and to the coast of China, the other to the eastern shores of North America, having continuous land separating them from each other from Tierra del Fuego to the Strait of Magellan. It speaks of the great antiquity of this genus, which has survived vast changes in the present configuration of land and sea, more even than is involved by the subsidence of the Panama Isthmus. ORDER VI.— EURYPTERIDA* (EXTINCT). ORDER YII— TRILOBITAt (EXTINCT). The sixth and seventh orders — the Eurypterida and the Trilobita — are both extinct, and have not been found, even in a fossil state, in any rock of younger age than the Carboniferous Limestone. The Eurypterida are nearly related to the King Crabs, but the body-segments are distinct, not soldered together, as in Limulus ; but in both Limulus and Eurypterus the limbs serve the double office of jaws and feet, being masticating organs at one end and clawed feet at the other. The Trilobites form one of the oldest groups of fossils known. Superficially, they closely resemble the living Isopods ; but they have often more, and sometimes fewer, than seven free segments between the head and tail— a number nearly constant among the Isopods. The appendages, too, of the Trilobites appear to have been quite different from those of Isopods. * Greek, eurus, broad, and pteron, a wing (broad-wing), in allusion to the feet and to certain parts of Pterygotus, snpposed by Louis Agassiz to have belonged to scaly nshes. t Greek, trilobos, three-lobed, so named because all the segments of the body are corrugated, like a piece of iron or ?.inc roofing, into three arches. PHYLLOPODA AND CLADOCERA. 215 FOURTH LEGION.— BR ANCHIO POD A. ORDER VIIL— PHYLLOPODA (LEAF-FOOTED). The BRANCHIOPODA, or Gill-footed Crustacea, form the first division 01 the ENTOMOPTKACA, or " Shelled Insects," so called because most of its members are more or less entirely invested in a shelly envelope. They are all aquatic, the greater part having a shell composed of two parts or valves, in which they are more or less completely enclosed, or in the form of a buckler, which envelops a large part of the animal. Their gills are attached to their feet, or to their jaw-feet. Like the higher class of Crustacea, they moult their shell and skin frequently. Of the shield-bearing form of PHYLLOPODA (Fig. 38), the fresh-water Apiis may serve as a good example. The eyes are placed on the dorsal surface of the carapace, and are nearly united. The antennae are short and simple ; the first pair of feet are very long and branching ; these are followed by about sixty pairs of branchial feet. The thorax and abdomen are nearly cylindrical, and are com- posed of about thirty articulations, terminated by two long, many -jointed tail-spines. Apus affords a good example of a form in which the mere vegetative repetition of parts is carried to an extreme distance beyond the normal number of body-rings so characteristic of the Crustacean class. Probably Apus has more articulations to its appendages and body than any other Crustacean. Schaffer tabulated them, and found they numbered 1,802,604 ; La- treille puts them down at not less than 2,000,000. In Nebalia, the marine type, the head- shield is more arched, covering the body as in a bivalved shell. The eyes are pedunculated, and placed beneath the carapace. The number of segments is not excessive. Otho Fabricius says that "the female carries her eggs beneath the thorax during the whole winter ; these begin to hatch in April, and appear in May, when they are very lively, and adhere to the mother. The adult is not very active. On our coast they are found under stones, lying on mud amongst hollows of rocks." The genus Estheria deserves to be especially mentioned on account of its wide distribtition at the present day, and also because it has a very long past geological history. Its oval, bivalved shell has often been mistaken for that of a mollusc. In Cheirocephalus and Artemia the shelly shield is altogether wanting, and their elegant move- ments in the water can be freely observed. The former inhabits fresh water ; the latter is marine. ORDER IX.— CLADOCERA. In the CLADOCERA* the body, save the head, which is projecting, is entirely enclosed within a carapace, formed by the two valves of the shell. The eye is single and very large ; the four to six pairs of feet are branchiform, the two large pairs of antennse serving as organs of locomotion. Of this order, the Common Daphnia pulex (Fig. 39) of fresh waters is the best example we can take, not only on account of its abundance, but also because it has formed the subject of numerous memoirs by Professor Leydig and others. So plentiful are they in some ponds as to impart a blood-red hue to the water frequented by them. In order to apprehend the wonderful fecundity of this and allied genera, it is necessary to realise that a Daphnia, under favourable circumstances of temperature, may have three broods a month, or even a greater number, some of the larger species having as many as forty or fifty eggs at one brood ! '•' At particular seasons the Dapknice may be found with a dark opaque substance on the back of * Greek, klados, a branch, and keras, a horn ; hence branching-horned, in allusion to their antenna. Fig. 38. PHYLLOPODA. 1. Sebalialnves (shell partly removed); 2, Esther ia, sp. ; S,Lepidunis angassi —«. dorsal aspect, ft. ventral aspect; 4. Larva of Apits cancriformis ; J>, Branchiims (Cheiroeei>halus) Btagnalis— a, adult female, &, c, larva; ; 6, Larva of AdemM salina. 216 NATURAL HISTORY. the shell. This is what Miiller calls the ephippium, from the resemblance it bears to a saddle. But though he describes it well, he does not give any opinion upon the cause or use of the formation. Straus, however, has proved it to be an inner bivalved case or shell, containing two eggs, destined, he says, for perpetuating the species in the spring : these eggs resisting the cold of winter, which proves fatal to the perfect animal." FIFTH LEGION.— LOPHYROPODA. The LOPHYROPODA, or stiff Hair-footed Crustacea, form the second division of the Entomostraca. The same simple structure is repeated as in the BRANCHIOPODA, with but slight variations in the organs of locomotion. ORDER X.— OSTRACODA. In the fresh-water Cypris and the salt-water Cythere the body is enclosed in a bivalved shell. Dr. Baird says of Cypris : — " When the ponds and ditches in which they live dry up in summer, they bury themselves in the mud, and thus preserve their lives as long as the mud retains any moisture, becoming as active as ever when, the rain falls and again overflows their habitation. After long-continued drought, however, when the mud becomes very dry and hard, they perish ; but the eggs do not perish with the parents, for they can be hatched in four days after being placed in water. These little creatures seem to be very lively in their native element, being almost constantly in motion, either swimming about rapidly by the action of their antennae, or walking upon the plants and other solid bodies floating in the water." The Cythere are minute marine Crustacea, and are met with in pools amongst the rocks along the coast. "These animals," says Dr. Baird, "have never been seen to swim, invariably walking among the branches and leaves of the Confervse or Fuci, &c., where they delight to dwell. When shaken out from their hiding-places into a bottle or tumbler of water, they may be seen to fall in gyrations to the bottom, without ever attempt- ing to dart through the watery element, as is the case with the Cyprides. Upon reaching the bottom, they open their shells and creep along the surface of the glass, but when touched they immediately again withdraw themselves into their shell, and remain motionless. Their inability to swim is, no doubt, owing to the want of the pencils of long hairs or filaments which adorn the superior and inferior antennae of the Cyprides." ORDER XI.— COPEPODA. Fig. 39.— FORMS OF CLADOCERA, OSTRACODA, AND COPEPODA. &S3&SS ^u tne fresh-water Cyclops and the marine Ceto- (Fig. 39) the head and thorax are covered by a shield, and the posterior abdominal segments are distinctly seen. The long antennae in the latter forms serve as oars to propel the animal through the water. How great must be the numerical strength of the species in these lower forms, when Cetochilus so minute can yet colour the sea for miles in extent, and furnish abundant food for so large a mammal as the Whale ! The various species of the genus Cyclops abound in inland waters all over the world, being essentially fresh-water animals, in a few cases only inhabiting slightly brackish water. They are amongst the most abundant of all the individuals of the order. The young stages of Cyclops have been named as distinct species, the same animal having been honoured with four or five different titles between birth and maturity. The full-grown female is often of considerable size. The eggs are carried in pouches, and are not dependent on the mother, but will come to maturity if separated from her. The eggs vary in number, old individuals laying upwards of forty. It has been calculated that in one year a female would become the progenitor of 4,442,189,120 young, so that the abundance THE PARASITIC COPEPODA. 217 in which they are met with is not strange, notwithstanding their many enemies. The Cyclops feeds both on animal and vegetable matter. The Cetochilus, or " whale-food," is one of the small Entomostraca, known to the fisherman of the Firth of Forth by the name of maidre, on which the Herring and many fine species of Salmonida? live almost exclusively. These small Copepods abound in such quantities as to obscure the water ; immense shoals of Cod-fishes are seen swimming lazily about, devouring them in large numbers. Shoals of Herrings are also seen pursuing them with great agility. The Parasitic COPEPODA may be divided into two groups. The first comprises the free-swimming genera, in which both the male and female retain their organs of locomotion in the adult state, and can change their habitat whenever needful. This division includes the fresh-water Argulus and the marine Caligus. The second division includes the fixed parasites, in which the females, when adult, lose their locomotory appendages, and become fixed, deriving their nourishment by a true suctorial mouth, armed with jaws for piercing the tissues of the fishes and other animals upon which they are parasitic ; the males, however, remaining free. " The Argulus in England is found upon various fresh-water fishes. In the neighbourhood of London it is most commonly to be met with upon the Stickleback, but it has been taken also upon the Carp and the Roach ; and in other places it has been found upon the Trout, the Pike, the Perch, and even upon the tadpole of the Frog." Professor Dana described a species taken in the Mill River, near Whitneyville, into which the tide runs, thus showing that Argulus can live in brackish water. Loefling states that the part where Argulus foliaceus is chiefly found is within the gills, or immediately outside ; and Dana and Herrick inform us that their Argulus catostomi was always found within the branchial cavities, but when the fish itself was immersed in fresh water, the parasite forsook the gills, and, after swimming about some time, would often attach itself to the anterior part of the body. The number of eggs deposited by one Argulus is very considerable. Dr. Baird says as many as 400 have been laid by A. foliaceus, and 1,500 and upwards by Argulus catostomi. Caligus and other allied genera are called fish-lice, and are observed to infest the Cod and the Salmon ; they are marine Crustacea. Dana says the Caligi are most numerous on half-grown fish, and occur on the head and different parts of the body, but never within the gill-covers or under the scales. Dr. Baird says of the European species that they live under the scales, and are often found on the parietes of the mouth and branchial cavities. " When disturbed, they move with rapidity over the fish, and either backward or forward with nearly equal facility. In swimming, their motion is equally rapid. They thus travel over the fish at will, and, we do not doubt, occasionally leave one fish for another." Both sexes frequently occur on the same fish, though the females are the more abundant. The sizes of the individuals vary, but the adult male often is two thirds of an inch in length. The females are seldom more than half an inch long, and are always smaller than the males. " The Caligi live several hours on the body of the Cod taken from the water, but generally die soon after the death of the fish. When taken from the fish and confined, they exhibit a strong inclination to leave the water. These animals, like the Cod on which they live, require a low temperature, and have been observed to swim, with scarcely diminished activity, in water that was freezing. In some instances, when the water had evidently reached a temperature below 32° Fahr. without congelation, they have been rendered torpid, and apparently dead ; but on bringing them into a room not above 45° Fahr., they have soon resumed their usual activity." The Caligi change their skin, as well as the other Entomostraca, but little is yet known of the process. The young, when first hatched, closely resemble the young Cyclops, and, like them, undergo a series of moults, or changes of skin, before they become perfectly developed. Nicotlwe astaci, a very small species, of a rosy colour, attaches itself to the gills of the common Lobster (Fig. 39). The LERNEAD.E (fixed parasites) fasten themselves to the eyes and various parts of the bodies of fishes in different ways — some by means of the foot-jaws alone, others by a series of horns proceeding from the side of the head, and others, again, by two long appendages, which spring from the upper part of the thorax, which unite at the tip, and form a, sort of round button. 266 218 NATURAL HISTORY. " In general, it is only the adult female of the Lerneaclse that we are in the habit of observing • and in an animal whose organs of motion and perception for the most part are merely rudimentary, and whose existence is strictly stationary, the manner of life must be very simple. Immovably fixed upon the fish which serves it for food, its existence depending upon the life of its host, it requires neither feet to transport it from place to place, nor eyes to guide it in search of fresh abode?. In fact, the whole of its active existence consists in. the two operations of taking food and propagating its species. We find them in all instances deeply fixed in the tissue of the parts upon which they have taken up their habitation, and often so deeply lodged that little else but the oviferous tubes are visible externally. These small parasites have been found adhering to the gills of the Dory, the Sole, the Gurnard, and the Salmon, to the fins and gills of the Cod, Haddock, and Whiting, and to the sides of the Carp, Bream, and Roach." Scoresby, the Arctic voyager, mentions a species of Lenieopoda found adhering to the eye of a Greenland Shai-k ; the arm-like appendages were buried in the cornea, to the depth of nearly a fourth of their length. The Sharks thus attacked seem to be rendered blind by their pigmy assailants "The sailors," says Captain Scoresby, "imagine this Shark is blind, because it pays riot the least attention to the presence of a man, and is, indeed, so apparently stupid, that it never draws back when a blow is aimed at it with a knife or lance." The " Eye-sucker " (Lerneorietna spratta) is found fixed by the snout to the eye of the Sprat. Conrad Gesner, in his " Historia Animalium," 1558, describes the structure and appearance of this parasite, " because," he says, " few people know what this parasite is, as it is very small, seldom to be seen, except at the time of the rising of the dog-star, and then not on many fishes, but only on the Tunny, Sword-fish, and occasionally the Dolphin (and not even on every individual). Tt adheres so firmly that it cannot be removed without tearing it. It sucks the blood of the fish, like as a leech does, till it falls off through very fulness, and then dies." SIXTH LEGION.— CIRRIPEDIA.* ORDER XII.— RHIZOCEPHALA (ROOT-HEADED CRUSTACEA). In the RHIZOCEPHALA the young are free, and resemble young larval Cirripedia, or the adult Cypris and Candona (Fig. 39). The adult (female) is destitute of all appendages, and attaches itself by means of root-like prolongations from the head to the body of the host upon or within which it is found. Thus the female of Entoniscus resides within the body of a species of Porcellana, lying in a thin- walled sac between the liver, intestine, and heart, and is destitute of eyes or antenna?. The thorax has become an irregular inarticulate sac, beset with enormous brood-laminae ; the long vermiform and extremely mobile abdomen has sword-shaped legs ; and swelling out above it in a glandular form, as if in a hernial sac, the heart lies at the base of the first segment. The young in this singular parasite closely resemble those of Bopyrus and Cryptothyria. The genera Sacculina and Peltogaster are usually found parasitic on the abdomen of the Hermit Crab. The animal appears as a small ovoid or kidney-shaped mass, attached by the head, whilst its roots penetrate deeply into the liver of the Hermit Crab. The only manifestations of life which these most retrogress! vely metamorphosed Crustaceans present are powerful contractions of the roots, and alternate expansion and contraction of the body, causing water to flow into the brood-cavity, to be again expelled through a wide orifice. In 1858 Lilljeborg found what he deemed to be a female Peltogaster with an egg-sac; but a careful dissection led to the discovery that another parasite of a higher order, namely, a Cryptothyria, had become parasitic upon the parasite. The most curious part of this super-parasitic history is that the roots of Sacculina and Peltogaster seem constantly to be made use of by two parasitic Isopods— namely, a Bopyrus and the Cryptoniscns planaroides. These take up their abode beneath the Sacculina, and cause it to die away by intercepting the nourishment conveyed by the roots : the roots, however, continue to grow, even without the Saccitlina, and frequently attain extraordinary extension, especially when a Bopyrus obtains its nourishment from them (Fritz Miiller). Let gardeners take a hint from this, and graft some new fruit upon the mistletoe bough. * Latin, cirrus, a curl, and pes, a foot ; hence, curl-footed. THE VARXACLE. 219 l,Scalpellum rostratum. Philippines : 2, PoJlicipes comurapia, European seas : 3, Tubicinella tracheal,*, attached to whales : 4, Coronula diadema, attached to whales ; 5, Salanus tlntinnubulum, Atlantic : 6", section of same showing animal in shell ; 6, Acasta sulcata, found in living sponges ; &, 6'', opercular valves of same. ORDER XIII.— BALANID.E.* ORDER XIV.— LEPADID.£.t Thanks to Charles Darwin, Vaughan Thompson, Goodsir, and Bate, the CIRKIPEDIA, one of the most aberrant groups, have now a place among the Crustacea (Figs. 40, 41). The two great divisions of BALANID.E and LEPADID^E represent the condition of the adult female, or hermaphrodite ; the larvae,, resembling the young of Cyclops and Cypris, being free-swimming forms, and undergoing a series of metamorphosis, as do some of the highest Crustacea. " Almost every one," says Darwin, " who has walked over a rocky shore, knows that the Barnacle, or ' acorn-shell,' is an irregular cone, formed generally of six compartments, with an orifice at the top, closed by a neatly-fitted, movable lid, or operculum. Within this shell the animal's body is lodged, and through a slit in the lid it has the power of protruding six pairs of articulated cirri, or legs, and of securing by their means any prey brought by the waters within their reach. The basis is firmly cemented to the surface of attachment. The whole shell, basis, and operculum consists of the first three segments of the head, modified into a singularly constructed carapace, which encloses the mouth and rest of the body. The anterior extremity of the shell is situated in the centre of the basis, where, indeed, by due care, the antennae of the Fig. 40. — CIHRIPEDIA. pupa may be always detected ; the posterior extremity is directed vertically upwards." When the period has arrived at which the young Balanus or Lepas shall assume the adult characters, it attaches itself by its antennae, which are modified as cement-ducts, and by which it becomes fixed to a suitable body, organic or otherwise,, and secretes a shell. In the one group (Balanidre) the base is fixed and immovable, save the opercular valves ; in the other (Lepadidtc) the shell is supported on a peduncle more or less movable. " The Barnacle begins life in a form exactly like that of a young Entomosti-acous Crustacean, with a broad carapace, a single eye, two pairs of antennae, three pairs of jointed, branched, and well- bristled legs, and a forked tail. It casts off its skin twice, xmdergoing, especially at the second moult, a considerable change of figure. At the third moult it has assumed almost the form of Cypris or Cy there, being enclosed in a bivalve shell, in which the front of the head, with the antennae, is greatly developed, equalling in bulk all the rest of the body. The single eye has become two, which are very large, and attached to the outer arms of two bent processes, like the letters U U, which are seen within the thorax (Fig. 41, c). " In this stage the little animal searches about for some suitable spot for permanent residence — a ship's bottom, a piece of floating timber, the back of a Whale or Turtle, or the solid rock. When its selection is made, the two antennae, which project from the shell, pour out a glutinous gum or cement, which hardens in water and firmly attaches them. Henceforth the animal is a fixture, glued by the front of the head to its support. Another moult now takes place ; the bivalve shell is thrown off, with the great eyes and their U-like processes, and the little Cirriped is seen in its true form. It is now in effect a Stomapod Crustacean, attached by it.s antennae, the head greatly lengthened (in Lepas, &c.), the carapace composed of several pieces or valves, the legs modified into cirri, and made to execute their grasping movement backwards instead of forwards, and the whole abdomen obliterated, or reduced to an inconspicuous rudiment." — (Gosse : "Manual Marine Zoology.") Professor Rymer Jones observes that the food of the Cirripedia consists of various small animals, and nothing can be more effective or beautiful than the manner in which it obtains its prey. " Its food is caught in the water around them by a mechanism at once simple and elegant. Any one who watches the movements of a living Cirriped will at once see that its arms, with their appended cirri, * Latin, lalanus, an acorn. t Greek, lepas, a limpet. r/o NATURAL HISTORY. are in perpetual movement, being alternately thrown out and retracted with great rapidity ; and that, when fully expanded, the plumose and flexible stems form an exquisitely beautiful apparatus,, admirably adapted to entangle any nutritious atoms or minute living creatures that may happen to be present in the circumscribed space over which this singular casting-net is thrown, and drag them down into the vicinity of the mouth, where, being seized by the jaws, they are crushed and prepared for digestion. No sense but that of touch is required for the success of this singular mode of fishing ; and the delicacy with which the tentacles perceive the slightest contact of a foreign body shows that they are eminently sensible to tactile impressions." The process of exuviation common to the class Crustacea cannot take place with the shell in the CIRRIPEDIA, but the delicate skin of the articulated cirri (whence their name " Curl-footed"), the tunic lining the sac, and the integuments of the whole body are regularly moulted. All the Cirripedia grow rapidly; and Darwin says, "in accordance with this rapid growth is the frequency of periods of exuviation. Mr. Thompson kept twenty specimens of Balanus balanoides alive, and on the twelfth day he found the twenty-first cast-off integument, showing that all had moulted once, and one individual twice within the period. This fre- quency of exuviation explains the astonishing masses of exuvia which Mr. Peach assures me he annually has observed off the coast of Cornwall ; they are most abundant in April and May, but he has seen quantities also in September. He could easily, he tells me, have filled several quart-measures with them." The only difference of the growth of the shell in the Cirripeds and that of other Crustaceans is the new layers of thin shell which grow up or are deposited over the internal surface of the valves, the old shell adhering to the outside of the new one ; the margins are added to slowly, but not continuously, instead of being formed at a single period. "In the genus Alcippe, the whole of the external membranes are moulted, excepting the surface of attachment ; but these Cirripeds live in cavities, which they form for themselves, and are thus protected." " The most remarkable fact concerning the peduncle of Lithotrya is that the outer tunic, together with the calcareous scales with which it is covered, is moulted at each successive period of exuviation and growth. I demonstrated this fact in L. dorsalis and L. tmncata, by removing the old tunic, and finding a new membrane with perfect calcified scales beneath ; and as these two species are at the opposite extremes of the genus, no doubt this fact is common to the whole genus. I know of no other instance amongst Cirripedia in which calcified valves or scales are moulted. I am not certain that the whole skin of the peduncle is thrown off in a single piece, though it is almost certain in the case of the uppermost and lowest portions." In viewing Lepas in comparison with other forms, it is necessary to treat it as attached by its head, its thoracic appendages serving as cirri, its abdominal segments being suppressed or undeveloped. The Cirripedia extend over the whole world, and all the species are marine ; some are parasitic on Whales, others on the Turtle, and many forms live floating about on ships and timber. Fig. 41. — LARVAL FORMS OF CIRRIPEBIA. A, Nauplius of Balanus ; B, Larva of Chthamalus stellatus; c, Larva of Lepas australis. HENRY WOODWARD. CONCLUDING REMARKS ON THE ARTRROPODA. 221 CONCLUDING REMARKS. We have thus arrived at the conclusion of a necessarily very condensed sketch of the vast group of animals arranged by naturalists in the great division of the Arthropoda, a group which is certainly the most numerous in species, and probably also in individuals, of all the great primary sections into which the animal kingdom may be divided. A few additional words summing up the relations of the oroup as a whole may not, however, be out of place. A consideration of the habits of the species and their relations to the world at large seems to indicate that the primary function of the group in. general is that of a natural police, acting sometimes openly in the sight of all, sometimes in a concealed fashion, which renders it difficult to realise the extent of their influence. Among the scavengers both of land and water the foremost place must certainly be assigned to Arthropods, numbers of which seem to be constantly on the watch for all those articles called by the French " immondices," the continued presence of which, either in the air or in the water, cannot fail to be either offensive or injurious to other living organisms. Excrementitious matters and putrefying or decaying animal and vegetable substances are thus rapidly got rid of and brought once more into the cycle of vitality, and in these useful operations thousands of species of insects of different orders, many mites, and a very large proportion of the class Crustacea, are perpetually engaged. Of the rest, while there are some which seem to have no particular mission, the great majority may be regarded as acting more or less powerfully as checks upon the increase of other animals and plants, and this often in so direct a manner that our best examples of the system by which the numerical proportions of different kinds of organisms are maintained in the world are to be derived from the study of these creatures. The whole series of predaceous insects, the carnivorous Myriopods, and the great mass of the Arachnida, are most efficient agents in keeping down the development of their weaker fellows, while a host of plant-eating species, especially of insects, perform the same part for the vegetable kingdom. Parasitism, which is common throughout the three great classes of Arthropoda, and manifests itself in many very remarkable ways, plays a most important part in checking the increase of animals of many kinds, and, as we have seen, provides a peculiarly delicate means of regulation, seeing that under the influence of parasites the creature affected is able to perform its principal functions in the economy of nature, but is weakened or altogether destroyed when the time of reproduction arrives. The action of the Arthropods in nature is in numerous cases greatly intensified by the important changes through which so many of them pass in the course of their life-histoiy. Phenomena of more or less similar character certainly occur in other groups, but those extra-ovular changes which we dignify by the title of metamorphoses, and which in their extreme manifestations make one animal play the part of two, constitute a general characteristic of the Arthropoda, and have a most important bearing on their life-history. Of the metamorphosis we may distinguish two kinds in the Arthropoda generally. In the great majority of the types distinguishable in the group, we find what may be called a " direct " metamorphosis, that is to say, the young animal escapes from the egg in a form differing more or less from that of its parents, but destined to reach the mature form by simple growth and development of its parts with or without the addition of new parts as it advances in age, a mode of development which we recognise throughout the Crustacea, Arachnida, and Myriopoda, and in the whole of the lower (or hemimetabolous and ametabolous) insects. In the metabolous insects, or insects with a complete metamorphosis, we find another set of phenomena superadded, a more or less worm-like larva stage being intercalated between the egg and the perfect insect. The explanation of this seems to be furnished by the life-history of certain parasitic forms of Coleoptera, such as the Meloidse and Stylopidse, in which the insect when first hatched is a little six-legged creature presenting all the external characters of a larva destined to undergo direct development towards the perfect form, but subsequently giving origin to a soft, maggot-like larva, which would never be supposed to have any connection with its predecessor. It seems probable that, in the history of the class Insecta, a similar change, the traces of which are now preserved only in a few species, may have taken place in the course of development of certain forms, and that through these the whole series of insects with a complete metamorphosis may have 222 NATURAL HISTORY. originated from hetnimetabolous ancestors. However it was introduced into the life-history of the Insecta, this worm-like larval form is certainly their most important modification. As already indicated, it enables each individual to play two distinct parts in the economy of nature, and it is by its introduction alone that the internal parasitism, which is characteristic of so many families of insects, is rendered possible. In some few insects, but much more strikingly in members of the classes Arachnida and Crustacea, parasitism superinduces a metamorphosis of another kind, which is commonly known as " retrograde metamorphosis," seeing that the adult parasite, instead of showing an advance upon the structure of the newly-hatched young, exhibits a marked degradation of type. This curious and interesting phenomenon is well shown in the numerous forms of parasitic Crustacea, such as the Lerneadse and Rhizocephala, and especially in such parasitic Isopods as Entoniscus, &c., the larvae and males of which display true Crustacean characters, while the parasitic females are mere egg-sacs, which might very justifiably be taken for worms. The Cirripedia again exhibit another phase of what must be termed retrograde metamorphosis. It will be seen, from the foregoing rapid sketch of the development of the Arthropoda, as also from various statements contained in the preceding description of the classes and orders composing the group, that whatever indications of alliances outside the group are presented by its members are all in the direction of animals now included under the great division of the Yermes. In the general description of the characters of the class Insecta, we took occasion to indicate that in former days the Arthropoda and Vermes, as then understood, were regarded as forming a single great division of the animal kingdom, the Annulosa, characterised by the ringed or segmented structure of the body displayed by its typical members, and we must confess to a lingering doubt whether such a grouping does not present a more philosophical idea of the relationships of these creatures than the one now generally adopted. Under any circumstances, it is among the Vermes that we must seek the nearest allies of the Arthropoda ; or, in other words, to adopt the views of the illustrious Darwin, which, whether accepted as the expression of facts or not, must, as we have more than once stated, furnish the guiding principles in inquiries of this nature, the ancestors from which they were derived. It would seem, from the investigations of Mr. Moseley and others upon the curious genus Peripatus, that the remarkable worm-like creatures forming it, which are so peculiar both in their organisation and in their geographical distribution, represent the surviving progeny of organisms directly uniting the Annelida (the highest class of Vermes) with the Myriopoda as we now know them. If this be the case, one line of descent is very plain. The group of Chilognathous Myriopods (such as Julus, &c.) would be easily derived from modified Peripati, and the transition from them to the Chilopoda presents no difficulties, even from the consideration of existing forms. The production of Myriopods must have taken place at a very early period of the world's geological history, as their remains have been detected in Devonian rocks in America. The production of six-legged larvse by the Juliform Myriopods, if not inherited from the Peripatoid ancestor, may have been superinduced as a saving of material in the egg, and these larval forms lead directly to the truly ametabolous Thysanura, among which Campodea is regarded by Sir John Lubbock as approximately representing the lowest and earliest type of true insect, from which all the other multitudinous forms may have been derived by descent with modification, the Hemimetabola retaining the direct mode of metamorphosis as above described, starting from the Campodea-like larva and reaching the adult form by growth with addition of parts; the Metabola proceeding from the latter by the superaddition of a vermiform larva stage with its concomitant or resting pupa stages. In most cases the primitive larval form appears to have become suppressed in the metabolous insects, although it is still retained, as above mentioned, in Meloe, Sitaris, Stylops, and their allies. With regard to the Crustacea and Arachnida, we get no information from this assumed line of descent, and the fact that the latter belong to the tracheate series of Arthropods renders the question of their origin rather puzzling. It would appear, however, that the primitive larval form of the Crustacea is the little creature described as a JVauplius (pp. 194-6), which is the first product of the egg in the majority of the lower types of the class, while in the highest groups the young animal is generally of the form originally described as a distinct genus under the name of Zoea (pp. 194-6), CONCLUDING REMARKS ON THE ARTHROPODA. 223 For a long time it was supposed that this constituted a positive distinction between the lower and higher Crustacea (some intermediate forms, Edriophthalnria, showing no larval forms at all), but the researches of Fritz Miiller proved that in certain Shrimps (Penceus, pp. 194-6) the Zoea-iorm was preceded by a Nauplius-form, thus furnishing analogous evidence to that existing in the case of insects. of the existence among Crustacea of a primitive and a superadded larva (Nauplius and Zoed), of which the former had in many cases become suppressed. If we consider the Crustacea to follow the same principle in their development as the insecta, we must regard the Nauplius, or some Naupliform creature, as the primitive form of the class from which all the rest have proceeded by descent with continual additions and modifications of parts ; but it is hardly possible with our present knowledge to indicate the particular type of the Vermes from which, or from the larva of which, the primitive Nauplius could have originated. But the interesting fact becomes perfectly plain that as the Peripatus could have nothing to do with the origin of the Crustacea, the evolution of the Arthropod type must have taken place along, at least, two lines of descent of different origins, a view which was adopted by Prof. Balfour in his very valuable work on "Comparative Embryology." It is possible that the starting-point of the Crustacean line was from some organism pertaining or approximating to the group of creatures now known as Rotifera. The Arachnida, through the curious little Tardigrada, which are generally considered to have Rotatorian affinities, may have originated from the same point as the Crustacea, but if so they must have diverged at an exceedingly early stage of the evolution and formed a branch of their own, gradually acquiring those characters which bring them apparently into affinity with the Insects and Myriopods. The character of the respiratory organs, which has been adopted for the division of the Arthropoda into two main groups of Tracheata and Crustacea is evidently of no consequence in connection with this question of descent, seeing that it is quite clear, from the analogy of Peripatus and the Earth Worms, that throughout the Annulosa the priuciple on which the originally aquatic forms are adapted for aerial respiration consists in the substitution for the primitively exposed branchial organs of concealed cavitary organs, the arrangements by which the blood is brought in contact with the respiratory medium being strictly homologous in both cases. The passage upward through the Mites to the Spiders and Scorpions may then easily be conceived. The parasitic forms, such as the Linguatulina, originated by a process of retrograde metamorphosis ; while the singular group of the Pantopoda, with their remarkable larvae, would seem to have remained from an early period at a very low stage of development.* Another group, which we have here placed with the Crustacea, is regarded by some naturalists as belonging truly to the Arachnida. This is the order Xiphosura, including of living forms only the few species of King Crabs or Horseshoe Crabs, the structural relations of which to the Scorpions would seem to be very close, and certainly raise a difficult problem, and one which is rendered still more interesting by the fact that, according to the researches of Dr. Jiiles Barrois, a Limuloid or King Crab-like stage occurs in the development within the egg of certain true Spiders. For the present this and many other such questions must, however, remain open. In all biological problems relating to the past developmental history of the organic world, we must for a long time yet expect to come continually upon obscure and puzzling points, which only a more extended knowledge of minute details can clear up. * Professor Balfour (Comp. Embryol., vol. i., p. 448) says of the Pycnogonida :— " The six-legged larva has none of the characteristic features of the Nauplius, except the possession cf the same number of appendages ; " but he places the group .among those cf doubtful affinities. W. S. DALLAS. HENRY WOODWARD. GRAND DIVISION, OR TYPE.— VEEMES (THE WORMS). CHAPTER 1. THE RINGED WOItMS. The Various Sorts and Conditions of Worms— Characters— Classification— ANNELIDA, THE RINGED WORMS— OLIGOCH^TA— The Earth Worm -Characters— Structural Peculiarities— Habits— Other Species— The Naidse— The Tubificidze— POLYCH^ETA— Marine Worms— Characters— ERRANTIA— ApHRoniTlD^: — Sea Mice — Scale Backs— The Eunicidie-The Sao— Habits— The Nereidse— The White-rag Worm— The Syllidas- The Phyllodocid;e— THE TUBE- MAKERS — Characters — The Lug Worm— Habits — "Baiters " on the Search — CIRRATULIDJE — Characters — The Terebellidas — Their Larvaj— The Serpulida; — The Fan Sabella— Serpula Vermicularis — Its Array of Hooks -The ProtuLe and other Tube-makers— THE LEECHES — Appearance— Action of Sucker — Characters — Different Kinds — The Horse Leech — The Glutton Aulostome* THE commonly received opinion about Worms is, that they are very unimportant animals which lead very obscure lives, and that there are not many of them. But a little observation proves the fallacy of the greater part of the popular idea. The common Earth Worm is seen in numbers early in the morning, and on every lawn the birds may be noticed pulling them out of their holes and swallowing them. Boys who require Worms for fish-bait soon become impressed with their numbers, for every dig of the spade brings up one or more. By the sea-side, Lob Worms are forked out of the sand by fishermen, in abundance. In chemists' shops one used to see quantities of leeches in pots, and that they are Worms is pretty evident. Sometimes in out-of-the-way lecalities, the shop-windows of worm-doctors are to be seen filled with bottles containing flat, long, limp-looking things, called Tape Worms ; and every nurse knows that children suffer from Thread Worms. The farmer loses his sheep from a curious head affection, and on examining them he finds peculiar Worms. Grouse and Chickens die from the gapes, and it is a Worm that does it. Pigs suffer from a Worm in their muscles, and fishes have others in their bodies and eyes, and man has them sometimes in his blood. Finally, in the marine aquarium the loveliest fan-shaped expansions, coming out of tubes fixed to the rock, are the breathing organs of a Worm. In numbers, probably the Worms surpass all other things except the Infusoria ; in habits they are most varied, and they are correspond- ingly diversely fashioned. In some Worms there is boldness and a power of roaming for purposes of attack, and then they are well provided with structures and organs ; but in others there is only a very passive existence, and there is an extraordinary absence of structures, senses, and of many organs. Parasitism within animals is the lot of many Worms, and some lead a part of their life in one animal, and another in a second \mwilling host, or they may live free at some time or other. So varied are the shapes and so inconstant are many of the structures of the Worms, that it is by no means easy to give a definition which shall include them all. Not only peculiar structures, but also the absence of certain structures known to exist in other animals, have to be considered. Thus it is found that an animal does not exactly correspond with one of the articulate grcmps ; and another resembles in certain points, but not in all, an Infusorian. They are then placed with the Vermes, because of the existence of certain fundamental structures. Again, many of the Vermes are parasitic, and their structures have been most curiously modified to meet their method of life — or, rather, their methods— for most pass through very remarkable life-cycles. The Vermes do not move by means of articulated limbs, and the body is not jointed like that of a Crustacean or Insect. But whatever may be the shape of the body, it is composed of incomplete segments, the majority of which are similar, and is more or less ringed outside. The segments are provided with offensive and locomotive organs on both sides, and usually with a special excretory organ opening from within. There is a water system communicating with a cavity in the body surrounding the digestive system, and with the outside, called the perivisceral cavity. The digestive system may be well developed, but in some parasites it is absent, and their nutrition takes place by absorption through the outside of the body. There is a kind of circulatory system present in some, and also special organs of respiration, such as branchial tufts ; but many are without them. The nervous system may consist of a cord around the oesophagus, with ganglia above and below,, and a ganglionic cord along the ventral surface within ; or the vestiges of the system may be very scanty. Sense organs, such as eyes, may exist in a rudimentary condition, and also organs of feeling. The digestive organs vary greatly in their development ; and the stomach and intestines, fairly de- veloped in some, are wanting in others. The movements of the body are not produced by jointed* THE EARTH WORM 225 limbs, but by the segments, assisted or not by lateral projections and cilia. Although there is great diversity in form, the organs and structures of the body are, to a large extent, the same on both sides, and hence there is bilateral symmetry. The Vermes are divided into five classes — the Annelida, the Gephyrea, the Rotifera, the Nemathelmintha, and the Plathelmintha — or the True-ringed Worms, the Marine Worms, the Wheel Animalcules, the Ribbon Worms, and the Flat Worms. CLASS ANNELIDA (THE RINGED WORMS). SUB-CLASS CH^ETOPODA. These Worms have bristles upon the segments, either on processes called false feet (parapodia), or in depressions in the tissues of the skin. Presenting great differences in structure, they are divided into two large ordei's, in one of which (the Oligochaeta) the bristles are comparatively few., and never on parapodia : there are no tentacles, cirri, or branchia3, and the sexes are combined ; these Worms, moreover, do not undergo metamorphosis. The second order (the Polychaeta) are Marine Worms, with separate sexes, undergoing metamorphosis, and they have numerous bristles carried on parapodia, and also tentacles, cirri, and branchiae. ORDER OLIGOCH^TA. These are long Worms found in eai-th, mud, and fresh water, which are known by their negative, rather than by their positive zoological characters. They have no structures on the sides which may be called "feet," and they have not any armature like jaws, in relation to the pharynx. They are without tentacles, and do not possess cirri or branchiae. The sexes are combined, and there is no metamorphosis. Being Annelida, they have segments, and there are bristles projecting from them. There are two sub-orders of these sparely-bristled Worms, and in the first (the Terrestrial, or Oligochceta terricola) the Earth Worm is the type. The Earth Worm, or Dew Worm,* is such a familiar object that it is only necessary to remark on some of its peculiarities. The head is a long, obtuse cone ; the first segment is usually lobe-like ; it overhangs the wide circular mouth, and is more or less retractile within the second ring. The segments of the body are narrow, and furnished with minute bristles, some of which, more or less hooked, are called spinets, and are retractile. There are no eyes, jaws, or branchiae. On the segment behind the first are two furrows, often joined by a cross one; and farther back is a smooth, glistening brown part, differing from the rest of the Worm in appearance : it is called the clitellus. The hinder part of the body is flatter and broadens out, and the anal segment is small, reddish, and has tumid projections. The genital pores are on the fifteenth ring. There may be from twenty- eight to thirty-two rings in front of the clitellus, which has six segments, and 106 behind it. In the skin and clitellus are organs for producing mucus, and it can be noticed that a red fluid circulates in an imperfect circulating vessel called the pseudo-haemal system. The nervous system consists of central ganglia above the pharynx, cords connecting them around the pharynx with a long chain of nerves and ganglia, extending through the length of the body on the ventral wall of that cavity which environs the internal organs — the perivisceral. The upper lip is slightly elongate, and covers the mouth, which leads to a muscular pharynx, ending within the body, at about the seventh segment ; a narrow oesophagus is continued backwai'ds to about the sixteenth. There are three pairs of pouches in the sides of the resophagus, which contain * Lumbricus terrcstris. 267 EAllTH WOKM. 226 NATURAL HISTORY. a calcareous matter. This gullet widens into a sort of crop, which terminates in a thick and muscular gizzard. Then follows a single tube — the intestine — which is turned in, as it were, along its back, so that there is a longitudinal projection into the intestinal canal. The exci'etory or segmental organs are tubes which are much convoluted, and one is situated on each side of every segment except the first. Externally, it opens by a minute pore placed close to a pair of bristles or setae ; and internally it communicates with the perivisceral cavity by a wide, funnel-shaped ciliated aperture. Each segment of the body has four double rows of minute setae on it, which project slightly beyond the integument, and pass inwards into the tissues. A series of small apertures, or pores, one for each segment except the first, is on the back, in the median line, and they lead inwards to the perivisceral cavity ; and upon the opposite side of the body are eight apertures for the reproduc- tive organs. When an Earth Worm is in good health and clean, its thin, transparent, but dense outside skin shows a play of colours. Within this layer is a connective tissue with the meshes filled with a gelatinous substance, and still within is a thick layer of circular muscular bands, with pigment granules. A longitudinal layer of muscular fibres is internal to all the rest. So the outside of the Worm is muscular and membranous, and contains many cells for the secretion of mucus outside, and passages into the inside. Within are the viscera and the perivisceral cavity, and this is subdivided by a tissue which passes inwards from the divisions between each pair of seg- ments. Yet there is communication between each subdivision, and also between it and the outside, through the segmental organs. The short spinets, or curved setae, project farther into the interior of the body than externally. The ends of each pair are close, but their origins within the body are wider apart ; each is enclosed in a sac in which it is developed, and to which the muscles by which it is protruded are attached. There are eight setae to a segment ; one pair is not far from the middle line below, and the other pair are farther out on either side. There is a coloiirless fluid with corpuscles in the perivisceral cavity, and the B deep-red fluid already mentioned is found in a system of pseudo-haemal vessels. These are longitudinal and transverse canals and branches, ramifying in all parts of the body except the outside skin. In the seven front segments the longitudi- nal vessels form a network, and behind it cross vessels are greatly developed, I and form five to eight pairs of false hearts. They contract from the back towards the under side. The Earth Worm is very widely distributed ; and some of the species, for there are many, are found on continental and oceanic islands, yet they neither swim nor like salt. They are all nocturnal in their habits, and swallow earth, and digest any organic matters which may be in it, casting forth the residue in the form of cylindrical twists of sand or mud. Charles Darwin has shown that they are the great producers of good soil, and hence the term vegetable mould should rather be animal or worm mould. The Worm should therefore be cultivated rather than destroyed, and the only harm it can do is when it lives in the same pot as a flower, for then it abstracts the organic part of the mould which would be of use to the vegetable. Formerly Worms were much used in medicine. The Earth Worm lays its eggs in capsules at some depth in the soil during the spring, and they hatch in the summer, and the young are about an inch in length, and have no clitellus. Like many other Vermes, the Earth Worm has the power of reproducing lost parts, and of healing and growing when cut in half. Anglers use the common Earth Worm for Eels and Perch, but another species, the Brandling (Lumbricus foetidus), is the best for Trout. This is a reddish-brown Worm with alternate yellow and brown segments, and it has a tapering tail, and exudes a yellow pungent fluid when touched. A huge Worm occurs in Ceylon, called Megascolex cceruleus, and it is sometimes forty inches long, and is as thick as a finger. Its segments are surrounded by a complete circle of seta^ Dr. Baird described a species of this genus which had been found in a hot-bed in a garden in Wales, but probably it had been introduced accidentally. There are many species of Lumbricus in England. In one, the front of the body is different SF1XE (A) AND SPIXET (B) OF LUMBRICUS TERRESTRIS. THE TUBIFICID^E. 227 from the hinder part, L. anatomicus ; one is greenish, and is found under stones in cattle fields, L. viridis ; another is phosphorescent, and there is a pigmy form of the great Earth Worm. The second sub-order is that of the water- and mud-inhabiting Oligochseta — the Oligochceta limicola. There are four families of them, and that of the Naidae is the most important, Nais proboscidea being the type. These Naidaa have a head distinct from the body, and the first three or four segments have no bristles. The mouth is exactly terminal, and there is no overhanging lip as in the Earth Worm. Their body is much flattened, and the bristles are comparatively long, and there are two kinds of them on the segments, which are rather indistinct. The upper bristles are seta?, and are collected in small bundles, and the lower are spinets, which are forked at the tip ; and with their aid the Worms creep actively, and even swim. They live on small animals and are oviparous. They are remarkable for their facility of multiplying by spontaneous division. This has been noticed in the typical species, whose individuals are about half an inch long, and are found about the roots of aquatic plants. Mr. Lewis noticed that the perfect Worm begins to grow a second head near the extremity of the body, and then other segments are developed, the tail, or final segment, being the identical tail of the mother, but pushed forward by the young segments, and now belonging to the child, and only vicariously to the mother. In this state, he adds, we have two Worms and one tail. In some other species the tail has finger-shaped processes which probably act as respiratory organs. One genus, Aulophorus, secretes a tube, which it carries about, and its upper bristles are hair-like, and the lower ones stiff. Some Naidse have eyes, as in the instance of the type, but one species, which has finger-shaped projections (Protodigitata), has not any. The genus Cluetogaster has a cylindrical body, truncated in front, without eyes ; and the mouth, which is terminal, is barbed underneath on the first segment. The bristles are in a single row on either side of the ventral aspect, but they are massed together in groups of four or five or more hooked setaa. They reproduce principally by a process of gemmation or budding, and form chains of four, eight, or sixteen individuals, and each has four segments including the head. The genus Lumbriculus, which has a contractile vascular space to each segment, and no vascular network in the skin, has species living in fresh water, which are red or brown in colour, and have no clitellus. The family Enchytraeidae may be typified by a Scottish species (E. vermicularis). This is a white, indistinctly segmented Worm, with the thirty to seventy segments armed with short spinets in four small fascicles or bundles. It lives in the soil under the bark of rotted trees or decaying leaves. There is a small white spot near the first third of the body. If this little Worm, which is found lying rolled up in a loose, spiral manner, be placed on one's hand, it wriggles much and soon dies. It cannot live except in moist places. The family Tubificidae contains numerous genera, with four rows of recurved setae, which may be simple or forked, and the species have contractile vascular canals, besides the dorsal vessel. The reproductive organs are in the 9 — 11 segments. These Worms* live in water in cylindrical tubes of mud on the bottoms of streams, and their mouth segments are united, and often lengthened, and their skin is transparent and appears of a deep red colour in the water; the portion within the erect tube is pale straw colour. The dorsal vessel is distinctly seen beneath the skin, and the intestine also, which makes a twist at every segment. They are common in the mud of the Thames. This little Worm is gregarious, and when seen in clear water their movements, each half out of its tube, are interesting. They withdraw into their tubes on alarm, and do not come out again for some time. It is the tail end that projects and not the head. One of these red Worms lives in wet gravel, or sand, or brackish water ;| and a very filiform species, which has a clitellus, lives between tide-marks ;J and another lives as a parasite in the Mussel. ORDER POLYCH^ETA. These are highly-developed Marine Worms, and they have parapodia, or feet, on their sides, furnished with numerous bristles, as their name implies. They have also tentacles, cirri, and branchiae. The young are not born like the parent, and undergo a metamorphosis. The sexes are usually separate. The Polychseta are divided into two sub-orders : — firstly, those which possess * Tulifex rivulorum. f Tubifcx Uneata. i Clitcttio arcnarius. NATURAL HISTORY. XOKTHIA TITHICOLA. well-developed foot organs, which lead a roaming life, the exceptions being very few, and which are carnivorous and predaceous — they are the Errantia : secondly, those which live in protecting tubular structures, and which have feebly developed feet, and are called the Tubicola. In examining these many -bristled Worms it is advisable to employ certain descriptive terms. Thus, the first segment of the body is called the prostomium, and the mouth opens on it : the second is the peristomium. When the three front segments are united, or when they differ from those which come after, they are called the head or cephalic segments ; but when this is not the case the Worm is said to be acephalous. The head has various appendages according to the genera. An- tennae are soft filaments varying in number from one to five, and they arise directly from the head, are not retractile, and are usually jointed at the base. Sometimes palpi exist, and they are soft, entire, or jointed processes, arising from the sides of the mouth. The tentacles are soft, bristly, or thread-shaped, non-retractile processes, which arise from each side of the segments of the head in pairs, and spread laterally. They are often very long, and are contractile in the acephalous genera. The mouth is underneath the head, and is a A, cephalic segment; B.iuouth, &c.; o, tentacular cirri: 6, upper lip. 1'OUlld Or transverse Opening to the gullet. It has usually a plain margin. In the acephalous genera it is terminal, and has external tentacles, but there are no jaws, and in the cephalous it is nearly terminal and looks forward horizontally. It is almost always furnished with a proboscis in the cephalous tribes ; that is to say, the oesophagus or gullet can be protruded. It consists of two seg- ments, and can be put forth at pleasure by a process of turning inside out. It is often armed with horny jaws, in opposite pairs, or is roughened on the surface with horny prickles ; or it may be covered with pimples, or be plain. The head is succeeded by the " thoracic segments," and in the cephalous genera there is but one of them. It is naked and has no appendages. But in the acephalous genera, and in some of the others, the thoracic segments are distinguished by peculiarities in their structures and appendages. They may be fleshy, and contain most important organs, and the branchiae are often limited to them. The abdominal segments complete the body, vary in number, are alike, and lessen in size, the last being the anal. This has no setigerous feet, and no soft appendages ; but more commonly a pair of soft filaments, called styles, project behind. The vent is terminal and central. The segments have appendages on either side, and the principal is a lobe, which is called the foot, or parapodium. The so-called foot, or parapodium, is a pimple-shaped projection on either side of a segment. It supports the bristles, which are, as it were, sheathed by it, and it is a basis of attachment for the branchiae, and soft, setaceous filaments, called cirri, resembling tentacles. The foot may be in one lobe, or there may be two lobes ; one, upper or dorsal ; and the other, lower or ventral. These lobes, also called branches, are more or less apart, and when there is but one branch, or lobe, the foot is said to be uniramous, and when there are two, biramous. Taking the biramous foot of one side of a segment of Nephthys longisetosa as an example, the upper and ventral lobes are seen to be wide apart, but to be connected. The bristles of the two lobes are long hair-like setse ; the cirri are two curved booklets projecting downwards from each lobe, and besides these there is a kind of flap behind the bristles, which probably is a rudimentary branchia. The bristles are of four kinds in these Polychaeta, the spine, which is subulate, straight and tapering from the base to the apex. It is placed in the midst of a bundle of bristles. The spinet is a hook or fork, and is only found in a few FOOT OF XEPHTJIYS. THE POLYCH^ETA. 229 genera. The bristles are either formed of one continuous piece or are jointed. They may be hair-like, setaceous, or slender, and tapering insensibly to the end, lanceolate or swollen. The branchue in the cephalous Worms are attached to the base of the foot, on the upper or dorsal side, and are either restricted to a certain number of segments, or they are found on all. They are either arborescent, combed on one side, flat, and veined, or they may be filamentary. At the base of the branchiae, or in portions of the lateral trunks, are "hearts," the direction of the fluid being from behind forwards in the dorsal vessel, and the opposite in the ventral trunk. There are numerous branches to the trunks in most, but not in all, the Polychseta. No segmental organs — excretory — have been discovered in the majority of these Worms, but they do exist in some, as short ciliated canals opening on the parapodia or ventral surface, or as cavities with glandular walls. They may excrete a renal deposit, or may have to do with reproduction. The nervous system consists of a chain of ganglia, one pair for each segment, connected together by longitudinal and transverse bands which diverge below the cerebral ganglions and the succeeding pair, to allow of the passage of the oesophagus. The commissural bands differ in length in the many genera, and some fusion of the ganglia also occurs. An extensive series of nerves is given off to the viscera. The general cavity of the body, the perivisceral, contains a fluid and colourless corpuscles, except in two genera ; and this fluid is continuous with that of the parapodia, and their accessory structures, they being more or less hollow, and in relation to the perivisceral cavity. Cilia, and the movements of the body, produce the circulation of this fluid. Branchiae are represented by ciliated spots on the dorsal side of the bases of the parapodia, or ciliated tubercles may arise from the spot, and it is within them that the caeca of the alimentary canal terminate. There may be filiform branchiae or there may be branchial tufts. The pseudo-haemal system may or may not be present, and when it is found, as, for instance, in the genera where tufted branchiae exist, loops of the great vascular trunks enter them. These trunks are dorsal and ventral, connected by transverse branches, and may be rhythmically contractile. They are large, squamous, lobe-like, or tubercular. In many acephalous genera the branchiae are placed in front, in tufts. The cirri are simple, soft, tapered filaments, or papillary processes attached to the dorsal and ventral lobes, at or near the base. Their office appears to be tactile, and they may be considered as the tentacles of the body. In the Polychaeta the foot and its accessory structures are well developed on either side of certain segments. The group, as a rule, are cephalous, and their alimentary canal is almost always of the same length as the body, and extends without marked distinction into stomach, and con- voluted intestine, from the mouth to the anus. In some genera, long caeca are given off from each side of the alimentary canal, and are sometimes much convoluted. The pharynx is muscular, and when turned out as a proboscis is in some instances as long as the body. There are papillae on it, and, in some cases, horny teeth, which are carried and implanted in the muscular tissue. Eyes and auditory vesicles exist; the former are simple expansions of nerve embedded in pigment, and are usually on the prestomial segment ; but in some genera they are on the segments and tentacles. Some species have them on the tail end, and the locomotion is then with the posterior part forwards. Otoliths have not been satisfactorily made out in the Errantia, but they have been discovered in the Lob Worm. SUB-ORDER ERRANTIA. The majority of these many-bristled Worms lead an active, predatory life ; have a distinct head, carrying eyes, tentacles, and usually tentacular cirri. The body is not divided into different regions, and the highly-developed parapodia are used as oars. The gullet is probosciform and armed, and when the branchiae exist, they are tufts or comb-shaped projections on the dorsal lobes of the feet. They swim freely, and only a few inhabit temporarily very thin membranous tubes. In some genera there are flap-shaped processes to the body, which are called elytra and flap-shaped branchiae. The Errantia are very numerous in individuals. There is a host of genera, and no less than twelve families, some of which are again subdivided. 2SC NATURAL HISTORY. SEA MOUSE (Aphrodita aculeate). THE FAMILY APHRODITID^E. Of this family the very un-worm-like animal called the Sea Mouse,* with long bristles on its feet, which gives all the colours of the rainbow in the sunlight, and is common on the south coast of England, is a good example. It frequently attains the length of from eight to ten inches, and is of an oval shape. Its back is covered with numerous scales, or elytra, hidden under a covering of fine bristles. Another, called the Porcupine Sea Mouse, f has the scales visible, ranged in double series on the back. It is not so long as the Sea Mouse, nor is it as brilliant in the iridescence of its foot setse. Found on the coasts, it, like its fellow, affords food for fish. The rough Scale-back J is one of the family, and is smaller than the species just noticed. It is of a brown colour, and underneath it is whitish. The back has twelve pairs of scales, which overlap in the middle line, and arc hairy on the free edges. The Worm is thus covered with armour above, and the head is protected by the first pair. There are four small black eyes, three feelers, with knob at the end, and two palpi. The animal has twenty-five pairs of feet, and the setse of their dorsal and ventral lobes are golden yellow. There are 7,230 setse of exquisite structure, according to Dr. Baird, on the animal. Most of those scaled Worms move at a slow pace, but they can swim pretty quickly. The proboscis is long and strong, and has filaments around the opening, and it leads to a short digestive apparatus. The species of Lepidonotus have horny curved jaws, and are carnivorous like the others. They live on living Invertebrata, and are cannibals also, and like most of the family frequent the region, below low spring tides, and even live under stones on rocky shores at a less depth. Some live deeper, and a few burrow in the sand very easily. One of the species of Scale-back Worms is long and narrow, having seventy to one hundred and ten segments in the body. It has the scales, in pairs, forward, but the under part is naked, and the scales alternate, with dorsal cirri. This Scolopendrine Scale-back § is four inches in length, and it frequently forms a tubular case of sand and pieces of shell for itself, which it agglutinates with a mucus secretion from its body. This species belongs to a sub-family of the Aphroditidse, and its congeners are found on the northern sea-coasts, the Australian, and Antarctic coasts, and in the Mediterranean Sea. The Boa-shaped Sigalion|| is also a long narrow Worm with numerous pairs of elytra, which reach the end, and may amount to 140 pairs. The Worm is eight inches in length, and only a quarter of an inch in breadth. The feet are very numerous, and there are horny jaws. They live near low water-mark in the British and Mediterranean Seas. Another family is that of the Amphinomidse. They have no scales on the back, but an uninterrupted series of shrub-like branchiae on each side of the body attached to nearly every segment. Most are found on the shores of warm and tropical countries, and the boatmen of Ascension Island wrongly consider the pricks of their setse to be poisonous. The genus Euphrosyne. with an oval body made up of a few segments, which bear branchiae in tufts, placed behind the feet, frequents the west and south of England, and lives down to about ten fathoms. The family Eunicidse is distinguished by a long and numerously segmented body, and a distinct and projecting head. The proboscis is short, and is furnished with several pairs of jaws placed one over the other, and approximated beneath, so as to rest on a kind of under lip of the same texture. The body is usually long and slender, and the number of tentacles varies. The first and second segments have no feet, and the others have one-lobed feet which carry dorsal and ventral cirri and comb-shaped filaments or branchise on the dorsal side. The genus Eunice has foreign species more than four feet long, and one found on the English coast is two feet long, and as thick as a man's finger, the body consisting of 300 segments.U It is of a dark-green colour, and the * Aphrodita aculeata. § Polynoc scolopendrina. t Aphrodite hystrix. || Sigalion boa. Lepidonotus sqtiamatus. THE EUNICIDJE. 231 branchiae are intensely red. But the tints depend much on the situation where the Worm lives. When they are found in clefts of rocks, living in a kind of gallery which they construct, they are rich in their tints, and are iridescent. On the other hand, if they are taken amongst sea-weeds, or from off a muddy bottom, they are dull in colour. The Sao,* one of this family, lives in a tube which it constructs for itself, and which presents the exact appearance of a quill pen. It is of a horny substance, about four inches long, smooth, transparent, and somewhat flexible. Living in soft mud, the animal immerses one end of this tube, and protrudes the other end to some distance. The habits of this Worm have been described with great accuracy by Dr. Johnston, whose words we quote : — " One unceasing object of its life is the capture of prey. For this end it must protrude the anterior portion of the body beyond its tube, and raise itself above the surface of the mud, and remain in this position on watch. To enable the Worm to do this with ease is, I conjecture, the office of the forceps-like bristles of the feet ; with their ends, it may hook itself to the rim of the tube, and thus obtain a support without the waste of muscular power. A long watch is thus rendered less irksome, while at the same time the capacity to seize upon a passing prey is increased. The prey caught, analogy leads us to conclude that the Worm will instantly retreat and sink within its tube, where it can feed without disturbance or fear. But as the entry and passages are narrow and unyielding, it seems to follow that the prey should be held by the mouth alone, when in the act of being dragged within the tube, and hence surely the reason that the mouth has been furnished with the hard tubercles to the lips ; for when pulled together and put in contact, they must give a firmer grip and hold than could otherwise be taken. The use of the tube is to protect the body from the pressure of the soft mud in which it stands immersed. When the tube is overset, or cast out by the waves or accident, the Worm leaves it, and becomes in its turn exposed to enemies. To protect itself from these, while a new tube is being secreted, nature has amply furnished the Sao with a series of bristling lances on each side. These ... arms are of exquisite make, very fine and very sharp ; and those of the upper bundle have their points bent and inclined towards those of the lower bundle, which are likewise bent to meet them. Arms like these will inflict wounds on the tiny assailants of the Sao, sufficiently painful to repulse them, and a lethal wound is not necessary." The Eunicidee, as a rule, undergo metamorphoses ; but a few of them are born in the shape of their parents and in the viviparous manner. The larvse, in the first instance, are ciliated, and there are one or more special ciliated bands in particular regions of the body, and assisting in locomotion. Some genera have bands at both ends, or at one extremity only. The head of the perfect worm gradually develops, and then the tail out of the larval form, and the ciliated bands are lost. The segments between the head and tail are formed, as it were, by a budding. The family Nereidse have long slender bodies with two anal cirri, and the head is flat and four-eyed. There are two small middle and two large outer feelers at each side of the mouth. The pharnyx is protrusible, and there are two large horizontally-moving jaws armed with denticles. The parapodia are double, and have sharp spines, but no hair-like bristles. The genus Nereis is very common, and nearly every stone that is turned over near the sea-water edge sets some moving. Gosse describes the Pearly Nereisf a common species, as having a warm brown-coloured upper surface, but the beautiful flashes of iridescent blue that play on it in the changing light, and the exquisite pearly opalescence of the delicate pink beneath, are so conspicuous as to have secured it the title of pearly. The great dorsal vessel is a dark red line along the back Nereis pelagica is another species, which attains six inches in length, and is as thick as a quill The body Northia tubicola. f Nereis maryaritacea. NERVOUS SYSTEM OF NEREIS (After Gegenbaur). , upper, 6. inferior gangiion of plinvynx: c, ventral trunk; d, nerves of mouth, e, of antennae: /, eyes placed on superior ganglion of oeso- phagus. 232 NATURAL HISTORY. is brilliant in colour, with flesh and iridescent blue tints. It is a great wanderer, burrowing often in the mud in brackish water marshes and pure sea-water shores. In its larval state, just after the tentacles are developed, it is phosphorescent, and may be seen on the shells of oysters. The White-rag Worm*, or Lurg, is common on the British shores, and varies from six to ten inches in length, being about three-tenths of an inch wide. It is of a beautiful peai-ly lustre, and the feet are much developed, and increase gradually in size from the head to about the middle of the body, and then decrease. It lives in the sand, burrowing into it by means of its strong LURG (Neplithys cceca). proboscis, and holding itself fixed by its setigerous feet. When swimming it uses the feet as oars, and moves very quickly through the water. Fresh water soon produces convulsions and death. A Worm called the Prolific Syllist belongs to the family Syllidse. It has the head distinctly seen, and the tentacles are pointed, and the creature has eyes. Dr. Johnston observed that this Syllis is more studious to divide than to unite. When it divides, the posterior half grows a head before it is separated, so that the Worm looks like two individuals joined together, the one holding on to the hinder extremity of the other. Quatrefages has shown that although the two halves are alike when separated, yet they have very different internal structures and gifts. The anterior half continues to eat as before, and conducts itself as an independent creature ; but the other individual is devoted to the reproduction of the species, and does not eat. In another allied form, the posterior half becomes self -divided into as many as six parts, each acquiring the cephalic appendages before dividing, and thus the Worm wanders about for a while, with a train of six mothers crammed with ova formed of its own tail. These separate, and die in giving birth to their ova. The family of Leaf-bearing Worms, the Phyllodocidse, contains very beautiful Worms, which are easily distinguished from all the other Annelids. They are usually of a linear, elongated figure, and the body is furnished with a series of foliaceous lamellse 011 each side, somewhat resembling elytra. They form a border, originating im- mediately above the insertions of the feet, and are in reality the cirri metamorphosed into leaf- like appendages. These structures are supposed to be useful for respiration ; but, in addition to this, they are equally useful as organs of loco- motion, for, as they follow the motions of the feet, and are capable of being partially altered from a horizontal to a perpendicular position, "they act as a bank of oars, and must be especially useful when the Worm glides from a solid surface, and finds itself unsupported in the PHYLLODOCE KIXliEKGlI. water. Hence the species are quick and lively, and swim with considerable ease." The Phyllodocidse are provided with a very large proboscis, the under side of which is roughened with rows of fleshy papillae. The one-branched feet, independent of their leaf-like appendages, are rather small, and the setse, which spring from them, and of which there is only one brush, are slender and elegant in shape. The genus Myxostomum contains little discoid parasites covered with vibratile cilia, and they have four pairs of suckers on the sides of the belly. They have a proboscis and five pairs of * Nephthys cccca. f Syllis prolifera. THE TUBE-MAKERS. 233 feet, with two hooked set* and cirri or pimples. There are no blood-vessels. These curious worms live on the surface of Comatulae, kinds of Echinoderms. Their larvae are ciliated all over, and the head and feet develop gradually. Probably the position of the worm is amongst the Polychaeta. SUB-ORDER TUBICOL^E.— THE TUBE- MAKERS. These worms live in more or less solid tubes, which they construct of different sub- stances such as mud and excreted mucus mixed with calcareous matter, grains of sand and pieces of shells. .Some live in mud, or in penetrations in rocks, and others drag their tubes after them. The Tubicolse have a not very distinct head, a short, often not projectable proboscis, and no jaws. The branchiae are either deficient, or are limited to two or three segments behind the head. The exception is in the Lob Worm, where they are placed on the back of the median segments. There are numerous filiform tentacles and ten tacular cirri on the head, and one or more opercula on it. The feet are short; their ac- cessory structures are small, and are of no use in swimming ; but the dorsal lobes of the feet have capillary seta?, and the inferior are pro- jections with hooked seta? or flat hooks. The eyes may or may not be present, and are found in many situations, as are also the branchial tufts, when they are very numerous. The body may be divided into two or three regions, the seg- ments of each differing in their shape and in the kinds of appendages. They are not carnivorous, and are said to feed upon vegetable matter. The long tentacles are of use in building the tubes. The development of these worms may be in some instances retrogressive ; organs degrad- ing and degenerating for want of use. In one group (Spirorbis) the eggs and larvae are earned about by the mother in a pouch, and when they are able to construct a tube for themselves they escape. The larvae are mostly free and ciliated, and they gradually lose the cilia, and assume the form of worms, and have feet and tentacles. Some roam about in this state, protected by their membranes, and finally grow eyes and auditory sacs, and begin to reproduce. The Tubicolae are divided into numerous families, and a great number of genera, The in- dividuals are excessively numerous, and live at all depths on the sea and ocean-floor. Amongst the most interesting of the families is that* which contains the common Lug Or Lob or Fishing Worms, f * Telethusida:. f Artnimla oiscat-n-um. 268 LUG \VOKM. A, .inHTior extremity of body, showing irimk; n, one of the body-fines, tbowing bramhiiL-. 234 NATURAL HISTORY. TRANSVERSE SECTION' OF LUG \VOUM. (After Gegenbaur.) In general form they are long, cylindrical, somewhat inflated anteriorly, and a certain number of the segments are provided with beautiful arbuscular branchiae. In some of the species these branchise are finely tinted, and the worm itself is often of a carmine colour, or of a deeper red, though sometimes it is brownish, and at others of a blackish-green, according, in a great degree, to the nature of the ground in which they are found. The Lug Worm is a common species, and is well known to the fishermen. As Mr. Gosse says, " it is rather an uncouth-looking creature ; " and the specimens he found were, in colour, like "what a tailor would call an invisible green." The body is composed of a considerable number of segments, and thirteen of them are furnished with branchial tufts. These branchiae are arborescent in form, of a red or purple colour, and are said by Gosse, from an examination of the animal in life, to be protrusile, and to consist of a great number of short, incurved filaments, which have the power of independent motion, " moving with a sort of grasping action." The first six segments are provided with setae only, and have no branchiae. The bristles are described by Gosse as pointing upwards and a little outwards, as very fine, and gradually tapering to a point, where they are clothed with the most delicate barbules. The Lug Worm attains the length sometimes of ten inches, and is found on various parts of the coast., in rather shallow water, preferring a station near low-water mark, and burrowing there in the sand, or — what perhaps they rather choose — in a somewhat muddy bottom. Their D, dorsal side ; v. ventral side: n, ganglionic chnin ; i, intes- locality is easily detected, from the Spiral rolls of SRlldv tiual caual ; br, branchiie ; »•, vascular abdominal trunk; a, b. branchial vessels; d, dorsal trunk: h, branch stir- (i-vr>vp>mf»nt r>nilprl lilrp rnnp« «iVir»vp flip nr»pvtiiT*p nf t,lip Imvrnw. rounding the digestive tube ; •alr of Intestinal pbaryngeal ganglion; *-*° tllc Kb-^iSPJ"|8S«Lsj'ff; water, lurking under stones and beneath the bark of decaying trees, lion of other worms; ganglia &'• the succeeding and it feeds on the vegetable matter surrounding it, as well as on fish. Some were fed by Sir J. G. Dalyell on a vermilion-coloured larva of a dipterous fly. " When the prey was introduced to vessels containing the Leeches, they raised themselves on the sucker as if surveying around ; then some one, bolder than the rest, advanced, and endeavoured to affix itself to the victim, which, being effected, the position was pertinaciously maintained in spite of its writhings and struggles." The Skate-sucker* belongs to the genus Pontobdella, which has a leathery knobbed skin, and is about four inches long. It has no jaws, but it sticks fast and sucks out the juices of the fish in a most cruel and pertinacious manner. Its eggs are contained in capsules, and there is one young one to each capsule, which is attached to some substance or other in the sea, Piscicola geometra, the Great-tailed Leech, is found on perch and carp and fresh-water fishes, and it has large Buckets, in comparison with its size. The genus Hsementaria is used medicinally in Brazil ; it has a two-lobed sucker. The genus Hirudo, comprising the true Leeches, belongs to the sixth family, and its description has been given already. Associated with it in the same family are several genera, of which the following are remarkable. The term Horse Leech is used rather widely, aud two genera have species so named. Hceiitopsis sanguisuga is called Horse Leech by the French, and it lives in lakes and ponds, being four inches long and half an inch broad. The long body widens backwards, and the large mouth has a protruding upper part. It has ten eyes, and is green and black on the back and yellowish-green on * Pontobdella muricata. THE CLASS GEPHYREA. 243 the belly. The teeth are not well developed. It appears to be terrestrial in its habits sometimes. They are common in Egypt, and the soldiers of Napoleon suffered much from them in his campaign. They also attacked the horses and cattle. These must not be taken for true Leeches, some species of which, especially in the tropics and even to the north, lead a life amongst damp vegetation, and attack Europeans with great ardour. Such are the Leeches of the Himalayas, Ceylon, the Philip- pines, Arc. Another so-called Horse Leech belongs to the genus Aulostomum, but it does not appear to suck blood or to worry horses. The glutton Aulostome, writes Dalyell, " is an active, bold, and clever animal, frequently crawling out of the water, and apparently always ready to quit the vessel. None of the tribe surpasses it in voracity. Few animal substances are rejected. All kinds of fish, dead or alive, seem acceptable. Penetrating the cavity of the larger fresh-water shells, this Horse Leech takes up a permanent dwelling there, until emptying them of their contents, should it be able." The same author notices that these Leeches are cannibals, and that they will swallow even dead Leeches of different kinds. It feeds on Earth Worms, Grubs, and Snails. It has a long intestine with only two cseca. The genus Bdella has an oval sucker and four pairs of eyes, and is African, and the species of Nephelis have thin bodies and no jaws. One of these is the Eight-eyed Leech of ponds and lakes, and is a very active animal. It moves with an undulating movement, does not quit the water, and often fixes itself by the terminal sucker, and waves the body to and fro. They are carnivorous, and yet do not prey like the carnivorous Leech. They attack almost every small animal that comes in their way, and swallow it, more or less whole, by placing the sucker over it and then dilating their gullet. Small Mollusca, Earth Worms, Planarise, and even their fellows, are readily devoured. They are small, being from one and a half to two inches long and two or three lines broad. They are usually brown in colour, and may be speckled with yellow dots. They deposit their eggs in capsules, each of which contains from six to twenty ova, embedded in a gelatinous mass. CHAPTER II. THE GEPHYKEA, THE WHEEL ANIMALCULES, THE ROUND AND THREAD WORMS, THE FLAT WORMS. GEPHYKEA— Bolster-shaped Worms— Characters- ROTIFERA, THE WHEEL ANIMALCULES— Structure— Classifica- tion— The Philodinidae— The Brachionidse— Other Families— THE NEMATHELMINTHA, ROUND AND THREAD WORMS —Characters— The Thorn-headed Worm— THE THREAD WORMS— The Genus Trichina— The Trichina spiralis — Description — Reproduction — Their Effects — The Whip Worm — The Genus Filaria — The Guinea Worm — The Ascaris— The Lung Worm— The Genus Mermis— THE FLAT WORMS— The Tape Worms— Characters— Repro- duction— The Beef Worm— THE TREMATODA— THE TURBELLARIA— Classification of Vermes. CLASS GEPHYPtEA. THERE are many kinds of Marine Worms which resemble at first sight the Holothuria, or Sea Cucum- bers, belonging to the Echinoderrnata (see Fig. 17, p. 272). Their bodies are usually long, cylindrical, without u feet," and there is no distinct separation into segments. A little trouble distinguishes the group, for the Gephyrea have neither calcareous bodies in their, skin nor ambulacral regions on the body. These bolster- shaped Marine Worms live at great depths, with their bodies in the sand or mud or under stones. Some exist in the shells of Mollusca, and others in the interstices between corals. Footless, without a series of lateral bristles and suckers, these worms have their locomotion singularly defective ; but a great many species have a proboscis, which is more or less retractile, and which is terminated by the mouth, and it may be used as an organ of prehension, and, to a certain extent, of locomotion. It is said that some species * perforate limestone ; others certainly penetrate soft clays,f and one group, which has a crown of tentacles formed by numerous branchial filaments, resides in tubes. \ The species of Bonellia lead a more or less wandering life. When one of these Gephyrea is placed in water, after a while it elongates and appears to be soft, and the trunk or proboscis is put forth, * Genus Thalassema. f Genus Phoronis. J Species of Sipunculus. 241 NATURAL HISTORY. LARVA OF GEPHYREA (After Gegenbaur.) a, , repualip lobe, upper lip; b, lower but on touching the animal it contracts immediately, becomes narrow, cylindrical, shai-per at both ends, and hard. Both in the uncontracted and contracted condition, the body is swollen out here and there for a time and then contracted again. The Gephyrea have the sexes separate, and the young undergo metamorphoses. Most of them have a superior cerebral ganglion or a double one, an cesophageal nerve-collar, and a ventral gangliomc cord. This cord differs from that of the a class Annelida, for although it gives off nerves from its sides there are no separate ganglia at regular distances ; but it is covered with a layer of cells which environ a canal, and it is placed within a blood- vessel. There are eye-spots directly over the brain ganglia, in some genera, and the proboscis is a tactile organ. The skin is analogous to that of the worms generally, but the transverse furrows do not amount to segmentation ; numerous glandular follicles supplied by nerves are on the skin, and open out by pores in the epidermis. Bristles are rare, and there is chlorophyll in the skin of Bonellia. The muscular coats beneath are stout, and the outer is circular and the inner longitudinal, and the proboscis is retracted by bands of muscles from the body-wall. The proboscis is ciliated and also covered. *>vth bristles. In some the pharynx is armed with teeth, and there are salivary caeca opening into it. The intestinal canal is small in calibre, is within the peri visceral cavity, is long, and usually coiled. It is, as is the body cavity also, ciliated within. The vent may be dorsal, posterior, or even at the junction of the , replmlip lotic, upper lip; b, lower . 111 -JTTI i i • lip; jc, vibratiie crown; t, intestinal proboscis and body. W hen the vascular system exists, it consists ot two canal; m, muscular fibres. long vessels, one along the median ventral line and the other dorsal, running along the intestine. In the genus Sipunculus these vessels are joined by one around the front of the body, within, and vessels are given off from it to the tentacles. The blood may be colour- less, red, blue, or violet, and there may be a similar fluid in the perivisceral cavity containing amoeboid and flagellate corpuscules. The genus Priapulus has a branchial tuft at its hinder end, and Echirurus has branched structures, receiving vessels from the ventral vascular trunk opening into the intestines. The tentacles of some act as respiratory organs. Finally, there are traces of excretory or segmental organs, in the form of four ciliated pouches on the lower part of the body, and they vary in number and use, being sometimes in relation to the process of reproduction. The males are not so numerous as the females, and differ in shape. In one genus (Bonellia) the male is like a Planarian in shape, and lives in the female. The eggs hatch and the embryos are free-swimming and unlike the parent. Their mouth is in the front part, and is overlapped behind by a double-lobed upper lip, which is round and ciliated, and on the ventral side there is a small ciliated lower lip or several ciliated processes. These become tentacles in some genera. Behind these lobes and mouth there is a curvelet of cilia, and then follows a long bag-like body with an intestine and anus. All this embryo or larva is not changed into the adult, but only a part grows into the mature form. Many of the larvte resemble the Rotifera in their circles of cilia, which surround the mouth, anus, and body. The Gephyrea are divided into three orders. The Gephyrea inermia have no bristles, and the mouth is at the extremity of a more or less retractile proboscis. Priapulus is the typical genus of the first family of this order. They are not uncommon in the Northern seas. The genus Sipunculus is the most important genus of its family, the Sipunculida?, which have a retractile proboscis, tentacular arms, and a twisted intestine. Phascolosoma is another genus. The second order is that of the Gephyrea armata, which have bristles on the anterior part of the body, and posteriorly also. The genus Bonellia, already slightly noticed, belongs to it, and also the genus Echirurus, which has an undivided proboscis. One genus (Phoronis) forms the third order of the Gephyrea tubicola. Phoronis hippocrepia SIPUNCULVS KEHNHARDrS. THE WHEEL ANIMALCULES. 245 lives in a tube, and has a crown of tentacles on the dorsal surface, the mouth being in the midst of them, and the anus opening far in front on the dorsal aspect. The embryo has a two-ciliated body, and that behind the mouth is produced into several lobes, and fringes the free edge of a broad fold of the back, which arches over the mouth. This young form has been called Actinotrocha. As it grows, a part of the skin of the lower part grows inwards, like a pouch, and becomes connected with the middle of the intestine of the embryo. Then it grows out again and covers the intestine in the form of a loop with it, as a projection. This forms the foundation of the adult form, and the tentacles of the embryo or larvse grow into those of the adult. It is like the larva of an Echinoderm. CLASS ROTIFER A. —THE WHEEL ANIMALCULES. Leeuwenhoek found in the rain water of a leaden gutter . animals which were considered animalcules, about the size of a small grain of sand, and which produced currents in the water by means of slender organs or limbs. These they protruded at pleasure. They had bodies of the shape of a pear, with a short stalk, divided into two tails for fixing them on to objects. The microscope gradually increasing LARVA OF PHASCOLOROMA (A) AXD OF SIPUN- in its powers, observers were able to distinguish vibratile cilia CULUS (")• (Afler Ge^n^r-) i •• T , ., . -, ,i a, copbalic lobe, upper lip: 6, under lip; »', intestinal canal : upon a protruded disc-like structure, capping as it were the w, vumufie crown ; m, muscular fibres, minute animal, and the optical illusion of a rotatory wheel of hairs produced by the uninterrupted succession of the strokes given by the cilia of the disc, caused these beautiful and nearly transparent creatures to be called Wheel Animalcules, or Rotifera. The general surface of the body of the Rotifer is not ciliated throughout, and is made up of a layer of clear transparent chitinous tissue, which even becomes shell-like in some, and is ornamented. It is quite evident, under the microscope, that the body has cross markings and constrictions behind, amounting to imperfect segmentation. In front, or nearer the part out of which pass the discs with cilia — the trochal discs — the constriction is not usually seen, but transverse markings are often visible, so that the whole may be indefinitely marked with six seg ments. This outside coating may have spines or rigid bristles or hairs on it, and when there is a shell or carapace, this is secreted by the skin or by a special organ. The Rotifera have a digestive apparatus, and the mouth is a funnel-shaped cavity situated in the middle or on one side of the trochal disc ; its walls are ciliated, and at the bottom of it is a muscular pharynx, or mastax provided with a peculiar armature or moving jaws. There are four pieces in the mastax, two side ones, the smaller, and two central, forming the incus. Muscles are attached to the movable mallei, and work them forwards and backwards, so that their ragged free ends work the food on the incus. A short oesophagus, also ciliated, leads to a digestive cavity lined with cells and dilated in front, giving off a large cfecum on either side. Behind, the digestive cavity narrows, becomes intestinal, and may open externally by a passage or vent. In some Rotifers the digestive cavity has no ROTIFER second opening, and is a sac without an intestine, and in the males of some forms there VULGARIS. is no digestive track whatever, a solid cord of tissue existing there. The position of the mouth, close to the trochal disc, enables the cilia of this interesting structure to provide it with food by their lashing and current-making. The cilia of the digestive tract assist, and the morsel is crushed and smashed up, before entering the stomach, by the mastax. A spacious cavity exists between the digestive organs and the inside of the skin and sides of the body of the Rotifer, and this is of course a perivisceral cavity. The outer opening or vent (cloaca) of the intestinal canal has a large thin-walled vesicle opening into it, which contracts and dilates regularly. This contractile vesicle has two delicate water-vessels, like narrow convoluted tubes which pass forwards giving off branches, and finally form a maze of tubes in the trochal disc. The branches are open at their ends, and as they are outside the digestive organs and inside the walls of the body 246 NATURAL HISTORY. they must bring water from without into the perivisceral cavity, and in the main trunks cilia are seen moving with a flickering motion. A large single nervous ganglion is placed on one side of the body near the trochal disc, and one or more eye-spots are placed upon it. Some Rotifers have a little sac tilled with calcareous matter close to the ganglion, and it is probably a rudimentary organ of hearing. Moreover, a spur-like ibrceps armed with setye is often, found projecting near the ganglion, and it may be a nervous organ. The sexes are separate, and the ovarium and testis are simple glands which open into the cloaca already mentioned. The eggs are laid and left, or in some they are attached to and carried about by the female. In some Rotifera the eggs are of two kinds, and are termed summer and winter eggs, the last being enclosed in a shell. In the sides of the body, beneath the skin and surrounding the perivisceral cavity, are muscular fibres in bands; some pass longitudinally and others encircle the body, many being of striped fibre. The jointed tail end is very telescopic in its movements in some Rotifera, and the terminating pincers hold on to objects by their muscles. But in some Rotifera the later stage of life is not passed as a freely- moving creature. Some form tubes to live in, and then their body ends in an adhesive disc. However, the young of these, especially of the genus Lacinularia, enjoy a free-swimming life, and have a circle of cilia around the large or mouth end of the body, and another circle around the tail end. This immature Rotifer is analogous to the larvse of some of the worms already noticed, and as the adults have perivisceral cavities, a pharyngeal armature and water systems, and are more or less segmented, the necessity of classifying the Rotifera with the Vermes is evident. The trochal disc can be retracted and everted in some Rotifers, and as soon as it is well out the cilia begin to move, lashing forcibly in one direction, and producing by their general action whirlpools and currents in the water. They have to do with the providing of food, with removing impure and giving pure water to the water system, and also largely with locomotion, for when the foot is loosened, off starts the Rotifer, head first, and it guides itself here and there with the hinder part of its body. The trochal disc varies greatly in its construction, and forms a means of classification. Its margin may be continuous or divided, there may be lobes to it resembling more than one disc, and it may be provided with long tentacular processes. Finally, it may be used as a creeping organ, the Rotifer moving with its head and tail, over substances, like a Leech. The Rotifera are found very universally in fresh, salt, and pure water, in pools, ponds, streams, and gutters. They even manage to exist in moist earth, and some make homes of the open cells of mosses and algae ; some are parasitic within other animals. They are tenacious of life, and will revive on the application of moisture after they have dried up to a certain extent, but perfect desiccation is fatal. Their shape differs considerably in the different genera into which the class may be divided ; some are sac-shaped, others are vermiform; one group lead a social life, being attached by their long tail ends to the number of forty or more. A fusiform shape is common, or that of an elongated cone. The manner in which the trochal disc is retracted within the body and again put forth is as remarkable as the similar process seen in some of the fixed Rotifers, whose delicate crown of long tentacles is unfolded and protruded with great grace and perfectness. The activity of these interesting microscopic animals is great under the stimulation of the sun and pure water containing minute animalculse and vegetable organisms. They move and feed freely under such circumstances, directing themselves here and there, choosing the best spots for feeding, and fix themselves so as to work their disc cilia to advantage, or unfixing their forked tail, they move off by the same agency. The classification of the Rotifera is not in a satisfactory sbate, and whilst Ehrenberg arranged them according to the peculiarities of their trochal discs, Dujardin classified them by their methods of locomotion. There are some very curious forms which have not all the characters of the Rotifera, and yet which have so many that they are allied to them, and this increases the difficulty. Thus in the parasitic genus Albertia, which lives in the intestines of Slugs and Earth Worms, and is -g^th to 7yth of an inch long, the body is cylindrical, vermiform, rounded in front, with an oblique orifice, around which there is a ciliated lip. There is a short conical tail, and the mastax is rudimentary, there being only one or two forceps-shaped pieces which seize the food. A Rotifer of the genus Lindia* also has a vermiform body, rounded in front ; but it has no * Lindia '.orulosa. ROTIFERS. 247 rotary organ, cilia, or eye, and it has a tail-like foot with two conical and short segments at the end. The mastax differs from that of the ordinary kinds, and is very complicated. The animal is about 5?Tth of an inch in length. Another and smaller species (Taphroeampa annulosa) has a fusiform annulose body with a forked tail, and there is no rotary organ. Moreover, the genus Balatro, which lives upon the surface of Oligochete Worms, has neither rotary organs nor eyes, and the tail is bilobed. Several genera, such as Cheetonotus, Ichthydium, and Dasydites, have no mastax, nor eyes, nor trochal discs ; but the Ixxly is furnished with bristle-like hairs, downy hairs, and cilia on the ventral surface ; usually there are two tail-like processes. They are minute, and are from -^jtli to yiyth of an inch in length, and would appear not to be Infusoria, but really Rotifera, allying the class to the Tvu-bellarian Worms. The first family of the Rotifera is that of the Philodinidse, and they are free-swimming forms, which can also creep like Leeches, the ends of the body being alternately fixed and loosened. They have two wheel-like rotary organs, and the body is somewhat spindle- shaped, and very contractile, so that it can be formed into a globose shape, and the powers of extension are considerable. The tail end or foot is jointed like the slides of a telescope. The genus Rotifer belongs to this family, and the common Wheel Animalcule is Rotifer vulyaris. It has a white fusiform body -o^th to ^jth of an inch long, gradually narrowed to the foot which has two horn-like toes. The anterior part of the body has a proboscis ciliated at the end, and the two eyes are placed there. The wheels are two in number, are round, and placed at the sides of the front part of the body. MONOLA- Rotifer citrinus has a yellow body, and Rotifer tardus has tlie body deeply constricted C1LIS into segments. The genus Philodina has the two eyes on the region below the extreme end, and in general appearance the species greatly resemble Rotifer. Some are rose red in colour, and the ova when deposited are red. The ova are deposited in little heaps, and the parent remains in their neighbour- hood, and even looks after the young. A common species* has two frontal red eyes, and at the tail end there are two horny processes and three terminal points or toes. They are large, being from Tyth to -^th of an inch long, and are common. In the genus Monolabis there are no horn-like processes. The other Philodiniclse have no eyes, and in the genus Callidina the horn-like processes on the foot are present, there being six, and there is a proboscis. This proboscis, like that of most other Rotifers, appears to be an entry and exit for water, and it certainly is used in locomotion. One of the genus is parasitic on Crus- tacea, such as Gammarus and Asellus. One of the Rotifers found in Egypt has neither eyes, nor proboscis, nor horn-like processes on the foot, and the rotary organs are placed at the ends of processes on the front of the body. Another Egyptian form (Typhlina viridis) is simpler than the last mentioned, and has no processes for its rotary discs. Probably both of these Rotifers are young Philodinge. The second family, the Brachionidee, have a broad body more or less enclosed in a shell, or lorica. The foot is composed of short segments, and the rotary organ may be double or of three median and two lateral parts, these last only being rotary organs, the cilia of the others remaining extended without motion during the action of the other. The lorica, or shell, is thick in this family, so much so as to prevent the internal organs being readily seen. The genus Brachionus has an eye on the neck, and the foot is forked. The mastax is very visible, and the crushing pieces are terminated by finger-looking ends made up of the same kind of hard skin or chitine that forms the lorica. which has projections on it fore and aft on either side. The species are numerous, and the individuals also, and they are about -^th to TVth of an inch in length. One of the genera of the family differs from the last in having no forked toot, and the lorica is striated or has facets on it. Some of these ^nursea, however, have plain shells, but in most there are fixed or movable spines on its edges. Some of the family have two eyes, and one * Actinurns neptinmis. BRACHIONUS AM- PHICEROS. 248 NATURAL HISTORY. JAWS OF BRACHIONUS BKEVISSIMUS. (After Ehrenberg.) genus (Pompholyx) thus gifted has no foot, whilst the genus Pterodina has a disc on its foot, and is a very globose-looking form, and it carries its eggs for a time. In the last genus to be noticed of this family (Noteus) there are no eyes, and the foot is forked, and the body has spines in front and behind, being usually large, or from Tyth to y\yth of an inch. Amongst the Rotifera, with the trochal discs or rotary organs divided, are some in which the division is greater than in the two families just noticed. In the family Hyclatina and that of Euchlanidotse the wheels are many-parted, and the first have no lorica, whilst in the latter the shell is very well developed, and has curious appendages, such as setae in the genera Euchlanis and Stephanops, hooks in Colurus, horns in Salpinus. There are spears or respiratory tubes in Euchlanis, and a helmet in Stephanops. In the genus Monostyla the foot is a sharp style, and in Mastigocerca the foot is as long as the body, or yV of an inch, and the lorica is prismatic. The genus Squamella has four eyes. The species of this genus carry their eggs attached to the outside of the body. In many of the family the muscular fibres by which the shape of the body is changed are very visible. The nutritive organs are very obvious, and the intestine is simple and conical, with or without the part which represents a stomach. The water system, with its tremulous napping of minute cilia within the tubes, is visible, and in most the nervous system is to be seen. There are no crushers or inastax in the genus Enteroplea ; it has no eyes, and it is thus a very simple Rotifer, and segmentation in any degree barely exists, the small foot being forked. In Hydatina, another genus, there are no eyes, two jaws, and they are divided to show numerous teeth. Hydatina senta was the Rotifer which Ehrenberg especially studied, and it is common and very transparent. Its species are not very small, or 2"£mth of an inch long. Of the family Hydatinea, in which there is not an investing lorica, and the rotary organ is multiple, there are no less than eighteen genera, and they are characterised by the absence or number of eyes, the position of these organs, the nature of the foot and appendages to the body. There are several distinct rows or circles of cilia, which are distinctly separated from each other, forming the multiple wheel or rotary organs. Except in the genus Polyarthra, which has no foot, all the other genera have a long pincer-like process resembling a tail, and this genus is characterised by a single eye on the neck, and by the presence of six cirri or fin-like processes on each side of the body. The species of the genus Notommata are sometimes parasitic, and undergo some degradation of form, and Notommata tardigrada has the rotary organ greatly diminished. Two species live within the beautiful microscopic alga, called Volvox globator, and another in the vesicles of a Vaucheria. The well-formed species have a single eye and a forked tail. Notommata lonyiseta has two setae in the position of the tail, and several times longer than the body. The Triarthrae have two eyes, and Triarthra longiseta has a tail, or foot, three times as long as the body, and very long cirri also. It moves in a jerking manner, and is ^-jy^th of an inch in length. It carries its ova attached to its sides, and may exist in such multitudes as to colour the water a milky white. Gosse has described Asplanchna brightwelli and A. °,riodonta. The females have jaws with a single tooth and a single eye-spot, and they are without feet and the end of the intestine. The males have neither jaws, pharnyx, nor stomach. The family Floscularidse contains some very beautiful forms of Rotifers, but they are very aberrant from the group as a whole. The body is elongate, and the tail or foot is long, more or less imperfectly segmented and fixed. They are for the most part protected by a tube made up of a gelatinous excretion of the body, and extraneous substances or pellets of their excrement. The rotary organ is much modified, and is partly encased in some and is lobed in others, whilst in POLYAKTHRA FLATYPTEK. ROTIFERS. 249 FLOSCULARIA TRIFOLIUM. aiiany it consists of a host of delicate filaments placed on a disc, which has, however, a circle of cilia on its under edge ; or some fine tentacles may arise in a ring and be ciliated. Under all these conditions the cilia and appendages can be withdrawn into the body by the longitudinal muscular fibres, and also gradually everted. Moreovei', the animal itself withdraws down its tube if disturbed, and comes forth again to a certain extent. There are usually, but not invariably, a stomach and mastax, and in nearly all there are eyes. In one set of genera the rotary organ is flexuous and extended, and has only one deep cut in. it ; and in the genus Megalotrocha the alimentary canal is singularly developed, and there are two eyes. In another group the rotary organ is entire, the genus Ptygura being the type. The genus Floscularia has the lobes of the rotary disc three to six in number, has a tentacle-like proboscis at the side, and the cilia on the rotary organ are of two kinds, some very long .and excessively slender and comparatively motionless, and others very small and not readily seen at the base of the long ones on the inner side of the lobes. The number of lobes varies, and five or six are commonest ; they are thickened at the free margin. All the species make tubes of a delicate gelatinous secretion, and live on the surface of the leaves and twigs of Avater-plants. Melicerta ringens is a beautiful species of its .genus, and is frequently found on water-plants, especially on Potamogeton crispus. The rotary organs are four-lobed, and the bodies are each in a tubular cavity. The young are very interesting on account of their having a circular pre-oral disc, and two eye-spots, besides a .second circle of cilia behind the mouth. Their shape, and this distribution of rings of cilia, cause them to resemble the larvse of Annelida, and ally the class Rotifera very definitely with the Vermes. The genus Lacinularia has a bilobed rotary organ deeply incised ventrally, and there is a double crown of •cilia. The individuals of a well-known species (Lacinularia socialis) unite, and remain fixed in the midst of a gelatinous environment. Limnias ceratophylli, a form resembling the last somewhat, has only two lobes to its rotary organ, l)ut its shell gets dark with age, from its collecting foreign bodies on it. It is a very typical form. The genus Stephanoceros has five tentacles, instead of lobes of the rotary organ, and they are ciliated. It uses them to clasp its prey, and the body is attached by the base to a transparent carapace. The length of Stephanoceros eichhornii is -^th of an inch. The genus (Ecistes probably comes into this family, and one species which has been studied by Mr. Hudson makes pellets of its faeces, and piles them up gradually as a wall to its gelatinous tube. In considering the classificatory position of the Rotifera, the segmented condition of the body, the presence of a water system and perivisceral cavity must be remembered. The nature of the mastax and the rudimentary organs of special sense, the method of locomotion of some, and the tube-making of others should not be forgotten. And when these very characteristic peculiarities of the Vermes are con- sidered, with the fact of the resemblance of some immature free-swimming Rotifers to the ciliated larvae of some Vermes, the propriety of placing the class in that great group must be admitted. The Rotifera are not Infusoria, for their ova undergo a development not noticed in that group. Some minute worm-like animals, with a rounded head and ten or eleven segments, the last of Avhich is forked, which belong to the genus Echinoderes (Dujardin\ seem to link some of the Rotifera to the lower Crustacea. They are marine, have no limbs, but the body segments have paired setse, and the head has recurved hooks. The nervous system is a single ganglion, and has eye-spots on it. Moreover, ^ Rotifer of the genus Pedalion (Hudson) has jointed setose appendages. CLASS NEMATHELMINTHA— THE ROUND AND THREAD WORMS. A host of worms, mostly parasitic within man and the lower animals, and a few leading a free life, belong to this class. All have cylindrical unjointed bodies, which are, however, marked with rings, 270 250 NATURAL HISTORY. or they are filiform, and nai-rowed at each end, and furnished with papillae, or stylets, on the anterior extremity. The sexes are separate. The class is divided into two orders, the Acanthocephala and the Kematoidea, and in both there are no rudimentary organs of locomotion, such as false feet, and it is only in rare instances that setae capable of moving are found. Usually the skin is thick and the muscular system within it is highly developed, so that these worms wriggle, twist, and move in a serpentine manner with great vivacity and persistence. Within the muscular layer is the visceral cavity which contains the blood and the digestive and reproductive organs. There are no special organs of circula- tion and respiration, but there is a nervous system, and there is a tactile power in the front of the body, especially when there are papillae developed there. Simple eye-spots and eyes have only been noticed in the non-parasitic kinds. Great diversity exists in the shape of the digestive oi-gans, and in one order they are absolutely deficient. The excretory organs exist, and are various in their shape and distribution. In almost every instance the sexes are in different individuals, and the egg may produce a worm like the parent, or a form which has to undergo metamorphosis of very strange kinds, one part of the transformation taking place inside one animal, and the other in a second and different kind of unwilling animal host. The parasitism of most is constant, but in some a host is frequented at one time only, of the life of the parasite. The parasitism is of a nature deserving the name, and the worms live in their unwilling host, and exist by absorbing its juices. The Acanthocephala, or Thorn-headed Worms, have a genus whose name is explanatory of the principal peculiarity of the order.* They have a projecting trunk or proboscis which is armed with hooks ; the body is ovoid and oblong or cylindrical, and has neither mouth nor digestive organs. The trunk is used to fix the worm, or to enable it to penetrate the coats. of the intestine of its host. The nervous system is com- posed of a ganglion with large cells, which give forth a nerve to the proboscis and another to the body ; but there are no sense nerves. The species of Echinorhynchus. are frequently parasitic within Invertebrata in their first stage of metamorphosis, and within Vertebrata in their second, and become perfect there. Thus eggs containing embryos are excluded, and these escape in the form of little elongate bodies armed in front with temporary hooks. They live in the water free, and are swallowed by, or penetrate from without, through the tissues into the digestive organs of small Amphipod Crustacea. After a while they cling to the tissues of the stomach and intestine of the Crustacea, and penetrate them, enlarged) -, c, EGGS OF DO. (enlarged). [After Busk.] hooks and undergo a metamorphosis, becoming round or elongate things which might be called nymphs. If the Crustacean should happen to be swallowed by a bird or fish, the Echinorhynchus is not killed, but it escapes from the prey and fixes on to the mucous membrane of the digestive organs of the swallower,. and then attains its perfect form, living by taking in, through its skin, the nourishing juices of the food of its host. This process of development may be considered one of alternation of generation. Examples are very common. Thus one kind of Echinorhynchus affects the Water Flea (Gammarus pulex), and this is swallowed by the fresh- water fish, and another kind gets into the food of water- fowl, and becomes parasitic within it. ORDER NEMATOIDEA.f The Thread Worm group are round worms, with a long, fusiform, or filiform body. They are mostly pai-asitic, and usually have a mouth, a swollen gullet, and a straight digestive canal. The cylindrical body, generally very long for the width, has papillae on the front of the body around the mouth, and sometimes sharp pricks and hooks, or a style in the interior of the buccal cavity. There is often a very muscular, dilated pharynx, and there may be a granular substance in the spaces left * Echinorhynchus. t Greek, ncma, a thread. THE TR1CH.INJE. 251 by the muscular fibres or glands. The chitinous tube of the pharynx may have longitudinal projections called teeth, but the office of the gullet is that of a sucker or tube. In some ISTematoidea the intestinal canal, in part or wholly, undergoes retrogressive development during the parasitism. The skin, more or less tough, and often striated across, is formed of several layers partly composed of fibres, and rests on a soft, finely granular tissue with nuclei. Beneath this is a musculo- cutaneous envelope with flat and fusiform muscular fibres. The surface of the skin may be INTESTINAL CANAL OF A NEMATOID. (After Gegenbaw.) covered with ridges, tubercles, spines, or hair, and moulting takes place in the young. Some Nematoidea have eye-spots, at the end of the body, with or without refracting bodies in them. Most have the sexes sepai-ate, and usually the males are smaller than the females. Of late years much attention has been paid to a very remarkable ISTematoid parasite which has been called Trichina spiralis by Owen. Gritty particles were found in human muscles, by the late Mr. Hilton, F.R.S., of Guy's Hospital, who recognised them as the results of parasites. Sir James Paget, when a student, first determined the existence of the minute worms which produce the gritty parts; and Robert Brown, the botanist, assisted, by lending his microscope to the now distinguished surgeon. In the year following, Professor Owen described the worm scientifically, from .specimens sent him by Mr. Wormald, Paget's colleague. Leuckart discovered the history of the parasite, tracing it to its source and method of propagation ; and Zenker explained the symptoms of infected men, and detected the young in the act of migration. The worm was named from its very commonly being seen in a capsule, rolled up in a spiral shape. When mature and able to reproduce its kind, and therefore fully developed, Trichina spiralis is minute, and the male is about TVth, and the female ^th of an inch in length. The body is rounded and filiform, usually slightly bent upon itself, and is i-ather thicker behind than in front. The head is narrow, finely pointed, unarmed, and has a simple central, minute, oral opening. The tail of the male has a bilobed end sur- rounding the vent. The female is stouter than the male, bluntly rounded posteriorly, and the reproductive outlet is placed far forwards. The eggs measure TirW^1 °f an inch from end to end. As observed in the mxiscles of the human body, the Trichinae are young, not mature, and are spirally coiled worms in the interior of small oval cysts, which are scai'cely visible to the naked eye. They measure y^th of an inch in length, and y-j^th of an inch in breadth, and often are gritty from the presence of salts of lime. Sometimes they are not thus encysted, and they measure -^th °f an inch in length, and -g^th of an inch in breadth. The history of the life cycle of the worm is as follows : — The mature and reprodvictive Trichina inhabits the intestinal canal of Mammalia, including man, and its life lasts from four to five weeks, and they attain their full development and ability to reproduce on the second day of their introduction to their locality. The eggs of the female are hatched, as it were, within her uterus, and produce minute hair-shaped embryos there, and there may be from ten to fifteen thousand of them. The embryos are expelled from the body of the mother whilst in the intestines of the victims, and they soon drill their way through the mucous and muscular tissues of the parts, and then, traversing even serous membranes, get into the muscles. There they assume the form known as Trichina spiralis. The importance of the discovery of this series of -changes is great, for it is clear that if the Trichinae can be kept out of the digestive organs of an TRICHINA Sl'IKALIS. u, worm; o, brad ; A, worm coiled up In capsule or cysi In 252 NATURAL BISTORT. animal, it cannot suffer from the painf ul and dangerous disease which is set up by the young worms, as they grow to a certain life-stage, in the muscles. And, moreover, the only manner in which the Trichinae can get into the digestive system is by their being swallowed alive, with pieces of improperly cooked muscle in which they are encysted. Men are infected by eating badly-cooked pork, the pig happening to suffer from the presence of the worm in its muscles. Leuckart stated that, as a rule, " swine obtain their Trichinae from rats, to which latter we also, as natural bearers, have to convey them." Cobbold has shown the stupendous number of Trichinae an animal may have within its- muscles at one time, and he proved that 80,000 were in an ounce of pig's flesh belonging to an animal part of which had been unfortunately eaten, and had produced an epidemic. The " Whip Worm "* has a long filiform neck two-thirds of the length of the whole body, and the surface of the skin has, on one side, a longitudinal band of minute wart-like papilla?. The Whip Worms infest the caecum and the upper part of the great intestine or colon, and many thousands have been found in the human subject. Cobbold describes the wonderful story of the life of one of the species t of the genus Filaria, and notices that the body of it is like a hair, uniform in thickness, and that the head has a simple circular mouth without papilla?. The neck is narrow and about one-third of the width of the body, and the tail of the female is single, bluntly pointed. They are three inches and a half long and g*oth of an inch broad. The eggs are about yoVoth of an inch in length, and the embryos derived from them are ^^th to ^i^th of an inch in length. The embryos were first discovered in human, urine, and Cobbold got eggs and embryos from a man from Natal whilst searching for the parasite called Bilharzia. In 1872 Dr. Lewis found these microscopic worms in the human blood, described them, and gave the species the name of Filaria sanguinis homini. In 1876 Dr. Bancroft found the eggs in the blood, and discovered, subsequently, the mature form already noticed, and observed that immense numbers of minute living ones are passed from its body. Dr. Manson, in 1878, found the immature or embryonic Filaria in the stomach of Mosquitoes which had sucked the blood of man, and probably also that of birds. The female Mosquitoes, after gorging themselves with blood, repair to stagnant water to deposit their eggs, and during the four or five days thus occupied the Filarise within undergo remarkable changes. Subsequently they become more fully developed, and escape from the Mosquitoes into the water, and may be drunk by man. The largest known Nematoid Worm is called Emtrongylus gigas, the male measuring a foot and the female more than three feet in length. The breadth of this huge worm is half an inch at the thickest part. This worm is known to occur in a great variety of animals. The Guinea WormJ is a Nematoid measuring from one to six feet in length, and having the thickness of one-tenth of an inch. The body is cylindrical, and has a pointed tail and a convex head,, with a central mouth surrounded with papilla?. The body of the female encloses a prodigious number of hatched embryos when she is mature, and they may have the opportunity of escaping from their human host from the sores produced by the adult. The embryos escape into water and become parasitic in the small Crustacea of the genus Cyclops, and undergo a change of skin and subsequent growth. This condition of larval development lasts about five weeks, and when the larvae become perfect they may be accidentally drunk with the Cyclops by men and animals. The Thread Worm,§ which is so frequently a parasite of children, also affects old people. The male worm, according to Cobbold, measures one-sixth of an inch, and the female from one-third to one- F1LARIA BANCROFTII. (After Colibold.) A, female (nat. sizei ; B, head and neck ; c. tail : D, free embryo ; K, egg with embryo ; r, egg with mulberry cleavage of yolk. Trichocephalus dispar. J Dracunculus medinensis. (Cobbold.) + Filaria bancroftii. § Oxyuris vermicularis. THE LUNG WORM. 253- THKEAD "WORM, a, mouth. The eggs half of an inch in length, and the latter has a long hair-like tail with a three-pointed end, the tail of the male being blunt. The body is fusiform, and the front end is narrowed at the truncated head, which is sometimes rendered very conspicuous by a bulging of the transparent membrane which surrounds the mouth. This has three papillae around it, and leads to a triangular oesophagus. There is no doubt that the worm is introduced in the form of an egg. The worms live in the csecum, which is their proper position. They stray to the lower bowel and produce irritation there. Several species of Ascaris are parasitic within children and adults, and affect monkeys, horses, dogs, pigs, bears, oxen, mice, birds, and marsupials. The species infecting man and the pig are sometimes identical, and this is the case in the example which must be taken as the type. The large round worm, which measures from four to six inches in length in the male, and from ten to fourteen, in the female, is at first sight not unlike a pale Earth Worm. They are narrowed at each end, and the body is elastic and marked by numerous fine cross striations. This Ascaris lumbricoides is usually found solitary or in small numbers in the upper and middle part of the small intestine ; from 100 to a 1,000 have been found. They wander into the stomach and are cast forth, or they may get up into the nostrils and escape. They may make their way through the coils of the intestine into the cavity of the body, producing inflammation and abscess. The Lung Worm* is often fatal to calves, and a closely allied species attacks lambs, and embryos of the Lung Worm are found within the common Earth Worm, which swallows them mechanically, with its food of soil. Cobbold placed some of these embryos, or larvaB, as he calls them, which he got from an Earth Worm, on to the fronds of watered ferns, and he noticed them increase in size and organisation. Doubtless the parasites escape in due time from worms, and are devoured by their next hosts with their vegetable food. They do not go into the stomach, but pass into the bronchial tubes and set up much and often fatal irritation. A Strongylet affects the stomach, however, and they are found in the fourth stomach and duodenum of Australian sheep especially. The Palisade Worm of the horse is a Strongyle, J and is remarkable for the severe injuries it does its host in its passage through the tissues. According to Leuckart, they pass into the body of an intermediate bearer before entering the stomach of the horse. From the alimentary canal they pass through the tissues and enter the blood-vessels, causing aneurism, and thence they seek to regain the intes- tinal canal, where they arrive at sexual maturity. It is during their migratory efforts that they give rise to dangerous symptoms, not unfrequently causing the death of yearling foals. One of the Nematoids allied to the Strongyles§ has the male with a tail, surrounded by a ring or crown of fine, lancet-shaped flaps connected together by a delicate web. Probably these worms have something to do with hog cholera, a disease of the pork-producing- districts of the United States. The gapes of fowls and other birds are produced by worms in the- traohea or main air tubeil and the disease may be cured by careful operations. The so-called grouse disease depends on more than one worm parasite, one of which is a Strongyle.«- STROXGYLUS PERGRACILIS. (After Cobbold.) A, Lead and neck : B, c, n, E, tail of male : p. tail of female ; o, section to show termination of oviducts ; H, eggs. Stronyylus micrurus. § Stephanurus dentatus. t Stronfii/Jus contortus. Selerostoma syngamus. J Strongylus armatus. ^ Strongykis pcrgracilis- •254 NATURAL HISTORY. The genus Mermis has species which are parasitic within lusecta, arid at a certain time they make their way out, by perforating their hosts, and hide themselves in the soil. They there reproduce, and the embryos are born viviparously and pass some time in the ground. They wander in search of an insect host, the caterpillar of a Tinea, or Moth, for instance, which they penetrate by means of a sharp stylet, that is hidden within the head when not used. Mermis niyrescens emigrates en masse out of insects, during hot weather, and being found on the ground in great numbers, gives rise to the popular belief that " it rains worms." After this emigration, the embryos live in the pharynx of a Planaria, The Humble Bee (Bombus terrestrits), and others of the genus, are the unwilling hosts of a •curious worm, one-fifteenth of an inch thick and an inch long, white in colour, blunt at either extremity, .and covered with knobs, about 800 in number. This worm is the female of a species of Sphserularia, and the male is 28,000 times smaller than the female, and is permanently attached to her. Another family of these Nematoidea contains the genus Gordius, the embryos of which have a mouth, and are found within the bodies of carnivorous water insects. They penetrate outwai-ds and get into the water and become sexually mature. The embryos coming from their eggs penetrate the larvae of water insects, such as those of Tipulidse and Ephemeridse, where they become encysted. Then the carnivorous water larvse and beetles swallow the others, and of course take in the parasites which rupture their cysts and live free in the visceral cavities of their bearers. The Anguillulidae are mostly non-parasitic Nematoid Worms, and some of them are known as paste and vinegar eels. Others live in the mucous secretions of animals, and some are dwellers in mushrooms. One gives rise to a diseased condition of the wheat ear. The young are hatched from -eggs laid by the parent in the ear, and they become encysted. When the wheat dies down, the larvse are set free and wander on the moist earth until they meet with some young wheat plants, up which they creep and lodge themselves in the developing ears. Here they become sexually mature, :and nourish themselves at the expense of the inflorescence. ORDER CH^ETOGNATHA. Allied to the last-mentioned family of the Nematoidea are the species of the genus Sagitta, which .are associated in this order. They are long transparent worms with a special mouth armature and pectinate fin-like feet, placed horizontally at the sides of the body, and their rays united by a web. 'The head is distinct, and has two sets of hooks which simulate jaws on each side of the mouth. They swim freely in the sea, and live on small Crustacea. CLASS PLATHELMINTHA.— THE FLAT WORMS. These are the most lowly organised Vermes. Many are parasitic within animals, and some live in mud or in water, hiding under stones. They are divided into three orders, of which the first is that of the CESTOIDEA,* or Tape or Ribbon Worms. The Tape Worms, which are parasitic within many vertebrate animals, including man, live in the intestinal canals of their hosts, and are readily recognised by their long, flat, many-jointed bodies, narrow and small heads usually armed with hooks and suckers suited for clinging on, and gradually narrowing tail end. Some genera have species of enormous length, which consist of hundreds -of joints or metameres behind the head, and others have the head and a hinder part not jointed and of no great length. None have any digestive organs, the nutritious juices of the host passing into the worms through their delicate integuments ; and no special organs of sense exist. In the Tape Worms, both long and short, the head or scolex divides during growth behind more or less into a joint or metamere, which is called a proglottis, and in this last the reproductive organs ai*e developed, there being none in the head itself. As growth proceeds, the successive joints are given off from the back part of the head, so that a long chain of them is produced, the oldest metamei-e being that at the tip of the tail. All these metameres can produce ova. After a while, the time depending upon the maturity of the egg-producing appai^atus, some of the metameres break off and are set free from the rest of the worm, which still grows on as before. The growth of the metameres from the "back part of the head is thus a kind of budding, and as each metamere, when detached from the * Greek, kestos, a girdle. THE TAPE WORMS. 256 worm, continues to live until the ova are expelled, it is an intermediate state. The scolex or head is a kind of nurse ; it is asexual and buds metameres, which are reproductive. The eggs produced within each of the metameres are numerous and too large to escape, except by rupturing the tissues ; they may escape from the host, included in. the metamere when this becomes separated, and the escape may be with the evacuations of the animal, or the metamere may move out by its own activity. Under both circumstances the metamere has a power of independent movement, and creeps slowly from the dung on to all kinds of moist substances, such as stalks of grass, leaves, and vegetables. In this case they are eaten, with the vegetable matters, by vertebrates. Sometimes the metamere falls into water, where it bursts, and the eggs are cast forth and are drunk by animals. Arrived in the stomach of their new host, the metameres are more or less digested, and the eggs are diffused there, or some- times imperfect digestion may occur, and the brood may reach the small intestine. In some instances the eggs may be set free in the host by rupturing the metameres, and if they are then expelled there is a chance of their being eaten or drunken and getting into the stomach and intestine of a second host. The so-called eggs have tough shells, and the embryos within are totally unlike their parents. They are globular naked vesicles, the largest being 0'05 of a millimetre in length ; they have a cuticle, and either six, or four, microscopic booklets on their anterior ex- tremity, with which they will, if they have the opportunity, bore inwards into the tissues of their future host. These embryos are capable of motion, and under the influence of warmth and nourishing juices around them begin to migrate. Each brings the central pair of booklets together like a wedge, and thrusts and twists them into the mucous membrane of its host. The other hooks move backwards, and finally the parasite reaches a small vein belonging to the portal system. By the flow of blood it is carried into the liver and can go no farther. Or it may get into other blood-vessels and be carried into the general circulation, and be deposited at last in some organ, such as the brain or in the skin. The little vesicle with its hooks may grow in the blood-vessel, which may form a cyst around it, or the parasite may penetrate the vessel and get into the tissues of the body, and a cyst will enclose it there. Then a new growth occurs within the vesicles, and by a process somewhat similar to budding, one or numerous bodies resembling the heads (or scolex) of a Tape Worm are developed. These, if they escape by the death of the animal, or by its being eaten by others, will become Tape Worms in the devourer. Thus the mouse, eating dirty substances, gets an embryo into its body, and the cat eats mouse and embryo; and the new growths within the last escape as the mouse is digested, and produce Tape Worm in the cat. Or the part of the embryo which is covered with the hooks becomes developed into a larger body, and has suckers and hooks differently arranged. The embryo from the egg, which thus becomes encysted in the tissues of a vertebrate animal, is termed then a Cysticercus, and it forms one stage of a disease, producing " measles " in pork, for instance. The Cysticercus being swallowed by another vertebrate, the fore part of it, or the scolex, becomes the head or asexual part of a Tape Worm. Sometimes the cyst of the embryo grows to a considerable size, and then the scolices which bud from its inside are called Echinococci, and the cyst is a hyclatid. These Echinococci are, however, the product of a Tape Worm which infests the dog and wolf, and the eggs, by some means or other, are swallowed by men and animals and develop the truly dangerous hydatid disease of the liver and other organs. This Tape Worm belongs to the genus Tzenia and to the species T. echinococcus. Another species of Tsenia, or Tape Worm, which is the Beef Tape Worm,* has the head without any coronet of hooks. It varies from fifteen to twenty- three feet in length, and the metameres, some hundreds in number, have the sexual organs fully developed in the 450th. The Cysticercus of this worm forms measles in oxen, and the scolex of course has no hooks. The Beef Worm is found in man, and calculations have shown that it may * Tffnia mediacanellata. HEAD OF ECHINOCOCCUS. (After Hiucley.) •256 NATURAL HISfORY. grow at the rate of seventy-two millimetres a day, and that thirteen metameres may be produced in the same time. The common Pork Tape Worm,* common in the intestines of man, looks like a long, soft, white, jointed thing, which, when alive, elongates and contracts readily. The scolex, or head, is armed with .hooks and suckers, and the metameres present water channels, one on each side, and joined above and -below, besides egg glands and a uterus centrally placed and branching, and also the male elements. The embryo scolex forms the pork measle, and, being eaten by man, turns into the common Tape Worm of the intestines. A Cysticercus lives in. the mouse, and it produces Tcenia crassicolla in the cat. The cause of the death of many sheep is a hydatid in the brain, called Ccenurus cerebralis, and this, when eaten, by the dog, produces Tcenia ccenurus in its intestines. The genus Bothriocephalus contains foreign and Irish Tape Worms. Its segments or metameres do not separate individually so as to become independent organisms. It is a broad worm, at- taining twenty-five to seventy feet in length and aai inch in breadth, and there may be 4,000 joints. In the genus Tetrarhynchus four proboscis-like tentacles exist, thickly set with booklets, retracted near the suckers. The shorter Tape Worms (genus Caryophyllus) do not have the metameres separable, and the head, or scolex, produces one only, which carries the reproductive organs. ORDER TREMATODA. These worms, many of which are called Flukes, are flat, rarely cylindrical, often bladder-like, broad, elongated creatures ; they are not jointed, and are fre- quently leaf-shaped, and they have no vent. The Trematoda are parasitic within or outside animals, and whilst some grow from large eggs, laid ;about the localities frequented by the parent, into the shape of the adult, others present the phe- nomena of alternation of generation, complicated by curious metamorphoses. These last kinds come from very small eggs which have got into water or damp places, and are at first very minute, con- tractile embryos, sometimes ciliated, and which endeavour to settle on some animal or other, ordi- narily some of the Mollusca. This stage is that of the ciliated embryo. The ciliated embryo's office is to get on to a host ; it then loses its cilia and becomes stationary on its host, and then gives exit to a cylindrical sac-like object, which has two lateral prolongations close to a tapering tail. At this stage of growth the parasite is called the Redia, and it has a mouth and a simple intestine, but no other organs. Within this bag-like Redia a process of budding goes on, each bud becoming a creature like the parent of the ciliated embryo in shape; but it is destitute of reproductive organs, and is furnished with a long flat tail like a Tadpole, by which it is propelled after the escape from the Redia. At this stage they are called Cercarise. They burst forth, and, after a free-swim- ming existence, penetrate the body of some animal. They drop their tails and become encysted in the tissues. Finally, they assume the adult form and develop reproductive organs within, out of which pass the eggs. The Redia acts as the " nurse." and the Trematode may pass through life by inhabiting two very different animals, after coming forth from that inhabited by the parent. The stages vary in different genera, and, as a rule, the first are passed in invertebrate and the last in vertebrate animals. The first sub-order of the Trematoda is that of the Distoma, with not more than twe suckers -without hooks, and their Redise and Cercarise live principally in Mollusca. Distoma hepaticum and D. lanceolatum are species which have been found in the human liver. The nrst-named species also bears the generic title Fasciola, and is very common in the Ruminantia, and it * Tcenia solium. TAPE WORM. Piece of Tape Worm with small head («1 and metameres gradually increasing in size; B. a, he*d with suckers and hooks; c, metameres with ovarian apparatus. ORDER TURBELLARIA. 257 DEVELOPMENT OF LIVER FLUKE. A, sexually mature (after alanchard) ; B, embryo (after Ltuckait). •produces the •' rot." The effects of allowing flocks of sheep to graze on low pastures, during con- tinuous wet weather, are unfortunately too well known. The animals take in the parasite with their grass, or accidentally consume Mollusca which contain them. In the genus Amphistomum the ventral sucker is close to the posterior end, and is deep. The species are found in the frog, ox, elephant, and many other animals. The next sub-order or division of the Trematoda is that of the Polystoma, which are furnished with several suckers, the hindmost of which often have hooks. They are parasites on the outside of animals. The eggs are large, and there are no metamorphoses as a rule. In Diplozoon, two Polystoma are found united so as to form ;an X-like creature, and the hinder extremity of each is furnished with two rows of quadruple suckers. ORDER TURBELLARIA. These are lowly organised flat worms, which may be ribbon-shaped, leaf-shaped, or oval, broad, or long. They live free in water, and on land, are predaceous, and they have a mouth with or without a proboscis, and a simple or ramifying digestive tube. The skin is ciliated, and is highly sensitive. There are eye-spots and rudimentary organs of hearing in some. The anus is present in some, but not in others. The nervous system consists of two ganglia placed in the anterior part of the body ; branches are given off, and a longitudinal cord extends backwards, and in some there are the rudiments of ganglia. In some Turbellaria the limits of the digestive tract are not distinguishable, .and the food finds its way into a mass of internal cells. All have water- vessels which open externally •by one or more pores, and are ciliated ; and also "pseudo-haemal " vessels, consisting usually of a median, a a dorsal, and two lateral trunks, which unite in front and behind. The walls of these vessels are contractile, non-ciliated, and their contents are clear and uncoloured. One sub-order, the Nemertina, has ciliated grooves on the anterior part of the body, on the floor of which is a nervous structure. In most the embryo passes by insensible gradations into the form of the adult, and in some there is a metamorphosis. There are three sub-orders, the Rhab- doccela, the Dendrocoela, and the Nemertina or Rhynchocoela. The Rhabdocoela are the simplest forms, and have a flat body with cylindrical or rod-shaped digestive organs, without a vent. They are carnivorous and suck the juice of small worms and ento- mostraca and insect larvse which they envelop in a secretion. One family, the Opistomidse, has a proboscis, coloured eyes, and calcareous particles connected with hearing. The family Convolu- tidse are long flat worms with chlorophyll in their tissues, and one of the species is a very active dweller between tide-marks in England. It swims well, yet it has no special senses. The Dendroccela have a ramified intestine, and the long flat body has a proboscis. The Land Planarians have eyes, no tentacles, a pro- boscis, and a narrow body. They are found in the United Kingdom and generally in Western and Central Europe. They have been found in America, and on continental as well as on oceanic islands. Moseley states that they are nocturnal in their habits, -and shun the light, getting under leaves. Some contain chlorophyll, and seek the light but die in the sunshine. They eat small snails, worms, and flies. An American kind secretes a mucous thread and suspends itself in the water, and another 271 DIGESTIVE APPARATUS OF EVKYLEPTA SANGUIXOLENTA. a, nervous ir.mslion, or brain ; b. mouth ; c. ph&rynx ; \ „ Trematoda. Turbellaria. P. MARTIN DUNCAN, 259 THE PRICKLY-SKINNED ANIMALS (ECHINODERMATA). Position of the Echinwler mata in the Animal Kingdom — Characters distinguishing them from the other Radiata — Subdivisions of the Group — The Limestone Skeleton : its Various Forms— The Digestive Tube — The Nervous System— The Blood- vascular System — The "Water- vascular System — The Body-cavity and its Contained Corpuscles — The Various Forms of Echinoderm -larvae — Direct Development of some Echiiioderms in the Southern Seas — Distribution of the Group ia Space and Time — The Echinozoa — Structure and Habits of Starfishes, Ophiurids, Urchins, and Holothurians — The Trepang fisheries of the Tropical Seas— The Crinoidea— Structure and Mode of Life of a Feather-star — The Palaeozoic Crinoids, Cystids, and Blastoids. THE Marine Invertebrata known as Eckinodermata* owe their name to the prickly nature of their skin, which is usually more or less thickly set with spines and granules of limestone. Such animals are the Sea-urchins, or Sea-hedgehogs (Fig. 14), the Starfishes (Fig. 1), Sand-stars, Brittle-stars (Fig. 11), Feather-stars (Fig. 19), Sea-lilies (Fig. 18), and the Sea-cucumbers (Fig. 17). The Echinoclerms constitute one of the three great groups of animals which were associated by Cuvier under the name Radiata. The especial characteristic of this division of the animal kingdom is the arrangement of the various organs of the body in a radiating manner around a central axis, in which the mouth is placed. The bilateral symmetry, so apparent in the Articulata and in the bivalve Mollusca, is not visible at first sight in such animals as a Starfish, a Sea- anemone, or a Jelly-fish. The younger stages of all these creatures, however, exhibit a more or less evident bilateral symmetry (Figs. 2-5, 7) ; and this is sometimes quite distinct in the adult animal (Figs. 1, 11, 14, 19), for a median plane can be found, with the parts of the body which lie on either side of it disposed symmetrically in relation to it. The body of an Echinoderm is also far more complicated in its structure than that of a Polype, or Jelly-fish. The digestive apparatus is entirely shut off from the body- cavity, and there are two separate systems of vessels ramifying through the body, which are either completely independent of the body-cavity, or only communicate with it by special openings. On account of these and other striking features in their organisation, the Echiiioderms were removed from the Radiate type by Leuckart, a proceeding which has met with almost unanimous acceptance among European naturalists. But the resemblance between Echinoderm larvse and young Ctenophora is adduced as one amongst other reasons (by some American zoologists) for affirming that the type of Radiates constitutes an inde. pendent division of the animal kingdom, containing three equivalent classes— Echinoderms, Jelly- fishes, and Polypes. On the other hand, there are considerable resemblances between certain Echinoderms, both larval and adult, and some of the lower worms ; and after Leuckart's removal of the former from the Radiate type, they were thrown, together with the Wheel-animalcules, Tape Worms, Fluke Worms, .fee., into one group— the Annuloida,^ the name of which indicated the worm-like (Annelidan) aflinities of some of its members. Further investigation has shown, however, that this arrangement is not a satisfactory one, and at the present time the Echinoderms are regarded by most zoologists as forming a distinct primary division of the animal kingdom. Its chief subdivisions are indicated in the following Table, 1. — ASTROPECTEX IRREGULARIS, A COMMON BRITISH STAR- FISH, SLIGHTLY REDUCED. »», the madreponte. Greek, echinos, hedgehog ; derma, skin. t Latin, annulus, a ring ; Greek, sides, form. 260 NATURAL HISTORY. SUB-KINGDOM ECHINODEEMATA. Class Order. ( * Asteroid ea . f As * Ophiuroidea . Ophiurida Astrophytida . Op Ast Palachinoidea . Pat 1 Echinoidea Desmosticha Clypeastrida Eel Cly Petalosticha Sp; C Apoda . Syi ^ Holothuroidea . . Pedata . Ho (. Elasmopoda El! ( Crinoidea ( Is eocrmoidea . Act Per Genera. Astropecten, Solaster, Goniaster. Ophiura, Ophiocoma, Ophiothrix. Astrophyton, Gorgonocephalus, Em-yak.. faltechinus, Archceoeidaris, Mi-Ion it vs. ECHINOZOA •{ i?_i_i___-j__ Desmosticha . Echinus, Cidaris, Asthenosonia. Clypeaster, Mellita, Echinocyamuss. Spatangus, Brissus, Pourtalesia- Synapta, Chirodota, Molpadia. Holothuria, Cucumaria, Psolus Elpidia, Deiina, Ilyodasmon. inns, Cyathocrinus, Platycrinus. Pentacrinus, Comatula, Apiocriwis. PELMATOZOA •{ Cystoidea . . Glyptospharitcs, Echinospharites, Cnry- ocrinus. \ Blastoidea . . Penlremites, Orinatoerinvs. Cadaster. The names of orders and genera which are extinct are printed in italics. Exclusively marine animals, the Echinoderms remove limestone from its solution ir. the sea- water, and build it up into a skeleton of very varied shape and of very different degrees of complexity. This skeleton is least developed in the Sea-cucumbers, or Holothuroidea^ (Fig. 17). The skin of these animals is very tough and leathery, with little limestone plates scattered about on it. Occasion- ally, however, the plates are more developed, and overlap one another so as to form a continuous covering all over the body (Psolus). Certain Sea-urchins (Echinoidea^) are also in the same condition, the body retaining its flexibility, but being at the same time protected from injury by its coat of mail (Asthenosoma\\). In most of the Urchins, however, the body is enclosed in a shell, or "test," which is composed of numerous limestone plates, firmly united to one another by their edges, and supporting spines of the same substance (Figs. 14 — 16). Besides this external skeleton, there is also more or less of an internal skeleton, in the form of arched plates, pillars, or radiating partitions within the test. Five pairs of arched plates, which are known as auriculae9^ (Fig. 15), are of especial importance, as. they occupy a very definite position with regard to the vascular trunks that radiate from the oral centre. In the Starfishes and Brittle-stars they are represented by a double series of more or less. arched limestone pieces, which form an internal skeleton in each arm, and are called the ambulacr.il ossicles (Figs. 9, 13, ao). The skeleton of an Urchin, then, is almost entirely external, while that of the Starfishes and Brittle-stars is chiefly internal ; but in both these classes, and especially in the latter, there is also an external skeleton of limestone plates, -\\hich bears spines, and is sometimes very considerably developed (Figs. 9, 11). Yet another form of skeleton is met with among the Crinoids.** The successive joints which make up the arms of a Sea-lily (Fig. 18 ; Fig. 20, £r.), although practically external, are of a different nature from the pieces forming the test of an Urchin (Fig. 14), for they occupy an exactly contrary position with respect to the vascular systems. Neither do they correspond to the ambulacra! ossicles of a Starfish-arm (Fig. 9, ao), although these, together with the test of the Urchin, are not altogether unrepresented in the Crinoids. The digestive tube of all Echinoderms is distinct from the general cavity of the body. It rmiy be of considerable relative length, and make complicated windings within this cavity, as in the Urchins, Holothurians, and Crinoids (Fig. 1 6, i ; Fig. 20, G) ; or it may be a short bag, without any other opening than the wide mouth, as in the Ophiuridsff (Fig. 12) ; or lastly, there may be a short and straight tube in the vertical axis of the body, with lateral extensions into the arms (Fig. 9, pc), as in the Starfishes. The nervous system consists of an oral ring (Figs. 12, 20, ?zr), from which radiating cords proceed along the primary divisions of the body (Figs. 9, 12, 13, 21, n). Both the ring and the radial nerves originating in it are in very close relation to the celluiar covering of the oral surface of the body, which is specially modified where the nervous tissue underlies it. This tissue consists of closely packed fibrils and minute cells connected with them ; but there is no special arrangement of * For convenience of reference these two groups together are often spoken of as the Stellerida. t A good classification of the Asteroidea is still a desideratum. X Greek, holothourion ; cidos, form. H" Latin, diminutive of auris, ear. § Greek, cchinos, hedgehog ; cidos, form. ** Greek, knnon, a lily ; cidos, form. || Greek, asthenes, weak ; soma, body. tt Greek, ophis, a snake ; oitra, a tail ; eidos. form. AXATOMY OF THE ECHINODERMS. 261 the latter into ganglia, the minute structure of the oral ring being identical with that of its radial extensions. But although anatomical investigation fails to reveal the presence of a brain, or even of a ganglion, yet the result of physiological research is to indicate that the oral nervous ring is the seat of a centralising influence, which proceeds outwards from it, and regulates the movements of the tube- feet — organs of which more or less use is made in locomotion. Immediately within the oral nervous ring is an annular blood-vessel (Figs. 10, 12, 20, ob), from which radiating trunks extend (Figs. 9, 10, 12, 13, 21, b). It is connected with a more or less complicated network of vessels, which surrounds the digestive apparatus (Fig. 20, ib). In most Echinozoa* it also communicates, by means of a bundle of vessels that run nearly in the vertical axis of the body (Fig. 10, cp), with an aboral blood-vascular ring (Figs. 10, 12, ab), from which vessels (Fig. 10, gv) proceed to the generative organs. This vascular bundle (Fig. 10, cp) was formerly regarded as a heart, and has been described as performing rhythmical contractions. This, however, is very doubtful ; while some authors go so far as to say that the organ in question is mereiy a gland with an excretory duct, which opens upon the aboral surface of the body, and is unconnected with any portion of the vascular system.f The special feature in the anatomy of the Echinoderms is a set of tubes which communicate with the exterior, ana serve the purposes both of respiration, and of locomotion. It is known as the water- vascular system, and consists of an oral ring (Figs. 12, 20, wr) and radial extensions (Figs. 9, 12, 13, 20, u-r), like those of the blood- vascular system, which lies immediately external to it. The radial vessels give otf numerous lateral branches, which enter contractile processes of the body-wall, the tube- feet, or tentacles. In the Crinoids, which lie on their backs, with their mouths upwards, the tentacles are exclusively respiratory in function. But most of the Echinozoa live mouth downwards, and the tube-feet are used in locomotion. They are, inconsequence, often spoken of as "the ambulacral + feet," while the whole system of water- vessels is called the ambulacral system. In most Echinozoa its communication with the exterior is effected by a tube which starts from the water-vascular ring, and opens on the surface of the body by a sieve-like plate, the " madreporite "§ (Fig. 1, m). This water-tube, as we will call it, is sometimes known as the sand-canal, or stone-canal, on account of the limestone deposits in its walls. It lies close to the central plexus, and is bound up together with it in the same membranous sheath. In most Holothurians and in the Crinoids there are one or more tubes depending from the water-vascular ring, and opening into the body-cavity, which communicates directly with the exterior (Fig. 20, wf); and as far as can be judged from the conflicting statements of different natumlists, these are the only Echinoderms in which there is a direct communication between the body-cavity and the exterior. Protoplasmic corpuscles of different kinds are dispersed in the fluid which it contains. Some resemble the white corpuscles of the blood of a vertebrate animal, while others exhibit more active changes of form, and put out long thread-like extensions of their substance. The body-cavity of an Urchin or Holothurian also contains granular masses, which are coloured with a brown substance that contains iron, and changes its tint under atmospheric influences, so that it is probably connected with the process of breathing. This function, however, is mainly performed by the water- vascular system. It contains minute red corpuscles, tinged with haemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying material that colours the corpuscles of our own blood, and has also been detected in that of Molluscs, Crustacea, Insects, and Worms. The cilia lining the water-vessels keep up continual currents in their interior, and the circulation of the corpuscles which is due to these currents is increased by the contraction of the walls of the water-vessels, and by the continual motion of the tube-feet or tentacles, whether they be used for locomotion or not. The sexes are distinct in most Echinoderms, and the fertilised ova generally pass through a complicated process of metamorphosis before assuming their adult form. They are hatched as uniformly ciliated free-swimming embryos, which gradually acquire a digestive tube with two openings. The cilia become restricted to one or more transverse ridges (Fig. 7), and the larva passes * Greek, echinus, hedgehog ; zoon, animal. t These statements are probably erroneous. They are based almost entirely upon the results of injections, which are much less likely to give accurate results than the study of continuous series of thin sections through any organ and the structures connected with it. J Latin, ambulacrum, a place for walking. § Etym., pierced with small holes, like the coral known as madrepore. 262 NATURAL HISTORY. from the spherical condition into one which exhibits a very complete bilateral symmetry. Portions of the primitive digestive tube become cut off from it, and form closed " vaso-peritoiieal " cavities (Figs. 2, 4, 6, w), which develop into the body-cavity and the water-vascular system of the mature Echiiioderm. The latter system acquires a communication with the exterior by a water-tube, which opens 011 the dorsal surface of the body by a " water-pore " (Figs. 2, 6, wjj), that eventually becomes the madre- porite of the Echinozoa. The forms assumed by the fully-grown Echiiioderm larvae are very various. In the Urchins (Fig. 2) and Ophiurids (Fig. 3) the dorsal region of the larva is produced into a sort of conical hump, while the ventral face becomes much excavated, and its edges are produced into four pairs of slender processes, or arms, which are symmetrically arranged around the mouth (Fig. 2, m). These arms are supported by a framework of lime- stone rods, which has somewhat the appearance of an inverted painter's easel, and is exclusively characteristic of the Ui'chins and Ophiurids. It has nothing to do with the skeleton of the mature Echinoderm, coming into existence before this makes its appearance, and disappearing as it attains its full development. The arms open and shut like the ribs of an umbrella during the movements of the larva, which is generally known as a " Pluteus." This name was given to it on account of its fancied resemblance to a painter's easel. In the Crinoids, on the other hand, a somewhat complicated skeleton makes its appearance at a very early stage of embryonic life, the whole or greater part of which passes, directly into the skeleton of the adult. Fig. 2. — PLUTEUS LARVA OF THE But in the larvse of Starfishes and Holothurians there is little or no *ivfdu^ sEEx^™™ ° """* provisional skeleton ; and the rudiments of the skeletal system of the m. mouth; a, anus; top, water-pore, or adult do not appear till the later stages of larval existence. The two external opening of the water-tube. .|. . i i n n • *• n m <• i_ i in i which leads into w, the rudiment of tnj ciliated bands at first encircling the Starfish larva gradually extend water, vascular ring. (Ajttr Mvtschuikoff.) , , themselves, until they enclose nearly the whole or the upper and lower halves of the body, so as to form two large crescentic shields. The larva in this condition exhibits complete bilateral sym- metry, and is called " Bipinnaria."* Loops now appear in the outlines of the oral and anal shields, and gradually increase in length, so as to develop into a number of long slender movable arms, which stretch out from the larval body in various directions, bending and twisting in the most graceful manner, as they are not supported by limestone rods (Fig. 4). The continual play of these arms not only assists in the loco- motion of the larva, but also produces currents in the water which set towards its mouth. This stage of the Starfish larvfe is known as the " Brachiolaria" ;f and the development of the adult Echinoderm from it or from a Pluteus takes place entirely at the hinder end of the larval body. Rudiments of tentacles appear on the growing water-vascular ring, which is situated at the left side of the larval stomach, while the first traces of the permanent skeleton show themselves on its right side, near the dorsal pore of the water-vascular system. The remainder of the larval body gradually shrivels up and dis- appears, its substance going to feed the growing Echinoderm. This is well shown in Fig. 4, which represents a Brachiolaria with the Starfish disc developed at its anal extremity, some of its arms having been already absorbed. A similar process goes 011 in the case of the Pluteus * Latin, bis, twice ; pinna, a feather. f Latin, brachiolam, diminutive of Irachium, an arm. 3. —Pluteus paradoxm, THE ADVANCED LARVA OF AN OPHIURID, "WHICH CONTAINS THE RUDIMENTS OF THE DISC AND RADIAL SKELETON OF THE ADULT, TOGETHER WITH THE LIMESTONE FRAMEWORK THAT SUPPORTS THE ARMS OF THE PLUTEUS. (After J. MiUler.) DEVELOPMENT OF IRE ECHINOZOA. 263 larvae (Figs. 2 and 3). The young Urchin or Ophiurid gradually encroaches upon the Pluteus to such an extent that it forms an essential part of the body, the arms and rods seeming to be mere appendages, which ultimately disappear altogether. The development of the young Holothuriaii from its larva is much simpler than that of the other Echinozoa. There is but one continuous longitudinal ciliated band around the bi- lateral larva (Figs. 5, 6, c), instead of two, as in Bipinnaria ; and this does not throw out lono- processes, but only becomes deeply sinuated. Certain parts of the sinuated portions of opposite sides become united together, while others are obliterated, so that the larva, which has become barrel-shaped, is surrounded by a number of trans- verse ciliated rings. These in their turn disappear, the body of the larva elongates, and tentacles appear round the mouth, while the water-tube usually loses its connection with the exterior by the dorsal pore (Fig. 6, wp), and depends freely from the water-vascular ring into the body-cavity, into which it opens. But the amount of metamorphosis which the larva undergoes is not considerable, as it has no appendages to be resorbed into the body of the adult. There is still less metamorphosis in the development of a Crinoid. The cilia, which appear at first over the whole surface of the embryo, become restricted, before it is hatched, to four transverse bands and a tuft at its hinder end (Fig. 7), while the embryo becomes slightly curved, somewhat like a kidney-bean. In its concave surface, which is turned downwards, is the single opening of its digestive canal, „. corresponding to the anus of a Bipinnaria. The larva gradually increases in length, and delicate limestone plates make their appearance near its front end, arranged in two cross-rings of five plates each. The plates of the lower ring, which are called the basals, rest upon the top joint of a short stem, composed of delicate rings of limestone. At this stage the larva has the form of a bent club or rod, with an enlarged head, which becomes the body of the future Crinoid. The permanent mouth appears in the centre of the upper ring of plates, which are consequently termed the "orals." They are gradually carried away from the cup fcrmed by the basals by the appearance, between the two rings of plates, of the rudiments of the arms, which grow outwards as rapidly elongating processes. The advanced Crinoid larva is known as a " Peiitacrinoid " (Fig. 8, B), owing to its resemblance to Pentacrinus* one of the Sea-lilies. The development of a Crinoid is thus much more direct than that of a Starfish or Urchin. There is no metamorphosis, and either the whole of the larval body passes directly into the adult, or the stem is discarded, and the cup with the arms attached leads an independent existence. This is the case with the Feather-star (Fig. 19), which separates itself from all but the top joint of its stem, and anchors itself by little clawed hooks, or cirri, that appear upon this joint (Fig. 8, B; Fig. 20, ci). A still more direct mode of development occurs among most of the Echinozoa of the Southern and sub-arctic Seas, Tupper0a^d1th.1>™ius at thefkfwCT radm emlieeted b^alfenrt which produce no free-swimming ciliated embryos at all. digestive tube, on the upper side of which is seen the nidi- _, - , ,. ,, .,, ..-, . ,1 inrnrary water-vascular ring. The cilia are arranged in a But the VOUnff develop directly, either WltUlll Or Upon TJ16 sinuated band. (After Selenka.) * " * . . body of the parent, where they are protected until sufficiently advanced to look after themselves. In Urchins, Starfishes, and some Holothurians, the nursery or brood- pouch is outside the body of the parent. In. some Urchins, for example, a kind of open tent is formed in the neighbourhood of either mouth or anus by the approximation of two or three rows of spines. In * Greek, pente, five ; krinon, lily. 4. — VIEW OF THE AD- VANCED HRACHIO- LARIA LARVA OP A STARFISH (As- terias vulgaris) . The whole of the ter- minal anal part of the larva has been ab- sorbed into the disc of the growing Star- fish (r), the oral ex treniity alone, with its adjacent arms, retaining its origin I shape, ir, one of the vaso-peritoneal tubes, from which the body-cavity and the water-vascular system are develop- ed. \AfterA. Agassiz.) Fi 5.— LARVA OF HOLOTHURIA TrntJLosA IN ITS NATURAL POSITION. 264 NATURAL HISTORY. a large Starfish dredged by the Challenger in the Southern Seas, a sort of tent is formed in the middle of the upper surface of the body, which consists of five membranous valves supported by spines. These valves can be raised or drawn together so as to form a low pyramid ; and the eggs pass directly from the ovaries into its cavity, where they assume the form of young Starfishes, without previously passing through the Bipinnaria and Brachiolaria stages. In another species the spines covering the back have flattened heads, which fit closely together, so as to cover in the arcade-like spaces left between their shafts. The young develop within these spaces, eventually pushing their way out by forcing the spines aside. A similar nursery is formed on the back of a South Sea Holothurian (Psolus) by the apposition of the heads of mushroom-shaped plates ; while in another species from the Falkland Islands there is no special nursery, but the young come to be packed into two continuous fringes adhering to the two rows of tube-feet along the back, which are imperfectly developed, and are not used for locomotion. In one South American Holothurian, however, the young are protected within the body of the mother, one individual having yielded sixteen young ones measuring -J^ in length. In the viviparous Ophiurids, the nursery, though internal, is not a portion of the body-cavity, but a pouch which opens externally and projects into the body-cavity, serving also at the Fig. 6.— DIAGRAM OF A SIDE VIEW same time as a breathing apparatus. There are usually ten of these OF THE HOLOTHURIAN LARVA pouches, though as many as fourteen have been found in one individual REPRESENTED IN FIG. 5. . . ' n,,niouth: „, guiiet; „, stomach; a, anus; each containing three young Brittle-stars. of ^c™vjScufarrii«;>^,;witer^!re' Echinoderms are to be found in all parts of the ocean, whether rp, Ip, right and left peritoneal cavities, • i • i f mm which the water-vascuiar system is in polar, tropical, or temperate regions, but they are most varied and developed. (After Selenka.} 111 . on the whole, most abundant in the shallower waters of the tropical seas. They have also a wide bathymetrical range, extending from between tide- marks to some of the greatest depths explored by the dredge, where they are chiefly represented by the Ophiurids. There are certain forms in each class which are especially characteristic of the abyssal depths, and have a very extensive distribution. Thus most deep-sea Holothurians belong to a very remarkable section of the group, the Elasmopoda* which look singularly like nudibranchiate Mollusca. The Stalked Crinoids are also characteristic of the greater depths, some of them being the last survivors of a large and important group (ApiocrinMfy which flourished in the Mesozoic Seas. Similarly, the more prominent abyssal forms among the Sea-urchins are chiefly those which have a flexible test (Asthenosoma), instead of a shell of immovable plates. They belong to a very singular group, which was believed to have become extinct after the deposition of the white chalk. Among the Starfishes and Ophiurids, again, the same generic types inhabit the great ocean depths in all parts of the world ; but they are not so interesting in their palseontological relations as the Stalked Crinoids and the flexible Urchins. Fossil Echinoderms occur in most of the stratified rocks from the Upper Cambrian upwards. Certain Palaeozoic limestone beds are almost exclusively composed of crinoidal remains. The Stalked Crinoids were most abundant during the Palaeozoic period, during which the Cystids* and Blastoids§ also flourished, to become extinct at or before its close. But the free Crinoids (Comatula\\) are probably more abundant at the present time than in any previous geological period. Starfishes are among the earliest known Echinoderms, and appear to have gone on increasing in importance from the Cambro-Silurian period until the present day. Little is known of the fossi] * Greek, clauno, to move ; pous, fool. T Greek, apion, a pear ; krinon, a lily. J Greek, kustis, a bladder; eidos, form. § Greek, bhtstos, a bud ; eidos, form. || Latin, coma, hair ; and the obsolete form, tulo, I bear. 7. — DORSAL VIEW OF THE LARVA OF THE ROSY FEATHEK-STAU (COMA- TULA ROSACEA) SHORTLY BEFORE THE DISAPPEAR- ANCE OF THE CILIATED BANDS. MAGNIFIED TWENTY TIMES. (After Wyville- Thomson. ) THE STARFISH. 265 Opium-ids, which commence with the same period. The Urchins are represented in the Lower Silurian by a single aberrant form, but more appear in the later Palaeozoic beds ; while the Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks contain a great variety of types. Fossil remains of the soft-bodied Holothurians are naturally rare, but they can be traced as far back as the Carboniferous period. The Echinoderms fall into two very natural groups: viz., (1) the Eckinozoa, including the Urchins, Stellerids, * and Holothurians, all of which crawl about by the aid of their tube-feet, with the mouth downwards or at one end of the elongated body ; and (2) the Pelmatozoarf or Stalked Echinoderms. In the latter group the dorsal region of the body is pro- duced into a stalk, by which the animal fixes itself with its oral surface upwards (Figs. 8, 18). In the Feather-stars, which form the majority of recent Criiioids, the stalked condition is a temporary one (Fig. 8), the body eventually detaching itself from the larval stem, and settling down on its own account, though still in the same relative position, i.e., with its oral surface upwards (Fig. 19). Nearly all the fossil Criiioids were stalked, as were also the extinct Blastoidea and Cystoidea, though a few sessile forms are known. Among the Echitwzoa, the Stellerids are those of which the anatomy is most completely known ; and as the members of the two classes to which this name is applied resemble one another in very many respects, it will be convenient to take them as the starting-point of our investigations into Echinoderm structure. (1) Asteroidea.* The body of a Starfish is usually somewhat flattened, and either pentagonal in outline or more or less stellate, in which case it is said to consist of a central disc extended into five or more arms (Fig. 1). Its shape is maintained by an internal skeleton of limestone joints (Fig. 9, ao). This is covered, though not closely, by a tough leathery skin, in which are embedded granules and plates of limestone, many of them bearing spines. Some of the spines, which are known as paxillae, assume the form of a stem with an expanded brush-like end (Fig. 9, pax). The mouth occupies the centre of the under surface of the body, and a deep groove, the " ambulacral groove," proceeds from it along each of the arms (Fig. 9, ay}. This groove is nearly filled with the tube-feet, or tentacles (Fig. 9, t), which are connected with the ambulacral or water-vessel, situated in the middle line of the arm (Fig. 9, w), and are largely used in locomotion. Appended to each of the lateral branches of the water- vessel that proceed to the tube-feet is a minute muscular water-sac, or F- s.— PENTACRIXOID LAKVA ampulla, § by the contraction of which water is driven into the tube-foot OF THE ROSY FEATHEH-STAH so as to expand it. The tube-feet themselves are also contractile, and when (Comatula rosacea). . . , , . . i , A, quite young, before the opening ot several of them which are attached to any object by their terminal suckers the. cup and the appearance of the ' radial plates: u, nearly mature with are made to contract, the result is that the body is slowly drawn towards %%&tJSH£aRrffr£iSaJSiP' the fixed point. Other tube-feet are then distended and projected forwards, to take fresh hold farther on, while those previously fixed are detached by water entering them from the ampullae, and so the movement goes on. The radial water-vessels all communicate with an oral ring provided with water-sacs, the " Polian vesicles," || which are similar to those in the arms, but do the same work on a larger scale. They are attached to the water-vascular ring between the origins of the radial trunks ; and the single water-tube which communicates with the exterior by the madreporic plate (Fig. 1, m) occupies a similar interradial position. It is enclosed in a common sheath with the central plexus of the blood- vascular system (Fig. 10, cp), which unites the oral blood- vascular ring (ob) with the aboral ring (ab), connecting the ten genital and the two gastric vessels (gv; pb). Radial wanks (Figs. 93 10, b) proceed outwards from the oral ring beneath the water-vessels, and send minute v Latin, stella, a star ; Greek, eidos, form. X Greek, aster, a star ; eidos, form, f Greek, pelma, a stalk ; soon, animal. § Latin, ampulla, a flask. || Named after Poli, the anatomist who discovered them. 272 266 NATURAL HISTORY. branches to the successive tube-feet (Fig. 10, bf). External to the blood-vessels are the radial nerves (Fig. 9, n), communicating with an oi-al nervous ring, and sending off very minute tentacular branches. Each nerve terminates at the bent-up extremity of the arm in a pigmented spot, containing clear lens-like bodies, and serving as an eye. Close Tlj\ JVJj. — \\J\//j fv. to it is the terminal tentacle of the arm, which has no sucker, but is excessively sensitive, and appears to be a very delicate organ of touch. The mouth leads by a short gullet into a wide stomach, the lower part of which is pro- duced in the direction of the rays into five large sacs with folded walls. Above the origins of these sacs the stomach suddenly narrows, and then enlarges into a pentagonal cavity, from the angles of which five forked tubes extend into the rays. Each fork is the stem of a long tree- like mass, which is formed of dense branches of from four to six pear-shaped follicles, all con- nected with the central stem. These pyloric Fig. 9. DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF A CROSS-SECTION n J /T?- n \ OF AN ARM OF THE COMMON CROSS-FISH (Atenu rul*n«). C8eCa> aS th6V ^ Called (*» 9' **>' a™ SUP" On the left side the section is supposed to pass between two of the ambulacral posed to represent the liver of the higher animals. ossicles, but on the right side through one of them (oo) ; ag, ambulacral :_. , . , . , , , •, 1 minates in a mimite anal pore, situated near the centre of the aboral face of the body. Breathing is carried on partly by the tentacles of the water-vascular system (Fig. 9, t), and partly by thin-walled tubular processes of the external skin (Fig. 9, br), which are ciliated internally, and are in direct communication with the body-cavity ; so that a free interchange of gases can take place between the water which they contain and that which bathes their external surface. The paired genital glands are situated interradially at the junction of the body with the arms, into which they extend for a greater or less distance (Fig. 9, ov). Each gland is divided into a number of berry-like clusters, which communicate with the exterior by one or more genital pores. These are either situated in the angles between the arms, or, in the case of the more elongated glands, upon the arms themselves (Fig. 9, gp}. The internal skeleton of each arm consists of two longitudinal series of plate-like joints, the "ambulacral ossicles" (Fig. 9, no), which lean against each other in the middle line above, so as to form the sides and roof of the ambulacral groove (ay). Between each ossicle and those in front and behind it are small pores, produced by the fitting together of notches upon the front and back faces of the successive joints. The branches from the radial water-vessels (w) to the tube-feet (t) pass outwards through these pores. The lower ends of the ossicles abut against a series of short and thick " adambulacral plates" (Fig. 9, ap\ which form the edges of the groove, and usually bear spines (sp~) ; while the sides of the arms are protected by a variable number of lateral or marginal plates, also bearing spines (Fig. 1). In some cases also there is an external skeleton of well-defined plates on the upper surface of the anns, but there is generally only a mere network, more or less regularly ai-ranged, and bearing clustered spinelets, or paxillse (Fig. 9, pax). Attached to some of the larger spines, and in the intervals between them, are numerous little Fig. 10. — DIAGRAM OF THE BLOOD- VASCULAR SYSTEM OF A STARFISH. (After H. Ludwig.) cp, central plexus: x, its dorsal extremity: ab, aboral blood-vascular ring ; gv, genital vessels ; pb, gastric vessels ; ob, oral blood- vascular ring; b, radial blood-vessel ; bf, its tentacular branches. THE STARFISHES. 267 flexible stalks, each terminating in a pair of pincers. These are opened and shut by special muscular fibres, and are in a state of continual movement, twisting about, and snapping at minute things which come in their way. They are known as "pedicellarise,"* but their precise functions are not very clear. It has been suggested that they may perhaps act as scavengers, catching up particles of dirt from the surface of the body, and casting it off into the surrounding water. The Starfishes are excessively voracious animals, feeding indifferently upon shell-fish, crabs, anemones, worms, and all kinds of carrion. Oysters and other bivalves have but little chance against them. The Starfish enfolds the shell with its arms, and protrudes the lower portion of its stomach through its mouth and between the valves of the shell, until it can seize upon the body of its unfortunate occupant. Little by little the great stomach is pushed farther and farther out of its own body and over that of its prey, until at last, if the oyster be a large one, the pouches are withdrawn from the rays, and the Starfish is substantially turned inside out. This work of destruction is sometimes carried on by a number of Starfishes interlacing their arms together, so as to form a ball, which rolls about in the water with the clams, oysters, or other shell-fish in the middle of it. Starfishes are thus very dangerous enemies to the cultivation of oysters. In some places they are so abundant as entirely to prevent any oysters growing at all. The damage done by them on the coast of the United States, between Cape Cod and Stateu Island, is estimated at over 100,000 dollars yearly. They sometimes invade the oyster-beds in enormous hordes, coming quite suddenly at intervals of a few years. Such an invasion came to Providence River, Rhode Island. United States, about the year 1860, and caused a loss to the oyster-growers of 150,000 dollars. At another locality 2,500 individuals were speared on an oyster-bed in two days. When Starfishes were first discovered to be enemies to oyster culture the captured ones were torn across and thrown back into the sea, though not to die ; for Starfishes, like all Echinoderms, have a considerable power of reproducing lost parts, a single arm having been known to grow up into a new Starfish. Consequently, instead of diminishing the pest, the above method of procedure would tend to directly increase it, two or three new enemies being made out of every captive. Now, however, the oystermen hand their captures over to the gardeners, by whom Starfishes are much valued as manure. The common Crossfish (Asterias ruhens) is largely used for this purpose on both sides of the English Channel, and also in the Eastern Counties. This species is also known as Five-fingers, Five-fingered Jack, and the Devil's-fingers or the Devil's-hands, these latter names being used upon some parts of the Irish coast, where a Starfish is looked upon with superstitious dread. (2) Ophiuroidea. The name of this class is derived from the three Greek words : ophis, snake, our a, tail, and eidos, form, and refers to the external form of these creatures (Fig. 11). They have longish serpent-like arms attached to a relatively small and usually rounded body or disc, to which the viscera are confined. The top and sides of the disc generally bear plates or scales of various sizes ; and they are often more or less covered with limestone granules, spinelets, or even with groups of spines. The precise mode of arrangement of the plates on the top of the disc varies in different species ; but five pairs of plates, known as the " radial shields " (Fig. 11, rs), are always present, though not always visible. Each pair corresponds to the base of one of the arms or rays, one plate lying on either side of the ray, not far from the edge of the disc. This is usually, but not always, notched for * Latin, diminutive of pedicellus, a louse. Fig. 11. — COMMON BKITTLE-STAK (Oyhiothris fmgllis). Natural size. rst radial shields. 268 NATURAL HISTORY. the arm-bases, that dovetail, as it were, into the disc, and are visible on its under side, separated from one another by groups of regularly-arranged plates, which converge towards the central mouth. Each arm-base is separated from the plated interradial areas at its sides by slit-like openings, which are usually single, but occasionally double. These are known as the genital slits, and lead into thin walled pouches at the sides of the rays, to which a two-fold function has been assigned. In a living Ophiurid a double current of entrance and exit is visible around these genital slits, its cause appearing to lie in the alternate expansion and contraction of the disc ; and the pouches thus seem to serve as a kind of internal gills, or breathing apparatus. The water which enters them brings in oxygen, which it eX- 12. DIAGRAM ON A LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH THE DISC ° . . . - , AND AN ARM-BASE OF AN OPHIURID. (After H. Ludwig.) changes for carbonic acid with the V, mouth; I,, lip; o, stomach; c, body cavity; ca, its extension into the arm; et, con- Water in the body-Cavity through the nective tissue bands; AI, A2, A6, successive ambulacral ossicles; 81,82, &c., lower arm- plates; oa, oral anj,'le: j)a, pale* angulares; ta, torus anprularis; m, muscle; ms, mouth- tliin •wall rvf flip nnilfh find tllPTl (TOPS shield: 06, aboral blood-vascular ring; ob, oral blood-vascular ring; b. radial blood-vessel; CU' cU1U w, radial water-vessel; wr, water- vascular ring; v, Polian vesicle; bf, buccal tentacles; ,.„+ v>T7 x^ i-o+iii-n nnvrpnt TViP nr, oral nervous ring ; n, radial nerve. OUU oy tne Kiu J.I1 ovaries of the Ophiurids open into these pouches, and the ripe ova may either be carried out through the genital slits by the efferent currents, so as to undergo their larval metamorphoses independently of their parent, or they may remain within the pouches, and undergo a direct and more rapid development, as has been mentioned above. At the inner angle of each interradial area on the under surface of the disc is a plate known as the " mouth-shield " (Fig. 12, ms). Between each of these and the mouth is a complicated arrange- ment of plates, constituting what is called an oral angle (Fig. 12, oa, ta, &c). At the apex of this are a number of short flat processes, the palece angulares (Fig. 12 'pa), while its sides bear numerous smaller processes, the " mouth-papillae." These serve as strainers, keeping foreign bodies that are not wanted for food from entering the stomach. The palese angulares probably serve much the same purpose, though they are often spoken of as teeth. They have, however, little or no crushing power, as there is usually hardly any room for any play of the oral angles to and from the central axis of the body. The mouth of an Ophiurid is surrounded by twenty tentacles, two on either side of each oral angle, which is pierced for their passage (Fig. 12, bf). These buccal tentacles, which are merely the modified tube-feet of the two first arm-joints, are in a state of continual movement. They assist the food in entering, and they also serve to clear away the undigested residue, which is ejected from the mouth, as there is no second opening to the stomach. This organ (Fig. 12, G) is a wide-mouthed bag, attached to the sides and top of the disc by bands of connective tissue (ct), and capable of a certain amount of protrusion ; but there are no extensions of this simple digestive apparatus into the arms, as there are in the Starfishes. The plates making up the oral angles are rather thick, as compared with the height of the disc, and the water- vascular ring lies in a groove on their upper surface (Fig. 1 2, wr). It communicates by a short water-tube with pores in one of the interradial mouth-shields, which represents the madreporite of the Starfish. Four Polian vesicles may also be connected with it (Fig. 12, p), one for each of the remaining interradii ; but there are sometimes none at all, while on the other hand they may take the form of numerous irregular blind tubes. The blood-vessels and nerves have the same relation to the water- vascular system as in the Starfish. The central plexus connecting the oral and the aboral blood- vascular rings is enclosed in a common sheath together with the water-tube, just as in the Starfish. The aboral ring (Fig. 12, ab) lies immediately beneath the radial shields at the base of each ray ; but it dips down in the interradial spaces alongside the genital slits, and rests on the mouth-shields, one of which is perforated by the water-pores. Consequently the central plexus and the water-tube descend from the oral ring instead of ascending, as they do in the Asterids. THE SEA-UECHINS. 269 The arms of the Ophiuricls are rather appendages to the body (Fig. 11) than actual portions of it, as is the case in the Asterids (Fig. 1). The greater part of each arm is formed by a central bony axis, which is composed of successive joints, and fills up almost the whole of the internal cavity of the arm. Each of the quadrate axial ossicles (Fig. 12, A6; Fig. 13, ao) consists of two lateral halves, which are united in its middle line, and represent the smaller and less-developed ambulacral ossicles in the arm of a Starfish (Fig. 9, ao). The successive ossicles are connected by pairs of strong muscular bundles, and articulate by tenon and mortice joints upon their terminal surfaces. Corresponding to each ossicle of the internal skeleton are four superficial plates, viz., the "lower arm-plate" (Fig. 12, s2 ; Fig. 13, 1), the upper "arrn- plate" (Fig. 13, u), and two "side arm-plates" (Fig. 13, s). These plates are often more or less covered with spines, as is shown in the specimen figured (Fig. 11). On either side of the under arm-plate, between it and the side arm-plates, are openings by which the tube-feet reach the exterior. Each opening is protected by a little scale or scales, which may be upon the side arm-plate, or upon the lower arm-plate, or upon both. The tube-feet have less to do with locomotion than their fellows in the OPHIURID ARM (slightly Urchins and Starfishes, as they have no terminal suckers, but they are very ««er«d/romSiadeiO. * * 00, ambulacra! ossicle; ?t, upper sensitive to touch. Their chief function is probably respiratory, while locomotion T™ w^rlirm-pJat^^T'radiai is effected by means of the worm-like arms, which are capable of a very con- u"radia^water\'essei?a!ara- siderable amount of lateral movement, though they cannot be bent to any great extent. The Ophiurids are much more active than the Asterids, and of them the Brittle-stars are more so than the Sand-stars, seldom remaining quiet for a moment, but keeping their arms in a state of continual twisting movement. They also have a singular power of breaking their arms into fragments, which are often flung away to some little distance from the disc, new ones growing out from it again after a longer or shorter interval, for the power of reparation which these animals possess is very considerable. Most of the Ophiuroidea have simple and undivided arms (Ophiurida, Fig. 11); but in the members of the order Astrophytida* the arms fork ten or twelve times, and the numerous branches into which they divide interlace with one another, so as to form a sort of trellis- work all round the disc. These creatures are variously known by the names of Basket-fish, Medusa-head Starfish, and Argus. The habitat of the Sand-stars may be gathered from their name, while the Brittle-stars are to be found both on a sandy bottom and in the rock-pools on the shore. Many of them are very abundant in the neighbourhood of oyster-beds and scallop-banks, and are largely preyed upon by the cod and other fish, while their own stomachs are full of minute foraminiferal shells. (3) Echinoidea. The members of this class are variously known as Sea-eggs, Sea-hedgehogs, or Sea-urchins. The last name, used as it often is without the prefix, is merely a corruption of " Oursin," the French word for hedgehog. This appellation is not bestowed without reason, the body of any common Echiiiid being more or less globular and covered with spines. These spines are jointed on to knobs or tubercles, which are borne by the closely-fitting limestone plates of the test or shell (Fig. 14, A, B). The tubercles do not, however, cover the whole surface of the test indiscriminately, but they are chiefly disposed in five broad zones, which extend from one pole to the other. Alternating with these are five narrower zones, which bear smaller and fewer tubercles, and are pierced with small holes arranged in regular rows. Through these holes the Urchin extends its tentacles or tube-feet, which are provided with terminal suckers, like those of the Starfishes, and are largely used in locomotion, especially when the creature is climbing a steep slope. On level surfaces, however, the spines are also brought into play, the animal advancing by a sort of tilting motion. Scattered among the spines are pedicellarise, resembling those of the Starfishes, except that they have three prongs instead of two (Fig. 14, c, D). They are said to be used in climbing for laying hold of fronds of seaweed, and so enabling the Urchin to steady itself until it can make use of its sucking feet. They are also employed as scavengers, those round the anal opening laying hold of the ejected * Greek, aster, star ; phuton, plant ; eidos, form. 270 NATURAL HISTORY. remains of the food, and passing them on to those below. These, in their turn, close upon the particles, and pass them down the sides of the body until they can drop off into the water without becoming entangled among the tentacles and spines. Each of the narrow poriferous zones in the test of an Urchin is spoken of as " ambulacral," owing to its being pierced for the passage of the tentacles of the ambulacral system ; while the five broader zones which alter- nate with them, and bear larger tubercles, are "interambulacral." Each zone, whether ambulacral B iBf ^ A^W^^MSS^S&^^i^Sm^^^ or interambulacral, con- sists of a double series of alternating plates, as is well shown in Fig. 14, A, B. All the zones con- verge towards the summit of the test, where, in the regular Urchins (Desmosticha*), the anal opening is situated. It occupies a more or less excentric position within Fig. 14. — GENERAL VIEW OF THE TEST OF AN URCHIN (Echinus microstoma), FROM a gpace which is knOWn ABOVE. NATURAL SIZE. (After Wyuille Thomson.) jm T nf* nfM'iTyFOCij i £111 ci is A, Most of the spines have been removed. The madreporite is seen on the genital plate lying N.E. of the centre. ' B, Portions of the ambulacral and intcrambulncral zones in the test of Toxopneustesvariegatus. hirtnwd. (After wV,nllv. nr -nflvtinllv fillpil Agassiz ) c, Head of Pedicellaria with the valves open. (After Erdl.) D, Pedicellanu with the valves closed. WilOliy Ul pdl Uldaij . up by minute limestone plates. The periproct is separated from the apices of the ambulacral and interambulacral zones by two rings of larger plates alternately arranged (Fig. 14, A). Those of the inner ring, which terminate the interambulacral zones, are pierced by the ducts of the genital glands. One of them, that occupying a N.E. position in the figure, is pierced by the water-pores, and thus represents the madreporite which is at the upper extremity of the water-tube of the Starfish (Fig. 1, m). The plates of the outer ring are pierced by the unpaired tentacles, which terminate the water-vascular trunks, and represent the " ocular tentacles " at the ends of the Starfish arms. In the regular Urchins (Desmosticlia) the mouth and anus are at opposite poles of the vertical axis of the shell ; but either one or both may be more or less excentric. In the Clypeastrida% (Cake- urchins) the anus is near the margin of the dorsal surface, while in Spatangus§ (Heart-urchin or Sea-bun) and its allies the anus is marginal, or even on the under-surface of the test, in which the mouth may also occupy a more or less excentric position. In the Desmosticha and Clypeastrida the mouth is provided with a very com- B A plicated masticating apparatus, which Fig. 15. — A, INTERNAL VIEW OF THE TEST OF Echinus microstoma, attains its highest development in the SHOWINO THE DE*TAL PYBAMID OR ?3^™?*?t%?" CENTRE OF THE RING OF AURICULA, NAT. SIZE ; B, THE DENTAL former group. It consists of twenty PYRAMID. (After Wyville Thomson.) principal pieces arranged into a five- sided conical mass, which was aptly compared by Aristotle to a lantern (Fig. 15, A, B). In the centre of the whole are five teeth working in bony sockets, or pyramids, that are connected by muscles with one another, with the interior of the test, and with the arched auriculae already * Greek, desmos, a band ; stickos, a row. J Latin, Clypeus, a shield ; Greek, aster, a star ; eidos, form. t Greek, peri, round about. § Greek, spatanyes. THE SEA-URCHINS. 271 mentioned, which are well shown in Fig. 15, A. Two other sets of accessory pieces connect the pyramids together, and serve as attachments for muscles, the number of these organs which are concerned in moving the whole lantern being thirty-five. The teeth move concentrically around the opening of the gullet (Fig. 16, ce), which passes upwards through the lantern, and is continued into an elongated digestive tube (Fig. 16, t). This exhibits no differentiation into stomach and intestine, but is coiled spirally around the interior of the test, to which it is attached by a mesentery. It is accompanied by two blood- vessels the one dorsal and the other ventral, which are connected with one another by an extensive vascular network in its walls. The i, t-, ventral vessel arises from an oral ring, which po is situated, together with the water-vascular ring, on the upper surface of the lantern. It is probably (though we do not as yet know with certainty) connected with an aboral ring, from which the vessels supplying the genital glands are given off, and in which the dorsal intestinal vessel may perhaps arise. The cen- tral plexus is in intimate relation with the water-tube which descends from the madreporite Fig i6._ViEw OF THE INTERIOR OF THE BISECTED TEST OF to the water-vascular ring. This last usually THE PURPLE EGG-URCHIN (Echinus liwdws). U~, fl,^, T>^linl ^l^c, nrl rriVoc. rvflf* +Vio ">' fc'11"^ '• '. intestine ; a, amis ; p, a water-vessel ; po, oral end of another ; ca. bears live .r Olian VeSlCleS, and gives On tne ocular plate ; «, one of tho pieces of the dental pyramid ; m, one of the jaw ,.-- 1,1 -i f j_i muscles; v, ovary. (After Tledeminn.) radial vessels, which descend the sides ot the lantern, and then pass outwards beneath the arches of the auricles (Fig. 1 6, p, po). The bases of the lateral tentacular branches which they give off open into large ambulacral vesicles, just as in the Stellerids. These radial water-vessels are accompanied by the radial blood-vessels and nervous trunks. The latter start from an oral ring, which is not above the lantern as the vascular rings are, but is close down upon the buccal membrane lying between the gullet and the tips of the teeth, which project from the lantern. The tentacular branches of the radial, nerves pass outwards through the same pores in the ambulacral plates as the tentacles themselves, and also communicate with an extensive nervous network, which penetrates the delicate membranous layer surrounding the test, and furnishes nerves to the pedicellarise and spines. In most of the regular Urchins there are ten gills in the neighbourhood of the mouth. These are thin-walled ciliated extensions of the closed body-cavity, which protrude between the buccal membrane and the lowest plates of the test, and assist in the work of respiration. In the irregular Urchins this function is exclusively performed by the water- vascular system, and some of the tentacles are specially modified, becoming broad, flat, and somewhat lobed. These are often spoken of as ambulacral gills. The genital glands of the Urchins are situated in clusters beneath the aboral portion of the test, and communicate with the exterior by the pores in the genital plates. All the Urchins are gregarious, and many of the Desmosticha inhabiting coasts that are much exposed to the action of the waves protect themselves by hollowing out cavities in the solid rock, even in granite. This is the case with the purple Egg-urchins of the English coast. They chisel out the rock with their teeth by incessantly turning round and round, commencing when young, and continually enlarging their prison to allow for the growth of their test and spines. The irregular Urchins, on the other hand, mostly prefer quiet sandy places, where they can bury themselves. (4) HolothuToidea. The Holothurians, which are also known as Sea-cucumbers, Trepangs, or Beches de Mer, are the most worm-like and the least radiate in form of all the Echinoderms. They have more or less elongated bodies (Fig. 17) enclosed in a tough skin, which contains only a comparatively small amount of calcareous matter ; and this (except in rare cases) never forms a continuous armour of plates, but occurs only in the shape of scattered grains, which often assume very definite and regular forms. There may, however, be a ring of limestone plates around the gullet, five of which have the same relation to the radial water-vessels as the auricles 272 NATURAL HISTORY. within the test of an Urchin, and also serve the same purpose, viz., the attachment of muscles. These organs are disposed in five bands, which correspond in position with the radial nerves proceeding from the oral ring. The mouth is at one end of the body, and the gullet leads into a long and much coiled digestive tube of tolerably uniform width, which terminates in a large poxich or cloaca, at or near the opposite extremity. Around the mouth is a fringe of branched tentacles (Fig. 17) connected with the water- vascular ring. In a few species this ring communicates directly with the exterior by means of a water-tube opening upon the surface of the body. But in most Holothurians the water-tube hangs down freely into the body-cavity, and terminates in a sieve-like madreporite. One or more Polian vesicles are attached to the water-vascular ring in the intervals between the origins of the radial vessels, with which tube-feet pro- vided with ampulla? are connected. In some forms (Cucumaria) * these tube-feet are evenly distributed, and almost equally developed on all the radial vessels (Fig. 17) ; but in others (Psohis) they are confined to three out of the five vessels, that are arranged in a flat sole-like disc, on which the animal creeps. In the Elasmopoda the two lateral vessels of this under surface are the only ones in the body, the three remaining vessels being suppressed ; while in Synapta^ and its allies there are no radial vessels at all, the oral ring and the tentacles connected with it being the sole representatives of the water-vascular system. The blood-vascular system consists essentially of dorsal and ventral vessels along the digestive tube, as in the Urchins. These are connected with an oral plexus, from which the radial blood-vessels originate. But no representative of a " central plexus " has yet been made out, except in the Elasmopoda, in which the two extremities of the dorsal vessel are united by a large contractile trunk. Respiration is largely effected by the branched tentacles round the mouth, which are connected with the water-vascular ring. The network of vessels on the walls of the digestive tube seems to take part in the same work, water entering the intestine from the cloacal pouch, which is capable of expansion and contraction. Connected with it in some Holothurians are two branched tubular organs, the " respiratory trees " or lungs, through which water can pass into the body-cavity by fine pores at the ends of the branches. The left lung may be in close relation with the vessels of the dorsal intestinal plexus. The Holothurians may attain a considerable relative size, some of them being a foot long, and capable of extending to thrice that length. Locomotion is largely effected by the extension and contraction of their bodies, which are continually changing their form by the action of strong muscles, both longitudinal and transverse, Sometimes, indeed, the contractions are so forcible that the creature throws out all its viscera through the cloaca, and lives for a time without them, until it can make good the loss by growing a new set. The English Holothurians live among seaweeds or in sand or mud, with the body concealed and the tentacles exposed. They take a great deal of sand into their digestive tube, and the intestines of those which live in the neighbourhood of coral reefs generally contain fragments of coral. When the nutritious matter has been extracted from the coral or sand, the latter is passed out through the cloaca. The Trepangs of the tropical seas form an important article of food in China. About thirty-five different varieties are enumerated by the Chinese traders, but only about five have any great commercial value. In Fiji they are accounted " royal fish," and used only to be caught by command of the supreme chief. Enough " fish " to fill a three-bushel bag, when dried, may be caught in two nights. The value of such a bagful would be from twenty-five to forty shillings, according to variety and the perfection with which it is cured. The process is effected as follows : — The viscera are * Latin, cucumis, a cucumber. t Greek, synaptos, joined together. Fig. 17.— HOLOTHURIAN (CUCU- tnaria planci) WITH ITS BUCCAL TENTACLES EXPANDED. TWICE NATURAL SIZE. THE CRINOIDS. 273 removed, and the "slugs" boiled for from ten to twenty minutes. After being well soaked in fresh water, they are arranged on frames in the curing-house. Here they are smoked and dried by means of fires, for which trenches are dug beneath the frames. Four days are required for this curing, after which the Trepang must be kept very dry, for it is remarkably hygrometric, and one damp slug will spoil a whole bag. The final product is an uninviting, dirty-looking substance, which is minced down by the Chinese into a sort of thick soup, a favourite dish among many of the European residents in China and the Philippine Islands. (5) Crinoidea. The Crinoids differ altogether from the other Echinoderms in their mode of life. Instead of crawling about mouth downwards by the aid of tube-feet, a Crinoid remains more or less permanently fixed in one spot, either lying on its back, or growing on a stalk with its mouth upwards. The Stalked Crinoids or Sea-lilies (Fig. 18) are great rarities at the present day, though they were excessively abundant in the seas of some foi-mer geological periods, their fossil remains being known, as Eiicrinites or Stone-lilies. Their structure, however, is fundamentally similar to that of the Feather- stars (Fig. 19), which we will now proceed to examine. As in the. Echinoderms generally, there are five rays, which correspond to the five ambulacra in the test of an Urchin (Fig. 14, A). But each of these five rays may fork from one to seven times, so that the number of arms may fall very little short of two hundred. In those of English seas, however, such as the Rosy Feather-star (Fig. 19), there are rarely more than ten arms. These arms are supported by an internal skeleton of limestone joints placed end to end, and are closely fringed with smaller jointed appendages — the pinnules* — which spring from them like the barbs from the quill of a feather. This feature sufficiently accounts both for the scientific and for the popular names (Comatula, Feather-star) of these animals. Attached to the middle of the back of the Feather-star are a number of little clawed hooks, the cirri (Fig. 20, ci), by which the creature can anchor itself to stones and seaweeds. It detaches itself occasionally, and swims about for a while with a peculiarly graceful alternating movement of its arms, eventually settling down in its pre- vious position, with its arms more or less completely extended. On the upper surface of each arm and pinnule is a groove (Figs. 20, 21, ag), which corresponds to the ambulacral groove on the under side of a Star- fish arm (Fig. 9, ag}. It is lined with cilia, which are in a state of continual vibratory movement, so as to produce currents in the water, that carry tiny food particles towards the mouth, where the grooves of all the arms meet (Fig. 1 9). The mouth may be either almost in the centre of the body or altogether excentric (Fig. 20, M), as in some Urchins. The whole of the coiled digestive tube is lodged within the body (Fig. 20, G), no part of it extending into the arms. It terminates in a tubular projection — the anal tube, the position of which depends upon that of the mouth (Fig. 19 ; Fig. 20, at}. The body itself consists of two parts: viz., (1) the cup or calyx formed by the skeleton, and (2) the visceral mass or disc, which is supported within this cup. The bottom of the cup is formed by a more or less saucer-shaped piece, the centrodorsal (Fig. 20, cd). Soldered on to this in most Feather-stars are the five first radials (RJ), which correspond to the ocular plates of the Echinoidea. The genital plates of this group are represented by the basal plates of the Crinoid larva (Fig. 8, A, b), which in most Feather-stars * Latin, diminutive of pinna,, a feather. 273 Fig. 18. — STALKED CKINOID OK SEA-LILY (Pentacrinus wyville- thomsoni). NATURAL SIZE. (After Wyville Thomson.) 274 NATURAL HISTORY. Fi gradually disappear from the exterior of the calyx ; though in one rare genus and in most Stalked Crinoids they are visible beneath the radials, alternating with them in position, and cutting them off more or less completely from the top stem-joint. Jointed on to the first radials, and attached to them by muscles, are the five second radials (Fig. 22, R2), each in- its turn bearing a third or axillary radial (RS). The outer face of this is roof-shaped, and bears the lowest joints (B) of two arms, which may or may not fork again. Immediately beneath the ciliated am- bulacral or food-groove of each arm and pinnule lies a nervous band (Fig. 21, n), and deeper still, a blood-vessel (b), just as in the groove on the under-side of a Starfish arm (Fig. 9, n, b). Beneath the blood-vessel is the water-vessel (Fig. 21, w), which gives off side branches to the tentacles (T). These are delicate tubular organs, which are situated at the sides of the food-groove, and correspond to the tube-feet of the Starfish (Fig. 9, t). Not being required for locomotion, they are essentially breathing organs. The water-vessels of the arms unite into five trunks which communicate, like those of the Starfish arms, with a ring-shaped vessel (Fig. 20, wr\ situated in the lip around the mouth. There is, however, no such direct communica- tion between this vessel and the external water as is effected by the stone-canal or water-tube of the Echinozoa. But water is able to enter the body-cavity by innumerable small tubular openings in its walls, the water-pores (Fig. 20, wp). These are lined by cilia, all working in- wards ; and, on the other hand, the water-vas- cular ring is in free communica- tion with the wi body-cavity by means of delicate ciliated tubuli — the water-tubes (Fig. 20, wt), the open ends of ivhich hang down jnto it, and thus Fig. 20. — LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH THE HODY OF AN IRREGULAR FEATHER-STAR (Comatula establish an in- i . .a, axial cords of the rays : oe, gullet ; as?cond>^na;thBiVdfli':adiarsm":ioint; B1> ^ **' flvst> are distributed to the muscles connecting the successive joints (Fig. 20, am). The nervous apparatus beneath the food-grooves (Fig. 21, n) is not connected with the muscles, ar-d has no influence whatever upon the movements of the skeleton, which will continue to swim Fig. 21. — CROSS-SECTIOX OF A PINNULE OF THE ARCTIC FEATHER-STAR (Comatula es- rfirtcW.it), MAGNIFIED SEVENTY- FIVE TIMES. (Slightly altered from H. Ludwig.) a, axial cord ; a', its branches ; 03, arabu- lacral or food groove ; b, radial blood- vessel; gv, genital vessel; n, radial nerve; on, ovary ; pj, pinnule joint ; tc, water-vessel ; T, tentacles. 276 NATURAL HISTORY. about after the visceral mass has fallen out of the calyx, carrying with it the oral nerve-ring (Fig. 20, nr). We are led to conclude, therefore, that besides the additional elements in their blood-vascular system, the Crinoids also possess a complicated system of motor-nerves, which is altogether unrepresented in the Eckinozoa. The food of the Crinoids is mostly microscopic in character, such as Foraminifera, Infusoria, Entomostraca, and the larvae of the higher Crustacea. They are very gregarious, as are most of the Echinoderms, the Stalked Crinoids living in great forests on certain parts of the sea-bottom, just as they did in previous geological periods. During a recent exploration of the Caribbean Sea by the United States Coast Survey, no less than one hundred and twenty-four specimens of Pentacrini were obtained at a single haul of the dredge and its appendages. These must have swept over actual forests of the Sea-lilies, crowded together just as they must have lived in the old Liassic seas. Both in England (as at Lyme Regis) and abroad large slabs of shaly limestone are found containing collections of fossil Pentacrinites, some of them very perfect and remarkable for the great length of their stems. The total length of the stem of one specimen found in Germany, as measured by its broken pieces, was found to be seventy feet, while others with stems fifty feet long are not uncommon. They must have presented a curious sight in their native seas, each with its long stem on which was the crown of arms, not more than two feet across when fully expanded. The Crinoids of the Palaeozoic period differ very considerably from those preserved in the Secondary and Tertiary rocks. In many of them the mouth was not on the external surface of the body, for it was covered in by a dome of rigid heavy plates. But there were food-grooves on the arms, just as in the recent Sea-lilies and Feather-stars, and at the circumference of the dome were a number of openings, one for each groove, through which the food particles passed on their way towards the mouth. The earliest representative of the more modern type of Crinoid in which the mouth is open to the exterior is the " Lily Encrinite," from the Trias of Germany, a very elegant and well-known species. In an old German book about the natural history of Altenburg, dated 1774, it is recorded that the Emperor of Germany once offered a hundred thalers for a good specimen of this Stone-lily attached to its stem, and free from the matrix in which it had been embedded. Little need be said about the Cystoidea and the Blastoidea, two groups which are of the highest Ecological interest, owing to their furnishing numerous connecting links between the Crinoids and the Echinozoa. They have been extinct since the close of the Palaeozoic epoch. They were stalked Echinoderms, like the Crinoids, with food-grooves converging towards a central or excentric mouth, and were provided with respiratory organs, much resembling the interradial pouches of the Ophiurids in their general structure, while it is very doubtful whether their water-vascular system was provided with tentacles. As in the Crinoids, the body-walls were supported by limestone plates, which were arranged very regularly in the Blastoids, but somewhat less so in the Cystids. Further information upon the subject of the Echinoderms will be found in the works of Agassiz, W. B. Carpenter. Duncan, E. Forbes, H. Ludwig, Liitken, Lyman, Metschnikoff, J. Miiller, Sars, Selenka, Semper, Sladen, Wyville Thomson, and others. P. HERBERT CARPENTER, THE GKOUP ZOOPHYTA. CHAPTER I. THE HYDROZOA, OR HYDROMEDUS^E. Tlie Group ZOOPHYTA— Class HYDROZOA, OR HYDROMEDUSJE — Characters — Colonies — Reproduction— Order CTENOPHORA — Characters — Venus' Girdle — Order DISCOPHORA, MEDUS.E, or JELLY-FISHES — Appearance— The Disc — Method of Reproduction — The Lucernarice — Order SIPHONOPHORA — Characters— The "Portuguese Man-of-War" — The Calycophone— The Physophorse — 7 'elella— Order HYDROIDA — Genus Hydra — Characters— Gemmation — Power of Reparation — Sub-order TUBULAHIA — Periyonim us — Characters— Other Tubularians — Sub-order CAM PANULAHIA — Sertulariidse— Plumulariidae — Sub-order TRACHOMEDUS^: — Order HYDROCORALLINA — Milleporidaj — Description- Characters — Stylasters — Other Hydrocorallinse — Classification of the Hydrozoa. THE Jelly-fish, the Sertularian Polypes, the Hydra, the Sea Anemones, the Alcyonarians, and the Stony Corals are well-known forms of animal life, and their distinctness from the Echinodermata and the other groups already noticed is evident. They constitute the group Zoophyta, and have more or less of a radiate structure, with tentacles ; and there is a digestive cavity within their body, with wide or canal-shaped offshoots from it. The hollow space within the body thus occupied has given them another name — Ccelenterata ; * but before this term was applied, the plant-like appearance of many of the group had entitled them to the term Zoophyta. t They are distinct from the group Spongida (Sponges), although some synthetic-minded morphologists classify all together as Coelen- terates. Formerly the name of Polypes, or Polypifera, was given, on account of the tentaculate body. There are two classes of the Zoophyta— the Hydrozoa and the Anthozoa. THE CLASS HYDROZOA, OR HYDROMEDUS^E. A vast number of marine and a few fresh-water animals, popularly called Polypes and Jelly-fish, belong to this class. All are very delicately and beautifully constructed, and they present great varieties of shape and methods of life. The fresh-water Hydra, the pretty feathery Polype-stems on sea-shells and rocks, the Sertularians and Tubularians, the Jelly-fish, the Portuguese Man-of-war, the Beroes, the Stony Millepores of reefs, and the coloured Stylasters of the deep sea, all have certain structures in common, in spite of their diverse shapes and habits. The essential parts of these animals are a mouth, leading directly to a cavity which is digestive in its function, and relates to the circulation of a nutritive fluid, an outer delicate skin, or ecto-derm, encasing the body, and an inner, lining the internal cavity and mouth, and the reproductive organs which are outside the stomachal cavity, and are usually in specially modified parts of the body. These last may be simple sac-like projections of the ecto-derm, or they may be complicated, and have an innei-, and also a meso-derm (middle-skin), covered by the ecto-derm, and may resemble ball-shaped Jelly-fish stuck on by their upper part. The Hydrozoa have tentacles, some very slender and others comparatively stout, and certain stinging cells called nematocysts. The organs of special sense are in a very rudimentary condition, but the tissues as a rule are highly sensitive to irritation, and are very contractile. Some of the class are free-swimmers, and others are fixed during all or part of their life cycle. Most are soft and easily destroyed, but some have very solid sub-structures. The stationary forms are in colonies of individuals, connected by root- like supports, and in some of the free-swimming kinds there is a colony beneath a float — as in the Portuguese Man-of-war — but the Jelly-fish are solitary. The colonies may be of simple or of branching individuals, some of which are for the purposes of the nutrition and others for the reproduction of the species. In their construction there is an outer and inner derm, and a central cavity reaching from the root-like supports to the mouth. The opening from the outside into the mouth is without a gullet, and the stomach, or somatic cavity, is digestive as well as referable to the circulation, and it may be simple or may be continuous with canals which radiate from it. The reproductive process is very varied. In some free-swimming Jelly-fish the kind is reproduced by the budding of small ones from the region of the mouth, or eggs may be developed and set free, which become like the parents. But these methods * Greek, koilos, hollow ; enteron, bowel. t Greek, zoon, animal ; phyton, plant. 278 NATURAL HISTORY. are rather exceptional, for the greater part of the free-swimming Medusae, or Jelly-fish, are the highest developments of individuals which began life in a different shape, and had different habits. The fixed and polype-looking kinds, which have a branched stem, and on it one kind of zooid for nutrition and another for reproduction, develop in certain receptacles of this last, either as larvae, which escape as ciliated elongate or globular bodies that settle down and become like their parent, or else as piano-blasts — wandering buds — Jelly-fish or Medusae — which, when they escape, grow and develop sexual elements, and their eggs hatch into the shape of the young individuals of the fixed colony. The generation is then said to be alternate. It is probable, however, that the rudiments of the contents of the generative sacs are developed within the central canal of the body, and pass thence into special organs, and grow into shape. Budding also occurs, and similar forms are reproduced by it. Usually there is great transparency of the tissues, and cilia exist on some kinds, and all have sting- or nettle-cells, or nematocysts in their derm. These are cells with a spiny thread coiled up in them, which escapes on pressure or irritation. The touch of the fine thread, with or without the contents of the cell-sac, produces a paralysing influence on minute Crustacea and animalcules, which form the bulk of their food. The contrast in the dimensions of the Hydrozoa is remarkable ; some of the Jelly-fish are several feet in diameter, and others are like little balls, and the branching or fixed kinds may be microscopic or some inches in length ; the first are muscular in some parts, and the last are more or less chitinous in their investment. Special senses are represented in the free forms by eye -spots and minute particles of mineral matter or lithocysts, and in most the tentacles which surround the region of the mouth or the margin of the disc of the Medusae are retractile, and are weapons of offence or of capture. The nervous system is very rudimentary, being more or less in connection with the muscular fibres, in some being made up of nervo-muscular tissues, contractile and sensitive, in the meso-derm, or middle-skin. Haeckel has described a circular band of nerve, on the inner side of the circular canal of the ball-shaped Medusae, and states that it gives off shoots to the lithocysts, radial canals, cavity, and mouth. But the evidence is not very satisfactory. There is no circulatory system, properly speaking, and no special blood ; and the juices of the body are aerated through the delicate tissues. All are aquatic. The Hydrozoa are divided into five orders — the Ctenophora, Discophora, Siphono- phora, Hydroida, and Hydrocorallina. ORDER CTENOPHORA. These are free-swimming Hydrozoa, usually globular or cylindrical in shape, and rarely ribbon- shaped, and they are more or less lobed. They have rows of flappers placed like lines of longitude on their body, and sometimes two tactile filaments, which can be retracted. The stomach is more or less tubular, and is associated with a series of canals. Never budding, they do not produce colonies or compound organisms, and they are characterised by the great development of the middle tissue, or meso-derm. A nervous ganglion, at the side remote from the mouth, with eight radiating cords to the paddles, appears to have been made out satisfactorily. The Ctenophowe,* not having a disc, and not resembling the Medusae, or Jelly-fish, in their shape, have a totally different method of moving in the water. Whilst the great Jelly-fish contract and expand their bodies in regular succession, moving in a very stately manner, the Ctenophorse dart here and there, rapidly ascend, descend, and move slowly at will ; so that at night, when the great Medusae are phosphorescent, and look like pale, slowly-moving spheres under water, the little Ctenophorae flash here and there with a bright light, and are soon out of sight. They move by the rapid flapping of countless little paddle-like processes arranged BEROE PILEUS. in vertical rows along the sui'face of the body, like the teeth of a comb. The rows may all be in full vigour of movement, or one only may act; and, indeed, separate paddles appear to move independently and at will. The little creatures thus rise and move obliquely, or fall and progress, according to the quantity and the position of the skin machinery which may be used. They can stop and float in mid- water, and again dart off; and A. Agassiz * Comb-bearers. THE CTENOPHORJE. 279 noticed that sometimes one-half of their flappers were acting, whilst those of the other side of the body were at rest, thus producing rotary motion. The combs, which are very small, are placed on horizontal bands of muscular tissue, and when they move by day they are iridescent and very beautiful. One of the most beautiful of the Otenopborse belonging to the globular sub-order is the type of the family Cydippidse, and is a species of Pleurobrachia.* It is a small transparent sphere, occasionally becoming bulged out, and there is a slit-like mouth on the top, and a dark eye-spot is at the other pole. Eight rows of fringes run, like lines of longitude, from pole to pole, dividing the surface, like the ribs on a melon. Hanging from either side of the body, from just above the eye-speck, are two very long tentacles, like soft fringes of feathers on a spring. They are in rapid movement when necessary, coiling, undulating, and moving the little body in most graceful curves, or they may stream out listlessly, and float behind, a foot or eighteen inches in length. In an instant they may contract, and fold into a knot not larger than a pin's head. The prevailing tint of the little sphere is given by the motions of these wonderful fringes, and it may be yellowish, pink, green, red, and purple. These arise from small sacs, into which they may be withdrawn. The mouth is brought constantly within i-each of its minute prey — small immature marine animals and plants — by the motion of the fringes, and the food passes down a wide digestive cavity between two tubes. These unite at the lower part of the body in a single funnel-shaped cavity, which is a reservoir for the circulating fluid poured through an opening in the digestive cavity into it. The food and much water pass into this canal and are sent ramifying through a series of tubes about the body. These chymiferous tubes start horizontally and at right angles to the digestive cavity, from the point of junction of the vertical tubes and the canal. When they reach the periphery, each one joins a longitudinal tube which is just within one of the rows of flappers, and more or less connected with it. The Atlantic, and the northern parts especially, are favourite localities of this genus, but others of the family are found in the Mediterranean and the Pacific Ocean. The pretty Beroe and the genus Rangia belong to the sub-order Eurystoma, and their oval bodies are contractile, and without lobes and tentacular filaments of much length. The mouth and stomach are large. Some of the Ctenophorre, such as the Bolinse, are lobed in the region of the mouth, which is downwards, and the body departs from the globular shape and does not have long tentacles. They move with a sluggish, slow, and undulating movement, and have the eight rows of small paddles, but they differ in length according to their position on the body. The motion is assisted by appendages, called auricles of the lobes ; and the whole animal, according to Agassiz, resembles a white flower with the crown expanded, and especially when it reverses itself and floats mouth upwards. The genus is found in the Northern Seas. The family Cestidse belongs to the ribbon-shaped order ; and Cestum veneris (Venus' Girdle) of the * Pleurobrachia rhododactyla. VENUS' GIRDLE (Cestum veneris). 280 NATURAL HISTORY. Mediterranean, is a long, slender, narrow, strongly -com pressed, very agile creatui-e, rather enlarged in front and behind. There are two tactile filaments, each one with an offshoot, and they are fixed to the buccal or month region, which is carried downwards. It is covered with moving cilia, and four ranges of motile organs, and four vessels are noticed on the xipper part of the body. Four other vessels are in the lower part, and they are in communication. The graceful undulating movements of this Cestum have always excited the admiration of those naturalists who have had the good fortune to see them. Some of the Ctenophorse are very abundant, and hundreds of the group, characterised by having a bell-shaped body, and belonging to the Eurystomse, are caught in the Northern seas when fishing-nets are brought up. The common Beroe of the British coasts is one of them, and so is the Rosy Idya of the American Seas. All the Cteiiophorae are produced from eggs, and the young swim in the egg long before they are set free ; they have the flappers of great size in relation to the rest of the body. An examination of the development of the young of the different great groups proves that certain structures, which last on in the less complicated forms, are transient in the higher ones. ORDER DISCOPHORA.— THE MEDUSAE, OR JELLY-FISH. Everybody is familiar with the appearance of the large Jelly-fish which move so gracefully by expanding and contracting their umbrella-shaped discs, and on the surface of which four more or less circular coloured patches are to be seen. Hundreds occur off the British shores, swimming with the tide, and rising and sinking in the clear sea in the summer. They are semi-transparent and almost colourless when seen by daylight, and some of them are luminous at night. When one is caught by the hand, unless care be taken, the fingers enter its tender substance, and it falls motionless into the water. And when one is found stranded and dead on the sand, the edge of the disc is seen to be lobed and furnished with a fringe of thread-like tentacles ; the circular spots on the top are also visible, and so are numerous markings, like lines, eight often being principal, passing from the top of the disc to its circumference, and uniting in a canal which passes all round the edge, just within the substance of the Jelly-fish. On turning this Discophora or Medusa on its back, and looking at the under surface of the disc, a central opening is to be found, into which the finger can pass. This is the mouth, and the passage leads through the substance of the disc to a cavity, the stomach, which is surrounded by the four coloured circular spots. The substance of the disc has an outer very delicate skin covered with cilia, and on the under surface of the disc muscular fibres stretch from the margin to the edge of the mouth. In some very large kinds* the substance itself is rather tough; and yet Agassiz states that one which weighed 341bs. being left to dry in the sun for some days lost TVotns °f ^ original weight. Such an one would be seven feet in diameter without its tentacles ; but from one to five feet are the common sizes. Hence these great discs principally consist of water, and it is held in the meshes of a connective tissue, which contains cells possessing amoeboid movements. The skin which lines the mouth and the stomach also enters the four circular cavities, and also the canals which radiate from the stomach in the disc substance, and reach the circular canal. At the bottom of each of the notches on the edge of the disc which separate it into lobes is a small oval body containing calcareous matter on a minute stalk, the cavity of which is continuous with one of the radiating canals just noticed. Pigment may also exist about the little body, which has been called a lithocyst, and has been deemed an organ of special sense for hearing or seeing, or both. A membranous covering usually protects the so-called eyes. The entrance to the mouth is in the midst of a part of the body which is denser than the rest, and, indeed, the disc may be considered to be an appendage. It is made up of four parts, which may be divided so as to present eight radiating arms, in the midst of which is the passage to the stomach. This part, which hangs down, when the disc is in motion, is called the hydranth. The circular spots are reproductive organs, and the eggs escape from them into the stomach, and pass forth through the mouth. In some kinds the stomach has pouches, and in all, the radial canals whether * Cyanea arctica. r 69 JELLY-FISHIiS. THE MEDUSA. simple or ramified, carry the digested food to the circular canal. No special organs of circulation exist, and respiration is effected by the membranes or skin of the disc. The fringe of tentacles around the disc may be very short and sparely developed, or these appendages may be many feet in length and very numerous. They are supplied with nernatocysts, which are the stinging organs, and which are sufficiently annoying to some thin-skinned bathers. The nervous system may exist in relation to the eye-spots, and in a very rudimentary condition elsewhere. Small swimming Invertebrata are the food of the Medusa. The methods of reproduction and development are very remarkable, and the dimensions of the full-grown disc are greatly in ^^ — — - _ ^__ ^_=^ _ __^ -__-J excess of those of the first stage of life. One great group of the Discophorse, including the com- mon Jelly-fish of the British \ seas, lay eggs in the autumn when they are swimming near to the coasts and estuaries. The parent dies, and the young escape from the eggs as little spherical bodies, covered with cilia. Each one attaches itself by its base to a rock or seaweed, and tentacles are formed at the other end, the body gradually becoming elongate. With growth some contractions occur around the young form, the first being just below the circle of tentacles. Tentacles soon appear on the edges of the con- traction nearest the base, and the edges of the other con- tractions simply become lobed. After a while these contractions become deep, and the animal resembles a set of plates placed one over the other, the top and bottom ones having circlets of tentacles. At a certain period, when the whole is less than an inch in height, the entire structure breaks up ; the top falls off and dies, and the bottom part remains fixed, whilst the rest separates into as many discs as there were contractions, and each swims off to become a gigantic Discophora. * This process is a good example of the alternation of generation, and the young and tentacled form is the nurse or intermediate stage. It has been called " Hydra-tuba," and in the next stage it is called Strobila. The Discophora? include the great free-swimming oceanic Medusae, but it is not clearly proved that all do pass through the peculiar stages of develop- ment. Some may have a very different early life, and may belong to other groups of the Hydrozoa. Two sub-orders are distinguished. The Pelagida, containing such genera as Cyanea, Aurelia, and Pelagia, have a large central mouth surrounded with four arms, often subdivided, and fixed on to a buccal peduncle. The fringes of tentacles on the lobed margin of the disc may be long or short. The genital organs are four. The Rhizostoma have a great develop- ment of the structures surrounding the mouth, which gives the name from their root-like appearance. The mouth, with growth, closes at its lips, and passages into the digestive tract are formed down the rootlets, at the ends of which are small openings, like little suckers. There are no marginal filaments. * Example, Aurelia flavidula. Al'UELIA AfHITA. STKOB1LA OF AURELIA FI.AVIUULA. (After L. Agassiz.) 274 282 XATURAL HISTORY. One of the prettiest free-swimming Medusoids is more or less bell-shaped, but it has a stalk-like top, by which it can attach itself to weed or rock, and the margin of the bell is separated into eight knobs, or lobes, covered with tentacles. The membrane of the bell is festooned between the lobes, and the whole animal is very transparent. These Lucernariae are very contractile, and can change their shape, and their movements are most varied. They swim by contractions and expansions of the disc, like ordinary Jelly-fish; but when they settle down, the lower part of the disc curves up and the body is fixed on its peduncle. L. Agassiz, in his charming book on the marine animals of Massachusetts Bay, writes: — "It frequently secures itself in the upright position, spreading itself in the form of a perfectly symmetrical cup or vase, the margin of which is indented by a succession of inverted scallops, the point of junction between two scallops being crowned by a tuft of tentacles. But watch it for a while, and the sides of the vase turn backward, spreading completely open, till they present the whole REPRODUCTION OF DiscopHORA. inner surface, with the edges even curved a little down- ward, drooping slightly, and the proboscis rising in the centre. In such an attitude one may trace, with care, the shape of the mouth, the lobes surrounding it, as well as the tubes and cavities radiating from it towards the margin. A touch is, however, sufficient to make it close upon itself, shrinking together, or even drawing its tentacles in and contracting all its parts, till it looks like a little ball hanging on the stem. These are but few of its manifold changes, for it may be seen in every phase of contraction and expansion." The bell is not a hollow hemisphere, but is a mass of gelatinous hardness, and the peduncle is an extension of the bell, and it has a minute disc at the end, for attachment. The mouth is in the midst of the bell, which has an inverted look, is square, and is on a projecting proboscis. The body-cavity is four-chambered, and each communicates with the mouth. Triangular-looking structures pass outwards to the tentacular knobs, and are the ovaries, consisting of a number of little bags, each crowded with eggs. These drop into the stomach, and are passed out of the mouth. The tentacles are club-shaped, LUCERXARI.*: ON PIECE OF and they have an orifice which leads through a canal to the chambers of the SE^yE™ (Lucemaria octo- • raaiata) . digestive cavity, two of the clusters being connected with each chamber. "Their chief office," writes L. Agassiz, "is to catch food and convey it to the mouth ; but the Lucer- naria frequently uses them in locomotion, fixing itself by them, and loosing the end of its peduncle." Between the clusters are slight projections, which are short and compact, and they are used as claspers to a certain extent. They contain a slight pigment spot, which may be an eye. The colour of the American form (Lucernaria auricula) is greenish, with a faint tinge of red, and it assumes a beautiful aquamarine tint. The British species thrive in aquaria, and are very beautiful objects. ORDER SIPHONOPHORA.* These are free- swimming Hydrozoa, but each one consists of a colony or assemblage of individuals united in a common stock, termed a hydrosoma,f and placed under a more or less tough part, which acts as a float. This last may be large and crested, or it may be small, and united to others which fulfil the same office. An air-sac, from which air can be expelled, enters into the composition of the float. Nutritive and generative individuals, or zooids, exist in the colony, and long pendant tentacles add to the beauty of the forms. In some an oil bubble, surrounded by tissue, acts as a float. They reproduce by developing buds, which give forth plaiioblasts (wandering buds) or medusae. These develop eggs, which grow into the shape of the float and colony. The "Portuguese Man-of-War"| may be seen in the tropics sailing on the surface of the sea, it? * Tube, or siphon -bearers. f See Note on p. 286. J Physalia utriculus. THE PHYSALI^E. 283 coloured float, with a crest to it, being partly above water, and a multitude of tentacles, some long and others short, trail behind in the waves. The float is sac-like, long, pointed at one end and rounded at the other, and there is a small opening at either end surrounded by muscular fibres. When the float is held in the hand, it feels light, and a little pressure forces air out of it. The sac contains an enlargement of the digestive cavity, and also a long air-sac, divided by muscular partitions, which do not, however, communicate with the digestive cavity, but open externally. Beneath the float are numerous long tentacles without lateral branches, and with kidney-shaped enlarge- ments here and there, armed with nematocysts. Besides these, there are a host of shorter structures, forming, really, a hydroid colony. There are tentaculate in- dividuals, or zooids, called trophosomes, in groups which deal with the nutrition, and bunches of other individuals, or gonophores, with medusa- like buds, and which ai-e repro- ductive. These escape, and the Physalia is their product. Physalite are found in vast multitudes, and about 1 20 species exist, and they are amongst the most graceful and beautiful objects of the ocean and large seas. The sub - order Caly- cophorfe have the hydrosoma, or swimming body, propelled by special swimming bells, or nectocalyces, each of which resembles the bell of a medusa without the root-like processes. The cavity of the bell is mus- cular, and the pedicle of attachment has a process of the body-cavity branching into canals. The bells may be retracted into the mass of the body, which is flexible, un- i 1 i /!!•/• PHYSALIA UTKICt'LUS. branched, filiform, and walled. Praya diphyes has two small rounded swimming sacs, nearly alike, and they are placed opposite e end of the body. They have groove-like processes for retraction, and the male and individuals are attached to the same body-mass, or coenosarc. Diphyes is also a genus of the ler, and has two large natatory sacs, one placed, as it were, within the bell of the other. Ihysophora hydrostatica, of the Mediterranean, belongs to another sub-order— the Physophor.-e— has a rather twisted floating body, whose natatory vesicles are in two rows. Below these is a crown of tentacles surmounting the colony of nutritive, generative, and filamentary zooids. NATURAL HISTORY. The little Velella, of the sub-order Discoida, has been compared to a little raft with an obliquely placed upright sail ; the raft has its system of canals, and the thin membranous sail is the air-sac. It is cartilaginous, and the concentric tubes found within open externally. Below the disc are the nutritive and generative zooids, and there is usually a large polype in the midst of this crowded submarine colony. There are tentacles on the edge of the disc, which may be bright blue, purple, or brown in colour. It sails along with its upright membranous part, and is kept up by the air canals. The generative zooids produce medusae, which become free. L. Agassiz describes the medusa of Velella tiiutica as a long bell, with a short proboscis in the upper part of the cavity, which is connected with the outside by a tubular opening. Eggs are the product of the medusae, and they develop into Velellse. ORDER HYDROIDA. The fresh-water polype is a common name for several species of the genus Hydra, which are to be found in ponds and slow streams, hanging to the under surface of floating leaves and upon the stems of water plants. If in the summer time a glass jar is tilled with clear pond water, and some of ^Q body" up unto the tentacles, and consists of large nucleated cells, from whose bases filaments are continued inwards. Surrounding these neuro-muscular cells are others which contain nematocysts. Moreover, minute points project from the surface cells. The inner tissue, or endoderm, which lines the visceral cavity and the inside of the tentacles, contains cells, with amoeboid movement, and spaces in the midst called vacuoles. Some have long cilia. The food passes down an opening in the midst of the bases of the tentacles, and reaches a sac-like stomach, and particles of it get into the vacuoles, and are digested there. Vertical fibres and amoeboid cells exist between the layers of the body, or, rather, there is an inter-cellular substance common to both layers. One of the most extraordinary gifts of the Hydra is its power of reparation of injuries, and re- production of new individuals out of portions into which it has been accidentally or naturally divided. If a tentacle be cut off, an entire animal is formed out of it ; if the body is cut in half, it will join together again if the parts are placed together, and if not, two individuals will result ; if parts of one individual are placed on the cut surface of another, they will grow together ; and if the body be turned inside out, the old ectoderm takes on the digestive power, and the former endoderm that of the skin. Another common Hydra is the brown one (Hydra fusca\ and its tentacles are longer than the body. These interesting and readily obtainable creatures are species of a genus which belong to a family — the Hydridae of the sub-order Tubularia, classified under the great division or order of the Hydroida. The Hydroida differ very con- siderably from the other orders already noticed, in one part or during the whole of their existence. They are very plant-like and stationary during the whole of their exist- ence, and they sometimes develop buds which become free- swimming medusae. These reproduce ova, which become The exceptions to this rule are few, and the characters of the Hydra NEMATOCYST OF HYDll V VIRIDIS. like the fixed or parent stock, are rather exceptional. The fixed polypes of one of the sub-orders, the Trachomedusse, are not known, and they may not have an alternation of generation ; and all the medusae of the plant-like or stationary forms have not been discovered. Moreover, different genera of the Hydroida may have medusae, which present the closest similarity, and the medusae alter much as they develop during growth. The polypes have 286 NATURAL HISTORY. M A G N I F I E 1) "WITH A HUD. a simple internal structure, and may or may not be provided with a mouth and a gastric cavity. This is simple and without oesophagus and divisions, and is ciliated, as a rule. Tubes may pass from it in some large forms. The nervous system is neuro-muscular in the fixed forms, and there is a rudimentary nervous structure in relation to the marginal canal and lithocysts of the medusae. The sexes are separate, and the colonies contain male and female stock, besides those destined for alimentation. The Hydroida, therefore, consist of colonies of polypes, more or less dendroid or cespitose in shape, which produce sexual buds, which often bear free medusje. The order contains several sub-orders, such as the Hydrocorallinse, the Tracho- medusse, the Tubularife, and the Campanularise, of which the last two are the more closely allied, and are very typical of the order. SUB-ORDER TUBULARIA. Dr. Allman found in the Firth of Forth, in the month of June, whelk- shells covered with a mossy-looking growth, which, on a slight magnifying power being applied, proved to be a number of polype-looking things, having their stems united at their bases by a set of roots, and having tentacles at the other end. Some of the stems were narrow where attached to the roots, and became smaller near their ends, which diminished in size, and resembled small cones. At 'ATTACHED TO *ne ^°P °^ ^ne cone ig a small mouth, and just below it is a circle of six to ten DUCKWEED ; B, tentacles, some projecting outwards, and others upwards and downwards. On the stem, but not reaching up as far as the tentacles, is a skin roughened with particles of sand, and a more delicate one extends to the mouth. Some of these stems had an offshoot made like themselves. They were about two lines long. Very contractile on irritation, and having the power of killing prey with nematocysts, which occur in bundles on the tentacles, these stems receive food and digest it, and are the nourishing parts of the colony. A second kind of stem exists, but it is very small where it joins the common root, and then it becomes suddenly globular, and has neither opening nor tentacles when small. This kind has nothing to do with nutrition, but is part of the repro- ductive apparatus. For in June the globular mass enlarges, and becomes transparent, and after a, while it bursts, and a small Medusa or Jelly-fish, egg-shaped at first, but growing more ball-shaped, escapes. This has two long tentacles on the edge of its umbrella, and the mouth within has four shallow lips. It is a pale reddish little thing, and moves after the fashion of larger ones. Leading a free-swimming life, and taking in food, it produces eggs which, after hatching, settle down, and each one becomes in the year following a colony of the stems just noticed. Such an animal belongs to the Hydroida, and from having the generative bud and tentacles of the stern uncovered by any special hood, it is called one of the gymnoblast* group, or sub-order. The species is Perigonimus vestitus, and the genus was named by Sars from the fact that some- times the medusa buds are found around the nutritive stems (Greek, peri, around; gonimos, productive). It belongs to the family Eudendridse, of the Gymnoblastea.f * Greek, yymnos, nakeil ; llastos, bud. t Certain terms are employed to describe the Hydroids, and if the description of the species of Perigonimus be referred to, the terminology becomes easy of comprehension. The entire colony, with all its parts, stems, and roots, is the Hydrosoma (Greek, hydra, a monster ; soma, body). The stems which are nutritive only form the Trophosorne (Greek, trophe, nourishment; (After Allman.) THE SUB-ORDER TUBULARIA. 287 Eudendrium has a species forming pretty little tree-like shapes in rock pools near low water spring tides on the southern coasts of England. It * is about three-quarters of an inch in height, and consists of rootlets and a stem with regular branches, and has the nutritive and generative zooids on it. The outer tissue, or perisarc, is dis- tinctly marked with rings, and is annu- lated, and there are about twenty ten- tacles, some looking upwards and others downwards. The gonosome has male and female sacs in whorls, and they are placed just behind the tentacles or on the stem lower down. Some small medusae of the genus Lizzia belong to this group. A third genus is Hydractinia, and it is remarkable for its resemblance to Millepora, one of the Hydrocorallinse, but it is without the hard calcareous base of this last. LIZZIA FLOATIXO HEXEATH THE SURFACE. Hydractinia has several species, and it was at first taken to be a Bryozoon, from the horny spinous crust which it forms on the surface of empty univalve shells. It forms numerous colonies, and the hydranths are claviform, and arise from the surface of the common base, or hydrophyton. There is a crown of tentacles, which are filiform, and it encircles the conical mouth. The genera- tive buds are on smaller polypes, which are without mouth, and end in globular clusters of thread cells representing the tentaclea of the hydranth. The generative buds cluster around this polype, c which is called a blastostyle, and some contain, around a central body, the ova, and others the male elements. A common species (Hydractinia echinata) is found on the •es of England, France, and Belgium, and covering more or less JSVJIJ.E:NIJ.KIUM. IMSIOXE. (AitirA.um.an.) ° . , T , , A, coi,my. natural siz,> ; B, male colony, masni- dead urn valve shells inhabited by Hermit crabs, it has, near the Hod ; o, female bearing gonophoreB, luagDined. , ,.,.•.. •, i margin of the base, spiral appendages, cylindrical in shape, and very contractile and movable. They twist and untwist with great vivacity. The genus Podocoryne is not very unlike the last mentioned, but all the polypes are tentaculate. soir.a, body). The buds which produce the medusae, or the generative part of the colony, are tho Gonosome (Greek, f/onos, offspring). When the Trophosome branches, or has offshoots, each one is a zooid, and the proper nutritive zooid, which has a mouth and digestive cavity, is the hydranth (Greek, hydra, hydra ; anthos, flower). The mouth is at the end of a cone, which is called the hypostome (Greek, hypo, under ; stoma, mouth). The common basis of the Trophosome, by which the zooids are connected, is the hydrophyton (Greek, phyton, a ulant), and the end of the hydrophyton, or root, is the hydro- rhiza (Greek, rhiza, a root). All the hydrophyton between the root and the hydranth is the hydrocaulus (Greek, kaulos, a stem). The bud, or zooid, which contains the reproductive elements, is a gonophore (Greek, yonos, offspring ; phorco, I A planoblast (Greek, plftnos, wandering) is a generative bud, fit for a free locomotive life ; and a blastostyle (Greek, stylos, a column) is a columniform zooid, destined to give origin to generative buds. Umbrella is a term for t gelatinous bell of a medusa ; the manubrium is the part carrying the mouth ; and the velum (a veil) is a membranous perforated diaphragm, which stretches across the orifice of the umbrella which communicates with the external water. * Eudmdrium insigne. (*ur Ailman.} 288 NATURAL HISTORY. I'ODOCOKYNE CAHNEA. (After Oilman.) The buds on the generative tentacle-bearing parts develop into medusae, which are deep bell-shaped. Each has the outer surface dotted with scattered thread cells, and there is a velum or membrane between i;he margins of the bell with a central opening. There are from four to eight marginal tentacles with bulbous bases destitute of ocelli. Four radiating canals are to be seen, and the mouth or manubrium is small and four-lipped. Other Tubularians belonging to the family Clavidse may be instanced by a veiy pretty species* belonging to the genus Syncoryne,t which is characterised by having numerous club-shaped hydranths united in a common colony. The tentacles, moreover, are scattered on the clubs and are not in whorls, and the gonophores are in the form of medusae, with four radiating canals and four marginal tentacles. The little species is of a deep orange colour, and this tint is found on the medusa buds as well as on the hydranths. The little colony is about half an inch in height, and the trophosome has its tentacles knobbed and along the length of the club-shaped part. The medusa buds (gonophores) are in short peduncles, just below the tentacles. These are developed in April, and when the medusa is ready to escape it has four very extensible tentacles at the margin of the timbrel la, and is nodulated with clusters of nematocysts. A distinct ocellus is on the base of each tentacle. It is, of course, not covered with a membrane, and is "naked-eyed." The mouth is short, and there is a membrane or velum extending across the opening of the manubrium with a central opening in it. Allman found a branching Hydroid in fresh water, and it has since been proved to live in lakes, docks, and rivers in Great Britain generally. It seeks the shade, and is found under logs of wood and attached to the sides of dark cisterns. The whole colony may be one inch and a half to three inches long, but the hydranths continually contract and enlarge, and are very changeable in shape. It is called Cordylophora lacustris. The gonophores which produce the young on the stem are long and oval in shape, and these escape from them, not in the form of medusae, but as long ciliated bodies or planulse. The planula or embryo settles down, loses its cilia, and becomes a stem and hydranth. The last family to be noticed contains a very large and common species belonging to the genus Tubularia.+ The characters of the family are that the hydranth has two whorls of tentacles, one in front of the other. There is a chitinous investment, like a tube, to the root-stem, and the gonophores are in the form of fixed sporosacs, in clusters, reaching clown like branches of currants, below the crown of tentacles. These are seen in all stages of growth, and the large ones are the lowest. A zooid escapes from each in the shape of a cylindrical stem with a stellate root and a crown of tentacles, and it grows into a hydrosome. The calycles of the mature form are apt to bend down ; one drops off and a new one starts from the wound. They are very beautiful objects, and the cylindrical sterns rise without a branch to the height of sevei'al inches, and the tentacular head is scarlet or crimson in colour. Its longer tentacles spread out and retract, and the gonophores droop gracefully amongst them. Spring and summer are the times when this species of the Atlantic and British seas is in perfection, and it is during its most active growth that the tentaculate heads are cast off and renewed. SUB-ORDER CAMPANULARIA. The sub-order of Hydroids, which are not only furnished with a chitinous investment over * Syncoryne pulchella. t Greek, syn, together with ; korytie, a club. J Tubularia indivisa. THE SEETULARIID^E. 289 the stems and roots, but have also a hard, transparent, horny-looking structure which environs the top of the polype and protects the tentacles, are the Campanularia. The hydranths thus furnished can retract almost completely in this calycle, and hence they are called Calyptoblastea. The gonophores arise regularly from the gono- somes, which have neither ten- tacles nor mouth, and some are sessile, and others become free medusae. Most of these medusae have marginal vesicles, and produce the sexual elements in the radial canals. The caly- cles take on most graceful forms, resembling little vases, and often have ornamented borders. The horny cup of the hydranth or nutritive individual or part is called the hydrotheca, and that enclosing the genera- tive buds is called the gonan- gium. In many species the aper- ture is furnished with an operculum, which opens to allow of the passage of the polypite, and closes on its retreat. It is a very effective contrivance, and exhibits two or three principal modifications. In some instances the margin is cleft into a number of pieces, which converge and meet in a point, and form a more or less conical lid. In others the cover is amembranous extension of the walls of the calycle, which falls into plaits or folds when the polypite withdraws, and so roofs over the opening. STRAW TUBULARIA (Tubularta indivisa). FAMILY SERTULARIID^E. Amongst the Sertulariidse the calycle has a lid or operculum within it, a little below the orifice. It is attached to the interior surface, on one side, and seems to be a continuation of the inner layer. It shuts down over the polypite when it withdraws itself. When the polypite emerges, it slowly pushes the valve back, and keeps it erect so long as it is exserted ; on its retreat, which is as quick as light, the lid flies back to its place. (Hincks.) This family has the hydrothecae sessile, and more or less inserted in the stem and branches. The polypites are completely retractile, and have a single wreath of filiform tentacles round a conical proboscis, and the gonozooids are always fixed. The great Tooth Coralline is one of these, and belongs to the genus Sertularella. The plant- like, branching, jointed stem is rooted by a creeping stolon, and the calycles are decidedly alternate, and have a toothed orifice and a convergent operculum. The reproductive calycles (gonangia) are always more or less ringed transversely. It is of a bright straw colour when living, and is a common shore and deep-water species.* The Tricuspid Sertularella is of a delicate habit, light brown colour, and grows 275 Sertularella polyzonias. 290 NATURAL HISTORY. PLUMULARIA HALECOIDES ( YOUNG). (After Hinclcs.) to the height of two inches. The calycles are narrow and cylindrical, and the aperture has three denticles. The reproductive capsules are large and very deeply grooved or cut. It is a North Sea form. The genus Sertularia has the hydrothecse in two series along the stem, and they are opposite or alternate, without an external operculum. The gonothecse are large, scattered, and have a simple orifice. The Sea Oak Coralline* is a common example, and covers the fronds and stems of the larger seaweeds on the British coasts. It is of a dusky horn-colour. FAMILY PLUMULARIID^E. The hydrothecse are sessile, and on one side nemato- phores exist, and the polypites have a single wreath of filiform tentacles round a central proboscis. The reproduc- tive zooids are always fixed. Plumularia pinnata attains the height of four or seven inches, and its stems are tall and whitish, and jointed irregularly. The nematophores are sessile and minute, one being below each calycle. The gonothecse form a double row along the main stem, and have a number of spinous projections at the tip. It is a common species on shells, from low water to greater depths. The nematophores consist of an extension of the body, which may be tubular, or cup-shaped, or conical, open at the upper extremity, and enclosing a granular mass, in which large thread cells may be embedded. Some are simple, and the chitinous cup con- sists of a single chamber, much adherent by its side, and when they are compound there is a tubular portion below, expanding into a hemispherical cup. Some are pedunculate and others sessile. They occur on various parts of the colony, and are usually present in numbers about the hydrothecse: and in the genus Aglaophenia every tooth on the crested ribs of the case or gonangium which protects the gonophore, is formed by one of them. The soft granular mass filling the nematophore has the power of emitting and retracting very extensile and changeable processes. In the genus Ophiodes remarkable thread-like organs are found in great numbers on the creeping stolon, and one is stationed close to the polypite. Each resembles a delicate ten- tacle, has its narrow base surrounded by a cup-shaped prolonga- tion of the outside tissue of the colony, and is terminated by a knob with thread cells. In the family Campanularia the hydrothecfe have a ringed peduncle, and the crown of tentacles is below their projecting mouth-trunk. The gonophores are sessile or may become transformed into medusae, some of which are flat and others bell-shaped. The family Thaumantidse has medusae in the shape of long bells with a short peduncle, the mouth being lobed. There are two long and two rudimentary tentacles in the genus Lafoea, and four radial canals, which contain the reproductive organs in the form of ribbon-shaped masses. In the genus Melicertum the bell is shorter and broader at the margin, and has a crowd of very slender irregular tentacles. When the eggs are hatched, * Sertularia, puniila. MEDUSA OF A HYDitoiD. (After Hinclcs.) THE TRACHOMEDUSjE. 291 The planulse settle down and elongate, a sheath is formed around them and tentacles arise. By- and-by the stem branches, and a colony is established, the gonosome stems producing the medusae in due time. The Equoridse are the last family, and the genus Zygodactyla (twin finger) is its type, medusae of this genus are from seven to eight inches in diameter and light violet in colour. The tentacles are long and fibrous, and dark violet, and can be contracted to a mere fringe. They often remain motionless in the water. It is an inhabitant of the North Atlantic and Northern Seas generally. In the genus Eucope the tentacles are well developed, and the calycular membrane which comes up to their bases diminishes in size until it joins the ringed tissue of the stem. On one side of this a long and rather fusiform projection exists, and it has a central body, around which medusa buds form. This gonophore permits the medusaB to escape. They are flat, with a little knob at first on the top, and a few short tentacles are around the disc. Really the knob is the proboscis of the mouth, and the little medusa turns inside out with ease. MARGIN OF A MEDUSOID. a, circular canal; 6, ocellus; c, sae or lithocyst; c, spherule of lime; d, tentacle. (A/ter EUCOPE DTAPHANA. A, the colony ; B, the young medusae within the reproductive part. (After L. Agawiz.) SUB-ORDER TRACHOMEDUS^E. The Trachomedusse have a gelatinous disc, which feels decidedly hard to the fingers, and the margin is usually lobed. The tentacles are either rigid or else can move, and there are peculiar sense organs on the base of the tentacles, accompanied by lithocysts, and sometimes by eye-spots. They do not pass through any colonial stage, and the eggs develop into a ciliated larva formed of two layers of tissue, and it has no stomach, but becomes elongated into two arms. After a while two other arms or tentacles are seen, and the central cavity and mouth. Reproductive organs appear, and then more tentacles. There are numbers of these Trachomedusae in the oceans, and many genera have been distinguished. In the fresh warm water (86° Fahr.) of the tank which contains the Victoria Regia in the Botanic Gardens of the Regent's Park, London, Mr. Sowerby found great numbers of minute medusas moving with great vivacity, and preying on the minute Crustacea. They were about a line to half an inch in diameter, and had nearly 200 tentacles and four radiating canals and a circular one. There was a velum, and the margin had many eye-spots. The manubrium is long and expanded below, and the tentacles are solid. The genus has been called by Dr. Allman Limnocodium, and Prof. Ray Lankester believes that probably it is one of the Trachomedusae. It is probably the only instance of a medusa which can live in perfectly fresh water, and which dies in cold or salt water. Nothing is known about its origin. There are many families of this sub-order, and four may be especially noticed. The Trachonemkta have the marginal filaments rigid and hardly movable, and the sexual organs develop in vesicular swellings in the eight radial canals, and some have a flat disc with club-shaped tentacles. Some, like the ^Egiua, with rigid marginal tentacles, belong to the family ^Eginidae. The stomach-pouches reach far towards the edge of the disc, and the sexual elements are produced by the derm of their sides. Sometimes there is no marginal canal, and four tentacles often exist. The Geryonidse have a large cylindrical peduncle environing the stomach. Four or six canals are in the umbrella, and extend from the bottom of the stomach to the radial canals in which the reproductive organs exist. Finally, the Charybdeidae have the borders of the umbrella with tentacles and compound marginal corpuscles. Ramified canals come from the processes of the stomach. They are dwellers in the Mediterranean and Atlantic. 292 NATURAL HISTORY. ORDER HYDROCORALLINA. The hard, stony, coral-looking substances dotted over with minute pores, and having, within, a tubular structure crossed by platforms or tabulae, are called Millepores. They are reef-builders, and contribute to the solidity of the coral reef structure, dwelling, however, in the warmest waters of the tropics. Formerly classified with the true Corals, they are now, owing to the researches of L. Agassiz and Prof. H. N. Moseley, placed among the Hydroids. The last-named and distinguished naturalist, after having carefully examined the anatomy and development of the Millepores, during the expedition of H.M.S. Challenger, classified them in association with certain deep-sea calcareous skeletoned animals, called Stylasters, in a sub-order — the Hydro- corallinae. This is characterised by the presence of a calcai-eous base made up of channels formed by the ectodermal part of canals within them. The base is covered with a continuous layer of derm, from which zooids of two forms arise : one with a mouth and gastric cavity — a gastro- zooid ; * the other with tentacles and no mouth — a dacty- lozooid ; t they are retractible and lodge in the pores or outer-chambers of the hard part. FAMILY MILLEPORID^E (WITHOUT AMPULLJE). The species of the genus Millepora are found on Coral reefs, and the dense white substance forming their usually visible portion is of stony hardness, and is marked with numerous pore-like openings, small and sometimes arranged in groups. A dried piece looks worm-eaten on the surface around and between the pores, and these lead down to long tubular cavities, across which flat layers of the same mineral, carbonate of lime, which forms the hard substance, generally stretch one over the other. These are called tabulae, and they separate chambers, the upper one being free above and open on the surface, and its floor is the last-made tabula. Between the pores and their downward tubular prolongations is a curious hard structure made up of a network of hard tissue, which gives the porous or worm-eaten appearance to the outside. Louis Agassiz and H. N. Moseley both have discovered and described the soft parts on and within this dense white substance, which much resembles, but is not, white Coral. A thin living film covers the whole surface, and a thin downy layer is observed over all, and it consists of minute feeler-like projections arising from the pores. Arranged as these pores are more or less in circlets around a central one, their tentacles differ. The central larger one has a short body provided with a mouth, and it is a cylindrical growth with from four to six short tentacles in one whorl at its top, just below the mouth. Each of these tentacles has a knob at its tip, composed of nematocysts. The small mouth opening is circular in outline, and a little lower down is a cruciform slit environed with gastric cells, bladder- like and transparent. The other bodies surrounding this one, and coming forth from the circlet of pores, are long and slender, cylindrical and tapering. They bear tentacles at regular intervals from top to bottom, each of which consists of a short cylindrical stem with a knob. No mouth or stomach exists in these long bodies, and their office appears to be to catch food and convey it to the short body with a stomach, in the middle of the circle. All disappear on very slight shaking of the hard mass. The network of the hai-d substance, supporting these structures, contains soft pai'ts and numerous tortuous canals, and some of these are on the surface and connect the pores together. The hard structure, composed of fibrous-looking carbonate of lime, is produced by the outer skin or ectoderm of the animal, and is nourished by and formed from the digested food, which contains more or less carbonate of lime. * Greek, gaster, stomach. t Greek, daktylos, finger ; zoon, animal. CARMARINA (GERYOXIA) HASTATA. (ONE OF THE TUACHOMEDU&E.) THE STYLASTEES. 293 The stomach and finger zooids contain muscular fibres, and the nematocysts or thread-cells have a spiral within them, with part of it jagged with a thorny part. Others have three barbs on the thread. The hard part of the Millepore is called the coenosteum. Unfortunately, the method of reproduction had not been ascertained by Prof. Moseley, to whom we owe the very exact description of these interesting things, which were formerly, before Agassiz saw the zooids, considered to be true tabulate Corals. Certainly it is only the part of the coenosteum above the uppermost tabula that is alive ; all below was so once, and has died. FAMILY STYLASTERID.E (WITH AMPULLA). These have the pores with a style or calcareous spiny projection. Ampullae, or blister-like swellings on the surface, contain the male elements and large planulse. The Stylasters were named after small red-coloured, more or less fan-shaped, branching coral-like substances, on which are numerous groups of pores sur- rounding central cavities, having a projection at their bottom. Until Moseley examined them, they were in- cluded in the Stony Corals, and the divisions between the pores were considered to be septa. He has proved that the family, which comprises many genera, belongs to the same sub-order as the Millepores. The hard part of the animal is composed of reticulations of tubes, and a gas- terozooid occupies the central pore space, and dactylozooids the surrounding circlet of pores. The hard part consists of carbonate of lime to a considerable extent, and is formed by the deposit of it in the substance of the outer skin, or ectoderm, of the canals or tubes. The canals open into the pores, which are really cylindrical pits, and at the bottom of each are a few large canals and their openings. Some genera have a projection, or style, more or less brush-shaped, on the base of the floor of the cavity for the gasterozooid, and MILLEPOKA. (After resting on a partition or tabula, of which there may be more The gasterozooid «r^££}jda£d the dactylozooids than one. Small, more or less rounded, projections occur 011 the surface of the hard part of the animal, and they are the domes covering spaces. These open by slits or get very thin at the surface, and contain the male reproductive elements, or a most remark- able worm-like embryo, which is termed a planula. The planula is large and cylindrical, and being curled up, is larger than the cavity in which it has developed out of an ovum ; and this cavity is large in relation to the circlet of pores in some genera. A mature planula is a quarter of an inch in length, and has a transparent gelatinous-looking outer skin, or ectoderm, and a dark-coloured inner, or endoderm. It looks like a worm, and is probably covered with cilia, and there are polygonal markings on the body, and nematocysts. No internal organs exist, and this young form is solid within. It escapes and settles down after leading a free-swimming life, but how the future growth proceeds is not known. The dactylozooids of all the genera of the family have simple tentacles, which retract, and the gasterozooids are flask-shaped, and may or may not have club-shaped tentacles on them. These interesting Hydrocorallinfe are found very widely distributed from 10 to 750 fathoms' depth in the North and other parts of the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. The West Indies, the coasts of Brazil, and the Japanese Seas are common localities. They may be arranged in two groups. In one the pores occur in regular circlets, or cycle systems, and the genera may again be subdivided into those which have styles present at the bottom of the gasterozooid, and also of the dactylozooid pores. Stylaster and Allopora belong to this subdivision. Of those with styles only present in the gastero- zooid pores, Stenohelia is an example ; and of those without any styles, Astylus and Cryptohelia are examples ; the last-named genus has a remarkable lip in front of the circlet of poi'es. In the second group, the pores for the dactylozooids are either of one or two kinds, and a group of genera belong to each. Pliobothrus and Errina are examples of the first, and Spinipora of the latter condition. 294 NATURAL HISTORY. Fossil Hydrozoa have been discovered, some without doubt analogous to recent forms, and others not so. Impressions of medusae have been found on the Solenhofen stone, and they were Rhizostomida?. The Graptolites or Rhabdophora are fossils in the shape of long, narrow, toothed (at the side) bodies, single or combined. They are found in the Lower Silurian, and die out before the end of the Upper Silurian group of strata. Two principal forms exist : those with one row, and those with two rows of cellules ; and in Rastrites the cellules are separate, and not overlapping as in the others. They may have a central disc or prong-like process at the end, with a central solid rod. The cellules analogous to the calycles of Sertularians probably contained structures resembling nematophores. The Hydrocorallinse of the Millepore division have no satisfactory fossil species ; but there is a doubtful form in the Cretaceous rocks. Probably most of the family Eavositidse, usually called Tabulate Corals, were hydroids, and many of the corals called Rugosa. A fossil, with a root-like expansion, hollow stem, and tentacles, surrounded originally by a calcareous investment, is found on the face of the fronds of a Carboniferous Bryozoon, Fenestella nodulosa. It has been named Palaeocoryne — of the Hydroida.* Order. CTENOPHOKA DISCOPHORA, or ACALEPHA: SlPHONOPHORA TRACHOMEDUSA . HYDROIDA. GROUP ZOOPHYTA. CLASS HYDROZOA, OR HYDROMEDUS^E. Sub-order. ( Globata . \ Lobata y Cestidae . ( Eurystoma fMonostoina . . -< Rhizostoma { Calycozoaria Physophora Physalia . Calycophora Discoida . Trachomedusae Tubularia — Gymnoblastea Campanularia — Calyptoblastea HYDROCORALLIN.S Example. Pleurobrachia. Bolina. Cestum. Beroe. Aurelia. Rhizostoma. Lucemaria. Physophora. Physalia. Diphyes. Velella. ^Egina. /Hydra, j Perigonimus. j Eudcndrium. 1 Hydractinia. | Syncoryne. ^Tubularia. ( Sertularella. ) Plumularia. 1 Campanularia. ( Eucope. I Millepora. < Stylaster. ( Cryptohelia. CHAPTER II. THE ANTHOZOA. Zoantharia and Alcyonaria— Characters— THE ZOANTHARIA— The White Stony Corals or Madreporaria— Structure— The Coral — Development — The Reef - builders Coral Islands — MADREPORARIA APOROSA — Turbinolidae — Oculinidae — Astraeidae — Eusmilinae — Euphylliaceae — Stylinaceae — Lithophylliacese — Astraeaceae — Cladocoracese — Fungidse — MADREPORARIA PERFORATA— Eupsamminae— Poritidae— Other Groups of the Madreporaria— ANTIPATHARIA OR SCLEROBASIC ZOANTHARIA— AcTiNAHiA OR MALACODERMic ZOANTHARIA— Characters— Actinidae — Minyadinae — Acti- niuae— The Sea Anemones— THE ALCYONARIA— Characters— Helioporidae— Pennatulidae or Sea-Pens— GORGONIDJE — Red Coral — Formation— Gorgoninae — Characters — Various Genera — Alcyonida; — Distinctive Features — Organ-pipe Coral — Alcyoninse — Dead Man's Fingers — Classification of Anthozoa. THE CLASS ANTHOZOA. THE White Stony Corals, Sea Anemones, and Antipatharia form one order of this class, the Zoantharia ; and the Red Coral, the Tube Coral, the Isis, and the Alcyonians are a second order called Alcyonaria ; and all of these familiar and beautiful objects merit the name of flower-like animals, from * The principal works on the Hydrozoa, quoted in this article, are those of Allman (Ray Society), Hincks, and Claus. THE WHITE STONY CORALS. 295 their external aspect. All have a home in the sea or in brackish water, and are usually brilliant in colour, radiating in their construction, have tentacles around a mouth which leads to a stomach, and this opens into a large lower cavity, called the perigastric. This communicates with the hollow tentacles, arid has the reproductive organs in it. Portions of it are folded at the sides longitudinally, and projections of its membrane, called mesenteries, develop on and within them the ova and sperma- tozoa. The ova and young escape by the mouth as free ova, or as planulaj hatched from them, and not as medusae. There is an outer skin, or ectoderm ; an inner in relation to the stomach, the endoderm ; and a tissue between, the mesoderm ; and this last secretes, in some, a hard and even cal- careous skeleton. The soft structures are usually very contractile, and they contain cellular structures, muscular fibres, much connecting tissue, and scanty, rudimentary nervous elements. There is no special circulatory, respiratory, or excretory system. But the ciliated cells of the outer and inner derms move water over the surface ; and in some of the Corals, with a great number of individuals collected in one mass, there are evidences of a water system, which appears to regulate the symmetry of the whole. The derm is crowded with nematocysts, or thread -cells, different as a rule in their construction from those of the Hydrozoa ; but some have spiny barbs on the thread, and this is often invaginated more or less before extension. Large and small cells are also present, containing glairy mucus, which escapes on pressure, and colouring matter. The muscular fibres are delicate, without striae, and are longitu- dinal and transverse, or encircling. The whole soft structure appears to have a power of general or amoeboid movement. ORDER ZOANTHARIA. The first sub-order of the Zoantharia is that of the White Stony Corals, or Madreporaria, and the members of it, very numerous in genera and individuals, live on the floor of the sea at all depths down to 3,000 fathoms, and cling to the shore from water level to twenty fathoms. Those which form Coral reefs come under the last assemblage, and the more solitary and simple deep sea Corals belong to the first. All contain in the mesoderm a quantity of hard matter, composed mainly of carbonate of lime in a fibrous or long crystalline condition, called Aragonite ; and externally a simple kind will resemble a Sea Anemone. There is a range of tentacles, or more than one, on the top of the body, and a disc within the circle of tentacles, in the midst of which is a small mouth. A coloured tissue, like that of the outside of the tentacles and disc, covers the outside of the body, which generally assumes a cup-like form, or may be flat, bell-shaped, tubular, or compressed like a fan. The disc is marked with coloured lines that appear to radiate from the mouth, and if it is touched with a hard pencil it will contract slightly, and then beneath it is felt a hard structure, made up of a number of plates placed vertically, with their edges upwards. Spaces exist between these septa — interseptal spaces — in which there is a process of the under part of the disc, the mesenteric fold. On stripping off the disc, the tops of the numerous septa are seen, covered with a filmy structure, and between each pair a soft mesenteric fold. In the middle of the top of the Coral, and just under the opening of the mouth, is a hard pro- jection, or axis (the columella), or else one does not exist, and the stomach cavity occupies the place. Above the columella, or in its place, is the stomach, lined with endoderm, and having the mesenteries radiating on all sides. Moreover, the tentacles, which are hollow, open into the interseptal spaces, so that the fluid of the stomach can pass around all the soft internal parts and up into the tentacles. The mouth in the disc has muscular sides, and is extensible, and it passes at once by a narrow space to the underlying digestive cavity. Nematocysts and glairy cells and ciliated cells abound in these parts. The structures outside of the Coral, which are continuous with those of the tentacles above, are thin, coloured, and abound with the same kind of cells as those just mentioned. The whole is under the influence of the moving water, and is aerated by it. Food, in the form of minute invertebrata, comes accidentally in the way, is stopped by the secretion of mucus or by the action of nematocysts, and is moved to the mouth by the tentacles, which grasp it, or by cilia, which simply move it onwards. The mouth opens, and the prey disappears to be digested, and the indigestible parts come forth from the mouth. The juices of the prey are circulated from cell to cell, and add to the bulk of the creature. But the calcareous parts of the prey — its shell, for instance, had it one — and a certain amount of the salts of lime held in solution by the water, are retained in the structures of the mesoderm of the body, and they form the hard Coral. The hard part of the Coral is produced by a deposition of carbonate of 296 NATURAL HISTORY. lime in long or short and slender needles, or prisms, in the interstices of a peculiar connective tissue of the mesoderm. Hence these Corals are called Sclerodermic Zoantharia. By placing a Coral in weak hydrochloric acid and water, effervescence of carbonic acid ensues, and the lime combines with the acid and is dissolved. At last a film remains of the shape of the Coral, and it represents the organic basis of it. An old piece of Coral, when cut in slices for microscopic examination, shows numerous radiating lines once occupied by the organic matter, and starting from them, on all sides, are bunches and masses of the prisms and irregular-shaped needles of carbonate of lime. In some Corals this texture is very dense, and in others very lax and porous ; and in these last the texture of the hard part is very spicular, the ends being joined to form a kind of cellular structure. Hence the two great divisions of the Madreporaria : the Aporosa and the Porosa. The hard parts of the Coral are remarkable for their regular radiation and numerical arrangement. They consist of a theca, or wall, which forms the cup of the Coral, which is closed below at the base, and open at the opposite end, at the calice. The septa, or vertical plates, pass from the inside of the cup towards the central axis. They are free above at the calice, and are sometimes not joined or attached to anything in the centre of the cup, but there may be a columella there, which starts from the bottom of the cup and grows upwards ; or it may be formed by the ends of the septa. The interseptal spaces are open from top to bottom in some Corals, and in others there are thin pieces of carbonate of lime, which cross them more or less, and cut off the lower parts from the upper. The animal secretes these, and lives above the upper one. They are called dissepiments. Outside the cup there are longitudinal ridges in relation to the septa within, which are called ribs or costae ; and they may be united by ci'oss bars. Some Corals are always simple and separate; others, and especially the reef-builders, are compound : that is to say, they propagate by budding from the parent, and then the buds form a succession of buds. A little projection appears on the side of a cup, and soon a few tentacles are seen there. It grows outwards and upwards, and resembles the parent. This is a bud. Other buds arise, and all grow upwards in a bush-like form, and then the buds begin to bud, and so on. There is a symmetry in the growth, and either this bush shape remains, or else structures are grown between the buds and the parent, connecting the whole in a solid mass, called exotheca. They are composed of layers of hard tissue arranged in cellular compartments or cross bars, so as to give great bulk, lightness, and strength to the Coral. The Corals of all kinds produce ova, which escape from the mouth, and hatch into long ciliated bodies, or planulae. These fix themselves and develop, becoming like the parent. The growth of the individual is accompanied by an increase in the number of mesenteries within the body, and of solid septa between each pair of mesenteries. Two great series of Corals develop septa differently. In one six septa are followed by six smaller, then twelve still smaller are formed, one in each of the already made interseptal spaces, and then twenty-four, and so on, the increase being by cycles in multiples of six. In another series there is a more or less distinct increase by fours, and the position of one or more of the first, or primary septa, is sometimes occupied by a groove. Or there may be a very numerous collection of septa, which appear to be without any rule, and to be alternate in size. In some Corals no definite order can be distinguished. Certain appendages to the septa, between them and the columella, are called pali, and they appear to have reference to a fresh circlet of tentacles.* The first series are the Hexactinellids, and the second are the Rugosa. The Corals which live on the southern coasts of England are simple, and do not form reefs, and others of the same genera are found in deep water on the floor of the great oceans. Pressure and temperature seem hardly to influence them, and they flourish in the great depths, in water not much above freezing-point. But the reef-building Corals require a warm sea, and highly aerated, pure sea water, containing an abundance of living things. These conditions are only to be obtained in those parts of the world where the surface temperature of the sea is never less than 68° Fahr., and indeed some Corals require a much higher temperature, such as 72Q to 86W. Moreover, the necessary purity of water and freedom from sediments can only be got in the neighbourhood of islands standing in deep water. As the temperature of the sea diminishes rapidly with depth, that of 68° to 86° is not * An individual Coral, perfect in itself, is a Corallum ; a member or an individual which has budded or divided off, and yet still remains as part of a whole, is a Corallite. THE CORALS. 297 maintained below twenty fathoms, and thus there is a downward depth limit to the reef-building Corals. They fringe certain islands within the West Indian, Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, the Corals clinging on in great masses to the shore, some being uncovered a little at very low tide, and some extending to the depth of twenty fathoms. The growth is upwards, and outwards, or seawards, and sometimes to a considerable extent. Such a mass of Coral is alive on the top and where in contact with the sea ; but all the supporting mass which once was alive is dead, and consists of a mass of hard Coral, united by exothecal structures, and much altered by the percolating water. In some parts of the Pacific Ocean, an island is seen surrounded by a calm lagoon of sea water of no great depth, and in the offing is a more or less circular reef, with openings in it. This is a Coral structure which is growing, but does not extend deeper than twenty fathoms in the living state. But the foundation of the distant reef extends from it to the island, and underlies the living and dead mass of Coral. These are barrier reefs. In. other parts of the great ocean simple rings of reef, called atolls, are seen. There is no mountain in the midst, but a lagoon. The fringing and barrier reefs are phases in the development of the atoll. The land was once surrounded by a fringing reef, and subsidence commenced. The Coral, ever growing, increased in bulk upwards, growing as the land sank, and this process gradually necessitated a shallow sea between the mountain tops and the reef. This barrier reef, still subsiding with the mountain, on which it hung amidst the waves, yet ever growing upwards, at last witnessed the total submergence of the land. An atoll thus formed is a vast mass of Coral covering a sunken island, the living Coral forming a ring around a lagoon, with openings seawards. This is the theory of Charles Darwin. The most rapidly growing Corals live in the surf and most heated water on the outside of the reef, and the more solid reef-builders remain in quieter water, in the lagoon. Many simple Corals are found amongst the reef-builders, and live in company with a vast assemblage of Tubicolar Worms, Echinoderms, Anemones, and Crustacea ; but the beautiful aspect of the reef, with its gorgeous colours of green, yellow, violet, and gold, is produced by the soft discs and stems of the Madreporaria and Sea Anemones. The Madreporaria are very numerous in genera and species, and they may be divided into those which have the hard parts dense, and into those with a light skeleton, very porous in its nature, and reticulate in its construction. These divisions are those of the Aporosa and Perforata. A great group, now almost extinct, but which preceded those just mentioned in time, is that of the Rugosa. THE GROUP MADREPORARIA APOROSA. FAMILY TURBINOLID^. These Corals are usually simple and solitary, but some have offshoots in the form of buds, which resemble the parent. They are not united by exotheca, and there are no internal dissepi- ments in the interseptal spaces, exceptions) to this statement being excessively rare. The common so-called Madrepore of the Devonshire coast,"" and those which are dredged up out of moderately deep water in the North Atlan- tic, are common examples of the genus Caryophyllia, which do not usually increase by budding, but by the development of ova. Those species, which are fixed on to substances on the floor of the sea, often have a delicate outer layer of hard tissue, called an epitheca, and nearly all are very beautifully ornamented, and * Caryophyllia smithii (Stokes). 276 CARYOPHYLLIA CYATHUS. some 298 NATURAL HISTORY. have a spiny outside. This genus is the type of a sub-family* in which there is a row of pali, and it is found that the interseptal spaces, when the soft parts are washed away, are open throughout. One genust increases by budding, and is therefore compound. A sub-family which is but slightly represented now, and which had a great development in the Secondary and Tertiary ages, is that of the Trochocyathaceae, and it has more than one row of pali, and consequently as many extra rows of tentacles. Sevei'al of its genera are now repre- sented in the deep sea, and Deltocyathus is the most widely distributed, being found, moreover, at the depth of 2,250 fathoms. Another sub-family is that of the Turbinolinse, and it is characterised by the simplicity of the hard parts, there being the cup or wall, septa, and costae. Sometimes the columella exists, and an epitheca, but pali are not seen. Some of these simple forms are extinct, and the majority still live. They are divided into genera by the shape of the Coral, which, for instance, is compressed and fan-shaped in Flabellum and wedge-shaped in Sphenotrochus ; and by the nature of the columella, which is styliform in Turbinolia and fascicular in others. Some, such as Blastotrochus, bud on the outside. Many of the species of this sub-family are dwellers on the floor of the deep sea, and the fossil forms are very numerous. The third sub-family is that of the Dasnndae, and the only genus is extinct. FAMILY OCULINIDJE. These are branching Corals, which bud on the outside of the stem, or on the edge of the calices, and have these last resembling, more or less, those of the family just noticed. There are, however, dissepiments in the interseptal spaces of some, and in the common Lophohelia prolifera, found on the floor of the North Atlantic, horizontal layers of hard tissue may cross the whole internal cavity, and are called tabulae. Moreover, the lower parts of the cup fill up with carbonate of lime, and there is a general solidity of the branches. The genera are numerous, and many are extinct, whilst others inhabit great depths. A small sub-family, the Stylophorinsa, increase by the process of budding, or gemmation, but the hard tissue is not so compact as that of the others, and the columella is styliform. FAMILY ASTILEID^E. This family consists of a vast number of genera, many of which are reef-builders; others are simple forms, and several are extinct. The hard parts have all the structures hitherto mentioned, and there are septa, costae, a columella, endothecal dissepiments, epitheca, and buds. There is also exotheca in the compound forms. They are divided arti- ficially into two groups : those with the tops of the septa plain — the Eusmilinse — and those with serrations, or spines, on the tops of the septa — the Astraeime. The first sub-family of the Eusmilinaa is a very ancient one, the Trochosmiliaceae, and they are solitary Corals, cup-shaped, and with the internal dissepiments well developed. The sub-family Euphylliaceae grow in bulk by fissiparous division of the calices. These elongate in one direction and divide, and the separate portions become isolated more or less above, but still remain parts of the original Coral. Some form tuft-shaped Corals, free, to a great extent, at the surface, and others are only isolated at the calicular surface, and form masses, and a third group are completely fixed and confluent, forming very diverse-shaped Corals. Anothei- sub-family is that of the Stylinacese, which was largely represented in the Mesozoic and FAVIA PALLIDA. CaryopkyUiacci: t Ccenocyathus. THE 299 Tertiary ages, and which is almost extinct. The}7 grow regularly and without the fission ; the buds become polygonal as they grow upwards in company, and they mostly have a styliform columella. Some of these were great reef-builders of old, and the buds and pai'ents were all united as a cellular mass, by exothecal structures and by epitheca. One exceptional genus still flourishes, and in this the buds, or corallites, are free above, and all united below by a dense growth, like an exotheca, the growth being termed peritheca. It is the common Galaxea. The group Astrjeinse have spines and serrations on the free edges of the septa. It is a very unsatis- factory division, but it is remarkable that the sub-families of the Eusmilinse are represented in the Astrseinge, the difference being only in the septal structure. They are usually massive compound Corals, and dwellers in shallow water and reefs. But there are some which are simple and solitary, and they belong to the sub-family LithophylliaceaB, which, however, contains compound forms also. This sub- family has some of its Corals in tufts and others in. lines or series more or less confluent, and these last are subject to growth by fissiparity, the calices being often very long and curved, or meandriform. The genera Montlivaltia and Antillia belong to the simple kinds, and the first has fossil and the second both fossil and recent forms. The tufted Montlivaltia group are represented by the Mussas of the warm seas of the great oceans, and by the extinct genera Thecosmilia, Rhabdo- phyllia, and many others. .Many massive Corals, with many small calices arranged in long, wavy, trough-like series, exist amongst the meandriform group, and are classified under the g?nera Symphyllia, Myceto- phyllia, Isophyllia; and in some the septa! edges are extremely spinulose. The very solid-look- ing, wavy-caliced Mseandrinse belong to this group, and the common Corals so frequently sold at sea-side places, with slightly elongated deep calices, belonging to the genera Lep- toria, from the Red Sea and Pacific and Indian Oceans. The Brain Stone Coral (Diploria cerebriformis) is one of these, extinct genera are recorded. Another group of these ragged-topped septate Corals increase by the division of their calices, but grow up in a solid mass, the division being restricted, and all the resulting individuals being united together by exotheca. Some of these have the costse of one corallite uniting with those of their neighbours, and pali may exist. Some Atlantic, Red Sea, and Pacific Ocean shallow water Corals of this group are the Favise, and there are extinct species also. The lobed Goniastrsea belongs to this series. The sub-family Astrseacese are Corals with spiny or serrate septal edges which reproduce by ova ; but the individual is enlarged by a process of budding, which may take place from the outside of the Coral, and from just outside the margin and from within the calice. The buds grow, and are united by a dense exotheca, and the solidity of the whole is often increased by the costse of the corallites, or separate parts of the mass, being united. The calices are separate in some genera, as in Heliastrsea, and in such as bud outside the calice. Others, which bud within the calices or at the margin of them, have polygonal, elongate, and even very confused calices, and they may be joined by the DIPLORIA CEHVBRIFOBXH Numerous fossil species of still existing or 300 NATURAL HISTORY. costte passing from one calice to another, or by special structures. The genera Astrsea and Prionastrsea amongst the recent Corals, and Isastmea and Thanmastnea belonging to the extinct fauna, are familiar examples. The Cladocoracese are a sub-family with dendroid-shaped Corals, and some of the genera are extinct. Cladocora ccespitosa is a well-knc of the Mediterranean, and other species inhabit the West Indian Seas and Madeira. Some of the spined septate Corals bud in a remarkable manner from a kind of creeping root, or stolon, and the corallites thus arising may or may not be covered with epitheca. These are the sub-family Astrangiacese, and the genera Cylicia, Cryptangia, and Astrangia are types, some species being extinct. Finally, two little groups, the Echinopora? and Mei'ulinaj, are the last of the series, and lead, by their structural peculiarities, to the next family. FAMILY FUNG1D.E. This family is characterised by the flat growth of the corallum, and especially by the occurrence, in the interseptal spaces, of stout, straight dissepiments, simply stretching across from septum to septum, like little beams. These are Synapticulse. There are two sub-families. In the first, the Funginse, the under part of the wall or base is more or less porous and spinulate. The common large simple Coral (Fungia patella}, so like a flat mushroom, which is found very generally on the shores of the Eastern seas, is the type. Another, elongate in shape, has been compared to the Sea-slug, and is a large Coral.* Several genera are extinct, and Micrabacia of the Chalk is an example. In the sub-family Lophoserinse, the wall is entire and not spinose, and it contains some twenty genera. Some have the species simple and cup- shaped, or button-shaped ; others are compound. Agaricia is a typical genus. Moseley obtained a beautiful Coral (Sathi/actis symnietrica) from a wider range than any other known Coral — from thirty fathoms to three miles of depth, and in all the oceans. There are instances amongst the Fungidse, as well as in the Aporosa, where the buds become disconnected from the parent, and form other and independent Corals. The family was represented in the early Secondary formations, and has persisted. GROUP MADREPORARIA PERFORATA OR POROSA. The group of the Perforate Corals, whose hard texture is reticulate and open, is subdivided into two families. In one, the Madreporidse, the wall is porous, but the septa are more or less lamellar and entire ; and in the other, the Poritida?, the wall and septa are both reticulate and porous. An important sub-family of the Madreporidte is that of the Eupsammina?, in which the smaller and younger septa curve towards the older ones close by, so that a very elegant pattern is formed. The Dendrophyllia dredged up in the Mediterranean and off Madeira, which has a curious scent, belongs to this sub-family, and the most beautiful Corals known, the Stephanophyllise, also. These are found living at considerable depths at the present time, and there were exquisitely beautiful species in the Secondary and Tertiary ages. A very remarkable form, called Leptopenus discus, a * Herpctolitha Umax. DENDKOl'HYLLIA ItAMKA. SUB-ORDER ANTIPATHARIA. 301 very elaborate piece of coral lace, flat and wonderfully fragile, was got up from 2,000 fathoms in the Indian Ocean, and described by Moseley as one of these. The branching Madrepores belong to a second sub-family, and they are the most vigorous of the reef-builders, living on the outer edge of the reef, and attaining great bulk. Some live in quieter water. The second family, the Poritida?, is composed of two sub-families : the Poritina?, with little or no tissue between the corallites, which are tolerably close together, as in Goniopora ; and the Montipormse, which have a spongy intermediate tissue. Nearly all the species are reef-builders, and all are shallow water dwellers. Porose Corals existed in the Paleo- zoic agi1. Other great divisions of the Madreporaria are the Tabulata, Tubulosa, and Rugosa. It has been noticed, in treating of the Hydrozoa (page 292), that some of the Tabulata belong to that class. There are some of this great group of the Corals which cannot yet be classified satisfactorily. Some certainly belong to the Alcyoiiaria, a group which will be considered in a future page, and one genus, Pocillopora, which has tabular and twelve ten- tacles, with very rudimentary septa, probably should be referred to the Aporose division of the Madreporaria. Others cf the old group Tabulata may be Bryozoa. The Tubulosa contain two genera, which are ex- tinct, namely, Aulopora and Pyrgia, but their classi- ticatory position is very undecided, and probably they were Alcyonarians. Lastly, the Rugosa, a grand group in the Palaeozoic age, in which they were reef-builders, has some modern representatives in the small Guynia and Duncania of the floors of the Mediterranean and Atlantic Ocean. SUB-ORDER ANTIPATHARIA, OR SCLEROBASIC ZOANTHARIA. MAPREPORA TLAXTAGIXEA. These are mostly slender and branched animals, fixed on to substances at considerable depths, and very plant- or bush-like in appearance. The inside of their stem is solid, and is composed of hard concentric layers, with a central space, and may be corneous or calcareous. It is covered with soft tissue, which is continuous with the polypes which form the outer living part. The whole is, as it were, a colony, and there is great symmetry in its size, colour, and arrangement. The polypes resemble small Anemones ; no hard parts are within their derm, and their base rests on and forms the solid stem or axis. They have six to twenty-four simple tentacles. In the genus Cirripathes, the shape of the stem is that of a stick, and it is covered with little sharp spinules ; and in one from the Fijis the stem is very flexuous, and is often spirally curved, the polypes are green, and the tentacles brown, and the surface is ciliated. The genus Antipathes has a black, hard stem, like ebony, and it is more or less echinulate, and ends in small barbules. The species differ in the kind and amount of branching, and whether they are spiny or not. They live on the floor, at moderate depths, of the Atlantic, Pacific, West Indian, and Indian Oceans, and the Mediterranean Sea. Six tentacles are present, and two mesenteries. In the genus Gerardia the hard stem is branched and rough like shagreen, and the soft tissue is dense, and contains silicious spicules ; but they appear to belong to other animals, and are accidental. There are twenty-four tentacles, and as many mesenteries. The species are from the Meditei*- ranean and West Indies. A vitreous or semi-hyaline-looking stem, more or less fan-shaped in its branching, characterises the genus Hyalopathes, of the Indian Ocean. In all these genera the hard stem is the product of the base, or lower part of the outer skin of the soft polype-bearing textures. 302 NATURAL H1STOEY. SUB-ORDER ACTINARIA,. OR MALACODERMIC ZOANTHARIA. This sub-order has its members without any hard calcareous deposit in the mesoderm and base, and the soft parts closely resemble those of the Stony Corals. In some instances there are calcareous spiculse in the tissues. '^^iii There are two families : the ^n*ibj f Actinidse, with the tentacles in several alternating cycles, each corresponding to a special peri- gastric loculus ; and the Cerian- thidse, whose tentacles are in two concentric circles, so that an inner and an outer tentacle arise f fom the same perigastric loculus, and their internal cavities are continuous. The mesenteries do not descend to the bottom of the visceral cavity, and the base of the animal has not a fleshy sucker, but the lower part is more or less slender, and is placed in the mud or sand. In the genus Cerianthus, of this last family, the base is perforated by a channel, opening externally in a pore, and this very exceptional structure in the Actinozoa is for the purpose of getting rid of undigested matters. A kind of flexible sheath is found around the species, and is produced by an aggregation of nematocysts cast forth by the skin. They are principally inhabitants of the Mediterranean, but a species was found at 2,780 fathoms in the Atlantic, and was described by Moseley. It was dwarfed, its anatomy was exceptional, and it was contained in a tube made up of the threads of its nematocysts. The great family of the A.ctinidae is subdivided into two groups. In one the bodies have a disc at their base or foot, and are more or less separate ; and in the other there are sclerites or hard spicuke in the tissues, which give a coriaceous texture to the mass. Amongst the first division are the Minyadinae, which do not fix themselves by their base or foot, but, by contracting it, form a more or less hollow space. Air is taken into this cavity, and the animal floats freely, with its tentacles and mouth downwards. The blue Minyas * of the Cape of Good Hope is melon-shaped, and flattened above and below ; it is blue, with white projections on it. Moseley described a floating form, with a cylindrical body and flattened base, which was obtained during the Challenger Expedition off the north-east of Australia, and one from 700 fathoms. The next division is that of the Actinina?, the great majority of which have an adherent base, which they can fix and unfix, and they have one kind of simple tentacles. At least twenty-four genera are included in this division, and there are a vast number ot * Mini/as coerulea. ANTIPATHES AUBOREA. VERTICAL SECTION OF SEA ANEMONE. a, month; t>, cavity of stomach ; c, body cavity : a intermeseiiteric chamber: e, generative filaments ; /, mesentery ; g, tentacle. SEA ANEMONES. 1. Cereus (Bunodes) coriaceus = crassicornis ; 2, Adamsia parasitica ; 3, Actinia (Metridium) diantbus ; 4, Sagartia viduata ; 5, Sagartia rosea ; 6, Cereus gemmaceus; 7, Auetnouia cereus. 70 ni£ SEA ANEXOXES. 303 THREAD- CELLS OF SEA ANEMONE. A, quiescent ; B, c, D, ruptured. species. The well-known genus Anemonia has an adherent base, and is without any pores in the sides of the body, which are smooth. Its tentacles, very numerous, are not retractile, but long. The margin of the tentaculiferous disc has no coloured bodies, and the tentacles are conical. It was called Anthea by Johnston. Anemonia cereus has from 100 to 200 tentacles longer than the body, and they are green, or olive and brown tipped with rose, with a brown disc, with green radii. It inhabits the rocks of the English Channel. Anemonia tuedia, with short tentacles, inhabits the Scottish coasts. Other genera have coloured bodies on the outside of the disc. The genus Actinia has tentacles that can be retracted, and it has the chromatophores, or coloured bodies. Actinia mesembryan- themum is the common Red Sea Anemone of the south of England, and it is a hardy thing, liking to get out of the water now and then on to the rocks, and to remain there closed, and then to re-enter by crawling with its disc. It is very voracious, and grows to a moderate size, and lives years in confinement. Actinia anyuicotna and A. pallida are also English species. The genus is found in all the northern seas, the Medi- terranean, the Atlantic, and on the Pacific coasts. Moseley has described Actiniae from 1,075 to 1,350 fathoms' depth in the Atlantic, clinging on to the stems of a Mopsea. The genus Paractis of the South Seas and Atlantic has no chromatophores. The pretty Dianthus Anemone belongs to the genus Actinia, and has its disc lobed. An allied genus is that of Discosoma, and it contains a huge form, which measures two feet across, and which lies flat like a carpet on the mud of the Red Sea. This genus is Mediterranean and Pacific in its distribution.* The genus Corynactis has the ten- tacles swollen and sub-spherical at their ends, and Melactis has a protractile mouth and knobbed tentacles. An epidermic enve- lope surrounds the red Capnea sangviinea, and a Dysactis from Guernsey t has a long body, narrow below, with two crowns of tentacles very distinct, but contiguous at their origin. The largest are filiform and white, and the others are small and orange in colour. Several genera have wart- like tubercles on the sides of the body, which secrete a sticky substance, and the base, or foot, is very well developed. The Crassicorn j Anemone of the south coasts of England belongs to the genus Cereus (Bunodes, Gosse), and is well known for its beautiful colours, green, grey, and red, its numerous pointed tentacles, and its voracity. Unfortunately it does not live well in aquaria. It has neither chromatophores around the disc * The deep sea genus Corallimorphus of Moseley (2,028 fathoms) belongs here. f Dysactis liserialis. i Cereus crassicornis. ACTINIA MESEMBRYANTHEMU.M. 304 NATURAL HISTORY. nor pores on the outside. A small green species, banded with yellow, is found on the British coasts, and its tentacles are banded with white and green. The warts are arranged in vertical series.* The Gem Anemone f of England has small warts in close longitudinal series, and the tentacles, which are slender, are ringed with white and green tints. The Daisy Anemonej can elongate its body considerably, and has a delicate integument of a pale grey yellow, and the warts are restricted to close to the upper part. The disc can alter its shape considerably in a wave-like manner, and the tentacles are very numerous, delicate, smallest externally, and they are ringed with grey and white tints. Another species, Cereus venusta (Actinia venusta, Gosse), has a brownish orange- coloured body, very numerous tentacles, and it emits an abundance of filaments with nematocysts, when it is irritated. Several other species are found in the English Channel, and the genus frequents nearly all the shores of the great oceans. The genus Phymactis differs from Cereus in having chromatophores around the disc, and the species are from Peru, the Cape, St. Helena, Brazil, and Australia. Cystiactis has large prominent tubercles on the body, and has a South American distribution. An Anemone which usually selects an empty whelk-shell to fix its base upon, has a leathery consistence of body and short tentacles ; the tints are greyish-yellow, banded with red-brown, and the tentacles are banded with the same colours. It has pores situated near the disc. It is Adamsia efoeta. Another species inhabits the surface of shells in which the Soldier Crabs reside, and its very flexible body has the disc bordered with a rosy orange tint.§ All the remaining genera of Actininse have a very small base and an elongate body. The species of Iluanthos, known in the Scottish and English seas, differ : in the one the body is elongated and pointed at the base, and the filiform green tentacles are in one row ; || and in the other the body is squat, with a small base, and the tentacles are thick. ^[ These Anemones are deeply fixed in sand and mud. The Edwardsias have the body attenuated at the base, but there is a dense dermal structure, more or less opaque, into which the animal can withdraw its two ends. In the genus Peachia the body is long, and there is a EDWAKJJSIA cALLi>,oKi-iiA. central orifice in the slender base. The tentacles are in one row, and the mouth has a papilliferous and protractile lip. Peachia hastata lives in the sand, with the calice just visible, in the English Channel. It appears that the young form of one of the Edwardsia?, has eight tentacles, and only two mesenteries. The sub-family Phyllactinse contains Anemones which have some of the tentacles branching, or compound in their structure. In the genus Phyllactis the simple tentacles form an inner row, and the compound leathery ones, an outer crown. The Thalassianthinse have all the tentacles ramose or papillate. Finally, the Zoanthina? are aggregated polypes, which increase by budding at the base, and they have a coriaceous false skin, in which the secretions are mixed with concretions of sand and shells. * Cereus ckrysoplenium (Johnston). f Cereus (Bunodes) ffemmaceus (Gosse). I Cereus bell is. § Adamsia palliata. Some of the Actininoe, such as the genera Actinia and Cereus, have the ova and spermatozoa developed in the same animal, and other genera are unisexual. The ova undergo their early changes in the parent, and a ciliated planula is set free. An oval depression appears at one end of it, which becomes the mouth and gastric sac. There is a tuft of cilia at the base end, and the planula swims with it forwards. Then the mouth elongates in one direction, and two mesenteries are formed out of the mesoderm, so that the planula is bilaterally symmetrical, and has an internal cylindrical canal communicating with a bilobed perigastric cavity, which separates it from the body-wall. Another pair of mesenteries make their appearance in one of the spaces between the two mesenteries, and thus four mesenteries and four inter -mesenteric spaces are formed. Then a pair of mesenteries appear in the other space, so that altogether there are six. Then two more are added, and there are eight mesenteries and chambers. Subsequently a fifth and sixth pair are developed, and twelve mesenteries result. Seven of them have come from the division of the first primary, and five from the second primary chambers. These researches by Lacaze-Duthiers connect these presumedly radiate animals with those having a bilateral symmetry, and group together th& Anthozoa with four, six, and eight tentacles or their multiples. || Iluanthos scoticus. ^ Iluanthos mitrhc!!i. THE SEA-PENS. 305 THE ORDER ALCYONARIA. The numerous members of this order are well distinguished by having eight tentacles, or tentacles in multiples of four, which are very regularly pinnate. They form a single row, or cycle, and are enlarged at their base, and each communicates with one of the eight perivisceral spaces around the stomach. Certain boat-shaped spicules are found in groups, at the base of the tentacles and in the derm, and are often coloured. The mouth varies in its shape, but has not a bilobate form. The stomach terminates, internally, in an orifice surrounded by a sphincter (pylorus). Eight mesenteries project from its outer surface into the perivisceral cavity, and reach the walls of the body to which they are fixed. Each inter-mesenteric space is continuous with a hollow tentacle above, and below it communicates with the visceral chamber near the pylorus. The visceral cavity beyond the pylorus is variable in its size ; in the genus Corallium and in the Gorgonias it is short and rounded below, but in Alcyonium it is long, and narrow in shape. The body is very soft and retractile at the upper part of this portion of the cavity, but at the lower part the deraial tissues contain sclerites and spicules. A calcareous stem often results, which may branch, and become thick and concentric in its structure, or spicules may simply strengthen the integuments, and in the first family coral-like structure exists. The family HELIOPORIDJ*E contains the so-called Blue Coral (Heliopora ccerulea), which is found on many Pacific coral reefs. The Heliopora has a massive, hard, calcareous skeletal structure, with pores on its surface leading clown to tubules, which are crossed by tabulae or horizontal floors. The soft parts cover the hard, and dip down within the pores and to the level of the uppermost horizontal tabulae. The pores have little projections, like imperfect coral septa, and there may be from twelve to sixteen. But at a slight depth in the calice Moseley, to whom we owe the anatomy and zoology of the group, says the projections become eight in number, and in the living animal a mesentery passes to each internal projection. The soft tissues of this hard cellular mass are composed of an ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. The first is superficial, and is also prolonged to form a lining to the stomach. The mesoderm has connective tissue, layers of cells, and masses of fibrillar tissue, and the carbonate of lime of the skeleton is produced in the first. The endoderm forms layers lining the centre of the tubes of the hard parts, the calicles, and the interseptal spaces. There are deep superficial canals on the top of the hard skeleton, communicating with the calices of the pores, and they are lined with the three dermal elements. The polype with its tentacles has not yet been seen expanded, but Moseley has drawn the unexpanded condition, and has shown that retractor muscles exist, which withdraw it into the pore, down to the upper tabula. Yery small nematocysts occur in the ectoderm. There are fight lobes in the unexpanded polype, and eight tentacles exist, and there are evidences of short stout tubercles on them. Moseley found ova in about three polypes out of a hundred, but no spermatozoa ; so in all probability these tabulate Alcyonaria are unisexual.* The fossil genus Heliolites, of the Palaeozoic age, is a close ally of the Heliopora, which has itself been found fossil in Secondary rocks, f THE FAMILY PEXXATULIDJE.-TIIE SEA-PEXS. These are free-swimming, more or less pen-shaped Alcyonaria, and some live with their slender pointed root in the sand and mud, but they are not fixed. Their surface is soft, and may have three kinds of polypes, or zooids, upon it, continuous by their bases. They are connected with the central stem, or axis, which is fistulose, and made up of horny and calcareous matter, traversed by * H. N. Moseley, F.R.S. : Report on Corals, Challenricr Expedition. t Allusion has been made to the Tabulata as a group already ; and Moseley's researches almost necessitate the placing of the Favositidae of Milne-Edwards and Jules Haime amongst the Alcyonaria, so that the group is very old, and was Paleozoic. Some forms, however, aro Bryozoa. 277 PENNATULA (PTEROEIDES) SPIXOSA. 806 NATURAL HISTORY. soft tissue in bands. The lower part of the axis is not covered with zooids, and the upper part may have its surface with zooids on one or both sides in simple series, in spiral series, or in gi'oups on one or both sides. When the upper part of the axis is branched, the pen-shape may be single or double, and crowds of zooids with spinules are arranged on one edge. The ectoderm usually contains cal- careous spiculae. The Sea-pens live in shallow water, and also at great depths, and their distribution in the ocean is very wide. The sub-family Pennatulse contains the genus Pennatula, in which the zooids are on the ventral and lateral sides of the stem, there being always a bilateral arrangement of them on the long cylindrical pinnate stem also. Many are very phosphorescent, and most live in shallow water, some going down to three hundred fathoms. Their colours are often brilliant red, and the specimens may be a foot in length. The stalk, or lower part of the axis, swells out, and then terminates in a slender end, or it may be short and cylindrical. The spicules have the tint of the whole. The zooids are on the tufts, and not on the stem, in the genus Pteroeides. In the genus Virgu laria the root is stout and bent, the axis very long and often curved, and the zooids are on either side, on the short pinnules. Calcareous needles are scanty in the stalk and tentacles. In the genus Scytalium, the zooids, placed side by side, resemble the half of a young leaf, and the pinna? are thick, whilst in Pavonaria, the zooids are on the thick edge of the four-sided stem. A magnificent form, called Anthoptilum thomsoni, after the late director of the Challetiger Expedition, has a round and long axis, and the zooids are in many short rows on it. It was found at six hundred fathoms' depth, south of Buenos Ayres, and another species at a depth of 1,200 fathoms. The family Umbellulidse have a long sterile axis, and from about twenty to fifty zooids are grouped together at the upper end, in a more or less umbrella form. Some species were found at a depth of from 1,200 to 2,125 fathoms. The family Renillidse have a kidney-shaped body, without a solid axis, and the zooids are on one side of their single pinnule. The Veretillida? have an elongate axis, which has retractile zooids over the entire surface, and its lower part is bulbous, naked, or soft. It is divided longitudinally by two intersecting membranes, with a calcareous axis in the lower part of the stem, or it may be simple and fleshy. THE FAMILY OF THE GORGONID^E. There are vast numbers of branching, slender-stemmed, compound Alcyonaria living fixed on the floor of the sea at different depths. They have a cellular soft part, in which are the zooids, or polypes, with eight pinnate tentacles, and this surrounds, in the manner of a bark, a more or less horny or calcareous stem, which is fixed at its base. The soft tissue is furnished with sclerites or spiculpe, and a canal system is on the outside of the stem, or sclerobasic axis. It appears to have to do with the general nutrition and symmetrical growth of the whole, and probably it communicates with the visceral cavities of the polypes. The visceral cavities of the polypes are short, and rest, as it were, 011 the outside of the central stem. There are two great divisions of this family ; in one the axis is flexible, horny, and only partly calcareous, and in the other it is completely calcareous. The first division relates to the sub-families Gorgonise and Isidinse, and the last to the sub-family Corallinse. GROEXLANDicA. THE 307 The beautiful Red Coral,* which is used so much as an ornament, is the cleaned hard stem of an Alcyonarian, which lives fixed to substances at considerable depths in the Mediterranean and some parts of the Atlantic and Pacific. The red stem has delicate striations on it, and a section shows a con- centric arrangement of calcareous matter, tinted various shades of red. The animal forms this by deposi- tion of the calcareous grains in a connective tissue, and covers the whole with a somewhat dense soft part. In this there are canals, or water-systems, running over the hard stem, conforming to its mark- ings, and communicating with smaller canals. The soft parts, moreover, above the canals are formed into polypes, or zooids, which are contractile and very extensible. They have a thick base, which narrows upwards to a point, whence a swelling extends, capped by eight feathery tentacles. Muscles exist to retract the zooids, but nerves have not yet been dis- tinguished. A mass of spicules environs the hard stem, and is gradually connected to form the outer layer. The zooids are unisexual or bisexual on the same stem, and the ova form a planula covered with cilia, like a little white worm. It swims freely, and settles down after escaping from the mouth of the parent, remaining permanently adherent to some substance on the floor of the sea. The changes then proceed which lead to the formation of a mouth, stomach, and perigastric cavity ; and the calcareous matter gradually deposited by connective tissue, and forming the stem and the spicules, is derived from the products of digestion. As in the case of the Stony Madreporaria, the carbonate of lime of the skeleton is not got from sea-water, but from the shells of the minute animals which constitute the food. The deposition of the carbonate of lime thus obtained in certain tissues is analogous to the formation of bones in the Vertebrata and shells in the Mollusca. There is a very important coral fishery off the coast of Algeria, near Calle, and also off the east coast of Spain, and the article is systematically obtained by a rude dredging or breaking-off and bringing-up apparatus. The coral fisheries of the coasts of Italy and Sicily begin about the middle of February and continue into October. Pale coral is the most prized now. Off Torre del Greco a large quantity of coral is found every year, and from 400 to 600 boats of from six to ten tons are employed. The cost per boat is from £500 to ,£600, and the Coral, when good, is worth from £80 to £200 an ounce. Dana describes a branching, more or less fan- shaped Coral, of a pale colour within and brilliantly red outside. It is also found off the Sandwich Islands. These species belong to a sub-family — the Corallinse — and it was represented in the age of the Chalk at Faxoe, and in the Miocene of Turin and Sindh. Other dwellers on the floor of the sea, possessing branched stems, have the calcareous part of it not continuous, but in more or less cylindrical or flat pieces, COHALLIUM SPICULE. separated by horny tissue. They are the sub-family Isidinse; and the genus Isis has the polypes on the calcareous pieces which are striated. The branches arise from the calcareous parts, his hippuns is from Amboyna, and Isis polyantha from the American seas, whilst Isis coralloides is from the seas of India, This widely-distributed genus has naturally fossil forms, and they have been found in the Cretaceous and Miocene strata of Europe, and in the Miocene of Sindh and Australia. In the genus Mopsea, a dweller on the deep-sea floor, the branching takes place from the inter- calcareous or homy part, and there is a fossil Eocene form of it. In the genus Melithaea the outer calcareous parts are porous and corky in appearance. The sub-family Gorgoninse has a flexible continuous stem which resembles horn more than chitine. The environing soft parts are well developed, and the polypes may be sunken in it or may project as little warts. There are spicules of carbonate of lime in the soft parts, and sometimes there is some of that mineral in the stem. The stem, marked with grooves on the outside, is formed * Corallium rubrum. COKALLIUM KUBKUM. NATURAL HISTORY. of concentric layers, and they are deposited in the tissues of the deepest portion of the soft parts, one over the other. The nodular spicules are very characteristic, and in some genera they crowd the softer tissues. Some are knobbed at both ends and along their short stern, and the knobs are like cauliflowers ; others, with four or five crowns of tubercles, are fusiform ; many are club- shaped, with longitudinal crests, or ai*e spiny, and many are scale-shaped and spinose. The great number of genera of this sub-family may be arranged around certain well-marked ones or types. The genus Primnoa has a dendroid stem and long warty or pedunculated knob- like appendages. Each of these contains a polype which is crowded with imbricated scale-shaped spicules. These are movable on their bases. The axis is cylindrical and delicate, and contains some carbonate of lime. They are found in the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, Red Sea, and Pacific Ocean. The genus Gorgonia is a type, and about ten others are grouped with it. The stem contains no carbonate of lime, and is corneous. Gorgonia verru- cosa, of the Mediterranean and English Channel, has a bush-shaped form, or is like an espalier. It branches much, but so as to develop a fan-shaped outline. Some are half an inch and others ENLARGED SECTION OF STEM OF COKALLIUM KUBRVM (llED CORAL). The polypes are on knob-shaped projections, and have a circular one-eighth of an inch in diameter, margin. The nearest ally to Gorgonia is the genus Muricea, and it has a softer stem, and the polypes are, as it were, bi-lobed. The Western seas of Amei-ica appear to be its home. Other genera, such as Plexaura, have the polypes sunken in the common soft tissue, which is thick and semi-solid. Its species come from the Antilles, the Canaries, and the Pacific. Leptogorgia, on the contrary, has a thin, almost inembraniform, soft tissue, and the margins of the polypes do not project, and there are no knobs or warts. A flat stem, branching in twos, and forming a plume shape, is characteristic of the genus Lophogorgia; and when the polypes, instead of being placed all around the stem and branches, are restricted to longitudinal lines on either side of a median groove, the forms belong to the genus Pterogorgia. Other genera have a foliaceous-looking stem, some are in straight sword-shaped masses, as Xiphigorgia, and the rest have the branches uniting, so as to form a leafy shape. In Rhipidogorgia the fan shape is very decided, and the soft parts have little warty polypes close to the hard tissue. This genus has many species in the Australian, Pacific, and Atlantic seas. In fact, the world-wide distribution of nearly all these genera is very remarkable. Another type THE ALCYONID& 306 has a large quantity of carbonate of lime in its stem, and it is interesting to note the repetition of external form, in this division, of that noticed amongst the corneous-stemmed forms. It is the genus Gorgonella, and it corresponds to the Leptogorgias in the last division, but the axis is very calcareous, and Verucella has the configuration of the Gorgonia?. One genus, Juncella, has a simple, non-branching, straight stem, like a stick, and the polypes project slightly. It has been found in the Mediterranean, off Bahia, and on the east coast of Africa. The last group is that of the Briaracese, in which the axis, or stem, is no longer dense, solid, and concentric, but may be hollow or a mere mass of spicules. Briareum is the typical genus, and Paragorgia is its most important ally. THE FAMILY ALCYONIDJE. With the exception of one genus, this great family is characterised by the absence of anything like a continuous skeleton or supporting dense hard structure. In no case is there an axis, as in the Red Coral and Gorgonias, but there is much soft structure, in which isolated calcareous sclerites or spicules are placed, sufficient to detract from a perfect con- tractility and softness. Hence some are leathery or fleshy. The polypes are fashioned after the Alcyonarian type, have eight pinnate tentacles, and their visceral cavity has membranes in it sup- porting the reproductive elements. The soft tissues, or ccenosarc, contain the polypes, whose centres communicate with a common series of minute canals. Many forms increase by budding, some from the base and others from the sides, and thus two sub-families, the Cornularinse and the Alcyoninse, can be established. There are some forms, however, which pro- duce a wall of calcareous spicules and a kind of corallum, and thus a third sub-family, the Tubi- porina?, is formed. This is a very exceptional form, and the rest are fixed by their fleshy bases. Where the polypes are in con- siderable numbers and surrounded : by a ccenosarc, they extend deeply, and as they are produced by TUBIPOHA MCSICA (ORGAN-PIPE CORAL). budding they may have their visceral cavities elongate and either in the direction of the lower sides or of the whole mass. Some are very retractile. The Organ-pipe Coral * forms very considerable masses of a deep red colour, and is found in the Red Sea and the Pacific. Its appearance is very familiar to visitors to museums, and it is made up, in the dry and the dead state, of a multitude of small cylindrical tubes placed in rows one over the * Tubipwa musica. SEA FAX (Gorgonia flabellum). 310 NATURAL HISTORY. TUBIPORA MUSICA. other, and separated by a kind of semi-tubular and cellular tissue, which forms layers of considerable extent. Usually the number of tubes is small at the base of a mass, and it increases at each layer of the cellular tissue, so that it is very great at the surface of a large piece. Each tube is made up of a great number of sclerites, nearly united together, so that their original shape cannot be made out, and it is hollow within, and more or less cylindrical. But there are funnel-shaped projections inside, and also incomplete horizontal tabulae. There are no septa. The tubes are separate, slightly porose, and the new ones spring from the horizontal layers, whose cavities communicate with the larger tubes. The polype fills the upper part of the tube, and its outer derm passes over the edge, or rather is continuous with it, and the sclerites are developed in its midst. There are eight tentacles, with from fifteen to seventeen pinnae on either side of each, and there are spicules within. The mouth has a slightly raised lip. When the polype is alarmed, the tentacles close, and then the whole is with- drawn into the tube. The lower part of the tube, above the uppermost tabula, is occupied by the gastric cavity, separated above from the stomach by a delicate tissue. The ovaries are in the lower cavity, and the mesenteries, eight in number, are like thin slender cords. The genus Tubipora forms a sub-family of the Alcyonidae, and there are several species of it. Probably it is of great antiquity, for there are things like it in the Devonian rocks. The Alcyoninae are fleshy and soft, and increase by ova, and also in. mass by a process of budding from the sides of the polypes. The buds are enclosed in a very strongly- developed coenosarc, and the mass may be simple, lobed, or branched. There are two divisions of the sub-family. In the armed or spiculate one, the tissue of the body is thin and soft deeply, but the outer derm is almost consolidated or very leathery, on account of the number of large boat- shaped spiculaj. These resemble those commonly found in L Tunes magnified and containing polype. 2 Tentacles of the Alcyonaria at the base of the tentacles, but which are Ttilnpora polype. 3. Polype magnified. * small in that position. The extremities of the spicules project at the surface, and give an echinulate appearance to the individual. In the genus Nephthya the derm is a leathery skin, bristling with spicules, and it forms branching lobes ending in projecting tubercles in which are the polypes. The only known species is from the Red Sea. In the genus Spoggodes the animal is membranous and flexible, and the polypes are incompletely retractile within the tissue which contains the spicules. An almost cylindrical tube of leathery skin with spiculiferous walls contains the highly retractile polypes of the genus Paralcyonium of the Algerian seas, and this is the nearest ally to the Tubipores. No less than twelve genera belong to the next division of naked Alcyonians. These have a semi-cartilaginous consistence, and merit the term fleshy, but the density is due to the presence of a multitude of microscopic nodular sclerites. The surface is granular and very spinulose. The genera may be grouped according to the contractility of the polypes ; and in the genus Alcyonium, which is lobed-shaped or finger-shaped, the contractility is complete. The polypes retreat within a dense coanosarc ; they increase by budding. One of the species* has a singular hand- shape, and is called Dead Man's Fingers on the English coasts. The polypes are large, very numerous, and occupy the greater part of the surface, and the colour may be white, or grey, or orange. They are fixed on to stones and shells, and the ugly mass of slimy-looking substance if placed in pure sea-water gradually sends forth its beautiful polypes. The genus Ammothea is a branching form, with spicules on the branches, and it probably should be placed with the other division. Its polypes are semi-retractile. The polypes of the last genus to be mentioned, Xenia, from the Red Sea and Fijis, are non-retractile, and are on a fasciculate and fleshy stem. Amongst the genera of the sub-family, the Cornularinae, are some simple or isolated forms, or they may be united by a kind of prolonged base or stolon, out of which they have been formed by budding. The simple kinds have a tubular shape, and the polype is retractile, and they belong to the * Ah'uoinum diyitalum. THE ALCYONIDM. 311 genus Haimea. Compound kinds may have root-shaped stolons, and the polypes may be tubular. In some of these, the Cornularise, for instance, the polypes are completely drawn in, and are retractile, and the stolons fix 011 to all kinds of substances. There are no spicules, and the bottom of the visceral cavity communicates with the buds by minute canals. They are Mediterranean species. The Clavularise resemble these, but contain spicules, and inhabit the shores of Vanikoro. Some species without retractile polypes, but otherwise like the Cornularioe, are found in the Moluccas, the Bay of Naples, and coast of Norway. They belong to the genus Rhizoxenia. Some wai-t-shaped polypes, hardly higher than the stolons which bear them, characterise the Sarcodictyons of the Scottish coasts. The colour of the stolon in one species is red. and the polypes are yellow, and in another the tint is yellow-brown. The next division refers to species which have a membranous basal expansion, and not stolons, and in the genus Anthelia the polypes are very projecting, and when it contracts the tentacles come within the base. The ancient forms of the Anthozoa have been slightly alluded to in the past pages, and it is necessary to add that the groups Aporosa and Perforata were faintly foreshadowed in the Palaeozoic ages, and began to be of importance in the early Secondary times. The Aporosa appear to have been the most numerous. The reefs of the Oolitic age had a great fauna, and the Chalk contains relics of a fauna which resembled that of the deep seas of the present time. Many genera of Tertiary corals are now existing, and a few species also. The group Rugosa is a very difficult one to define, and it nourished during the Palteozoic age. In many forms the septa are so close together, and the space between them is so restricted, that it is doubtful whether mesenteries and ovarian apparatus could have existed there. In some there is a groove, or more than one, in the place of a principal septum ; and in several genera of compound kind the columella and surrounding septa almost recall the Stylasters. Some of the Rugosa may have been corals having soft parts, something like those now existing, but others were probably Alcyonarians, and not a few must be classified near the Millepores. CLASSIFICATION. CLASS .—ANTHOZOA. ORDER. — ZOANTHARIA. Sub-order. — Madreporaria. Gro up . — Aporosa . Families.— Turbinolidae, Oculinidne, Astrceidte, Stylinacese, Astroeinae, Fungidae, Sub-family. — Stylophorinae. Group. — Perforata. Families. — Eupsamminaj, Poritidae. Group. — Rugosa. Sub-order. — Antipatharia. Sub-order. — Actinaria. Fam Hies. — Actinidae, Cerianthidse. OSDER. — ALCYONAUIA. Families. — Helioporidae, Pennatulidas, Gorgonidse, Alcyonidae. P. MARTIN DUNCAX. 312 THE GEOUP SPONGI^E. The Turkey Bath Sponge as a Type —Its Structure and Embryology— Its Mode of Life— Specific Distinction and Existing Distribution— Sponge-farming — Forms and Colour of Sponges — The Individuality Question — Different Types of Canal System — The Three Primary Layers — The Skeleton — Spicule Forms — Embryological Development — Affinities of the Sponges— Their Classification — General Characters of Existing Families— Their Distribution in Space and Time. THE Sponges are a numerous, diverse, and yet compact, group of animals, manifesting, amidst a remarkable diversity of minor characters, a fundamental similarity by which they are united closely together, and separated from all the rest of the animal kingdom. In a word, they are Metazoa, or multicellular animals, in which the endodermal layer characteristically consists, partly or wholly, of flagellated collared cells. A clear idea of the nature of a Sponge will be most readily obtained from a description of a single well-selected example, and none is better suited for the purpose than the common Bath Sponge. The object which is usually denoted by that name is but the skeletal remains of the animal — a delicate elastic network, which so intimately pervades every part of the living organism that, after all the other tissues are removed, it still presents a faithful model of the general form and structure of the whole. There are several kinds of Bath Sponge, but the one to which we shall restrict our attention is the fine Turkey Sponge (Euspongia officinalis), of which there are several well-marked varieties, differing greatly in form. Some are cup-shaped masses, with thick walls, or more or less globular clumps ; others flat, somewhat ear-shaped plates ; and others, again, encrusting patches from which small tubes grow upwards. The colour of the exterior is usually some tint of brown, varying from yellowish-grey to black ; within it is of a lighter shade, varying from greyish-yellow to colourless, but in one variety it is rusty red. A thin skin covers the whole surface of the Sponge, rising, tent-like, about the projecting ends of the chief fibres of the skeleton. These projecting ends can readily be seen with a lens on an unused skeleton of a Bath Sponge. In various places, irregularly distributed, the skin is perforated by circular holes known as oscula, which can be opened or closed by the movements of a delicate iris-like membrane which forms their margin. The oscula are the terminal openings of wide tubes which descend into the interior of the Sponge, repeatedly branching like the roots of a tree in their course till they become too small to be followed by the unassisted eye. They are known as the excurrent canals ; and the tubular spaces in the skeleton corresponding to them, as well as the general position of the oscules, are clearly visible in the Sponge of domestic use. Besides the oscules, large circular openings, characterised by the absence of the iris-like margin, are sometimes, but by no means always, present. They lead into wide canals which are usually tenanted by some large marine worm (e.g., Nereis costce), which was regarded by Peyssonel as "the essential animal and sole fabricant of the Sponge, all the rest being merely a nidus or excretion ! " On examining the surface of the Sponge with a strong lens, there will be seen over those areas devoid of oscules a number of thread-like ridges descending radiately down the tent-like elevations of the skin, branching as they go, and united laterally by similar but transverse ridges into an irregular network with polygonal meshes. A number of round apertures, called pores, are situated in these meshes, and give them a sieve-like appearance (Fig. 2). The pores lead into a roomy space, the subdermal cavity, which spreads beneath the skin ; from it canals descend direct into the interior of the Sponge, and sooner or later become branched ; these are known as the incurrent canals (Fig. 1). Thus the Sponge consists of a fleshy mass, supported by a network of elastic fibres, invested with a skin, and traversed by two sets of canals — excurrent canals, each opening by a single oscule to the exterior, and incurrent canals, which communicate with the exterior by cribriform pore areas. Nearly this much, if we except the distinction of the canals into two kinds, was well known at a very early date, probably from the time of Aristotle, two thousand years ago ; but so little does the structure, so far ascertained, resemble that of any other kind of animal, and so little light does it throw on the real nature of the organism, that the earlier naturalists were unable to infer from it PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SPONGE: GRANT'S DISCOVERY. 313 certainly even whether they should regard the Sponge as an animal or a plant. Some, like Lamarck, supplied what was wanting by a free use of the imagination, and, supposing that the oscules were the mouths of cells occupied by little polypes, which constantly succeeded in evading observation, were enabled to class the Sponges with the Alcyonia ; while some zoologists, who knew little about plants, handed over an organism which they did not understand to the care of the botanists. Nor was much help to be had from an examination of the Sponge in a living state ; for, beyond mere growth, it presents no ob- vious signs of life. Mar- sigli was the first, in 1711, to observe the dilatation, and contraction of the oscular openings, and after- wards Ellis asserted that he saw currents of water flow into them as well as out — a most exceptional occurrence — and thence inferred that the oscules were mouths by which the Sponge sucks in and squirts out water. In all this there was no progress, and it is to Robert Grant that we are indebted for the funda- mental discovery which dis- persed the mystery that had surrounded the physi- ology of the Sponge since the early time of Aristotle. His discovery consisted in the fact that he plainly witnessed currents of water containing floating particles of food flowing through the pores of the skin into the Sponge, and, at the same time, other currents of water, burdened with fecal residues, flowing out of the oscules from the excurrent tubes. By this flow of water through it the life of the Sponge is manifested and maintained. The folio win " c> is Grant's own account of his earliest observations : — Kg. 1 SECTION OF TURKEY BATH SPONGE. (After Sclmlze.) p.Tore; ,«, snbdermal cavity; i.incurrent canal :/, flagrrllated chamber; el, chief fibre of the skeleton : r2. connecting fibres ; o, ova in various stages of growth ; os, ovum segmenting ; m, morula. ( x 40.) "Ill the month of November last, I therefore put a small branch of the Spongia coalita, with some sea-water, into a watch-glass, under the microscope, and, on reflecting the light of a candle 278 314 NATURAL HISTORY. up through the fluid, I soon perceived that there was some intestine motion in the opaque particles floating through the water. On moving the watch-glass, so as to bring one of the apertures on the side of the Sponge fully into view, I beheld, for the first time, the splendid spectacle of this living fountain vomiting forth from a circular cavity an impetuous torrent of liquid matter, and hurling along, in rapid succession, opaque masses, which it strewed every- where around. The beauty and novelty of such a scene in the animal kingdom long arrested my attention ; but, after twenty-five minutes of constant observation, I was obliged to withdraw my eye. from fatigue, without having seen the torrent for one instant change its direction, or diminish, in the slightest degree, the rapidity of its course. I continued to watch the same orifice, at short intervals, for five hours, sometimes observing it for a quarter of an hour at a time, but still the stream rolled on with a constant and equal velocity. About the end of this time, however, I observed the current become perceptibly languid, the opaque flocculi of feculent matter, which were thrown out with so much impetuosity at the beginning, were now propelled to a shorter distance from the orifice, and fell to the bottom of the fluid within the sphere of vision; and, in one hour more, the current had en- tirely ceased. '' Grant afterwards ob- served the currents of water entering the pores, and illustrated his obser- vations by a drawing, of which Fig. 3 is a fac- simile copy. He then sought for the cause of the water-streaming, and lightly conjectured that it must be due to ciliary action, but sharp-sighted as he was he failed to find the cilia, though he especially looked for them. They were subsequently discovered, however, by Dobie, Bowerbank, and Carter, and the last showed that the cells bearing the cilia, or flagella, as these whip-like filaments are termed when each cell bears only one of them, are usually arranged in spherical chambers, to which he gave the name of ampullaceous sacs, but which are now more generally known as flagellated chambers. Finally, F. E. Schulze, in his faithful and beautiful illustrations of Sponge-structure, showed exactly how these flagellated chambers are brought into relation with the excurrent and incurrent canals ; and this brings us back to the Bath Sponge. In this, as in most other Sponges, the terminal branches of th? excurrent canals dilate at their ends into flagellated chambers (Fig. 4, c), about O001 inch in diameter, which are clustered about the penultimate branches of the excurrent canals like grapes in a bunch. The terminal branches of the incurrent canals apply themselves to the round ends of the chambers and open into them by one or usually more small circular pores. The flagellated cells are arranged in a single layer on the walls of the chamber, and rapidly lashing the water in one direction drive it into the excurrent canals ; the multitudinous little streams so produced flow together in the larger excurrent tubes, and are finally discharged in a powerful current through the oscules. The water driven out of the chambers is replaced by an inflow from the incurrent tubes, and the loss from these is made good by the minute currents which stream through the dermal pores. These entering currents bear with them minute protelnaceous particles, such as minute infusoria, diatoms, and minute algae ; they also contain oxygen in solution ; the outflowing currents carry away faecal residues, and also the excreta urea and carbonic acid. The solid particles of food are ingested by the cells lining the excurrent canals, and particularly by the flagellated cells. This can most readily be proved by Fig. 2. — POHIFEHOUS SURFACE OF A SPONGE (Sfowjelia avara. After Schuhe.) A, Magnified 10 diameters ; B, a single mesh, x 60 diameters. THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SPOXGE. 315 3. FAC-SIMILE OF GRANT'S FIRST FIGURE. «, Pores; e.oscule ; /, ova; f/. embryo entering cxrnrrenc cannls. Tho outward arrows show water from osculcs ; the inward 0111-3 water entering I lie l>ores. feeding any kind of Sponge with carmine, killing it with osmic acid, hardening in alcohol, and then cutting from it thin slioes for examination under a high power of the microscope. The flagellated chambers will then be seen clearly marked out from the rest of the Sponge by the abundant presence of the ingested colouring matter. So close a resemblance exists in all other respects between these cells and certain flagellated infusoria, that in all probability they also feed in the same way, and we may consequently de- scribe the feeding of the Sponge-cell after that of the infusorian. The flagellum, then, of each Sponge-cell creates cur- ivuts in the water to- wards itself, and the floating particles borne along with these come in contact with, and adhere to, a delicate film which surrounds the long neck of the cell like a collar (Fig. 5); the protoplasm of the collar is in a state of active circulation, streaming up one side and down the other like an endless band ; the adherent food particles are thus carried by it to its base, where they come in contact with the neck, sink into its substance, and find their way into the basal part of the cell. A little drop of water is included with them, and thus the flagellated cells not only eat but drink ; the food is next digested, and when all the goodness is got out of it, the fiecal residue is extruded by an extemporised aperture from the cell, and forthwith carried out of the Sponge by the outflowing currents. The circulation of the collar must expose a large and constantly changing surface to the surrounding water, and so allow of the absorption of oxygen and the escape of carl tonic acid ; this is one way in which the cell breathes. The proteinaceous compounds of the cell unite with oxygen, and in so doing liberate energy, which is partly expended in maintaining the movements of the flagellum and collar. The final products of the union of the protoplasm with oxygen are water, carbonic acid, and urea — the second useless and therefore in the way, the last a deadly poison; if the life of the cell is to be maintained, the carbonic acid and urea, together with the excess of water, must be got rid of or excreted. This is accomplished through the agency of one or more contractile vesicles, which alternately expand and contract, a slow expansion, during which water contain- ing the other excreta accumulates in them, being followed by a rapid contraction by which it is expelled. Thus the flagellated cells eat, drink, breath, and excrete. They also grow and multiply in number ; the excess of food which is not expended in producing energy leads to increase in size or growth, and this, Fig:. 4.— FLAGELLATED CHAMBERS (c) OF when it passes a limit, gives place to division or fission, by which the cells are multiplied : the division may be either longi- tudinal or transverse ; in the first case it increases the number of cells in the flagellated chamber ; in the second one of the cells possesses an amoeba-like character, and wanders into the main tissue of the Sponge, to be immediately described along with its other histological constituents. The Sponge, like all other Metazoa, is ultimately resolvable into cells ; and of these tissues are built up, which are arranged in three definite layers — the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm. The ectoderm is a layer of flattened polygonal cells (Fig. 6, ec), which cover the whole exterior of TURKEY BATH SPONGE IN CON- NECTION WITH THE EXCURRENT (E) AND (After Schnl -.,:.) INCURRENT (l) CANALS. 316 NATURAL HISTORY. the Sponge, and line the incurrent canals throughout ; the margins of the cells are usually invisible, but can be readily developed by treatment with nitrate of silver. The endoderm, or inner layer, lines the excurrent canals, and has the same structure as the ectoderm, except in the flagellated chambers, i.e., the expanded ends of the smallest excurrent canals, where it forms a single layer of flagellated cells (Fig. 6, en). These consist of a spherical body of protoplasm, granular within, but firmer and clearer exter- nally ; containing a nucleus, and one or more contractile vesicles ; one end is seated on the wall of the chamber, the other is prolonged into its cavity as a long neck of clearer hyaline protoplasm ; around its margin the end of the neck extends into an immeasurably thin cylindrical or conical collar, while from its centre is produced a long slender flagellum. The tissue between the two preceding layers is the mesoderm (Fig. 4) ; it consists chiefly of a clear, greyish, jelly-like matrix containing irregularly stellate granular nucleated corpuscles, united by branching processes into an irregular network. In the neighbourhood of the flagellated chambers the definite outline of the corpuscles disappears, and they merge together, crowding the matrix with minute granules, amidst which the nucleus remains unchanged. This gelatinous connective tissue is very similar to that forming the disc of Jelly-fish ; it originates in cells, which first become Fig. 5. — FLAGELLATE COL- confluent, as about the flagellated chambers, and then change about their LARED INFUSORIAN FEED- confluent margins into the jelly-like matrix, their central part, with the ING, x 2,000 dia. (After ° . Savilie Kent.) nucleus, remaining as the stellate corpuscle, in certain places, as around ThethecuTrV^i"ndureed1)Ttci"°rota- the oscular openings, and in the circular diaphragms, which at intervals tory motion of the flagellum (JZ). . . . 1,1 t>, food vacuoie ; n, nucleus ; c, con- constrict the main, water canals, the corpuscles present a fusiform shape, tracting vesicle. *• acquire more or less distinct walls, and serve the function of muscle fibres. They present the same shape and appearances in other places, as parallel to the skeletal fibres, and directed lengthwise in the walls of the main canals but here their function is that of fibrous connective tissue. Besides these cells, which, though contractile, are not locomotive, there are other amrebiform cells which wander in the tissue, and frequently contain large granules looking like fat or starch, serving no doubt as food reserves. The skeleton, which is a product of the mesoderm, consists of a network of spongin fibres (Fig. 1), the substance of which in chemical composition most closely resembles silk, both compounds being regarded by chemists as horny matter. The fibres may be distinguished as chief fibres and connecting fibres ; the former, radiately arranged, project at right angles to the Sponge-surface ; the latter form a network transversely uniting the chief fibres together. Both have the same essential structure, consisting of a thick, transparent, concentrically- layered wall, and a soft granular axial thread ; but the larger chief fibres contain in addition foreign particles, such as sand- grains, sponge-spicules, and fragments of shell. They are formed as a secretion by modified cells of the mesoderm ; and the chief fibres obtain their included particles by embedding at their soft terminations, the foreign material which lies plentifully strewn over the skin. Reproduction (Fig. 1). — The ova and spermatozoa are found in the mesoderm. The former com- mence existence as cells remarkably similar to the amcebiform corpuscles of the connective tissue, being chiefly distinguished by their large bladder-like nucleus and its large round nucleolus ; as they increase in size yelk-granules make their appearance, and at length the egg assumes a regular ovoid form. It is noteworthy that the eggs in Euspongia are not, as in other Sponges, scattered irregularly through the mesoderm, but occur in groups of ten to twenty in number near the large excurrent canals embedded in a matrix of connective tissue, which is more or less separated from the rest of the 6. ECTODERM, AND DIFFERENT FORMS OF ENDODERMIC CELLS FROM SCYCANURA RAPHANUS. (Ajter ScTmlze.) A, ec, ectoderm ; B, en, endoderm cells, x 500. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BATH SPOXGE. 317 body by surrounding lacunar spaces. This seems to be an approximation to a rudimentary ovary. The eggs come to maturity at all times of the year. The spermatozoa (Fig. 7) occur in globular clusters, known as sperm-balls, each the product of a single cell ; they are strewn through the Sponge and not collected in special areas. Ova and spermatozoa are never developed, or at all events have not been observed, in the same individual, so that in the Bath Sponge, as in some other Sponges, though by no means in all, the sexes are distinct. Development. — The entrance of the spermatozoon into the ovum, which constitutes the essential act of fertilisation, lias not yet been certainly observed in this or any other known Sponge, but the resulting changes have been seen and carefully traced up to a certain stage. The ovum first divides into two similar cells, each of these again subdivides, and four similar cells result ; subdivision again takes place and eight cells result, and this process of segmentation is continued till at length a spherical cluster of similar cells, the well-known mulberry- mass, or morula, is formed (Fig. 1). The morula then becomes differentiated into an inner mass of connective tissue cells, and an outer layer of small cylindrical cells, coloured by pigment granules, and each furnished with a flagellum. The flagellated embryo extricates itself from the parent Sponge, and whirls rapidly about in the surrounding water. It has a compressed oval form, and resembles the planula of some corals. Its further history is unknown. Besides this natural mode of propagation the Bath Sponge can be multiplied, like a plant, by artificial cuttings. The demand in the arts for the Bath Sponge being in excess of the supply, attention has been directed to its cultivation, and with great success. The Sponge is cut into pieces, about one inch cube, care being taken to preserve as much of the skin and to squeeze out as little of the flesh as possible ; the cut- tings are then skewered on a strip of cane, and fastened into a wooden frame, constructed to preserve them from the access of mud and excess of light ; they are then sunk in the sea at a depth of about five to seven yards. In about seven years' time a crop of fine regularly globular Sponges is ready for the market. A capitalist or a company is now all that is required to make Sponge farming a profitable pursuit. Classification. — The species of Sponge in common use are three : — Euspongia officinalis (Lin.), the fine Turkey or Levant Sponge, just described; Euspongia zimocca (Schmidt), the hai'd Zimocca Sponge ; and Hippospongia eqnina (Schmidt), the Horse Sponge, or common Bath Sponge. The genus Eusponyia is distinguished by the regular development of the skeletal network throughout the body, its narrow meshes, scarcely or not at all visible to the naked eye, and the regularly radiate arrange- ment of its chief fibres ; Hippospongia is distinguished by the thinness of its fibres and the labyrinthic character of the skeleton beneath the skin, due to its being closely traversed by numerous winding canals of about one-fifth to two-fifths of an inch in width. As a consequence its chief fibres have no regular 1'adiate arrangement. The species of Euspongia are distinguished as follows : — In E. officinalis the chief fibres are of different thicknesses, irregularly swollen at intervals, and without exception cored by sand-grains ; in E. zimocca the chief fibres are thinner, more regular, and almost free from sand ; in E. officinalis again the uniting fibres are soft, thin, and elastic ; in E. zimocca denser and thicker — it is to this difference that the latter Sponge owes its characteristic hardness. Finally, the colour of the skeleton in E. offici- nalis is a light clear yellow, in E. zimocca a dark brown yellow. The common Bath Sponge (H. equina) has almost always a thick cake-like form, but its specific characters are not yet further defined. Distribution. — Euspongia officinalis is found at various parts of the Mediterranean coast, as also are the other two species of Bath Sponge. A species not to be distinguished from it occurs also in the Caribbean Sea about the shores of the West Indian Islands, and associated with it are two Fig. 7.— SPERMATOZOA (ffalisorca Zobittoris). [After Schulze.] A, Separate sijennatozoa, x 800 ; B, sperm ball, x 500. 318 NATURAL HISTORY. other species, the "yellow" and "hard-head" Sponges of the American shores, resembling E. zimocca ; and the "wool" Sponge, which appears to be one or perhaps two species of the Hippo- spongia, //. yossypiua, and H. mectndriformis, the " velvet " Sponge. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE SPOXGIJE. In form and size Sponges vary greatly : some are no larger than a pin's head, others as much as four feet in height and breadth, while some attain a length of over six feet. In form they are massive ; incrusting, sessile, or stalked ; globular, branched, tree-like, with the branches free or united laterally into a network; lamellar, irregularly or fan-shaped; tubular, vasiform, or labyrinthic, many of the forms presenting a close parallelism to those of Corals. In some the form is constant and characteristic, as in the fairy-like Venus-basket (Euplectella, Fig. 9, A) ; the glass-rope Sponge with its cylindrical body (Hyalonema, Fig. 9, B) ; the open Flower-basket Sponge (Dactyloci >!; Fig. 9, E) ; or the great Neptune's Drinking Cup (Poterion, Fig. 9,ciN); but usually it is very variable ; and since the same species may assume different forms, and the same form be common to different species, external shape is of very slight value in classification. The different forms can be derived from each other in many cases by quite easy gradations. Thus from a massive spreading Sponge may grow up linger-like extensions, and these, by branching, give rise to a tree-like form. By the subsequent union of the branches a net-like or clathrous stock results ; or the finger-like elevations may widen into a lamella which, broadening as it grows, becomes fan-shaped ; growing more rapidly on one face than the other, the fan becomes curved, and as the curvature increases the approximated edges at length touch and join together, producing a cup-like or vase-like form, the origin of which remains clearly indicated by a hole near the base, where the sides of the fan failed to reach, and still remain apart. The mass which we speak of as the Sponge may consist of a single indi- ASCETTA visual or several, just as a Coral may be single or compound; but it is not so easy in the case of the Sponge to determine what constitutes an individual. Usually the osculum is taken as the characteristic mark of a "person," but in some Sponges the osculum is absent (lipostomism) and the excurrent canal opens by the pores. In this case the excurrent canal must be regarded as indicating the individual, but again even this may disappear (lipogastrism), and then the question of individuality becomes as puzzling as it would be in a Coral which had lost all its polypes and consisted only of ccenosarc ; in this case \ve must regard as an individual the whole Sponge mass. The colours of Sponges, which are very various, are usually due to the presence of pigment granules em- bedded either in the endosarc of the flagellated cells, or in the mesodermic cells, usually of the skin only, but sometimes of the whole body. The various tints range through the whole octave of colour, the commonest perhaps being various shades of yellow and brown ; grass-green and orange-red are frequent; rose red, faint lilac, deep carmine, sky-blue, indigo, black, are also not rarely met with, as well as all the colours of flowers and of the leaf from the bud to the fall. Sometimes the colour of the same species differs in different localities, as in Ascetta clathrus, which, though usually grey, is sometimes sulphur-yellow or vermilion-reel. Many Sponges are white as snow, and, for the same reason, their minute colourless transparent spicules scatter the incident rays of light, just as the tangled crystals of a snow-flake do. Occasionally the colour of the Sponge is accidental, as when it depends on that of ingested food particles, or of parasitic alga?. Those pigments which belong to the chlorophyll group no doubt play the same part here as they do in plants, protecting the protoplasm (which is able to build itself up from carbonic acid, water, and ammonia under the action of sunlight) from the destructive effect of the violet rays ; the parasitic alga? are probably of great service to the Sponge, both in absorbing its excreted carbonic acid, and liberating oxygen for its use. The Canal System. — Although the type of canal system described in Euspongia is by far the Fig. 8. PRI MORDIALIS, x 50 dia. (After Haeckel.) SPONGES. A, Thenea wallicliii— a Choristid Tetractinellid (After Thomson) ; B, Chondrocladia virgata— a Desmacidine Mouaxonid (After Thomson) ; C, Askonema setabalense — a Lyssakine Hexactinellid (After Thomson) ; r>, Kossella velata— a Lyssakine Hexactinellid (After Thomson) ; E, Luffaria archeri— a Ceratine Cerospongia (After Higgin) ; F, Ascandra sertularia— an Ascon Calcisponge (After Haeckel) ; G, Sycetta primitiva— a Sycon Calcisponge (After Haeckel) ; H, Sycortis levigata— a Sycon Calcisponge (After Haeckel); i, Sycometra ciliata — a Sycon Calcisponge (After Haeckel); K, Trichostemma hemisphericum— a ^Taerite Monaxonid (After G. 0. Sars) ; L, Ditto, from the side ; M, Cladorhiza abyssicola— a Desmacidine Monaxonid (After G. 0. Sars). Figs. F, G, I, are magnified ; all the rest reduced in size. 71 CANAL SYSTEM OF THE SPOXGE. 319 most widely distributed amongst the Sponges, it is, at the same time, the most complicated. In its simplest expression, the canal system is found amongst the lower members of the Calcispongise, as in the little A scetta blanca (Fig. 8), discovered by Micklucho Maclay. This is simply an oval sac, with a laro-e internal cavity, and very thin walls, opening at one end by an osculum, attached at the other, and perforated all over by numerous short pore canals. The endoderm consists entirely of flagellated cells, so that these line the whole interior, and driving the water out at the mouth, cause an influx through the pores, which are mere fluctuating apertures, with no constancy in position. There are here no true incur- rent canals, and the whole Sponge might be compared to a magnified flagellated chamber #ith a surrounding layer of mesoderm and ectoderm. Haeckel regards it as similar to a Fig. 9. — A, EUPLECTELLA SUBEREA (After Thomson] ', B, HYALONEMA SIEBOLDII (After Scliuhe) ' C, POTERIOX (After Hartiny} ; D, SIPHOMA PY1UFOUMIS (After Sotwby) ; E, PACTYLOCALYX STUCHBUKYI (After Solids). single Hydrozoon. Neglecting the spicules which are embedded in its mesoderm, Ascetta might be regarded as an embodiment of just so much as is common to all the Sponges, a concrete definition of the group. From this simple stage the more complicated appear to arise in two ways ; in one, which is characteristic of the small group of Sycones, buds, repeating in every way the structure of the parent, sprout out at right angles from the wall of an Ascon. such &s Ascetta; to the central cavity of these the flagellated cells become restricted, those of the original Ascon becoming converted into polygonal pave- ment cells ; the central cavities of the buds remain in free communication with that of the parent. The latter is now the excurrent canal, the former the flagellated endings or branches of it. (Plate 71, Fig. G.) In more integrated forms the buds grow close together, touch, and unite along the lines of contact, the narrow canal-like interspaces left between them serving for the conduct of water to the pores, and constituting an incurreut canal system. (Plate 71, Figs. H, i.) Precisely how complication ensues in the other case, which is that of the great majority of Sponges, is not quite so clear ; but it would appear that from the endoderm of a sac resembling an Ascon hollow buds are formed, which project into the mesoderm. These are the flagellated chambers. 320 NATURAL HISTORY. A folding of the entire wall of the Sponge follows (this is an irregular form of budding), and converts the originally simple central cavity into smaller canal-like spaces, in other words, it becomes a branched excurrent canal system ; the interspaces between the folds outside the Sponge wall become the incurreiit canal system. Histology. — The ectoderm appears to maintain its pavement epithelial character very constantly, but sometimes its cells become flagellated, as in Halisarca and Plakina. The endoderm undergoes no great variation. The mesoderm, on the contrary, differs a good deal in different Sponges; in many it consists, as in Euspongia, of a clear jelly-like matrix, embedding branched granular corpuscles ; in others it becomes densely charged with minute granules, maintaining throughout the character it presents locally about the flagellated chambers of Euspongia, while in some it appears to consist of separately-outlined granular cells. The clear granules, which fill some of the wandering amcebiform cells, are, in some cases, certainly starch. The fusiform cells of the mesoderm are often abundantly developed, and sometimes form a thick layer beneath the skin, having the appearance of fibrous connective tissue, but where the main water-canals pass through it, this layer is modified to form around each of them a distinct sphinctral muscle. TJie Skeleton. — The character of the skeleton is wonderfully diverse, and since it is fairly constant within each species it affords us the best means of classification. Some Sponges, such as Halisarca, are entirely destitute of a skeleton, others (Lithistids) are possessed of one of stony hardness, which no one would think of applying to skin except as a counter irritant. The skeleton may consist of a network of horny fibres, the axis of which is either filled merely with soft granular matter, or in- cludes also foreign bodies, often to such an extent as to convert the fibre into a veritable rope of sand ; or, instead of foreign bodies, a core of proper spicules, i.e., spicules produced by the Sponge itself, may be present; and the spicules may increase in number, and the horny matter diminish in quantity to such an extent, that the fibre comes to consist only of spicules. The skeleton frequently consists whollv of spicules, but these are far from being always arranged in a fibrous form. The spicules, which are of most diverse forms, are composed of an organic basis (spiculin), densely impregnated or chemically combined with a mineral salt — carbonate of lime in the case of calcareous spicules, silica in that of silicious spicules. This distinction in mineral composition was discovered by Robert Grant. The spicule usually consists of a clear glassy wall, concentrically-layered, enclosing a soft thin axial thread. It will be convenient to state here that according to the character of their skeleton, the Sponges may be divided into the following four orders : — Myxospongin.* — Soft Sponges, skeleton absent. Calcispongice. — Skeleton consists of calcareous spicides, never united to form a fibre. Silicispongice. — Skeleton characterised by silicious spicules, which may or may not be united into a fibixms skeleton. Cerospongwi, — Skeleton consists of a network of horny fibres, sometimes including foreign particles, but never proper spicules. The simplest form of spicule is needle-shaped (acerate), pointed at both ends (Fig. 10, a). It grows lengthwise from the middle along a single axis in the direction of the ends ; it is thus uni-axial but bi-radiate. Supposing it to cease to increase in length at one end, it becomes an acuate spicule (Fig. 10, 5), still bi-radiate, but the radii of unequal length ; if one radius does not develop at all and is represented only by a globular enlargement, a pin-headed acuate results (Fig. 10, c], which is both uni-axial and uni-radiate. If a third ray grows out from the side of the acerate spicule, a tri-radiate but bi-axial spicule is the result (d) ; should all three rays diverge, so that no two are in the same straight line, we have the tri-radiate and also tri-axial form (e) so characteristic of the Calcispongiae, though by no means confined to them, since it occurs normally in many of the Silicispongiae, e.g., the Plakinidse, Plectronellidre, and Sphinctrilla, and, as a variation, common, but abnormal, in a great number of other instances. If a fourth branch or ray is produced from the centre, not in the same straight line as any of the others, a quadri-radiate (also quadri-axial) form appears, arid this characterises the sub-order Tetractinellidce, though it appears also in Sponges belonging to other groups. The four rays may remain of the same value (/), and be disposed without any ascertained relation to the form of the Sponge and its canal system (Pachastrellidse), or one ray may become distinguished from * Greek, myxa, slime. SPOXGE SPICULES. 321 the rest by excess or defect of development, as the shaft (g to /), the other three remaining similar to each other being known as the rays or arms. The shaft usually takes a radiate direction in the Sponge, at right angles to the surface, with which the rays, 011 the contrary, lie more or less parallel ; the point of the shaft is directed inwards towards the centre of the Sponge, the head or rayed end out- wards. The rays may grow backwards, recurved, giving the spicule a grapnel-like form (#), or forwards, fork-like, or outwards at right angles to the shaft ; they may remain simple, or bifurcate once (h), or more rarely, twice, or even trifurcate, as in a few recent and some fossil forms ; finally, they may- broaden out in the surface of the Sponge into thin lobate expansions (i), and these may become confluent in a circular disc (j), in which, however, the tri-radiate origin can still be traced by the Fig. 10. — VARIOUS FORMS OK SPONGE SPICULES. (After Bowerbank, Ziiiel, and others.) form of the axial thread. Returning to the quadri-racliate form, in which the rays are all similar (/), another series of changes may result by the ends of the rays becoming branched (/), and closely inter- locking with those of their nearest neighbours. In this way the firm stony network characteristic of the Lithistids is produced (&). These branched spicules may be traced through various modifications till their quadri-radiate form remains no longer recognisable (?>i). Another group of forms originates in growth in six directions from a common centre along three axes at right angles to each other. The sex-radiate spicule so produced is characteristic of the Hexactinellidse (n). One by one the rays of this form may be suppressed (o), so that mingled together in the same Sponge sex-, quinqui-, quadri-, tri-, and bi-radiate spicules may be found, the bi-radiate or acerates (p) often still showing signs of their sex-radiate derivation by the cross-like form of the axial-thread in the middle of the spicule. By suppression of the distal ray of the sex-radiate type, nail-like spicules arise (q), the shaft being stuck in the substance of the Sponge, and the four rays spread out in the skin, forming, with the similar rays of adjacent spicules, a square meshed dermal network. The shaft of such a spicule may become greatly elongated (r), and then it often serves with others for anchoring or supporting the Sponge in the slimy ooze of the sea floor on which it lives. If the four rays of such a spicule become recurved and much reduced in size, we have a grapnel-headed anchoring spicule (s), such as those which compose the twisted wisp-like bundle of the glass-rope Sponge (Hyalonema), and which, measuring eighteen inches in length, are probably the largest spicules known. If growth from a centre takes place radiately in a large number of directions, a stellate spicule (t, u) results ; fine examples of this are known in Tethya. By growth along a constantly changing axis various curved forms are produced (v). 279 322 NATURAL HISTORY. Besides the foregoing lai'ge spicules, which, as a rule, form the chief skeleton of the Sponge, other much smaller ones exist (Fig. 11), which, because they are seldom united into a coherent skeleton, but occur dispersed throughout the mesoderm, have been termed flesh spicules, a term not unopen to objection. Many of these simply repeat the forms of the large spicules, but altogether they present a greater diversity and frequently also a greater complexity of form. The minute acerate («) by curvilinear growth becomes tricurvate (6) or bow-shaped, or hamate (c and d), or sinuate (e) ; the sinuate, if spined all over, is a spini-spirula (e) ; and from this we seem to pass to a straight spicule with whorls of spines (sceptrella, m the epiblast. The embryo now lengthens into a cylindrical form, pores appear in its sides, and an osculum opens at the free end, the primitive mouth having become closed soon after the attachment of the larva (Fig. 1 3, G, H). The spicules of the Sponge always develop in the niesoderm, probably in all cases, certainly in some, as the products of single cells. It is a curious fact that they appear in the embryo before it becomes attached, sometimes even before it has left the body of its parent. Classification. — The position of the Sponges in the organic world was long the subject of con- troversy, and it was not till after the fundamental discoveries of Robert Grant, in 1825, that their right to a place in the animal kingdom was universally admitted. After the difficulty which had been experienced in making good their claims to an animal nature, it would naturally be expected that they would be assigned but a very lowly place amongst their recognised associates, and accord- ingly we find them originally relegated to the Protozoa, the lower of the two sub-kingdoms into which the animal world is now divided, the other being known as the Metazoa. The embryological history of the Sponge, and the sub-ordination of its individual cells to the unity of the complex whole which they form, ensured for them, however, the highest place in the s\ib-kingdom. But they were not long allowed to enjoy an ignoble repose. Already, in 1854, Leuckart advanced them into the higher sub- kingdom as members of the Coelenterata. At that time, however, naturalists were not prepared to acknowledge the justness of this promotion, and it was not till Haeckel, in a brilliant but too imaginative work, came forward in its support, that it found any general acceptance. Previously, however, in 1866, Professor James Clark had been led, by his discovery of the resemblance of the collared celk of the Sponge to the flagellated infusoria, to regard the Sponges as mere aggregates of these Protozoa, but this view, though earnestly supported by Carter and Saville Kent, is opposed to the general opinion of most naturalists. The searching investigations into the structure and embry- ology of the Sponges since the publication of Haeckel's views, leave little doubt as to their Metazoic nature. But with regard to the nearness, or otherwise, of their relations to the Crelenterata, the greatest doubt still exists. The writer originally regarded them as Coelenterata, which differ from all other members of the class, in the fact that their embryos attach themselves by their oral instead of their aboral extremity, but in spite of certain remarkable resemblances of the larvae to those of the Crelenterata the balance of evidence seems in favour of those who, with Balfour, regai'd the Sponges as forming a separate class, quite independent of the Coelenterata, and situated at the very bottom of the Metazoic sub-kingdom. For the subdivision of the Sponges into smaller groups we are chiefly indebted to Oscar Schmidt and Carter, not to forget Haeckel. The accompanying table is founded chiefly on the classifications proposed by them, with modifications, which may possibly be found convenient. CLASS SPONGI^E. Orders. Sub-orders. Families. MYXOSPONGIJE ( Halisarcidae ( Chondrosiadse. ( Ascones. CALCISPONGI^: , . . „ . J Leucones. ( Sycones. /'Kenierinae. .- | Suberitidinae. [ Monaxonidse * * <, •{ Desmacidinse. ] Echinonemata. I Chalinidaa. Tetractinellidsa ... | Hexactinellid33 . : ( JJictyomna. Ceratiiiidae. -n . JL sammonemata . MYXOSPONGUE. The Halisarcidic* characterised by the entire absence of any skeletal parts, are represented by the single genus Ilalisarca, comprising a number of small smooth soft Sponges, which grow iu * Greek, hah, halos, the sea, sarx, sarcos, flesh. 326 NATURAL HISTORY. irregular crusts of beautiful colours ; sky-blue to violet, russet-red to flesh-colour, pale yellow, carmine, and purple tints being common, though some are colourless. The Choiidrosiadce* are provided with a rough external rind of fibrous connective tissue, and one of the two genera of which the family consists is furnished with stellate silicious spicules ; it should therefore be placed in the Silicispongue, of which it, as well as the remaining genus, which is devoid of hard parts, is probably a degraded descendant. CALCLSPONGIJE. These are a small but compact group, which has been closely studied by Haeckel, whose brilliant monograph on the " Kalkschwamme," though marred by a vicious confusion of fact and fancy, has both by its fancies and its facts given a more powerful impetus to the investigation oi the whole group of Sponges than any work which has appeared since the time of Robert Grant. The skeleton here consists of calcareous spicules of various forms, acerate, tri-radiate, and quadri-radiate, the tri-radiate being the most characteristic : they are never collected into fibres nor united together by spongin, but occur separately immersed in the soft tissue of the Sponge, so that after the death and dissolution of the organism they at once fall asunder, and being at the same time very soluble in sea water are so quickly destroyed that it is very doubtful whether they are capable of being preserved in the fossil state. Up to this time no fossil Sponge unquestionably belonging to the Calcispongiae has been described. They are mostly very small Sponges, often of very regular geometric form; usually white, though sometimes brilliantly coloured. The Asconest are simple sacs, with a completely flagellated endoderm; they may be single (Fig. 8), or branched (Plate 71, Fig. F), or in other ways united into a common stock. The Sy cones | are composite sacs, derived from the Ascones by a budding of Ascon-like sacs radiately from the wall of a parent Ascon (Plate 71, Fig. G). It is a fact of great interest for the theory cf development that a contimious or transitional series of species can be shown to exist between a simple Ascon and a Sycon in which the radiate buds have all united together by their lateral surfaces to form a complex tubulated wall (Plate 71, Figs. H, i) ; and especially that this most complex Sycon passes through the various stages exhibited by these species in the course of its individual development. One of the common animals of the sea-shore is the little purse-shaped Sycandra (Granting compressa, which occurs hanging mouth downwards from the under-surface of rocks, or their attached seaweeds, between tide levels. Sections can easily be made of this to show the tubulated structure of the wall, and by boiling it in caustic potash for a minute or two its beautiful calcareous spicules can be freed from the soft tissues for examination under the microscope. The Leucones§ are characterised by a complicated water canal system, which appears to belong to the same type as that of Euspongia and the majority of the Sponges. The snow-white crusts of Leucandra nivea are by no means rare on the under surface of between-tide rocks on the English coasts. The Calcispongice have a world-wide distribution, and are found from the sea-level down to a depth of 342 fathoms. Of the 111 species described by Haeckel, nine are cosmopolitan, 68 are found exclusively in the Atlantic, 12 in the Pacific and 22 in the Indian region. No doubt the greater richness of the Atlantic region is due to its having been more thoroughly investigated than the others. SILICISPONGIJE. In this order, characterised by silicious spicules, the Sponges attain their fullest expression and highest development. Its members are the most numerous, the most diverse, and some of them the most complicated of the class. They are spread through all seas, at all depths, and were already in existence in the early Cambrian times. The only family of Sponges (SpongUlina) which inhabits fresh water belongs to them, and this inhabits the rivers of most existing continents. The Monaxonidae (usually known as the Monactinellidae, which is a misnomer, since it is the one-axedness of their spicules, not their oiie-rayedness, which characterises them) are distinguished by the presence of uni-axial, and the absence of tetractinellid and hexactinellid spicules. If quadri- radiate spicules do occur in some genera they differ from those of the genuine Tetractinellida? in the * Greek, cfiondros, gristle. f Greek, asms, a wine-skin or leathern bottle. J Greek, sycon, a ftg. § Greek, Icucos, white. THE MONAXONID^. 327 fact that the three additional rays are given off from the hinder (proximal) end of the shaft and not from the anterior (distal). By Oscar Schmidt this sub-order is divided into the five following families : — Orders, Carter. Holorhaphidota. I-}/ >» Hies, O.S. Kenierinas Desmacidinte Suberitidirue Ch-.ilinopsidime Chalineaj Eehinonemata (pars) Khaphidonemata. Carter's classification of these Sponges is shown in the table. In the Renierinse* the chief spicules are usually bi-radiate (acerate), and are generally collected to form fibre, in which they are arranged like the elongated cells in the woody fibre of plants. Spongin may develop about this fibre, cementing the spicules together, and then the Renierine becomes a Chalinine Sponge, but so easy is the transition between these families that Carter makes mention of a Sponge which is Renierine or Chalinine, according to the locality in which it is found. The Renierinse are among the commonest of Sponges, and are well represented on the British coasts ; the hardy Amorphina panicea, or "Crumb of Bread" Sponge (Fig. 3), found at most watering-places, is a good example. It grows in thick crusts, of a plant-green colour, rising into little conical volcano-like elevations, which open by an oscule at the summit ; pores occur in the skin over the interspaces of a very regular spiculous network which lies beneath. Its spicules are simple acerates, sharply pointed at each end, and crowded loosely together into Fig. 14.— STATOBLASTS OF SPONGILLA. irulp finite fiViro wl->ir>li fnvme on aHrKWvfhpT- irvfrml-ar TIP+- A- Statublast of S.flnvMilis, in its natural state, x 50; B, of & unite note, wnicn lorms an aitogetne icguiar net- fac««w«, alter treatment with nitric acw,x«d work in the body of the Sponge. From this loose texture, and the fact that owing to the absence of spongin, the Sponge readily crumbles between the finger-s when dry, it derives its name of " Crumb of Bread " Sponge. Another common example is the Spongi lla fluviatilis of our rivers. It occurs in irregular masses of much the same colour as A. panicea, with which it closely agrees in general structure ; it differs, however, in common with the sub-family Spongillina, to which it belongs, both from that and all other Sponges, in the fact that it reproduces itself not only by ova, but by curious little bodies (Fig. 14) known as winter-eggs, or statoblasts, which somewhat resemble the statoblasts of the Polyzoa. Their history has been the subject of a classic memoir by Carter, who finds that they originate near the base of the Sponge, by certain cells congregating together and becoming surrounded, except at one point, by a spherical shell, a pin's-head in size, of complicated structure, its external layer consisting of spicules of singular form, like a pair of wheels on an axle in miniature. The axle lies radiately in the wall. The spot where no shell is formed remains as an aperture, through which in spring, the amoebiform contents creep out from their winter quarters, and soon develop into the young Sponge. The various members of the sub-family Spongillina do not differ except in trifling details from SpongiUa; though they have not yet been described from Australia, they are otherwise of world-wide distribution, and from this we may infer that they are a group of great antiquity. Owing to the rarity of fresh-water fossils, and the exceptional preservation of Sponge remains, it is not to be expected that we should find direct evidence of this, and it is, therefore, all the more satisfactory that traces of SpongiUa have been found so far back as the Purbeck strata, where its chief spicules have lately been detected in fresh-water chert, SpongiUa is so similar in many respects to Amorphina, which sometimes lives in brackish water, that it is very possibly derived from it. It is a singular fact that of the many hundreds of widely different kinds of Sponge, none but a small rigidly-defined group should be found inhabiting inland waters. This is probably due not to the inability of Sponges to adapt themselves to fresh water, but rather to the fact that they are propagated by ciliated larvse, which drift about at the mercy of * After the naturalist Eenier. 328 NATURAL HISTORY. every current, and cannot, therefore, ascend a river where the current is always seaward. This explanation will probably account for the absence of many other marine forms of life which one might expect to find amongst the fauna of our rivers. The statoblast is no doubt an adaptation to preserve the Sponge from the extreme climatal changes to which fresh water is exposed; thus in Bombay it develops at the time of summer droughts, in temperate climates on the approach of winter. It is worth noticing that the stato- blast of the Polyzoa also occurs only in the fluviatile forms. Suberitidince.* — In these Sponges the spicules are characteristically pin-shaped, densely aggre- gated together, either in fibres, or matted felt-like. The surface often bristles with the projecting points of radiating spicules (Plate 71, Figs. K, L), but is never provided with a regular spiculous network like that which usually occurs in the Renierinse. The large Sponge appropriately named Neptune's Cup (Poterion neptunirf Fig. 9, c), found growing on the coral reefs of the Indian Ocean, and fossil in the English Chalk, is a Suberite. A near relation, possessing the same pin-like form of spicule, is the little burrowing Sponge Cliona, which eats its way into shells, particularly oyster-shells. Shells so infested may often be seen at the fishmonger's. They may be at once distinguished by the numerous round holes which cover the surface. The holes are of two sizes, the larger for the emission of oscular tubes, the smaller, which are much more numerous, for poriferous tubes. On splitting the shell open both are found to communicate with irregularly swollen canals, which are occupied by the yellowish-coloured body of the Sponge. If the oyster, fresh from the sea, be placed in a vessel of cool clear sea-water, a beautiful sight will soon present itself. From the various apertures delicate mobile tubes protrude. Those from the larger end in a single oscular opening ; those from the smaller expand at the end into a conical form, resembling, with the swollen base perforated by numerous little pores, the " rose " of a watering-pot, with the addition that here the margin of the "rose " is fringed with a corona of delicate diverging spicules. The tubes are very sensitive not only to touch, but to the incidence of light, instantly contracting and withdrawing themselves when exposed to powerful sunlight. Currents of water flow into the poriferous tubes, which swing to and fro, seeking the water most to their taste, and from the equally mobile oscular tubes currents briskly escape. In autumn, this sponge-mass will be found crowded with little oval yellowish bodies, about ^th of an inch long, which are the ciliated embryos or larvse of the Sponge. Spicules are already developed in them. The burrows of Cliona occur in fossil shells of the Silurian strata. Desmacidince. — This is the culminating group of the Monaxonida?, distinguished by the rich variety of its spicule forms. Besides the chief spicules, which are usually bi-radiate (acerate or acuate), there are always present one or more forms of small spicules, C- and S-shaped hamates ; tri-curvates ; equi- and inequi-anchorates, singly dispersed or clustered into rosettes; and trichite- sheaves. It is from this group that the Tetractinellidse have probably been derived. Echinonemata.% — The skeleton is characterised by Carter as composed of chief spicules lying parallel to form a fibre, which is spined by other (echinating) spicules projecting from it, Schmidt considers the absence of hamates and anchors essential to the definition of the Chalinopsidinse, a group otherwise equivalent to the Echinonemata. Spongin is usually present, cementing the spicules together ; it may increase in quantity, replacing the spicules, which may diminish to a single row, or disappear from the interior, the echinating forms of course persisting. Should they also vanish, the Sponge would become a Cerospongia. CJialinidce. — The common Chalina occulata of the British coasts is a good example of this group. The skeleton consists of spongin fibre, cored by silicious spicules, which are usually monaxial ; echinating spicules are absent. The relative development of the spicular axis and the spongin wall is very variable, some, like Pachychcdina, approaching the Renierinje by the pre- ponderance of spicules ; others, like Chalina, approaching the true horny Sponges (Cerospongia) by the excessive development of spongin. This family, indeed, links together the Silicispongise and the Cerospongia3, and since its spicules must apparently be formed before the spongin which envelops them, it would appear rather that the Cerospongige were derived from the Silicispongise by loss of spicules, rather than the latter from the former by their acquisition. Latin, suler, cork. f Greek, poter, a drinking cup. J Greek, echinos, a hedgehog ; nema, a thread. THE LITHISTII)^. 329 Fig. 15. SECTION THROUGH THE RIND OF A GEODINE SPONGE. (After Sollas.) The Moiiaxonidse are cosmopolitan, chiefly shallow-water forms. They range from the strand-line down to 862 fathoms ; on the evidence of Cliona borings in Silurian fossils they are concluded to have been in existence in early Pakeozoic times ; fossil remains of their skeletons are rare, Pharetrospongia strahani (Sollas) of the Cambridge Greensand, a large Renierine Sponge with a fibrous skeleton, being the best preserved and most certainly demonstrated example yet known. Tetractimllldce.* — This sub-order embraces two very different groups; the Choristidce, in which the spicules are separate from each other, and the Lithistidce, in which they are united by the interlocking of their branched ends into a dense stony network. In the Choristidwfare united a number of very different types of Sponges, of which the Geodina are best known. In these the body, usually more or less spherical, is differ- enced into an external rind and an inner mark, or paren- chyma, like an orange ; the rind (Fig. 15) consists of a layer of fibrous connective tissue, covered externally by the ecto- derm and a layer of minute flesh-spicules ; its outer two- tliiivlsi i« fv-iiiiniprl full r>f sinifMilpts nsnallv trifliifp-cylobiilps t, Kelntimms ronm-ctivo tissue; e.excorrent canal, closed I6b, U dliy I te glOUUie by tho ,uuscle (m) . ^ flt)rous tis|uo . ti jncmTeut canal. (mistaken by Bowerbank for ova), which give to it great firmness and consistency. The incurrent canals in their passage through the rind present a very definite, usually hour-glass form, the constricted part being defended by a sphinctral muscle, produced by a modification in the character of the surrounding fibrous layer. The chief spicules are large acerates, which lie in bundles or fibres radiating towards the surface, near which some of them divide into three rays, forming forks and anchors. The Litldstidce.\ — Notwithstanding the firmness of their coral-like skeleton these are no more characterised by constancy of form than the other groups of Sponges ; they usually affect cup-like, lamellar, top-shaped, or cylindrical forms, are occasionally branched bush-like ; generally attached, sometimes by a longer or shorter stalk, which branches out root-like below. Their skeleton consists of the united body-spicules (Fig. 10, k) ; of surface spicules, anchor- or fork-shaped, or disciform ; and minute so-called flesh-spicules. Differences in the character of the body-spicule have afforded Zittel a means of dividing this group into four families, in one of which, the Megamorina, the quadri-radiate form of the body-spicule is nearly lost, and the central canal or axial-thread has a simple uniaxial form (Fig. 10, m). The Lithistidae occur in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans ; they are essentially deep-sea dwellers, ranging from 74 to 805 fathoms. By reason of the com- paratively large size of their body-spicules, and the union of these into a stout resistent framework, they stand a much better chance of fossilisation than the Monaxonidaa ; they are accordingly by no means rare in a fossil state, and have been found in. most marine formations from the Upper Cambrian to the Tertiary. The well- kiiown Siphonia of the Blackdown Greensand is a familiar instance (Fig. 9, D). Hexactinellidce. — These Sponges are clearly defined from all other Silicispoiigise by the sex-radiate form of their spicules, and by the characters of their soft tissues so far as these are known. The chief spicules are either loosely arranged into a fibrous skeleton (Lyssakina, Fig. 17, A) or cemented into a solid network by a pores;/, flagellated chambers. deposit of silica (Dictyoiiina, Fig. 17, B), in which they are as completely enveloped as the spicules of Chalina in spongin. A slight deposit of silica may unite together the spicules of some Lyssakina, e.g., Euplectella, but never to the extent of completely enveloping them. The Lyssakina^ include such forms as Holtenia, a somewhat cylindrical Sponge, with a large * Greek, tetra, contr. of tcttara, four ; actis, a ray. + Greek, tithos, stone. 280 t Greek, choris, separately. § Greek, lysis, loosing. 330 NATURAL HISTORY. central oscular tube fringed by whisker-like spicules, and a thick beard-like growth of anchoring spicules, which serve to support it in the soft slimy ooze of the deep sea in which it lives; Hyalonema* (Fig. 9, B), the Japanese glass-rope Sponge, a close ally offfoltenia, but at once distinguishable from it by the spiral wisp or rope into which its anchoring spicules are twisted together ; the upper end of the rope is overgrown with encrusting Palythoa, the lower end frays out by the divergence of the spicules ; deprived of the Sponge the rope may often be seen in private houses stuck topsy-turvey under a glass-shade ; an instance of the perverted ingenuity of the Japanese divers by whom it is obtained and " prepared." E^iplecteUa•\ (Fig. 9, A), with a framework so exquisitely beautiful in its fairy-like tracery as to have called forth the remark from a distinguished naturalist " this passes the love of woman," has now also become an ornament to glass-shades ; it is a Lyssakine, with spicules so arranged crossing one another as to weave together a thin- walled vase of delicate lattice- work with square meshes. In the fresh state, when the skeleton is embedded in the meso- derm, over every alternate mesh, a conical process of the Sponge-wall projects, the other meshes open by a round hole into the interior of the vase. Beneath the poriferous skin (Fig. 16), which is adorned with flesh-spicules, and sup- ported on the distal rays of sex-radiates, thin, threads of mesoderm form an irregular network, in which the flagellated chambers are immersed. These are cylindrical sacs, open at one end, closed and hemispherical at the other ; each is perforated by several pores, through which water can enter from the surrounding lacunar spaces of the mesoderm ; by their open ends they communicate with the digitately branched excurrent canals, which freely open into the central cavity of the vase. The water, which streams suc- cessively through the skin, the flagellated chambers, and excurrent canals into this cavity, escapes partly by the open meshes in the side of the vase, and partly through a netted lid which closes its end. Like so many of the Hexactinellidae which live in the mud of the deep sea, Euplectella terminates below in a tuft of anchoring spicules; but when it is found in shallower water on a hard bottom it becomes attached, and its anchoring spicules abort. In the Dictyonina £ the chief spicules are so disposed that by the overlapping of their rays they form a framework, which afterwards being overrun by silica becomes a continuous net ; the knots or nodes of this net correspond generally with the centre of the spicules, its connecting fibres with two overlapping rays (Fig. 17, B). The spicules are not always so regularly arranged as in the figure ; and in many genera they depart widely from a three-axed form, the rays diverging at all angles, so that one fibre may contain more than two and as many as all six rays. Loose sex-radiate spicules are always associated with the network, and delicate minute or flesh spicules are general throughout the Sponge. The " flower-basket " sponge Dactylocalyx (Fig. 9, E), the earliest discovered instance of a Hexactinellid, is a good example of this group, and Farrea is another, distinguished by the regularity of its square meshes. In some Dictyonina the investing silica fails to completely fill the angles at the centre of the spicules, but stretches across in fine threads from, one ray to another, sketching out the edges of a regular octahedron, with the spicular rays for its axes. This structure was accurately described long before it was understood, by Toulmin Smith, who showed that it characterised the network of the Ventriculites. It is only quite recently that an existing Sponge has been described (Myliusia) in which the same structure prevails (Fig. 17, c). The Hexactinellidte inhabit all seas, and are found in deep water, ranging from 98 to 1,591 fathoms, and probably more. They make their appearance in time very early, remains of a Lyssakina (Protospongia) being found in the Lower Cambrian rocks at St. David's, South Wales ; both Dictyonina and Lyssakina occur in the Silurian of North America ; in the Carboniferous * Greek, hyalos, glass. t Greek, eu, well ; plectos, woven. j Greek, dictyon , a net. Fig. 17. — A, SEPARATE SPICULES OF A LYSSAKINE SPONGE ; B, SPICULAK NETWORK OF A DIC- TYONINA ; C, DICTYONINE NETWORK WITH OCTAHEDRAL KNOTS. (After Marshall and Zittel.) CEROSPONGIA, 331 of Scotland, a genus, Acanihospongia, closely allied to Hyalonema, has been described by Professor Young, of Glasgow, and later by Mr. Carter. In the Jurassic strata Hexactinellids are well represented, and in the Chalk they abound, the graceful and varied Ventriculites being well known to collectors in the Downs of Sussex, CEROSPONGIA. This order consists of Sponges with a spongin skeleton, but without proper spicules. The axis of the spongin fibre may be occupied by soft organic matter only (Ceratina), or it may involve various foreign bodies (Psammonemata) [Greek, psammos, sand]. The Bath Sponge, already fully described, is a member of the Psammonemata. Luffaria, of which an illustration is given in Plate 71, belongs to the Ceratina. No examples of these widely-distributed sponges are yet known in th? fossil state. The literature of the Sponges is copious, but much of it very inconveniently scattered La separate memoirs through journals and magazines. For general information, and descriptions of species, may be quoted Oscar Schmidt's volumes on the Sponges of the Coast of Algiers, of the Atlantic Ocean, and of the Gulf of Mexico ; Haeckel, Die Kalkschwamme ; numerous papers by Carter in the " Annals and Magazine of Natural History," where also papers by Sollas appear; for masterly accounts of structure and embryology see F. E. Schulze in several numbers of the "Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie," where also are papers by Metschnikoff and Oscar Schmidt. A history of the Sponges will be found in George Johnston's " British Sponges," and good descriptions of British species in Bowerbank's " Monograph on the British Sponges," 8 vols. Jules Barrois has published "Researches on the Embryology." For fossil Sponges see the fine works of Zittelj and papers by Sollas in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society. W. J. SOLLAS. 332 THE RHIZOPODA. The Rhizopods —Appearance — Protoplasm or Sarcocle — Its Character and Functions — The "Contractile Vesicle" — Amoeba and Moncru — True " Cells "—Assimilation of Food— Contents of the Endosarc — The " Vacuoles " — Food of the Amoeba — Naked Lobose Rhizopods — Shelled Lobose Rhizopods — Sun-animalcules — Actinopkryt sot — The Radiolaria — The Polycistina — The Reticularia — The Foraminifera — Imperf orate or Porcellanous Foraminifera — Perforate or Vitreous "Forams" — The Flagellata — Gregarina;— The Link Connecting the Rhizopods and Vertebrates— Bibliography — Classification. I. AMONG the minute animals which escape our naked sight, but may be seen by the aid of a magnifying glass in some instances, but often only under the far stronger lenses of the microscope, are those which are known as Rhizopoda,* or Myxopoda.f They have, in a great degree, the same simple constitution as several other kinds of animalcules which are grouped by naturalists as Protozoa, J such as Infusoria § (also Sponges), their essential living material being merely a structureless and jelly-like or mucous substance ; and thus they stand as the first in the scale of animal organisation, as it rises from the most simple to the more highly organised animals with their manifold tissues and complicated structures. II. The delicate albuminous material of the Rhizopods and their allies is a "semi-fluid, nitrogenous, formative substance," termed " Protoplasm," || as being the simplest or first life-matter known to us. It is also called "Sarcode," IT as supplying the place of flesh, rather than being flesh- like itself. It is probably composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, like some other organic compounds ; and it is the physical basis of life in both animals and vegetables. This slimy, white-of-egg-like sarcode of the Rhizopods, though granular, with exceedingly fine particles, and to some extent differentiated by local formation of special groups of granules, known by some as " Endoplasts,"** shows no definite parts or divisions of a body such as characterise higher animals ; nor has it permanent limbs, nor body -cavity, nor alimentary canal, nor nerves, nor blood. Nevertheless, it serves for and fulfils all the necessary actions and processes of life. Its outer portion is generally distinguishable from the interior, and is sometimes toughened into a kind of membrane, or hardened with mineral matter into a shelly coat, or a stiff skeleton of network. More especially this corpuscle of sarcode has in itself a particular kind of motive plasticity, whereby it can advance with a slowly-flowing movement of all or a part of its substance. In the latter case, the elongated portions, whether thick or thin, are termed "Pseudopodia."tt The constituent atoms or granules, moreover, in their glairy slime, are mutually, if not equally, engaged in the functions of movement and of assimilation of nutriment, and in the multiplication or reproduction of individuals. In the active animal they seem to flow in a kind of circulation through the little mass, and along the protruded lobes or threads ; and in many cases form special aggregations of granules, or endoplasts. The smaller of these are termed "Sarcoblasts,"JJ and may be regarded as ovules, or little eggs, formed within the parent, and when free, by escape or by emission, becoming new little beings like the parent. A larger endoplast constitutes the "Nucleus," in the middle of the animalcule. This internal corpuscle seems to be essential to the economy of most of the Protozoa, forming, as it were, a starting-point of one kind of germination ; and it is the first representative of a permanent vital organ. Another prototype or forerunner of more highly constituted organs is a minute bladder-like collection of clear fluid, which in some part or other of the body, but generally towards the hinder end, is seen to increase slowly to fulness ; then, suddenly contracting, to collapse and become empty, at almost regular intervals of time. This " Contractile Vesicle " seems to be analogous to, if not really, an organ of secretion and distribution. * Greek, rkiza, a root ; pous, a foot. t Greek, myxa, mucus ; pom, a foot. J Greek, protos, first ; zwn, an animal. § So called from having been first found in infusions of hay and other vegetable matters. But many of the little creatures first grouped under the name have been separated off, and the Infusoria are special protozoan animalcules. f| Greek, protos, first ; plasma, a formation, from plasso, I shape or mould. T Greek, sarx, flesh ; eidos, form or appearance. ** Greek, cndon, within ; plastos, formed or moulded, tt Greek, pseudos, false ; pous (podog), a foot. JJ Greek, sarx, flesh ; blastof, a germ. THE AMCEBA. 333 III. The above-mentioned characters may be readily observed in one of the most common forms of Rhizopods, namely, the Amoeba,* or proteus-animalcule, so called on account of the ever-changing shapes which a well-conditioned active individual puts on while moving under the microscrope, and pushing out and drawing in the various projections on its surface, sometimes like fingers or threads, called pseudopods. There are, however, certain living atoms of pi-otoplasm so simple in condition, being quite structureless, except in having constituent granules, that some naturalists have separated them from the Amcebce and the other Rhizopoda in classification, and called them Monera ;t not so much in view of their singleness, as on account of their unity of composition. They may, however, be intermediate forms, or passages from one stage to another in the growth and development of certain animalcules. Some of them may even be the germ-products of low plant-structures. Some appear to be so destitute of any structural features that their slime-body shows no distinction between the outer and inner parts, and has no nucleus ; and their free, homogeneous, jelly-like substance, in moving, stretches itself out in one direction or another in lobular, finger-like, or filamentous prolongations, and contracts again, either over such organic atoms as seem to be its food, or towards a point where such a protruded part has adhered and fixed itself. Some such amoeboid creatures are shown in Fig. 1 ; and their elementary simplicity has originated for one kind the name of Protamceba^ and for another, Protogenes.§ The latter is a relatively large and outspread mass (three or four millimetres in diameter) of such protoplasm as is known as a " plasmodium."|| This is similar to the protoplasm of the much smaller Protamoeba (scarcely ^th of a millimetre in width), but is made up of a com- bination of many such individuals. Reproduction of the species is carried on either by the separa- tion of individuals from the parent mass, by their splitting off, or by A, in the contracted the parent dividing into two. Other Monera begin life like the Protamceba, but after a while they cease to be active, becoming quite still, and enter on what is known as the " resting- stage " in Infusoria, the Amcebce, and other animalcules. In this quiescent state they are round, and become enclosed in a tough coat, and are said to be "encysted," 11 until before long the enclosed morsel of protoplasm resolves itself into numerous definite minute bodies, each capable of living by itself when set free, and hence termed " Zoospores."** Sometimes these tiny corpuscles, combining together, form a new gelatinous mass (plasmodium), like that of the parent, as in Protomyxa\\ and some other relatively large Moneres, not nucleated in every stage of their growth, creeping by means of their soft mobile body at first, and afterwards by the contractile filaments of their sarcode, which branch out and form delicate reticulations, with irregular meshes, as in some Rhizopoda. As these animalcules, closely as they may be related to the Rhizopods, differ from them somewhat in their mode of growth, and in their changes from one stage to another, they have been grou]>ed in some classifications under other distinc- tive names, such as Myxomyceta,^ Myxoyastrea,^ and Mijcetozoa.\\\\ It is difficult for botanists to regard them as belonging to the animal kingdom. IV. The above-mentioned lowly creatures of the Amoeba and Protamceba types show a close analogy to the elementary " cell," which, in some condition or other, is known to be at the foundation or commencement of all kinds of animal and vegetable tissues. A " cell " consists of a minute sac, or bladder-like envelope (the "cell-wall"), and an enclosed morsel of fluid or semi-fluid gelatinous * Greek, amoiti: (ameilo) exchange. t Greek, monos, alone. + Greek, prOtos, first ; amoeba. § Greek, protos, first ; ytinomai, I am born. || Greek, plasma, a formation ; eidos, appearance. T Greek, en, in ; kustis, a bladder. ** Greek, zoe, life; s}x>ros, a seed. tf Greek, prutos, first ; myxa, mucus. +J Greek, mijxa, mucus ; myccs (gen. mycetos), a fungus. §§ Greek, mitxa ; f/astrc, the bottom of a vase, or the hold of a ship. |!|| Greek, myccs, a fungus ; zoo», an animal. Fig. 1. AMCEBA PKOTEUS. C',l>, in motion; ;>,;>, ;>, iisciulojiod.s pushed tit in action. Hiuhly magnified. NATURAL HISTORY. protoplasm (with its innumerable floating molecules, granules, or globules), possibly a network of filaments, and a more or less solid "nucleus"; and this last has often within it an almost immeasurably small but distinct spot called the "nucleolus." Such "cells," being endowed with vital force, can absorb and use up water and organic fluids ; they have the power of growth, of secreting new materials, of producing similar " cells," capable of the same functions as those of the parent " cell " (and even more advanced functions) ; and in many cases they can move freely. The " nucleus," secreted or formed by the protoplasm, seems to regulate these vital phenomena, especially germination or reproduction, for it multiplies itself by " fission," by breaking up into germinative particles, and by the formation of " nucleoli," which, in their turn, become " nuclei." Even without a "cell-wall," the Amoeba is a true animal "cell": but the Protamceba, havinw 7 O neither " cell-wall " nor " nucleus," represents only the simple protoplasm of a " cell." Such living corpuscles have been termed " Proto- plasts" by some, and "Cytodes"* by others. Such are the free-moving Monera (Prot- amceba), the non-nucleated plasmodia of the jlfyxomyceta, and the amceboid germs of Gregarina, proceeding from the " pseudo- naviculpe." That all these simple organisms, however, are true animals has not yet been satisfactorily determined. " The Amoeba, however," says Haeckel, " presents the most simple form of a single- celled ('unicellular') organism in a complete state of development, and in some sort the ideal of an animal ' cell.' Widely distri- buted in fresh waters, on muds and wet earth, and occurring in brackish and salt water also, these animalcules are of special interest on account of their eminently simple structure as a ' cell,' and because of the bearings of their development and functions on the history and meaning of other ' cells.' " V. Thus the Amcebce may be said to be soft, naked, nucleated " cells," of indeterminable shape. They move here and there in water, sometimes floating, but usually creeping on plants and other objects by protruding from any part of the surface of their body, but more especially from one end, and that the broadest and most translucent, variable finger-like lobes of their own body-substance, and then either retracting these processes, called " pseudopods," or drawing the body to the point at which they fix themselves. Of course the body varies indefinitely throughout these movements (see Figs. 1, 2, 3), being at one time nearly circular, at another angular, and then jutting out at corners or at the sides with capes and peninsulas of no fixed shape, and ever slowly shifting, as if a floating island, restless and bewitched, gained and lost its coasts again and again at the caprice of some changeful sprite, aiming at fancied resemblances to hatids, antlers, or branches, and back again to more solid but clumsy shapes of leaves and buds, and even slugs or imperfect stars.- " The changes of form produced by the extension and branching of certain of the pseudopods, with the recession, melting away, and total disappeai'ance of others, is endless. Sometimes the animal creeps onward in a flowing manner with comparatively simple cylindroid form, occasionally emitting a single pseudopod on one side or the other. More commonly in movement it assumes a dendroid or palmate appearance, or sometimes, diverging from the directly onward course, it becomes more radiate. Not infrequently it assumes more or less grotesque shapes, in which almost every conceivable likeness may be imagined." — Leidy, " Freshwater Rhizop. N. America," 1879, p. 36. * Greek, cytos (plural cyta), a hollow ; eidos, appearance. Fig. 2. — PKOTAMCEBA PKIMITIVA. Showing eomeof the stages during tho iiroooss of fission. Very highly magnified. (After Hueckel'i THE AJICEBA. 335 Organic morsels over which these Amcebce softly glide are taken into the plastic body, sometimes at any spot, but generally at a particular region, where the clear sarcode is thinnest; and water is also absorbed or enclosed. Thus the acts of eating and drinking, without mouth and stomach, are accomplished ; and assimilation (rather than digestion) of the good and available portions of the prey duly takes place. After continued growth, the body sometimes divides into two living individuals ; but it often becomes almost wholly a mass of zoospores, so that the once unicellular creature is converted into an uncountable multitude of living " cells " or simple animals. Thus also the " cells " in our own bodies play their part ; multiplying new " cells," and replacing those which have been used up. More espe- cially the white globules of the blood of animals are amoeboid. As they circulate along the vessels, they execute movements like those of Amcsbcr, ever modi- fying their shape ; and they can be made to enclose foreign substances (such as carmine), just as the Amoeba takes in its food. Further, a simple Amteba has a strik- ing resemblance to the " primary cell " or " ovum " of all animals, whether vertebrate or invertebrate. It may be regarded as equivalent to this unicellular phase of higher organisms. As a vital mass of the simplest and most elementary formation we can conceive, it is adapted for a very low stage of existence, having only the properties of locomotion, assimilation, and reproduction. Having such an extremely rudimentary formation, many of the Protozoa have been regarded as members of the Vegetable Kingdom, and as mere germs of some plants. Haeckel places many of thenr, as Protista, in an intermediate position. The Amoeba, however, and its numerous allies, prey on organic substances, and even on living organisms, after the manner of animals. But in this great group they take their place, in classification, according to the relative absence of those special organs which characterise the higher members of the kingdom. VI. — The sarcode of the Amoeba is often yellowish from its contained granules ; but it is nearly transparent at one, usually the broader, end of the body in active individuals ; whilst the granules, germinal and other globules, and particles of food, more or less digested, with green, yellow, brown and other tints, crowd and darken its hinder part. The edge of this, under the microscope, looks like a pellucid coat (in section) by transmitted light ; and being free from coarse particles, invests, as it were, the thicker interior with a thin layer of sarcode. The more coarsely granular and inner material is called the " Endosarc ;"* the other is the "Ectosarc,"t or "Diaphane."| They are really interchangeable ; the outer surface, which is toughish, without being coated with any membrane, may be turned in and becomes as soft as the rest of the sarcode, especially when the prey is engulfed and takes in some of the inturned ectosarc with it. The contents of the endosarc appear to be : — 1. Granules of various kinds — some exceedingly minute and protoplasmic, others relatively large, some of which are apparently like water, some like oil, some like starch ; 2. Newly ingested food— some soft (Desmids, &c.), some hard (Diatoms)— and food-balls of partly digested food, which soon become broken up as loose particles in the endosarc ; 3. Water- vacuoles, either independent or investing morsels of food, and probably arising from water engulfed either by itself or with the food ; 4. Quartz sand sometimes, and " in some fine, large, vigorous specimens of A. protem, collected from a pond in the vicinity of a saw-mill," Dr. Leidy found that " the endosarc contained multitudes of particles of sawdust ; " 5. Minute crystals, regular in form (octahedrons and others) ; 6. Sarcobksts ; 7. The nucleus ; and, 8, the pulsating or contractile vesicle. There may be more than one of each of these. * Greek, avion, within ; sarx. fesa. f Greek, ektos, outside ; sarx. I Greek, diaphancs, transparent. Fig. 3. AM#, a sword ; acantha, a thorn. Greek, thalcwsa, the sea ; colla, glue, jelly. * Greek, colla, jelly ; spkaira, a sphere. J Greek, omphalos, a navel ; styJos, a column. ii Greek; amplii, round-about; discos, a u^uoit. t Greek, acantha, a thorn ; metron, a measure. § Greek, stylos, a column ; diktyon, a net. •" Greek, acantha, a thorn ; desmos, a chain. ft Greek, sphaira; zoon, an animal. §>! Greek, hals, the sea ; omma, an eye. 1iU Greek, astron, a star ; omma, an eye. 344 NATURAL HISTORY. Podocyrtis* (Fig. 10) lias a fenestrated, casque-like skeleton, globular where largest, then tapering, and then spiked, at one end ; and open, with three marginal prickles, at the other. Eucyrtidium\ (Fig. 11) is a Polycistine, with a nearly conical reticulate skeleton, somewhat like a high-peaked Indian helmet of chain-mail. Eucecryplialus^ (Fig. 12) has a beautiful umbrella-shaped lattice as a protection to its soft vesicular body. The Poli/cistina are enveloped in a delicate filmy investment of sar- code, when alive ; and their sarco- blasts or ovules are abundant. How- ever complex the skeleton may seem to be in any of these Radiolarian forms, we must recollect that it is a feature of less essential value in biological classification than the in- ternal organs. Therefore the Poly- cistina are low in the scale (just below the nucleated Radiolarians) ; and, unless a " nucleus " should be decidedly found in the Foraminifera,§ these latter come last of all, among the interesting and great family of Rhizopoda. XLIV. — In the last-mentioned group we find the pseudopodia branch- Fig. 8.— XIPHACANTHA MURRAYANA. (After W. Thomson.) The skeleton of a Radiularian of the Acanthomctra type. Magnified 100 times another, and thus forming a mesh-work or i-eticulation. ing out and blending one with Hence the Foraminifera have been placed among the Reticularia,\\ whenever the pseudopods have been taken for chief guidance in grouping the forms. Some of * \ i 10 \ \ \ n / / 9 the Polycistina have a tendency to this habit. One kind of Reticulose Rhizo- pods (Lieberkiihnia) has neither nucleus nor contractile vesicle, and is therefore very low in the scale of being ; others (Biomyxa and Gromia) have both these endoplasts, or proto- plasmic organs, and therefore rank as high as the Amcebans. As to their habits, some genera have representa- tives in both fresh and salt water {Gromia and Lieberkuhnia), some only in fresh water (Biomyxa), some only in salt and brackish water (Fo- raminifera). The Reticularia, or Reticulose Rhizopods, protrude many long thread-like pseudopods, which * Greek, pous, a foot ; cyrte, a fish-basket. t Greek, eu, good ; cyrte. I Greek, cu, good ; cecryphalos, a hair-net. § Latin, foramen (foraminis), a hole ; fero, I bear. This name was given to them originally, not on account of the superficial perforations, but because their dividing walls have one or more simple holes ; and these were thought to constitute a distinction from the tubed apertures in the divisions of the cephalopodous shells with which they were then confounded. II Latin, reticulum, a little net or a network. FigS. 9, 10, 11. — RADIOLARIAN SKELETONS, OR LATTICED SILICIOUS SHELLS. Highly magnified. (After HaecTcel.) Fig.9,Sti/lodictya mittti.ipina. (fJaeckefi, living off Messina: Fig. 10, Podoci/rtis schombitrgii (Ehreitberg), fossil from Barbadoes; Fig. 11, Eucyrtidium l&geua (Htiecket), living off LIEBERKURNIA. 345 frequently blend together here and there, away from the body, or " anastomose" among themselves so as to form irregular meshes of sarcode. Some of these animalcules possess the important " nucleus " (Shephecmlella, Siddall), and one or more " contractile vesicles " (JBiomyxa, Leidy ; and Gromia, according to Wallich), Among the Foraminifera, some are said to have yielded evidence of the presence of a " nucleus." But it is possible that these apparently nuclear bodies are " sarcoblasts," either isolated or in groups, especially when the granular forms have come to light by the inter- vention of re-agents. In effect, fresh specimens show nearly clear and quite pale " nuclei," or none at all ; and those subjected to re-agents show granular bodies, like "nuclei," pale or darkish, and sometimes with a central spot, either dark or pale. In the first case, the presence of definite globular bodies, besides nuclei, in Rhizopods, must be thought of ; and, in the second case, the effect of chemical re- agents on the (1) sarcodic granules, and (2) on the endoplasts (sarcoblasts) in Rhizopods, must be allowed for before the above-mentioned corpuscles in certain Miliolce and Planorbulince (?) can Fig. 12. EUCECUYPHALVS SCHULTZEI. A living Radiolirian of the Cyrtidan family : off Messina. Highly magnified. (After aueckel.) Tins is tipped up a little, so as to show the body with its sarcoblasts inside. be regarded as true nuclei. XL V. — Lieberkuhnia * \ Fig. 13. — GUOMIA TElUUC'Ot.A. Animalcule with .1 filmy coat of sarcode and extruded, intrrlarmL', and reticu- late peeudopods. Thr transparent envelop- i-hnws a larae nucleus, vacnoles, oil-globules, anil fiu.il within. Sand and dirt adhere at the hinder end ibeiow i. Magnified too dimeter*, (After Leidy.) is a simple, granular, non-nucleated, thin-skinned Rhizopod, with vacuoles. It is egg-shaped, and sends off from one part of its body a stem-like process, at first within a filmy coating of the general sarcode, but soon branching off again and again into finer and finer filaments. These coalesce freely, and form islets here and there among the shifting and changing re- ticulations. The granules of the protoplasm have the usual circulatory movement, some- what like that visible in Valisneria, Nitella, and other plants, but of a different physio- logical character, not being so regular, and evidently more dependent on the actual movements of the animal. This rare animal- cule was first described and figured by Claparede and Lachman in their " Les Infu- soires et les Rhizopodes." Mr. Siddall found it in sea-water. XLVI. — Biomyxa,^ discovered by Dr. Leidy, has been described by him as a fresh-Wiiter Rhizopod, soft, glairy, colourless, unconfined by any external envelope or test, and incessantly changing in shape. It has one " nucleus," or more, and several " con- tractile vesicles," in its -spherical state, and sends off numerous attenuated and anastomosing! pseuclopods. Granular "circulation" is seen in * Lklvrkuhn, a famous microscopist. t Greek, bios, life ; myxa, mucus. * Greek, ami, through, among ; stomoo, I furnish with a mouth, I open. Applied originally to the junction of veins and tubules, whereby they open one into another. 282 346 XATURAL HISTORY. the sarcode of the body and the filaments. Blended portions of the latter, seemingly detached by accident, 'continue to exist as non-nucleated Rhizopodous organisms. XLVII. — Gromia, discovered by Dujardin in both salt and fresh water, is a round or egg- shaped little mass of granular sarcode, with relatively large central nucleus, vacuoles, contractile vesicle (seen by Wallich), and a tough membranous investment. The last is thin, transparent, and usually open at one end only, whence the sarcode is extruded. This stretches forth in thin branching pseudopods, and also extends itself as a film back over the whole of the test, giving off long delicate pseuclopods from its general surface. These are continually changing in direction and extent, uniting and disuniting among themselves, or moving as lashes, spirals, and otherwise. At their unions they form islets of sarcode, which become the centres of secondary nets. A very interesting kind of Gromia (Fig. 13), found by Dr. Leicly among the clamp moss of his house-yard in Philadelphia, is named by him G. terricola. It is about twelve millem. in diameter ; and with its pseudopodial net fully spread, this Gromia looks somewhat like a spider in its web. Its food consists of "minute Diatoms, fragments of Lyngbya, and globular green Algae." It takes in some sand also. XL VIII. — Many of the Reticularian Rhizopods have a calcareous shell, not a merely spicular or fibrous, basket-like skeleton, like a Radiolarian silicious framework, but composed of definite chambers or compartments, sometimes one, often more, in regular sequence on a straight line, or bent, coiled, alternating, concentric, or even irregularly heaped, in almost endless modifications. These lime-made shells are thus either simple or compound, containing— (1) only one round, oval, or elongate morsel of sarcode; or (2) more than one, sometimes very many such little bodies in one shell, which is chambered or divided according to the number of segments of sarcode constituting the whole animalcule. On account of this latter condition, these calcareous-shelled Reticularia have been termed Polythalamia.* The first-mentioned, or single-chambered ("nionothalamous") condition, whether regarded as a special form, or as an exception to the general rule, being due either to immature, imperfect, or varietal growth, at all events vitiates the application of " Polythalamia " to the whole of the group. The walls separating the chambers of the compound shells are pierced with either one or many holes, for the passage of a thread ("stolonf") or threads of sarcode, by which the segments are connected together, and by which, indeed, each new segment stretches, buds, or grows out from the older portion of sarcode. These simple holes in each separating wall (" septum J") of the chambers in those of the compound shells which look like little Ammonites and Nautiluses were at first thought to constitute a distinction between those high-class Molluscs which have tubes (" siphons " or " siphuncles ") from chamber to chamber, and these minute shells, which were at that time mistakingly referred to that class ; and thus they were called Cephalopoda foraminifera, to distinguish them from the Cephalopoda siphonifera. Although this mistake was soon corrected, the word Foraminifera has been kept for these Reticularian s under notice. Some wrongly think that the name is due to the fact that in many instances the whole of the outside shell is perforated with either small holes or minute tubules. In this latter sense, however, the name would not be applicable to the whole of the group ; for in a large and important division the general shell is not pierced with any holes, but has solid walls except at the single aperture whence the sarcode pushes out an external filmy coat and pseudopods, or buds out on a new stolon (Fig. 14). Hence Foraminifera are divisible into two main groups : — 1. The imperf orate (imperforata), or porcellanous (porcellana) ; 2. The perforate (perforates), or glassy or vitreous (vitrea, also hyalina), on account of their relative translucency. There is also an intermediate group, called the arenaceous, or sandy (arenacea), some of which seem to belong to the one, and some to the other of the fore- going divisions. Still there are even in these groups, however distinct they may appear to be at first sight, links * Greek, polys, many ; thalamos, bed or chamber. t Latin, stolo is used by botanists for a kind of root ; from Greek, stolos, a setting-out or a source. % Latin, septum, a hedge or wall. 347 Fig, 14. — MILIOLA (QUINQUELOCU- I.INA). One of HIP " Porcel- lanous" Foramini- fera: living. (After Schultze.) of alliance (besides their pseudopodial and physiological characters), as well as exceptions in their structural characters; for (1) some individuals of the porcellanous one-mouthed kind have connecting passages between their inner chambers ; (2) some of the perforate forms begin with the usual hyaline shell-structure, but become coarse, imperforate, and sandy with advancing age. (3) Moreover, some of the smooth porcelkma become sandy as they grow. (4) Some, also, of the same kind secrete little or no shell-matter, and have sometimes merely a covering of membranous consistence, like that of some of the shelled Anirebans, many of which latter group we may remark, though they are not calcareous, have the habit of taking up sand to stiffen their tests. (5) Some of the arenaceous kinds send out pseudopods from between the sand-grains embedded, but not cemented, on their surface, and do not appear to have the usual large aperture for the stolon ; and there is said to be even a simpler kind, merely a little morsel of sarcode containing sand, not as a coating, but mixed up vaguely with it,* more abundantly, it seems, than the grains of sand found in some of the more gluttonous and coarse-feeding of the Amcebcc, and serving perhaps to give a kind of general stability to the little Moneral organism. The largest known of the Arenacea are Parkeria (after W. K. Parker], and Loftusia (after W. K. Loftus). Those Foraminifera which have a white, opaque or compact, non-porous, porcellanous shell, without perforations for the passage of pseudopods from every part of the enclosed body, comprise six well-known, typical forms. Around these an almost endless series of more or less allied forms, having the same essential characters, but varying in modes of growth, and often almost imitating one another, especially in their young stages, may be grouped by zoologists. There is, first, the Cornuspira (horn-coil, Fig. 164), a simple thread of sarcode coiling flatwise, and coated with the usual opaque shell open at the end. Becoming constricted at intervals, and losing its circularity, it seems, if we put all the varying individuals in a series, to pass into a Miliola (millet-seed), which is folded up and down, and is pinched in at the turns — whether these come exactly opposite to each other on the two sides of the shell, as in BllocuUna (two-chambers) and Spiroloculina (spiral chambers, Fig. 16,); or do not equally match on opposite sides, but leave three or five folds visible on the unequal faces, as in Triloculina and Quinqueloculina (three and five chambers, Figs. 14, 163). Some individuals when young, and even in the adult state, make but an imperfect second chamber in the turn of the shell ; and, beginning like the retort-shaped Diftiugice, seem to fail in advanced growth, as the Adeloeina (not manifest, or uncertain). The Miliolida} may be said to be cosmopolites, in all seas ; and they are frequent in a fossil state, especially at Paris. Again, some begin with the circular, or with the alternate or agathistegian (ball-of-thread-like) folds, but go off with a straight growth, chamber after chamber — sometimes narrow, as Articuliiw (joint-like), or broader as in Vertebraliiia (vertebra-like), common in the Red Sea. In all these the terminal aperture, whatever its relative size may be, gives out the sarcode to make pseudopods, but not to go back over the whole shell as a coating film. Another kind of shell among the porcellanous group has often a delicate pearly whiteness ; and begins with one globule of sarcode, which gives off by one stolon a half-moon-shaped segment, which, in its turn, gives off two or more stolons, and a largei-, curved, narrow segment j and this produces a transversely-longer crescentic addition with additional parallel and advancing stolons, until chamber after chamber lengthens and widens the shell in its growth, often curving elegantly (on a plane). It is pierced at its terminal edge either with separate holes or a branching rift (as if the holes had run one into another) ; and thus we have the Peiieroplis (a fancy name), with perforate edge, or Dendritiiia (Fig. 30), with "tree-like" mouth. Often Peneroplis grows quite narrow and straight after a feeble youth of spiral growth, and then it is like a crozier. It is common in the Red Sea and Mediterranean. Orbiculina (circle-like) is formed on somewhat the same plan, but it is not so pearly, and from * Carpenter, " Foraminifera, " Encycl. Brit, ix., p. 375. Fig. 15. — (After Schultzc.) One of tlie "Vitreous" Forami nUera : livimr. 348 NATURAL HISTORY. the first it sets on its new segments as nearly complete rings, close and neat, and with the sarcode even branching upwards into overlying rings, so as to thicken the early portion of the shell. But whether the flat compound shell is ear-shaped, and shows a delicate concentric spire on its faces, or is discoidal, with rings almost truly concentric, its sarcode only comes out at the marginal pores of the last " annuli " (rings) of the shell, which, like the earlier narrow curved chambers, are usually (not always) subdivided in a uniform manner, corresponding to the external openings. These are abundant in the West Indies and elsewhere. Alveolina is, as it were, an Orbiculi)M rolled up on a long transverse axis. They are fossil and recent. Orbitolites, truly concentric from its first growth, has larger chambers (segments of sarcode) than Orbiculina, though some of the two kinds are distinguishable with difficulty ; it is also more free Fie;. 16. — VARIOUS FORMS OF FORAMIXIFEKA. 1, Prondiculana goldfussi, Reuss. Cretnceoue. Bohemia. £, Spirolocnlina liadoiisis, il'f),-hiinni. Miocene. Baden, Vienna. 3, Quinaiieloeuliiia ?axorum, Lamarck. Eocene. Paris. 4, Cornnspira polypyra. Reims. Oligocene. Hungary, "a, Textularia irlobifrra. Unit* (strintn, A7ici./i.'« /•iculina numismalig, var. adimca. but differing from the last both as to its aperture and its segniental plan, also becomes sandy in old age. The last three kinds are known both recent and fossil. The truly hyaline Foraminifera, with very small perforations of shell, have the one-chambered Layena (flask) for their simplest type. This is often most exquisitely delicate and elegant. In Glandulina (acorn-like, Figs. 21, 22) and Xodosaria 17 (knotty, Figs. 166, 23. 24) we see a series of chambers planned on the growth of successive Lagence, the base of the new one partly enveloping the front of the last segment. The ornaments are various, but chiefly thin ribs and delicate points. If not circular in section, but flat, the same kind of growth produces Linyulina (tongue) and Frotidicularia (leaf, Fig. 16j). If round in section, but bent, it is Dentalina (tooth, Fig. 1G7). Still further curved, whether thick or thin, convex or flat, smooth or ornamented, this kind of Foraminifer becomes a Vayinulina (sheath), a Marginulina (margin), and in the extreme a Cristellaria (crest, Fig. 16S). If the segments grow alternate, we have either Polymorphina (many-shape) or Uviyerina (grape-bearer, Fig. 33). The last is not so common as the others of the Lagenidte, which abound both recent and fossil. Another set of hyaline Foraminifera has coarser pseudopodial passages through the shell, and more globular chambers, and these are set on in a somewhat heaped fashion, and but roughly spiral, so that in most cases the stolon-hole of each chamber comes near to the other apertures, and they all open into a kind of vestibule in the middle of the shell. These are the Globigerinat (globe-bearer, Fig. 169). Some abound in the Chalk, while others are met with in the present seas and oceans. They may all be said to be of the same species as the common GL bidloides, figured and described by d'Orbigiiy. The form most common in the Chalk (Gl. cretacea) is the most truly spiral of all the varieties. The Adriatic yields a neat Gl. bulloides, which is also met with at many places in the great seas ; and it lives and thrives in the abyssal depths of the ocean, attaining a relatively large size, and putting on coarse prickles and a much thicker shell than it has in shallow waters. On the surface of the ocean another variety is found floating j it is like bnJloides, but with enormously long, hair-like prickles ; these in life are invested with sarcode, which, on the outside, becomes coated with shell in Orbulina (globe). The Rotalia (wheel, Figs. 1610, 34) is a type, or leading form, among an immense series of more or less spiral Foraminifers, varying in their shell-structure plan of spire from nearly top- shaped to flat (with occasional loss of spire in either a cylindrical or a heaped growth), and the shape and position of aperture. Pidvimdina (cushion), Discorbina (basket 1) Planorbulina (flat-circle, Fig. 29), and Ccdcarina (spur, Fig. 31), are other important members of the Rotaline group. Under the heading Nummulitidce are grouped some high-class Foraminifera, which, however, have their simple types among them and closely associated. Thus the little, thin, neat Nonionina (from " nonion," a fancy name) leads up, by more and more complex shell- structure, to Polystomella (many-mouth) ; and the relatively simple Operculina (like the opercidiun of some gasteropods) is at the root not only of the greater and complex Nummulites (coin- like), but also of its congeners — on one hand, Amphistegina (double- stage, Fig. 18), and, on the other, the more cyclical Heterosteyina (odd-stage, Fig. 17), with Cycloclypeus (circle-shield) and Orbitoides (circle-like). Most of the Nummulitids, except Orbitoides, occur abundantly in some sea or other. Nummidites is not rare, though small, in the Australian seas ; but in the fossil state it constitutes masses of limestone, hundreds of feet thick, and hundreds of square miles in extent. Of these limestones many great FigS. 21-24. FORAMINIFERAL SHELLS (Afar d'Orbigny), FIGURED WITH THE APERTUKE DOWNWARDS. 21, 22, Glmidiilinn laevifrata, outside and section ; 23, 24, Nodoaaria lamcllosa, outside and scot ion. FigS. 25-28. — F 3 R A MINI f E 11 AL SHELLS (After d'Orligny), FIGURED WITH THE APERTURE DOWNWARDS. 25, 26, Testularia nciculata, outside and section; 27, 28, Bigenerina (Trxtulana) nodosaria, outside and section. 350 NATURAL HISTORY. FigS. 29-33. FORAMIXI"EUAL SHELLS. (After d'Ofligny.) >, Plnnortiulina mediterranonsis; so, Penerop'is (IX'iulntiua) arbuicula ; 31, Cnirarina defraiicii ; TS. lluliinina marginata; 33, Uvigerina pj-.trnisi-a. Fig?, at, 33 aro figured with the aperture down- wards. buildings have been constructed — such as the Cathedral of Gerona and some of the Pyramids of Egypt. Fiisulina (distaff) is a spindle-shaped Nuinnmlitid forming masses of limestone of Carboniferous age in Russia and North America. This form, A Iveolina, and Loftusia, resembling one another in shape, belong to quite different groups ; an example of the imperfection of d'Orbigny's classification based on the shape of shell and setting on of the chambers. In many of the Foraminifera, especially the Porcellana, the chamber- walls merely tent over the sarcode, whether thread-like, beaded, folded, or spiral ; the edges of the new chamber resting on the surface either of the object to which the Foraminifer is attached, or on a former whorl of the shell. In more highly- developed hyaline species, each segment of sarcode becomes wholly coated with perforated shell-matter, except where it is attached by the stolon to the previous segment, and where it gives off a new bud. Further, the sarcode is thrown back over the already formed chambers more or less freely, and the test gets thickened, and sometimes ornamented with supple- mental shell-growth. But a most important feature in the best kind of these shells (Nummulites, Polystomella, Rotalia, Calcarina, &c.) consists of a system of vessels, or canals, formed between the consecutive chambers of such well-coated kinds, and continued in a spiral manner along the upper and lower edges of the chambers, and communicating either directly with the surface (Polystomella), or through a reticulation of similar vessels in the thickened edge or " marginal cord " of the shell. These vascular portions have been termed the "intermediate skeleton,'' with its "canal- system," and evidently permit of free sarcodic communication between the early innermost segments and the outside (Fig. 34). It is very doubtful to some if the Foraminifera and the marine Radiolaria use their pseudopods for catching living prey ; and it has been suggested that they obtain nourishment by absorption of nitrogenised aliment from the sea-water. The similarity, however, of their pseudopods with those of prey-catching Reticularia supports, by analogy, the idea that they take organic particles as food. In some cases young Foraminifera, resembling what must have been the earliest stages (primordial segments) of the parent, have been found within the shell of an adult individual, and too large to escape by the stolonal aperture. The mother, then, would be at least partially burst for their escape. In other cases such a brood has been seen outside and around the mother, possibly having been emitted in an imperfect state. There seems to be no doubt that the sarcoblasts so often present, and looking like ovules, may be the sources of young broods. It has been remarked by Williamson that some twin monstrosities, as double For- aminifers, beginning in one primordial chamber, may indicate that "fission" is one method of reproduction with these creatures under some circumstances. XLIX. — Many animalcules formerly classed among the Infusoria (which are an important group of the Protozoa], especially Monas and its allies, have of late years been recognised as belonging to a different protozoan group, more nearly allied to the Rhizopods, inasmuch as at some period of their existence they are in an Amoeboid condition, if not living as actual Amoebce. Their typical form is a nucleated corpuscle, with a vacuole, and an external thread-like appendage, or tail-like lash. Hence they have been grouped as the Flagellata* * Latin, flagettvm, a little whip. Fig. 34. — SECTION OF THE SHELL OF ROTALIA SCHROZTERIANA, NEAR AND PARALLEL TO ITS BASE. (After Williamson and Carpenter.) Sliowincr— n a, tli<> radiating intcrsepta! canals i Ij, their internal bifurcations ; c, a transverse branch , d, the tubuliferoiis wall of the chambers. MYCETOZOA AXD GEEGARiy^ Sol Such as these are associated together in groups, like colonies, on various plans ; and the constituent members of the compound mass undergo changes leading to the production of new Amoeboid and other forms. Such minute flagellate organisms, together with simple protoplasm, make up for the most part the living slime of Sponges. There are also some small organisms, similar at one time of their developmental growth to little puff-balls and other fungi, and parasitic on plants and wood, which break up and allow iunumerable spores to escape ; and each of these gives rise to a flagellate Monad, with nucleus and contractile vesicle, and endowed witli power of enclosing and feeding on organic atoms. These Monads, becoming Amoebas, join together, and form a large jelly-like mass (" plasmodium "), in which ultimately the fungoid organisms and their spores are developed in their turn. This general or common slime colony, in the meantime, pushes out pseudopods, moves on and on, engulfing food-particles, and, when extended to the utmost, becomes a coarse network, showing the usual circulation (pseudo-cijdosis, Wallich) of granules in the sarcode. These are the Mycetozoa alluded to above.* The Labyrinthulea is such a marine Protozoan. It forms groups of numerous yellowish nucleated corpuscles, usually spindle-shaped, but changeable, very loosely associated together in a net-like tissue, and gliding about within its substance. Some free Amceboids are given off at times by the tissue ; but the tapering corpuscles by-and-by mass themselves in groups ; these become encysted, and at last each corpuscle, or gelatinous cell, produces four young cells, or spores. L. — The Jfagospficera, a small spherical body rolling through the water (salt and fresh), consists of numerous vase-shaped nucleated corpuscles fitted together side by side, radiating from the centre, with six-sided outlines, the tapering ends inwards, whilst their outer ends have vibrating fringes, giving a hairy surface to the living ball. Its component cells break up and produce isolated swimming atoms, and these become creeping Amoeboids. Each of these, in an encysted condition, divides again and again, until a new compound Magosphere is formed, which breaks the wall and escapes. LI. — Another life-history of one of the Protozoa, although not that of one of the Ehizopods, is very interesting, and shows us how close is the relationship, and how narrow are the boundaries, between the Protista and the Protozoa proper, and between their several groups. The minute parasites found in the insides of worms and insects, and known as Gregarince, have been closely studied. In its advanced stage of growth a Gregarina consists of one, two, or three cell-like, nucleated corpuscles of contractile protoplasm, enclosed in a soft, smooth, elastic skin, sometimes furnished with hooks at one end. The "nucleus" is large, mostly round and clear, with a "nucleolus." By contractions of the sarcode just beneath the skin, the Gregarina moves creepingly along on the moist surfaces from which it absorbs its nutriment. Reproduction takes place either by division or by zoospores. The latter are produced after a "resting stage," when either a single individual, or several together, have become " encysted ; " and, the nuclei disappearing, the sarcode has broken up into a great number of germinative cells, or spores, called Pseudo-naviculse. From each of these an Amceboid or Montron escapes, which becomes nucleated, and is transformed into an Amoeba ; and this, furnished with an envelope, lives as a Gregarina. LII. — Like other very minute animalcules, mouthless, but otherwise resembling Infusoria to some extent, the exceedingly small moving bodies seen (with high microscopic power) in decomposing organic infusions of organic substances, and known as Bacteria and Vibriones, are grouped among the Monera. They look like delicate tremulous filaments, and may be straight, curved, or spiral, oscillating, vibrating, or undulating, and are often jointed, or partially divided in the process of being multiplied by " fission.*' LIU. — One interesting fact is observable in the comparison of the life-history of Ehizopods with that of higher animals— even with the highest of the Vertebrata. The organic material which is their only living substance, excepting some occasional mechanical support derived from mineral matter, is really a most essential, if not, indeed, in some respects the most essential, substance in even our own bodily system. As the sensitive copper wire in the electric cable is the essential portion of that wonderful cord, so the delicate innermost protoplasmic core of our complex nerve-chord and nerve-threads is essential to the perfection of our nerve-system. In some of the lower animals, * See also W. S. Kent, "Pop. Sci. Rev.," n.s., No. 18, 1881, p. 97, &c. 352 NATURAL HISTORY. as Echinoderms, the nerves are nothing but protoplasmic threads. Impossible as it would be for highly organised animals to move and get their living without bones and muscles, yet without protoplasm, coating their stomachs and other organs, and floating in their blood, to carry on the work of preparing and distributing organic products to the well-being of the whole, they could not exist ; and in the nerves protoplasm is the mysterious communicator of both functional activity and the over-ruling will. LIV. — The Bibliography of the Rhizopoda is immense. Dr. Leidy (in his book often quoted) gives twenty-three quarto pages full of memoirs on the fresh-water forms ; but many of these refer also to marine Rhizopods of various kinds. For English readers, W. Archer, H. J. Carter, J. Leidy, and last, but not least, G. C. Wallich, have treated of Amcebans, Actinophryns, &c.; and among foreigners, Auerbach, Cienkowski, Claparede and Lachman, Dujardin, Ehrenberg, Greeff, Hertwig, Lesser, Perty, and Schulze. For Radiolaria, Ehrenberg, Haeckel, Wallich, and others should be studied. For Foraminifera, English students will find, among many others, Williamson, Carpenter, Carter, Parker, Jones, Siddall, and H. B. Brady ; and among very many foreign naturalists Ehrenberg, Lamarck, d'Orbigny, von Reuss, Bornemann, Seguenza, Karrer, d'Archiac, and especially Max Schultze. CLASSIFICATION OF THE RHIZOPODA. (After WaUich.} RHIZOPODA. 1. Nucleus and Contractile Vesicle. PROTEINA. 2. Nucleus ; no Contractile Vesicle. PROTODEKMATA. 3. No Nucleus; no Contractile Vesicle. 1 — Pseudopodia monomorphous (usually of one kiiidV Actinophrys, Gromia, $c. Pseudopodia polymorphous. Amoeba, Difflittj/ia, Arcclla, $c. Tubular. DICTYOCHID^E. Solid. PLAGIACANTHIDJE. ACANTHOMETHINA. THALASSICOLLINA. Skeleton Silicious. POLYCISTINA. Shell not Silicious (Chitinous or Calcareous) . FORAMINIFEUA. T. RUPERT JONES. 353 TYPE PROTOZOA.— CLASS INFUSORIA (INFUSORY ANIMALCULES). Microscopic Animals— One Cause of the Phosphorescence of the Sea and of the Discoloration of Water— The Life in Infusions— Characters of the Infusoria— Example of Ciliate Infusorians — The Slipper Animalcules — Their Construction — The Flagellate Order — Features — Cercomonas — The Cilio-flagellate Infusorians — Characters— The Animalcules of the Ponds in Phoenix Park, Dublin — Melodinium — Ceratium — The Order Tentaculifera — Characters— -Achicta— Classification -The Ectoplasm— The Endoplasm — Origin of the Cilia, Flagella, and Tentacles— How Infusorians Feed- Action and Function of the Contractile Vesicle — The Nucleus or Endoplast — The Colours of Infusoria— The Coloration of Waters — Trichocysts — Reproduction by Fission, Gemmation, and otherwise — Distribution— TENTACULIFERA — SVCTORIA— AGTINARIA— CILIATA — HOLOTRICHA — Paramecium— Prorodoiitidze— Trachelocercidae — Ichthyophthiriidse — Colepidaj — Ophryoglenidaj — Pleuronemidse— Lembidae— Family Discovered by Leidy — Opalinidie — HETEROTRICH A—- The Largest Infusoria— Spirostomum ambif/uum — Condylostoma patens — Stentor polymorphus—PEmimcvtA—Halteria yrandinella—Urocentrum turbo — The "Bell" Animalcules — Genera with Vorticella-like Animalcules— HYPOTRICHA — CILIO-FLAGELLATA— FLAGELLATA— Noctiluca m il ia m. IF a glass tumbler be dipped into a pond or ditch, so as to collect some of the vegetation which is found at the surface and at the sides, besides some clear water, it will invariably be found to contain numerous living things, some of which are just visible to the naked eye, whilst others require a lens or a compound microscope for their detection and examination. The larger living things are mostly in rapid movement about the water, whilst some cling to the small plants and w'eed. They are usually small Crustacea, and also the larvae and active nymphs of insects. Sometimes a water-spider is included in the capture, and frequently small worms are to be seen. Often just visible, and moving here and there, are numerous animals which evidently produce considerable currents in the water, and a lens enables the observer to distinguish that they belong to species of Rotifera of the Vermes. But the most numerous of the dwellers in the water are either, in a few instances, just visible to the unassisted eye, or are to be seen in countless numbers with the aid of high magnifying powers under the compound microscope. Amoeba and Gromia, minute Rhizopoda, may be found on the weed or on the glass which contains the water, and little moving things are visible which the botanists state are of the nature of vege- tables, such, for instance, as the globe-like Volvox. But besides Crustacea, Insecta, Vermes, and Rhizopoda, and vegetable organisms, there are thousands of microscopic, or nearly micro- scopic, animals, which are called Animalculse, or little animals, and also Infusoria, or animals which live in infusions. Suppose that some sea-water is collected, with a piece of seaweed in it ; after a few days a host of those minute microscopic animals will be found in the slime around the weed. On a warm summer evening, as darkness closes in, the ripples of the sea become luminous, and flashes of light start from one part of the harbour or coast-line, and stretch far and wide, expand- ing in ever-widening circles. This particular form of phosphorescence of the sea is due to the presence of myriads of minute animals, which do not belong to any of the groups of animals hitherto described in this work, and which must be ranged amongst the Infusoria. Again, discoloration of fresh and salt water often occurs, and it is found to be produced by crowds of microscopic creatures. In water which is brackish, in water which contains a considerable quantity of salt, in water which may be icy cold or very warm, and in water wliich is impregnated with foetid gas and decaying animal and vegetable remains, these simple, active, wandering, or sedentary microscopic creatures, which constitute the lowest forms in the animal kingdom, and which in some instances are separable only in a very arbitrary manner from the simplest and lowest members of the vegetable kingdom of nature, may be found in abundance. Place some of the pond water, deprived of its visibly living and moving things, under a microscope with a low power, or such an one as will magnify about forty times : minute bodios, hitherto invisible, are seen moving rapidly across the field of vision (Fig. 1), sometimes rushing across, so that only an indefinite idea can be gleaned of their shape; or 283 1. — INFUSORIA INT THE FIELD OF THE MICKOSCOl'E. 354 NATURAL HISTORY. going along more slowly, either steadily or turning over from side to side, and screwing themseh7es, as it were, forwards. Sometimes a dozen or more will come within the range of vision, and twist and turn in every direction, and suddenly rush oft', moving so as not to come in collision. Occasionally a globular-shaped thing will come by and stop, and just as suddenly will leap, as it were, in the water, and go right out of sight. Now and then a great current of water appears to be in motion, near the side of the field of vision, and if the slide holding the water be moved, so as to bring it beneath the eye, some balls, like specks, are seen united to delicate stems. They produce much movement in the water, and are suddenly dragged back- wards towards their fixed point. Here and there, settled down and resting on a kind of stem, some pear-shaped things may be seen, with delicate hairs sticking out from their ends. A still higher power of the microscope, which will magnify from 300 to 1,000 times, enables other and smaller creatures to be seen, and renders the minute structures, of the larger, visible and capable of study. Amongst the smaller ones are little bag- shaped things, with one or two hair-like projections — the cilia which keep them in movement — and in places here and there are multitudes of little moving things, mere lines of matter, with an end produced into a hair-like tail or flagellum. These are amongst the simplest of living things, and may be animal or may belong to the lowest plants. The microscope reveals, amongst the larger kindsx. that they move in consequence of the vibration, or to-and-fro movement of microscopic cilia, and that the kinds which are stalked can be retracted by the contraction of a granular tissue resembling the simplest form of muscle. If lately-collected rain-water is examined in the hope of discovering any of these miimte forms of life, disap- pointment will occur. But if some hay, or any vegetable matter, be allowed to soak in pure water exposed to the air, or if pieces of flesh, brain, blood, or any animal substance, be placed in water, and also exposed for a day or two, a great many species of these aiiimalcules, or Infusoria, the individuals being in vast multitudes, will be distinguishable. Certain kinds of these animalcules are almost invariably to be found in water in which particular vegetable or animal substances have been soaked, and a succession of kinds is often observed to occur as the infusion gets old. The free access of air is requisite for all this, and the hay and animal substances form the food of the minute creatures, whose derivation is not from the minute structures or broken-down tissues of the plant or animal. The air contains the extremely minute spores, or reproductive particles, whence the animalcules spring. There is no spontaneous generation of these animalcules, and no turning of dead animal or vegetable tissue into them. The term Infusoria, or animals of infusion, merely relates to where they are to be found in most instances, but not invariably, and it must be carefully noted that the animalcules are not derived from the infusions. Certain infusions suit particular kinds of Infusoria, and these particular species are to be found in them. The Infusoria are exceedingly simple in their construction, may be said to be uni-cellular, and are allied, as Protozoa, to the Rhizopoda. There is this distinction, however, that whilst the majority of the Infusoria move actively, and a great number are sedentary, or move during some part of their life-cycle, they rarely have silicious or calcareous tests,* and the pseuclopodia, which sometimes exist, never run together as they do in Gromia and Amoeba amongst the Rhizopoda. The body is usually soft, and there are one or more contractile vesicles. A nucleus exists, and there are vacuoles which contain food. The outside of the body is ciliated in a great number, has but one or two long cilia in front in others, and one group has no cilia, but tubular processes project from the more or less pear-shaped body, and really act as suckers. The following are examples of the four great divisions or orders of the Infusoria. * Haeckel has described some with tests. Fig. 2. — PAHAMECIUM AURELIA. 4, Lateral, n, ventral surface ; c, in conjugation ; cv, contractile vesicle, n, nucleus; b, oral aperture. STRUCTURE OF I HE INFUSORIA. 355 Fig. 3.— CEBCOMOXAS TYPICA. (Saville Kent.) A, Adult; u— l, different stage? in the development. (After Dalliiiger ana Drysdale.) Pond water and artificial infusions of hay yield, as a rule, considerable numbers of a rather large animalcule, which may be from ^th to T?roth of an inch in length. They are free swimmers and long- bodied, being narrowish and bluntly pointed at one end, and more sharply at the other. They are flat also, and there is a groove in the body extending from the left side of the front part of the body back- ward and underneath to about the middle. They are about four times as long as broad, and their shape has given them the name of Slipper animalcules (Fig. 2).* They are not quite symmetrical fore-and-aft, and the back and ventral surface can be distinguished. The whole of the body is covered with a fine down of cilia of nearly or quite equal size throughout, which vibrate with considerable rapidity, enabling the animal to move here and there rapidly, to turn round on its axis, to swim backwards and forwards, and even to turn like a screw on its long axis, throwing the under part up and over, to replace the back in its original position. As these animalcules, which have a yellowish-brown tint by transmitted light, move vigorously along, they rush over the field of the microscope and re-enter, and should there be a collection of vegetable mucus, numbers will come together and push in and amongst it, passing here and there, but never brushing up against one another, so as to come into collision. It is evident that they have some power of slightly altering the shape of the body, and that the slit on the underside has to do with the inception of food. The cilia, when the animal is moving or comparatively still, form currents in the water, and those in the neighbourhood of the slit produce whirlpools, down which rush minute particles of food. These pass down the slit, and enter the body at a kind of mouth, and they there come in contact with the soft inner substance composing the animalcule, and sink into it, being surrounded by a drop of water. Several of these morsels of food are to be seen lying in clear spaces filled with water or food vacuoles, and as the whole of the soft internal structure tends to move in an amoeboid kind of manner, the vacuoles change their places. This gaA'e rise to the false idea that the Infusoria were many-stomached, or " polygastrica." In this internal substance, or endoplasm, some other things are to be seen. Firstly, there is an oval body with a small dark spot in it, the nucleus or endoplast, and the nucleolus or endoplastule ; secondly, there are two spots, one close to either end of the body, which gradually become more visible and transparent, and suddenly shut up and disappear. They are the contractile vesicles, and it is commonly observed that, if the animalcule is subjected to any pressure, these light spots present rays passing from them into the endoplasm, so as to assume a stellate appearance. The opening and closing of these vesicles are very regular. There is a most delicate tissue covering the whole animalcule, and another from which the cilia spring. They are elastic, and appear to be endoplasm in a less watery condition. They form the ectoplasm. Between these layers and the minutely-granular endoplasm is one of exceedingly delicate rod-like bodies arranged point outwards, and they are called trichocysts. The animalcule evidently respires through its outer ciliated coat, takes in food through the mouth at the bottom of the slit, has several food vacuoles, which finally come near the surface skin, and dis- chai-ge the undigested matters. As the food, consisting of minute spores and animal and vegetable matters, is digested, the protoplasm of the body is added to, and the circulation and removal of effete matters are in relation to the contractile vesicles. The creatures languish if the water remains too long without exposure to air, but otherwise their movement appears to be constant. Occasionally two will approach and cling together by their oral or ventral surfaces, and it is occasionally noticed that a large individual contracts midway and finally separates into two. If watch be kept long enough, the animalcules will be noticed to become quiet, to take on a globular form, and to have the ectoplasm dense and non-ciliated. Sooner or later the globe will burst, and a host of minute moving things will come forth, each of which is a young animalcule. Paramechnit aurelia. 356 NATURAL HISTORY. This is a common instance of the order of the class Infusoria, called, from the body being more or less covered with cilia, the INFUSORIA CILIATA. The highest powers of the microscope, and glasses possessing very perfect defining qualities, are requisite in order that the next type of Infusoria may be seen perfectly. The little creatures are free swimming, and the body is long, egg-shaped more or less, but it has a projection so as to render it more or less spindle-shaped or fusiform. In front, there is a single filament prolonged from the body like a very large cilium, and a longer one, about twice the length of the body, projects behind. These are the flagella. There is a single minute contractile vessel in the body on one side, and the nucleus or endoplast is spherical, and near the centre of the animal. There is no mouth or special aperture for food, and there are no cilia on the soft external part, which barely differs from the inner mass of the minute body or endoplasm. Only measuring from o-^nnyth to — ^th of an inch in length, these minute Infusoria are found in vegetable infusions. They swim freely by means of their long flagella, and also crawl over substances very much after the fashion of Amrebse. It may happen that one may be seen larger or broader than the others, and, after a while, the observer is repaid by seeing the body Fig. 4. GENERA OF CILIO-FLAGELLATE INFUSORIA. A, Mulodiniuni iibcrriraiim : B, Glenodinium acumiuatum : c, Diplopsalis lenticnla: D, Gymnodiniura spir.ile: E, Ceratium tripos; F. Peridiiiuim tabiilitura ; G, Ct'ratium loiigicorne; H, 0. fusus, I, Stephanomonas locellus ; J, Mitopuora dubia; K, Heteromastix i>roteiformis, L, Mallomonaa plosslli. split down its length, and two creatures swim off, each supplied with a front and rear flagellum. If two come in contact, they join together, like Amoeba, and after a while the mass loses its flagella, and a vast number of spores are formed out of the endoplasm. These escape, and gradually form into creatures like those which produced them. Exceedingly minute particles of food are taken in by the surface of the body at no particular spot, and the undigested matters simply pass through the endoplasm to the outside. This Infusorian is a Cercomonas* (Fig. 3), and is a fair example of the order called the FLAGELLATA. Members of this order are distinguishable — in some instances with difficulty— from moving spores of the lower plants, and indeed it is in this group that the junction of the animal and vegetable kingdoms is to be found. The Flagellata contain very simply-constituted organisms, and some which are less so, and of these last the phosphorescent marine Noctiluca is an example. Another type of Infusoria combines, as it were, the characters of the ciliated animalcules and those which have a flagellum. The kinds which are associated with it are mostly found in sea water, and in many parts of the globe. A few, however, are to be noticed in fresh water in the United King- dom. Thus, Professor Allman found enormous multitudes of an Infusorian about -g-^th to YoW^h of an inch long, of a reddish-brown colour, in the ponds in Phoenix Park, Dublin. It had an almost globular body, with a constriction or furrow running round the middle, and a groove passing from this furrow over the body to the top. The whole surface was covered with extremely delicate moving cilia, and a long, slender, active cilium or flagellum was found to be placed on the top in the groove. A large endoplast (nucleus) was in the centre of the animal, and just below the origin of the flagellum was a small, intensely red spot. A contractile vesicle occurs in this type. The brown colour of the ponds in * Cercomonas typica. ORDERS OF THE 1XFUSORIA. 357 1854 was owing to the presence of prodigious numbers of this species of Melodinium* (Fig. 4, A). The tint was sometimes uniformly diffused through the water, and at others was collected in dense clouds, varyin^ from a few to up wards of 100 sqxiare yards in extent. Later on, the coloration of the ponds, brought about by the agency of these minute organisms, had much increased in density. By the 9th of July the water was so dark and brown, that a white disc, half an inch in diameter, was invisible when plunged to a depth of from three to six inches ; while a copious exit stream, constantly flowing away from the ponds, presented a similar deep brown hue. In many places the animalcules had descended from the surface, and were found congregated in immense masses near the bottom of the water. In these instances they had, for the most part, become quiet ; the fiagellum and cilia had disappeared, and a kind of transparent tissue had been developed around each one. During the life of these curious animalcules the body divides across, and two individuals are formed ; and this proceeds time after time, adding rapidly to the numbers of individuals. Moreover, the encysted state is accompanied by a breaking- up of the internal protoplasm or endoplasm into numberless particles, each of which will grow into a form resembling the parent. In examining the phosphorescence of the sea, moderately large animalcules of T^jth of an inch long are occasionally seen. They are light- emitting, of a yellow colour, and have a remarkable shape and construction. An. external coat, transparent but hard, exists, and it covers the' soft structures. It is prolonged into a long horn in front and behind, and the body is nearly globular, with a depression around it, and a groove crossing this at right angles. The appearance is very peculiar. Cilia bound the depression, and a very long and delicate flagellum, which moves like the lash of a whip, starts from the groove. The long fore-and-aft projections are qxiite stiff, and the only mobile parts are the cilia and flagellum. This Infusorian belongs to the same order as the last, and to the genus Ceratiumt (Fig. 4, H). They are CILIO-FLAGELLATA. A very different kind of animalcule must be taken as the example of the next and last order of the Infusoria. If the surface of water-plants in the Birmingham and Stratford Canal, for instance, be observed, a fine Infusorian J_th to T^th of an inch in length may be seen fixed on a long stalk which is straight and stiff. The body, placed at the top, is contained in a cup-like sheath, with a triangular outline, widest where free, and where there is a slit which enables the endoplasm to communicate with the water outside. The endoplasm (finely granular) does not fill the cup, but collects in an egg-shaped mass which has a contractile vesicle, and the nucleus or endoplast is in the form of a band. There are neither cilia nor a flaifellum, but a bundle of numerous tentacles exists at both ends of the free end o " of the cup-shaped sheath, and they are processes of the body. The tentacles have a disc-like top, and do not move so as to enable the animal to swim. They are catchers of prey, and any small animalcule coming in contact with them is stopped, and its delicate tissue is penetrated by their sucker-like disc (Fig. 5) £. By-and-by the endoplasm of the victim is sucked out of it, and acts as the food of the catcher. The young of these stationary Infusorians are active, and move well and rapidly with the aid of cilia, and thxis resemble the Ciliate Infusoria. These Infusoria . ^ , _ constitute the order TENTACULIFERA. TUBEROSA, WITH There are, then, four great groups or orders of Infusoria typified by the TENTACLES EX- species of the genvis Paramecium, Cercomonas, Melodinium, and Acineta, and TRACTED. they constitute the orders Ciliata, Flagellata, Cilio-flagellata, and Tentaculifera, A host of species, included in numerous genera, is classified under each of these orders, and there is the greatest diversity of shape and of method of life amongst them ; but the main features and especial characters of the orders are so definite, that there is no difficulty in classifying any Infusorian, which has attained adult age, in its proper group. From their great vivacity of movement, their many varieties of cilia, the invariable existence of contractile vesicles, and endoplasts, and sometimes trichocysts, the Ciliata, or the Infusoria which move by and are more or less covered with cilia, strike the observer as of predominant zoological importance. They are clearly more highly organised than the Infusoria which have only flagella. And these last appear to be lower in the animal scale than, the creatures which have a few cilia, * .Melon, a peach ; dine, a vortex. f Cerutium fusus. + Acincta tulerosa (Ehrenberg). 353 NATURAL HISTORY. \ and a flagellum also. The fact that the Tentaculifera are totally unlike the other Infusoria in their adult age is very remarkable; but it is evident that before they attain maturity they resemble the Ciliata. New structures are thus, by evolution, given tp the Tentaculifera, and they have considerable affinities with the Rhizopoda. Their adult form is in advance of the ciliate young one, and the order Tentaculifera must stand at the head of the Infusoria. Next come the Ciliata, then the Cilio-flagellata, and, finally, the Flagellata. The Infusoria are uni-cellular, and this is true where there are two or more individuals in close contact, or where a common stem supports the bodies of others, which may be numerous. For in these instances subdivision of the parent has pro- duced the independent creatures. In the Tenta- culifera, however, the most highly-organised amongst the Infusoria, in the species called Dendrosoma radians (Fig. 6), there is a root com- mon to many trunks which give origin to branchlets terminating in a bundle of tentacles with suckers. This arrangement can hardly be called uiii-cellu- lar ; there is, however, no actual cell division, and indeed the ordinary idea of the single cell is hardly applicable to this and many other Infusoria. The simplest Infusoria belonging to the Flagel- lata, which have no special spot for the ingestion of food,* have 110 distinct environing membrane over their soft finely granular protoplasm, and they can assume various shapes for a while. Others belonging to the same group have the outside of the body slightly more solid than the rest. In the Ciliata the presence of an outer membrane is evident, and it is possible to distinguish, on some of them, four layers around the soft semi-fluid central endoplasm. On the outside is a perfectly transparent structureless membrane, and it is a true cuticle. It forms a sheath for the stalk of some Infusorians, and the covers or shields (lorica) of others (Fig. 7). It is composed of formed material, and is independent of the nutrition of the animal. Under the hyaline outer layer there is, without exception amongst the Ciliata, a firm homogeneous elastic and contractile layer, of which the cilia and their various modifications are the offshoots. They penetrate the outer layer and arise from this inner one. In some, but not all, of the Ciliata, there is a layer beneath this last one, which is more or less fibrillar, and highly contractile. It is the muscular, or myophan layer of Haeckel. In the genus Stentor (p. 367) it is highly developed, and it can be seen, by using high and well-defining powers, in the common Vorticella, in which it forms the central, or contractile, part of the stalk, and a thin layer con- tinuous with this is in the body. The fourth layer is not invariably found, but it has been already noticed in the description of a Paramecium. It produces and holds in place the minute rod-like bodies called trichocysts, which will be noticed farther on. These layers constitute the ectoplasm. The endoplasm, situated within the ectoplastic or outer layers, is more or less fluid, granular, and coloured glairy protoplasm. It is tolerably immobile in many Infusoria. In most it is subject to amoeboid movements, to a faintly -developed rotatory movement, and to what may be called streaming. In some instances the movement is strong, and resembles that of the cyclosis of plants, as in Yallisneria and Chara. Noctiluca, the phosphorescent flagellate Infusorian, has the endoplasm more or less in the form of a network, with vacuole spaces, and a quantity of granular substance, and this condition is seen in other forms. * Group Pantostumata. Fig. 6. — DEXUKOSOMA KADIANS. (After SavilleKenO a, Embryos escaping with cilia; ft. buds producing embryos like the parent ; st, stolon. Fig. 7. — TINTIN- KUS LAGE- NTJLA, SHOW- ING THE LO- RICA AXD THE CHOAVN OF CILIA. MATURE OF THE CILIA, FLAGELLA, AND TENTACLES. 359 \ The spaces occasionally seen in the endoplasm, and which transmit light more readily than the rest, are called vacuoles; they may exist as spaces filled with water, and usually they con- tain, besides the water, a greater or less portion of the vegetable or animal matter which has been introduced into the body as food. They must not be confounded with the contractile vesicle. Besides these, there is the nucleus or endoplast, which is surrounded, in part, by the granular semi- fluid endoplasm, and which is also in contact with the deeper layers of the ectoplasm. Colouring matter, diffused or localised, is seen in the endoplasm, and this inner pro- toplasm produces the minute particles or spores which escape and develop into new individuals. In all Infusoria, the cilia and their varieties, the flagella and the tentacles, are extensions of the substance of the body. In the minute flagellate animalcules the flagellum, which is an elongated whip-like cilium, is an extension of the delicate ectoderm : in the Ciliata the cilia arise from the special layer beneath the hyaline cuticle ; and the long suckers of the Tentaculate order are probably extensions of the same tissue. The cilia differing in dimensions and shape in some Infusoria are the minute hair or eyelash- looking vibratile appendages which mainly move their posses- sors, or produce currents in the water when the Infusorial! Fig. 8- — A> B> STYLONYCHIA MYTILTTS, SHOWING . /. T mi j.' 1 v i- CILIA, STYLES, AXD UNCIXI J C. EUROLEPTUS. is fixed. They appear to move actively in one direction, ,A ~ ; S(ein , and to return to their original position by their elasticity. The tops move forwards and backwards, and it is noticed in certain species that the ciliary lashing is consecutive in a series, and that it produces the appearance of rotation, as in the Rotifera (pp. 245-9). They are semi-solid and elastic, and they are moved by the contraction of the endoplasm at their base. The vibratile cilia are arranged in bands only, in certain families, and universally in others. Some Infusoria have some cilia which are elongate, flexible, but not movable, and they are then called setce ; and in one interesting genus (Halterui) these long hairs are utilised when the animal makes its sudden jumps. Some Ciliate Infusoria have these setae stout, and placed on the ventral, or under-snrface of the body, or at the extreme ends, and then they are called styles. In some instances the ends of the styles are branched or feathered. In a family of the Ciliata, the Oxytrichidse (p. 371), there are claw or sickle-shaped appendages, which are modified setse, called hooks, or uncini, and some of the species carry all these remarkable outer structures for the purposes of locomotion and pre- hension (Fig. 8). The body is, in some Infusoria, furnished with fin-like, thin, vibratile membranous fringes (Fig. 9), and in one important group of the Flagellata the collar of the animalcule, which exactly resembles that of the cell of the sponge, has its protoplasm in streaming movement, which carries the particles coming in contact with the outside over the top to the mouth within. The tentacles of the Tentaculifera resemble the pseudopodia of Rhizopods more or less ; some have a disc- shaped sucker at the top, and are hollow, being filled with semi-fluid endoplasm. A spiral fibre is seen on the outside of some tentacles, and in one family there are no terminal suckers. Whilst some Infusoria take in food at any part of their body, the morsel simply sinking into the soft protoplasm, and carrying with it a small quantity of water, forming thus a vacuole, in others it is carried in the direction of a particular orifice, slit, or tubular cavity, by currents in the water produced by certain cilia. In some species the mouth-opening is always visible, in others it is small, and only visible at the time of the capture of prey, and in a few it is so large that a morsel is often swallowed nearly as large as the captor. The mouth, in the most perfect forms, consists of a passage in the ectoplasm structures, which can dilate, and the lining of which is plaited, folded, and even furnished with a layer of rod-like teeth (Fig. 10). This part is often capable of protrusion, and on opening it leads to the exposed semi-fluid endoplasm, and not to anything like an oesophagus and stomach. The morsel simply sinks into the mass with a little water, and forms a vacuole. 9. — LEMltfS VELIFEK. 360 NATURAL HISTORY. Fig. 10. — A, PRORODON MARGA- RITIFER ; B, PHARYNGEAL ROD- FASCICLE OF; p. NIVEUS c, DITTO OF NASSULA. CD, contractile vesicle ; n, nucleus. One or more food vacuoles may exist, and as one is formed subsequently to the other, the oldest vacuole is the most deeply embedded, and if the animalcule be fed with carmine, a number will be noticed forming a series in the endoplasm, and moving with it. Much of the food thus received is digested, and the rest is evacuated in a definite direction, and sometimes through a special opening in the ectoplasm — the anus. In many species, however, the fiecal matters pass out at any point. When one of the Infusoria is lively and feeding, and is being examined under high powers of the microscope, one or more spots, with a circular or radiating outline, will suddenly appear near the ends of the body. Each begins in a point of greater transparency than the body structure all around it, increases rapidly in diameter, and often assumes a tinge of colour, retaining, how- ever, its transparency. It is a light-transmitting space, with the slightly denser structure of the inside of the animal around it. As the light from the reflecting mirror of the microscope traverses the tissue of the Infusorian at this now enlarged spot, it seems to be unsteady, and this depends upon water passing into this really globular space, which, seen under the microscope, presents the appearance of a circular area (Fig. 11, A, cv). It is evident that water flows into this space, which is situated really in the layer immediately over the soft endoplasm ; there is no environing membrane to it. Suddenly the circle of light closes in on its centre, and the appearance of a light point amongst the darker surrounding matter suddenly ceases. The tissue closes in on the space, moving in on all sides, and this is done not passively but actively, for in some instances a tremor can be seen to occur over the whole animalcule at the time of the contraction of the space. Moreover, although the space enlarges slowly, it contracts very rapidly, as a rule. If the Infusorian be kept for some time under observation, the absence of food and fresh water will begin to diminish its energies, and it will especially influence the rapidity of the dilatation and subsequent contractions of this space, which is termed a contractile vesicle. The appearance of the light spot is not so frequent ; it commences languidly, and enlarges slowly, and finally contracts, or disappears less abruptly than in the instance of the vigorous animal. After a while, the appearance and disappearance of the spot — or, in other words, the dilatation and contraction of the contractile vesicle — become slower and irregular, and they cease with the death of the animal. More than one contractile vesicle may exist in the same species, and their position in the body, although generally well defined, is not invariably in the same spot. Usually, the vesicles are nearer the ends of the body than the central part, and when they are fully dilated they occupy not only a portion of the body hitherto filled with endoplasm, but come close under the outer and denser tissue. In the in- stances where the contractile vesicle presents the appearance, under the microscope, of a circular space, no movement can be seen, in the vast majority of observations, to extend from it into the endoplasm during the active contraction or dilatation. The water contained in the vesicle must go somewhere, and must be derived either from within the body or from without, or perhaps from both directions. Occasionally, however, a very indistinct movement can be seen radiating, as it were, amongst the granular, or almost homogeneous protoplasm of the animal, subsequent to an active contraction of the space. No visible movement accompanies the infilling. There are many Infusoria, such as the species of Paramecium, in which the contractile vesicle, when fully expanded, is not limited 11. — A, DIAGRAM OF VORTICELLA NEBULIFERA; B-T), PHASES OF LONGITUDINAL FISSION ; E-F, PHASES OF ATTACHMENT, AND G-H, OF INCORPORATION* OF FREE EMBRYO OF V. MARINA (After Greeffe) ,' I, ENCYSTED STAGE OF V. MICROSTOMA. d, disc: p.peristorae: teryx, The, III. 236, 250 Aquatic or Marine Carnivora, II. 209—244 ; anatomy of the, 209—211 Aquez paliu, IV. 266 Arab Horse, The, II. 306, * 307 Arabian Camel, The, III. 73 Aramus, The, IV. 168 Arc, The, V. 240 Arctic Fox, II. 159 Puffin, IV. * 217 Tern, IV. 205 Argali, The American, III. 9 Argonaut, The, V. 155, 156, 158, 161 (see Paper Nautilus) ; fossil species, 157 Argulus, The, VI. 217 Argus, The, VI. 269 — Pheasant, IV. 131, *132, 133,134 Arid Gazelle, III. 14 Armadillo Family, III. 181— 190; skeleton of the Arma- dillo, * 182 ; skull, * 182 ; brain *183 Armadillo, The Great, III. 183 ; bones and claw of, * 181 Armed Bullhead, V. 96 • Calamary, V. 169 or Mailed Gurnard, V. 96, *97 Army-worm, The, VI. 79 Ami, The, III. 33 Arthropoda, The, V. 1£3, 281, 282, 288 ; concluding remarks on, VI. 221—223 Arthropods, VI. 157, 158, 170, 174 Artillery Beetle, V. 305, 309, 312 Ascalabotes, The, IV. 287—290 Ascidians, V. 112, 252—256 Ascon Calcisponge, Plate 71 Asiatic Civet, II. 89 Golden Plover, IV. 171 Rhinoceroses, II. 330—333 • Scaly Ant-eaters, III. 174 Slow Lemuroids, I. 245 — 248 — Tapir (see Indian Tapir) Asiliform Flies, VI. 86—88 Ass, The, II. 309—312 ; the Do- mystic, * 310 ; the Abyssinian Wild Ass, * 312 Assapan, The, III. 90 Asterids, VI. 265—269 Atlas Moth, VI. 60, 66 Augur Buzzard, III. 274 Augur-shell, The, V. * 201 Auk, The, IV. 214—222 Aulostome, The, VI. 243 Aiu-och, The, III. 35 Australian Bee-eater, III. * Sol — Cinnamon - breasted King- fisher, III. 350 Cuckoo Shrikes, IV. 30 Flower-pecker, IV. 84, * 85 Horseshoe Bat, I. 285 Lizards, IV. * 296, 297 Megapode, IV. 150, * 151, 154 Sea Lion, II. 226 Water Rat, III. 231 Wild Dog, II. 148 Avicularia of Bryozoa, V. 275 Avahi, The, I. 221 Avocet, The, IV. * 167 Axis Deer, III. 59, Plate 26 Axolotl, The, IV. *374, 375 376 NATURAL HISTORY. Aye- Aye, The, I. 214, 235, 250— 256 ; hand and foot bones, * 256 ; skull, * 257 Azara's Agouti, III. * 140, 141 Fox, II. 157 Op' ssuni, III. 221 Azure Blue Butterfly, VI. 45 Babbling Thrashes, IV. 44, 46 Babirusa. The, II. 343, *345 Baboon, The, I. * 4 ; the Sacred, 136, Plate, 5 Baboons, J. 129—163; their brute-like characteristics, 133 Bactrian Camel, III. * 75, 76 Badger, The American, II. 195 ; the Common, II. 194, Plate 19 ; parasites, VI. 100 Badger-dogs, II. * 142, 143 Baker's Antelope, III. 28 Bald-headed Brachyure, I. 193 —195 Baleen, Position of, * 282 ; struc- ture of, * 263 Ball Armadillo, III, 187, * 188 Ballan Wrasse, V. 75 Baltimore Oriole, I V. 99, Plate 39 Banana Quit, The, IV. 81 Banded Caiman, IV. 269 Gymuogene, III. 268 Myrmecobius, III. 211, 212 Perameles, III. * 210 Band-fish, The, V. 98 Bandicoot, The, III. 209, 225 Rat, III. 110, 281 Bangsrings, The, I. 347—350, 383; the Ferruginous, 349; the Short- tailed, 350 Bank Martin, IV. 209 Vole, III. 116 Banting, The, III. 34, 35 Barasingha, The, III. 55, 56, 59, 68 Barb, The Arabian, II. 306, 307 Barbary Ape, I. 114, 123, * 125, 206 Deer, III. 49, 55, 56 Wild Sheep, III. 9, * 10 Barbastelle, The, I. » 263, 295 Barbel, The, V. 11, 125, 127, 12S Barbet, The, II. 135 Barbets, III. 341—343 Bare-necked Crow, IV. * 17 Bark-beetle, The, V. 298 Bark Bugs, VI. 108 Barking Squirrels, III. 94 Barn Owl, III. 299, 305—308 Barnacles, VI. 196, 219 Barren-ground Bear, II. 167 Caribou, III. 68 Barrigudo, The, I. 171, 203 Bar-tailed Godwit, IV. 164 Basilisk, The, IV. 280, * 281 Basilosaurus, The fossil, II. 248 Basket-fish, VL 269 Basking Shark, V. 30 Bass, The, V, * 79 Bastard Hartebeest, III. 24 Bata?ur, The, IV. 253 Bateleur Eagle, III. 265, 284, *285 Bat Lice, VI. 98 Bath Sponge, The Common, VI. 312, * 313, 314, 316, 317, 331 Batrachia, The, V. 6, 8 Batrachians, The, IV. 342, 344; anatomy of the, 345, 346 without tongues, IV. 349— 351 ; with tongues, 351—368 Bats, I. 259—341 ; proper posi- tion in Nature, 259, 260; structure of the, 261 ; Spal- lanzani's experiments on, 262 —264 ; table of the classifica- tion of, 340 Battel's account of the Pongo, or Gorilla, I. 7 Battue of Bats, I. 265 Bay Antelope, III. 19 — Cat, II. * 58, 59 Monkey, I. 102 Baya Weaving Bird, IV. 101— 103, Plate 40; nest, IV. * 101 I Beagle, The, II. 133 Beaked Insects, VI. 101—118 Lizards, IV. 2;X> — Mites, VI. 181 Bear Animalcules, VI. 160, 185 — family, II. 163-176; feet of, * 165 ; skull, * 165 Monkeys, I. 185, 197, 198 — • Monkey tribe, I. 243—245 — , The Black, II. 167 , The Brown, II. 165, * 166, 167 Bearded Eagle, or Lammer- geier, III. 277—280, IV. * 252 ; capture of a child by the, 278 ; the African species, 280 Ophidium, V. 65 Partridge, IV. 145 Beardless Ophidium, V. 58 Beatrix Antelope, III. 28 Beaumaiis Shark, V. 29 Beautiful Yellow Uuderwing Moth, VI. 65 Beaver, The, III. 97, * 98, 99— 101 ; brain of, * 84 ; molar teeth, * 97 ; their habitations, 99—101 ; fossil species, 152 Beche de Mer, VI. 271 Bechsteiu's Bat, I. 307 Bed Bug, VI. * 107, 109 Bedeguar galls of the briar, and the Gall-flies, VI. 4, *5 Bee, The, V. 286, 289, 296, 297, 339, 315, 346,354, 356, 359—370, VI. 94; nervous system of larva, and of perfect Bee, V. * 290, * 291 ; sex, 357 ; mouth, 359; head, *359; hive, 360; cell- structure, 361, 362; honey- comb, * 361 ; under-surface of Bee, * 361 ; transformations of the Bee, 363; swarming, 364 Bee-eaters, III. 344, 360, IV. 240 Hawk Moth, VI. 55 — Louse, V. 365, VI. 98 Beech Marten, II. 185 Beef-eaters, IV. 103, 105; the African, * 105 Beef Tape-worm, VI. 255 Beetle, Anatomy of a, V. * 281 ; structure of, 284 ; sounds emitted by, 298 Beetles, V. 281, 289, 292, 293— 352, VI. 87, 94, 183 , with five-jointed tar?i, V. 300—335 Beggar's Crow, IV. 14 Behemoth, The, II. 319 Beisa, The, III. 2S Belanger's Baugsriug, I. 349 — Monkey, I. 117, 123 Belemnites, V. 156, 174, * 175 ; restored fossil species, 175 Bell Animalcules, VI. 368, * 369 — Bird, IV. 117 — Moths, VI. 68 Bell-flower animal. V. 276 Bellows-fish, The, V. 103, * 101 Belted Kingfisher, III. 349 Beluga, The, II. 260 Bengal Bulbul, IV. 40 Vulture, bones and tail, IV. * 237 Bennett's Gazelle, III. 14 Berg Adder, IV. 315 Berlin Aquarium, Orang-utan and Chimpanzees in the, Frontispiece to Vol. I. Peroe, The, VI. 277, * 278, 280 Bezoars, I. 91 Bhunder, The, or Rhesus Monkey, I. 119, *1£0; anec- dotes of, 121, 122 Big-en red Bat, I. 296 Big-Horn, The, III, 9 Biinaculate Sucker, V. 104 Binturong, The, II. * 94, 95, 179 Bipinnaria, Definition of, VI. 262, 264 Bird-lice, V. 295 Birds, III. 235— IV. 240; sti-uc- ture of a Bird's wing. III. 237 ; bones of wing, * 237 ; feathers of wing, 23, 13,94; skull, *5; brain, *10; eyes, 11 fishery, V. 59, 60 , The, V. 53— 6J ; food of, VI. 217 ; parasites, 217 Whale, The, II. 267 Cceienterates, The, VI. 277 Coleoptera, (Beetles), V. 295, 296—352; character and ha- bits, 297 ; a Coleopterous in- sect, *281; stridulation, 298; fossil species, 299 escaping from a river-flood, V. 299, * 301 Colewort Bug, VI. 104 Collared Bat, I. 321, * 322 ; head of, * 321 Fruit Bat, I. 268, * 270 Hedgehog. I. 357 Monads, Plate 72 Peccary, II. 347 Sloth, III. * 164 Colley, The, II. 120, 138 Colocolo, The, II. 55 Colorado Potato Beetle, V. 348, VI. 56 Colubrides, The, IV. 327—330 Colugo, The, I. 344, *346, 347; hind foot of, *345; bones of hind foot, * 345 ; lower in- cisors of, * 346 ; skull of, * 347 Columbatsch Fly, VI. 83 Coly, The White-backed, III. 33 J , The Chestnut-backed, III. 333 Comma Butterfly, VI. 37. * 38 Common Ameiva, IV. * 277 Baboon, I. 150-154 ; typi- cal specimen, * 153 Badger, II. 121, Plate 19 Bat, I. 305 Beaked Whale, II. 252 Blue Butterfly, VI. 45 Jay, IV. 16 Brown Bear, II. 165, * 166, 167 Common Buzzard, III. 274, * 275 ; tarsus, * 274 Chamffileou, IV. 291, * 292 ; head of, * 291 ; effect of lamp- light and sunlight on the, * 293 Chinchilla, III. * 139 ; molar teeth, 139 Cockroach, VI. 133 Crab, V. 52 Crane, IV. 175—178 Creeper, IV. 71, * 72 Crocodile, IV. 264 Curlew, IV. 162, *1>4 — Cuttle-fish, V. 175, » 176 ; brnuchne and hearts of, * 177 ; ink-bag, 174, 171 ; eggs, 179, *180 Dab, VI. 71 — Dolphin, II. 259 East Indian Gecko, IV. 290 Edible Crab (see Crab) Emu, IV. 233, * 234 — English Snake, IV. 327 Fantail Warbler, IV. 55— 57 Flea (see Flea) Fly, V. 153 Flycatcher, IV. 31 Fox, II. * 158 • Frog, IV. 347, 351, *352, 353 Gaunet, IV. 198 Gnu, III. 25 — Gold Wasp, V. 384 — Golden Tree Fro,?, IV. 364 — Grey Mullet. V. 101 Wolf, II. 151 — Gudgeon, V. 123 — Guillemot, IV. 215, *216 Gull, IV. 207 — Hare, III. 147, * 148 — Harrier Eaale, III. 284 Herou, IV. 178— Is3 Hyla, IV. 382 — Indian Fruit Bat, I. 263 Toad, IV. 361 Jackal, II. 157 Jackdaw, IV. 6, *7 Jay, IV. 14, * 15 — Kestrel, III. 294, * 295 — Kingfisher, III. 344, * 345 - 347 Kite, III. 288. * 289 Lizard, IV. 273 ; skeleton, *274 Lobster, VI. 204, * 205 Lynx, II., 71. * 72 — Magpie, IV. * 1, 13 Marmoset, 1. * 197, 199 — Mole, I. * 367— 372; denti- tion of, *368; fore-limbs, *368; sternum, * 368. 369; fortress, "370; habits, 369— 371 Mouse, III. 108 Nuthatch, IV. * 69, 70 Octopus, V. * 159, Plate 54 (see Octopus). — Opossum, III. 220 — or Ringed Snake (q.v.) — '— or Viviparous Lizard, IV. 273; skeleton, *274; skull, *274 — Otter, II. 198—201, 209 — Paradoxure, II. 93, * 24 Partridge, IV. 145, * 146 Peccary, II. 347 — Pelican, IV. 201, * 202 Pheasant, Plate 41 — - Pocket Gopher, III. 122 Porpoise, II. 256, * 257 — Puffin, IV. 218 — Quail, IV. * 148 — Rattlesnake, IV. 316, * 317 Raven, IV., 4, * 5 Rhea, IV. 232, Plate 43 — River Crayfish, VI. 206 — • Horse (see River Horse) Roller, III. 364 Rook, IV. * 3 ; head of, * 2 — Rorqual, II. * 267 Salmon, V. 113 Sandpiper, IV. 164 — Pea Bream, V. 82 Seal, II. 210, 212, 232, 233, 238 ; teeth of, * 232 Common Shore Crab (see Shore Crab) Shrew, 1. 376, Plute 12 ; dentition of, I. * 377 — Mole, I. 373 Skiuk, IV. * 295, 296 — Skunk, II. 196, * 197 — Smooth Newt, IV. 371 — Sole, V. 72, 73 Sparrow-hawk, III. 272 — Squid, V. 166, * 167 Squirrel, III. * 86, 87, 88 — Starling, IV. 103, * 1J4 — Sturgeon, V. * 45, 43 Sun-fish, V. 52 Swallow, IV. 92, * 83 — Swift, III. 372, * 373 Teguexin, IV. * 276 — Tern, IV. 204, 205 — Toad, IV. 358, 359, 360, *361 — Topaz Hamming Bird, III. *379 — Tree Kangaroo, III. 198 — Trout, V. 115, 116, Plate 52 — Turkey, IV. 138 Wasp, V. * 355, 371 Water-hen, IV. 159 Weasel, II. 186, * 187, 183 ; skeleton, * 182 Whelk, V. 194, 195, * 193 • Wild Cat, II. 59, * 61 Duck, IV. 194 — - Wolf, II. 150, * 152 Wood Shrike, IV. 29 Wren, IV. 46, 47, * 48 Yellow Ant, V. 316 Concave Hornbill, III. 354 Concolorous Hedgehog, I. 357 Condor, The, III. *262 Cone-shells, V. 201, 203, Plate 55 Cones and Volutes, Plate 55 Coney, or Cony, The, II. 293 ; III. 148 ; the Bible, II. 292 ; the Cape, 292 ; skull of, * 2'J4 ; dentition, * 294 Conger Eel, V. 5, 7, 27, 94, 141, * 142, 163 Congo Snake, IV. 377 Connemara Sucker, V. 104 Conures, The, III. 313 Convolvulus Hawk- Moth, VI. 30 Cook's Otary, II. 226 — Phalanger, III. 225 Cook Wrasse, V. 75 Coot-footed Stints, IV. 166 Coots, IV. 160; the Coot, 153, 159, *161; foot of a Coot, *160 Copepod, The, VL 217 ; nauplius stage of a, * 216 Copper Butterflies, VI. 44 headed Snake, IV. 319, *320 Coquerel's Cheirogale, I. 235 Coquetoon, The, III. 18 Coral, The, V. 153, 190, 270, VI. 295—311 ; how produced, 29" -billed Nuthatch, IV. 69 — Elaps. IV. * 310 Cordate Leaf Bat, I. 289 ; head of * 289 Cordylus, the Gigantic, IV. £98 Corkwing, 1 he, V. 75 Cormorant, The, IV. 182, 189, 195, 198, * 200, 201, V. 72 Corn Crake, IV. 103, 158, * 158, 159 Cornish Sucker, V. 104 Corn Thrips, VI. * 146, 147 Coromandel Bat, I. 332 Cotinga, The, IV. 117 Coua, The Crested, III. 325 Coucal, The, III. 324 Couch's Sea Bream, V. 82 Whiting, V. 61 Couendou, The, III. 135 Couiy, The, III. 135, 136 Counsellor Seal, II. 226 " Countryman Crab," VI. 201 Coursers, The, IV. 172, 174 Couxio, The, I. 192, * 194, :IOi Cow Bird, IV. 99, * 100 — Blackbird, IV. 83, 99 Cowled Seal, II. 226 Cowries, V. 202, 203 Coyote, The, or Prairie Wolf, II. 154, * 155 Coypu, The, III. *131 Crab, The, V. 2, VI. 197—234, 203 * The Common Edible, VI. 189, 190, 192, 193—196; side view of, * 192 ; eggs (enlarged), * 193 ; gastric teeth, * 193 ; metamorphoses, * 194 Spider, VI. 172, 173 eating Dog, II. 157 - — Opossum, III. * 221 222 ; skeleton, ° 220 Racoon, II. 178 Seal, II. 243 — Mungoos, II. 03 Craig Fluke, V. 72 Crakes, IV. 158 Cramp-fish, The, V. 39 Crane Flies, VI. 78 Cranes, IV. 175-178 Demoiselle, C1 owned, and Common, IV. * 177 Crassicorn Anemone, VI. 303 Cray-fish, VI. 204— 2u8 — The Common River, VI. 206 — , The River, VI. 207 Cream-coloured Courser, IV. 172, 174 Creepers, IV. 2, 71—73 Crested Anolis, IV. 280 Coua, III. 325 Curassow, IV. * 129 Eagles, III. 284 Grebe, The Great, IV. •220 222 Hornbill, III. 3Z3 — Humming Bird, III. * 380 Screamer, IV. 192 — Seal, II. 238, * 239 ; teeth of, *240 Cricket, The, V. 288, 289, VI. 121—124 — , Field, VI. * 122, 123 — , House, VI. 122, m , The Mole, VI. 123, * 124 Wood, VI. 123 Criuoicls, The, VI. 260, 261, 262, 263, 273, 275, 276 Crocodi e, The, IV. 262 ; tooth of, *263; the Nile, 262. 254, 266, Plate 46 ; other species, IV. 264- 266; skull, * 27o — family, IV. 262—266 Crossarchus, The, II. * 207 Crossbills, IV. *98; Long- fellow's lines on the legend of the, 99 Cross-fish, The Common, VI. * 266. 267 Crow, The Hooded, IV. 7, * 8 like Birds, IV. 2 Shrikes, IV. 28 Crowned Monkey, I. 94, *96 Nerite, V. 218 Pigeons, IV. * 127, 128 Crows.lV. 1—20 Crucian Carp, V. * 126, 127 Crumb of Bread Sponge, VI. 327 Crustaceans, V. 112, 115, 117 Cryptoprocta family, II. 84 — , The, II. 84, 24 Ctenoid scales, V. *9 Cuba Crocodile, IV. *265, 236 Cuban Mastiff, II. 143 Cuckoo Bees, V. 36J Doves, IV. 125 Falcons, III. 290 ; various species, 291 Ray, V. 42 Shrikes, IV. 28, 30 spits, VI. 114 — , The Common, III. 3 >9, 325, * 326, 327, 328, IV. 92, 99 Cuckoos, The, III. 334 Cuckoo's Mate, III. 334 Cud, Chewing the, III. 1, 2, 3 Cup and Saucer Limpet, V. 213 "Cup Shrimps," VI. 208 Cur, The, II. 138 Curassow, The Crested, IV. * 129 — , The Mountain, IV. 129 Curlews, IV. 162, * 164 Curlew Sandpiper, IV, 166 Curl-footed Crustacea, VI. 218 —220 ; larval forms of, * 220 IXJJL'X TO POPULAR NAMES. 379 Currant Clear-wins Moth, VI. 5" Curtiro, The, III. 13 ) C.-scus, The, III. 2 i4. *2'"i5, 2i5 Cuttle-fish, The, V. 85, 153, 154, 155, 162, 165, 175, * 176, 23 J; uiufiutic species o'', * 172, 173 " Cut-worms," VI. 30, 64 Cuvier's Chinchilla, III. 139 — Fury Bat, I. 313 — Wi,ale, II. 251 Cycle lus, The Great, IV. 297 — The Black-aud- Yellow, IV. 297 Cycloid scales, V. * 9 Cyclo^is, Definition of, VI. 333 Cylinder-shell, The, V. 222 Cyirctis, The, II. 207 Cynocephali, or True Baboons, 1. 123, 130, 159 ; specimen from the Egyptian inonumeuto, i ;l Cynogile, The, II. 203 Cynomorpha sub-family, The, I. 84, 161—163; oue of the— the Baboon, * 4 Cyprides, The, VI. 216 Cyrombo Roller, III. 3'34 D Dab, The, V. 71 ; various species. 67. 71 — , The Rough, V. 67 Dabb, or Dhobb, The, IV. 284, *286 Dabchick, Th», IV. 219 Daboia, The, IV. 315, 313 Dnce, Th3, V. 125, 130 Dachsho ml, or Badgsr-dog, II. * 142, 143 Dactylo'oMds VI. 292, 293 " Da Idv Long-legs," VI. lij, 78 1 aijy Anemone, VI. 30i D'Albertis' Paradise Birl, IV. 25 Dalmatian Doer, II 130 Diman, The, II. 292 Dark Arches Moth, VI. 64 Darjeeling Bat, I. 295 Darter, The, IV. 198, * 199, 200 Darwin's Rhea, IV. 2 :!2 Dasyure, The, or Tasnmniau Devil, II. 206, III. 212, * 213— 215 ; teeth, 214 ; brain, * 214; skull, *215; various species, 215 Dasyurus family, III. 211—215, 224 Date-shell, The, V. 240 Daubenton's Bat, I. 306 Davil's Deer, III. 49 — Muntjac, III. 63 Davj'sBat, I. 330 Day Flies, VI. 141, 142; Lirva and pupa, * 143 Dead Man's Fingers, VI, 310 Deal-fish, V. 107 Death Adder, IV. 310 Death's-head Hawk-Moth, V. 365, VI. 29, 30, 56, »57; chry- salis of, * 53 ; caterpillar of, '57 Death-tick, The, V. 298 watch, The, VI. 140 De Blaiuville's Ai, III. 165 Decapods, V. 165—183 Deductor, The, II. *255 Deer Tribe, The, III. 46—71 Deerhouud, The, II. 131 Deerlet (see Water Chevrotain). Deer Mouse, III. Ill Degu, The, III. * 121 Dekay's Shrew, I. 377 Delalaud's Frog, IV. 3.55 Demidoff's Galago, I. 237 Demoiselle, Crowned, and Coin- rnon Cranes, IV. * 177 Derbian Screamer, IV. 192 Desert Bat, I. 293, * 291 ; head of. * 290 — Chough, IV. 20 Snakes, IV. 326 Desmacidine Monaxouid, Plate 71 De=nian, The, I. 374-376, 382, 3S3 ; dentition of, 375 Desmodus, The, I. 326, 327, 337, * 339 ; stomach of the, * 340 Desinodouts, I. 328 Desmognath, The, IV. 373, 374 Devil-fish, or Octopus, V. 154, 156, 163 Devil's Coach-horse, V. 315 Fingers, VI. 267 — Hands, VI. 267 DeviUe's Midas, I. 202 Dew Worm, VI. * 225 Diadem Bat, I. 286; head of, *286 — Indris, I. 219, * 220, 221 Monkey, I. 107 Diamond Rattlesnake, IV. * 317 — Snake, IV. * 333 Diana Monkey, I. * 104, 107 ; face of the, * 105 — Diaphaue, Definition of, VI. 335 Diatoms, VI., 336 Digestive organs of Insects, V. 292, * 293 Dingo, The, II. 148, III. 124 Dingy Skipper Butterfly, VI. 53 Dmomys, The, III. 142 Diuosauria, The, IV. 338 Dinotherium, The, II. 273, 287, 291 Diodonts, V. 6, 52 Dipterous Flies, Plate 62 Jiisects, VI. *70 — Larvae, VI. * 72 Discodactyles, The, IV. 363—368 Discophora, Reproduction of, VI. * 282 Disc-shells, V. 267 Divers, IV. 214-222, V. 72 Diving Ducks, IV. 122, 195 — Petrels, IV. 208, 209 Dodo, The, IV. 121, * 122, 240 Dog family, II. 96—163 ; denti- tion of the Do.-, 97 ; skull, * 103 ; habits, 107 , The Domestic. II. 98—126 ; history, 99 ; origin of the Dog, 103 ; inherited instinct, 107 ; educated Dogs, 111 ; virtues and vices, 115 ; anecdotes of the Dog, 119—126 ; varieties of the Dog, 126; parasites. VI. 99 ; brain of the Dog, II. * 7 ; section through the nose, * 7 ; muscles of the head, *114 cat, II. 76 — -tish, V. 21, 26, 27, 32, 136, 163, VI. 200 Periwinkle, V. 197 Seals, II. 228 — Ticks, VI. 184 . Whelk, V. 195, 234 headed Jacare, IV. 270 Thylacinus, III. 215, *216; skeleton, *217 shaped Monkeys, I. 84 — 163 — Quadrumana, I. 161 Dogs of civilised nations, II. 130^145 of savage tribes, II. 130 Dolphins, II. 243, 255—259; shoal of, * 259 Domestic Cat, II. 61—70 ; teeth, * 62 ; skeleton, * 62 ; typical specimens, * 64, * 69 ; use of a Cat's whiskers, 65, 66 ; habits, 60 — 69 ; number of Mice caught by the, 70 — Cricket, VI. 121 Dog (see Dog) Goose, IV. 193 Hog, II. 342 ; head of the, *342 — Llama, III. 78 Sheep, III. 5-7 Sow and youns, II. * 341 Donovan's Orkney Seal, II. 238 Dorcas Gazelle, III. * 14 Dormouse Phalauger, III. 206 — , The, III. * 102, * 103 ; molar teeth of, * 102 Dory, The John, V. 86. * 87, 91 Dotted-jawed Jacare, IV. 270 Dottrell, The Ring, IV. 171 Double-flapped Box Tortoises, IV. 254 I Double-toothed Rodents, III. 85, 145—150 Done, Th°, I. * 93, 95 Douruocouli, The Red-footed, I. 185, * 190, 191, 203, 204 Doves, IV. 121—128 Dragonet, The, V. 98 Dragon-fly, V. i91. VI. 87, 118, 120, 142, 143—146 Leech, VI. 240 Dragons, IV. 282 Dray Horse, II. 396, Plat? 22 Drassides, The, VI. 173 Drill, The, I. 159, 160 Driver Ants, V. 382 Dromedary, The, III. 73 Drongo, Tne, IV. 2, 27 " Drummer," Tue, VI. 134 Du Ciiaillu on the Gorilla, 11— 16, 19, 22 Duck-billed Platypus, III. 227 229, 23i), * 2:53, 234, 238 ; jaws * 231 ; fore and hind foot * 23.i ; its various names, 230 Ducks, IV. 191, 194 Duck's-bill Limpet, V. 217 Dugong, The. II. 269 Duke of Burgundy Fritillary VI. 43 Dumont's Grakle, IV. 25 i>ung Beetles, VI. 184 Dunlin, The, IV. 165 Dusky Perch, V. 80 — Skulpin, V.93 — Wolf, II. 154 Duyker-bok, The, III. 18 Dwarf Cheirogale, I. 235 — ( lub-footed Bat, I. 302 Geese, IV. 193 Horseshoe Bat, I. 285 — Long-tongued Kruit Bat, I. 278 ; teeth, * 280 Snakes, IV. 331 E Eagle, The Imperial, III. * 235, 280 Owl, I. 356, III. 301—304, Plate 32 ; eye of, III. 280 — Bays, V. 44 Eagles, III. 277—287 ; skeleton of an Eagle * 241 ; eye. * 280 Eared Earth Shrew, I. 361 — Grebe, IV. 222 Seals, II. 209, 212, 217, 218 Vulture, III. 260 Enrless Seals, II. 209, 212, 231— 244 Ear-shell, The, V. * 215 Earth worm, The, V. 153, VI. 223. 224, *225, 227, 235, 246, 253 ; vegetable mould caused by, 226 Eirwig, The Common, VI. *135, 138 Earwigs, VI. 94, 121, 134—136 ; development of, V. * 288 East Indian Gecko, IV. 290 — Vipers, IV. 315 Echidna, The (see Porcupine Echidna) Echinodermata, The, V. 153, VI. 243, 259—276 Echinoderms, The, VI. 259— 276 Ecrosarc, Definition of, VI. 3:35 Edible Frog. IV. 353, * 354, 355 nest Swiftlets, III. 373, *375 Turtles, IV. 258, 259 Eel, The, V. 2, 6, 9, 10, 13, 15, 16, 140—143 Fft, The, IV. 370, 371 Egg of a Fowl, Section of, III. *252 Egret, The Great, IV. 184 , The Lesser, IV. * 183 Egrets, V. 183 Egyptian Bat, I. 31*5 Cat, II. 59, *60; mummy of, * 62 Fruit Bat, I. 274 ; dentition of, * 267 Egyptian monument. Judg- ment-scene from, I. * 132 — Rat, III. 10S — Rhinopome, I. 316; skull, * 316 — Trionyx, IV. 258 — Vulture, III. * 261, 277 • bill of, * 2.56 Eider-Ducks, IV. 192, 194, 204, 206 Eight-eyed I eet-h, The. VI. 243 Elaud, The, III. 21 Elaphine Deer, III. 49, 52 Elaphure, The Chinese, III. 64, *65 Elater Beetle, V. 332 ; jumping organ, * 332 ; preparing to spring, * 332 Eld's Deer, III. 49, 60 Electric Eel, V. 12, 139 — Ray, V. 39 Eledone, The, V. 158, 164 Elegant Hyla, IV. *363, 364 — Opossum, III. 223 or Starred Tortoise, IV. 250 — Tinamou, IV. 224 Elephant-beetle, V. 323, 326, 347 Hawk-Moth, VI. 56 — Seal, II. 232, 240, » 241 Shrew, I. 350, *351, ; sole of foot of, * 351 Elephants, II. 273—287; their thod of capture, 278, 280; hunting of the, 284, *285; shooting of, 286 ; attacked by the Rhinoceros, 330, 332; parasites, VI. 97 , Fossil, and their allies, II. 287—291 Eleuthert-.ra, The, I. 274 Elk, or Moose Deer, III. 49, 68 ; hunting of the, * 50, 52 ; young of the, »51 , The Irish, III. 79; skele- ton of, * 79 ; restored form of, *80 Elliot's Bangsr:ng, I. 349 Emballonurine Alliance of Bats, I. 312—340 — of the Micro- chiroptera, I 2tO Emerald Hummer, III. 379 Moths, VI. 67 Emperor Moth, VI. 25, 61, 62 Emu, The, III. 242, 248, IV. 233, * 234, 233 Emydes, The, IV. 243, 252—256 Encoubert, Cuvier's, III. 184 Endoplast, Definition of, VI. 332, 361, 362, 363 Endosarc, Definition of, VI. 335 Engeco, The, or Chimpanzee, I. 7 English Kestrel, IV. 35 — Terrier, II. 144 Entellus Monkey. I. 93, 94 Equal-footed Crustacea, VI. 210-213 Equine Antelope, III. 28 Ermine, The, II. 188, * 189 Eskimo Dog, II. * 105, 128—130 hunters waiting for a Seal, II. * 235 Ethiopian Wart Hog, IF. 345, * 346 ; dentition of, * 346 European Bison, III. 35, * 36 — Crakes, IV. 156 Flamingo, IV. 190 Honey-Kite, III. 289 Pigmy Owlet, III. 301 Pike, V. 120 — Titmice, Group of, IV. *•££ Exotic Rhynchota, Pl'ife 63 Extinct Amphibia, IV. 379 Chelonians, IV. 260, 261 Reptiles, IV. 333—341 — Sauria, or Lacertilia, IV. 339 Eye of the Lemuroid, I. 213, *214 Eyebrowed Brocket, III. 63 Lark-heel, III. 324 Eyed Jacare, IV. 270 380 NATURAL HISTOHY. Eyed Hawk-Moth, VI. * 56 Eyes of Insects, V. 291, * 293 Eye-sucker, The, VI. 218 Eyra, The, II. 56, * 57 Falconets, III. 291 Falcon-like Hawks, III. 264— 295 Falconry, III. 292 Falcons, III. 290—295 ; a hooded Falcon, *293; a Falcon's hood, * 293 Falkland Island Fur Seal, II. 228, * 229 Fallow Deer, III. 46, 49, *56, 57,68 False Scorpions, VI. 163 — Sea Leopard, It. 243 Fan Sabella, VI. 237 Fantail WarbVr, IV. 55, 57 Fautails, IV. 32—31 Fanillone Islands, Sea Li ns of the, II, * 223 Father Lasher, V. 87, * 95 Feather-stars, VI. 259> 263, 265, 273 ; sectional view of, * 274, *275 Female Gorilla, I. *9 Locust depositing eggs, VI. *127 Fennec, The, II. 160, * 161 Fer de Lance, IV. 319, * 321 Fern Owl, III. 372 Ferret, The, II. * 190, 191 Ferruginous Bangsring, I. 319; dentition of, » 3 18 "Fiddle-beetle," The, V. *306 Field Bugs, VI. 94 Cricket, VI. * 122, 123 Mouse, III 108, 110 Vole, III. 115 Wa?tails, IV. 78 Fieldfare, IV. 33, 40, 42 Fifteen-spined Stickleback, V. * 103, 104 Figaniere, M., and a battue of Bats, I. 2o4, 265 Fig-shells, V. 200 Fijian Long-toiigued Fruit Bat, 1.278 File-fish, V. 48 Finch-like Birds, IV. 77—100 Finches, IV. 77, 95—99 ; bill of Finch, * 95 Finfoots, IV. 162 Fin- Whales, II. 266 Fire-backed Pheasants, IV. 134 -bellied Toad, IV. *358 flame, The, V. 98 • fly, V. 332, * 333, 331 Fish Frogs, V. 16 Hawk, III. 255 Leech, V. 41 Lice, VI. 217, 218 Owl, The Indian, III. 330 Fishes, The Class, V. 1—149; structure of Fishes, 3 — 16 ; classification, 17 of ancient types, V. 18—47 with a circular mouth, V. 143—146 with bony scales, V. 21 — 24 with jaws in the throat, V. 74-78 with oblique mouth', V. 25—45 with the air-bladder open- ing into the mouth, V. 107 — 143 with thin hearts, V. 147 with tufted gills, V. 53—58 Fishing Eagle, III. 255 Frog, V. 41 Worm (see Lug-worm). Fissirostral Picarian Birds, III. 309,343—380 Fitchet, The, II. 193 Five-bearded Rocklin?, V. 64 -finger, The, V. 163, VI. 267 -fingered Jack, VI. 267 I Five-fingered Pangolin, III. 174, *175 Flamingo, The, IV. 190, *193; fossil forms, 240 Flat-fish, V. 14, 16, 36, 43, 107 head Fish, V. 20 -winged Neuroptera, VI. 9, 11—16 Worms, VI 225, 254—258 Flea, The, V. 295, VI. 73, 98— 101 ; metamorphoses of the, *99 Flesh Fly, VI. 95, 96 Flightless Goose (fossil), IV. 240 Florida Rat, III. 112 Shag, IV. 201 Flounder, The, V. 72, 87. 94 Flower-basket Sponge, VI. 318, * 319, 330 -beetles, V. 319, 326 -peckers, IV. 77, 84—86 Flukes (Worms), VI. 256 Flycatchers, IV. 27, 28, 30, 31, 46, 77, 115 Flying Cat-Monkey, I. 344 Fish, V. 2, 10, 13, 90, 123 Fox, The Indian, I. 266, 267, 268, 239—271, Plate 9; sternum, I. * 261 Gecko, IV. * 289, 290 Lemur, I. 341, 344-347 • Lizard, IV. 282, * 28J, 284 Phalanger, III. 207 Squirrels, III. 88, 89, * 90 — - Sword-fish, V. * 85 Footless Paradise Bird, IV. 22 Footmen Moths, VI. f 8 Foraminifera, VI. 345, 346—352 ; various forms of, * 248 ; fora- minif eral shells, * 34), * 350 Forest Fly, VI. 97 — Rat, III. 106 — scene in Madagascar, I. *253 Fork Beard, V. 62 Forked-crowned Cheiroga'e, I. *23i Hake, V. 62 -tailed Hawks, III. 283 Formosan Deer, III. 49, 57 Monkey, I. 117, 118 Forster's Shrew, I. 377 Fossil Ammonites, V. 188 Apes, I. 83 Bats, I. 341 — Beaver, III. 152 — Beetles, V. 299 — Birds, IV. 225, 238—240 — Bryozoa, V. 278 — Butterflies and Moths, VI. 69 — Carnivora, II, 204—206 — Crinoids, VI. 265 Crocodilia, IV. 270 Crustacea, VI. 207 — Cuttle-fish, V. 174 Diptera, VI. 73 — Echinoderms, VI. 264 — Edentata, III. 190 — Elephants, &c. , II. 287- 291 Equidse, II. 316 — Felidae, II. 10 — Fishes, V. 147—149 — Foraminifera, VI. 348, 349 Hippopotami, II. 359 Hogs, II. 347 Hydrozoa, VI. 294 — Hymenoptera, V. 358, 376 — Insectivorfl, I. 383 — Marsupials, III. 225 Monkeys, I. 204 Myriopoda, VI. 151 — Ophiurids, VI. 265 — remains of Monkeys, I. 101 Orang-utan, I. 66 Semnopitheci, I. 102 — Rhinoceroses, III. 321, 333, •334 Rhynchota, VI. 103 Rodentia, III. 151—157 (/or complete list fee the-e pages). Ruminantia, III. 70—80 — Sirenoids, II. 272 — Snakes, IV. a37. 338 Spiders, VI. 163 Sponges, VI. 330, 331 Tapirs, II. 321 Fossil Whales, II. 267 — Worms, VI. 258 Fossorial or Digging Hymeuop- tera, V. 375 Wasps, V. 339 Fountain -shell, The, V. * 192 Four-bearded Rockling, V. 64 fingered Pangolin, III. * 173, 174 horned Antelope, III. 19 — Spider Crab, VI. 197 lungeJ Spiders, VI. 169— 171 spotted Opossum, III. 222 Four miller, 'Ihe, III. 179 Fox, The Arctic, II. 159 , The Common, II. 158 — , The Long-eared, II. 162 Shark, V. 14, 30, 85 — Squirrel, The Black, III. *88 Foxhound, The, II. * 136. * 1:58 Francoliu, The Black, IV. 14 1 Freckled Phascogale, III. 217 Frsdericella, Statoblast of, V. *2.0 French Mocking-bird, IV. 62 Freshwater Herring, V. 117, 119 Shrimp, I. 380 Snakes, IV. 327 Frigate Bird, IV. 195, * 196, 197 Frilled Lizard, IV. 284, * 285 Friuge-finned Fishes, V. -- — lipped Lamprey, V. 145 Frith's Short-tailed Bat, I, 287 Fritillaries, VI. 33, 36, 37 Frog, The, IV. 342—358 ; heart of, *343 ; brain, °344; respi- ration, 344 ; skeleton, * 346 : head, * 347 ; anatomy, 346, 347 ; metamorphoses, 348, * 340 ; skull, 353 hoppers, VI. 114, 115 " Frog mouths," III. 339 Fruit Bat, The African, I. 269 , The Collared, I, 268, * 270 , The Common Indian, 1. 238 Bats of Ceyl >n at home, Plate 9 eating Bats, I. 26S— 280 ; Egyptian representati n of, *269 Pigeons, IV. 124, 127 Fulgent Anomalure, III. * 96 ; molar teeth, * 98 Fulmar Petrels, IV. 208, 210 Fulvous Vulture, III. *259 Fungous Midges, VI. 79 Fur Seals, II. 216, 217, 219, 222 ; distribution of the, 218 ; skin, * 218 ; a rookery of, * 220 Gaboon country, A forest in the, I. * 24 ; village in the, * 52 Gad-fly, The, II. 3)3, Vf.85 Galago, The (see Garnett's Galago). Galapagos Islands Tortoises, IV. 249 Galen, and dissection of Apes, 1.123 Galeodes, The, VI. * 165, 166 Gall Flies, V. 356, VI. 4, * 5, 6 Midg,-s, VI. 80 Galley Worms, VI. 15i, 155 Gallinaceous Birds, IV. 121, 128-155 Game Birds, III., 253, IV. 128— 155 Gamma Moth, VI. 63 Ganges Gavial, IV. 266, * 237 Gangetic Dolnhin, III. 2P, JI8, * 249 ; skull and teeth of. 248 ; flipper of, * 249 Trionyx, IV. 258 Gannet, The Common, IV. 198 Gannets,.IV. 195, 198 Ganoid Fishes, V. 6, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15 scales, V. * 9 Gaper, The, V. 2»8 Garden Ant, V. 379 Garden Dormouse, III. * 103 Flies, VI. 82 Shrew, I. 378 Slug, V. 155 Snail, V. 154, 155, 189, 190, 219, 221 ; anatomy of the, * 2.0 Spider, The Common, VI. * 177, 178, 179 Wood Louse, VI. 104 Gar-fish, The Common, V. 121, * 122 (see Bony Pike). Gar-pike, The, V. 6, 18, 23 Garnett's Galago, I. 215, *216, 238, 239; palm of haud, *243; sole of foot, * 240 Garter and Ribbou Snake, IV. 329 Gastric teeth of Lobster and Crab, VI. * 19.5 Gavial family, IV. 266 Gayal, The, III. 33, 34, 35 Gazelles, III. 13—16 ; Sir Victor Brooke's classification, 13 Gecko family, IV. 287— 29J des murailles, IV. 2-H) , The Flying, IV. * *89, 290; toes of, * 287 Gedi Paragoodoo, The, IV. 309 Geese, 111.254, IV. 19-', li 3 and Wild Fowl, IV. 191- 195 Gelada Baboon, I. 143, 163 Gelinotte, The, IV. 14t Gem Anemone, VI. 3 4 Gemsbok. The, III. fc8 Genette, The, II. 91 General remarks on the Quadru- mana, I. 203—210 Geoiine Sponge, Rind of, VI. *329 Geoffrey's Dasyure, III. 215 Nyctophile, I. 296, *297 Geometric Tortoise, IV. 252 Georgian Black (-rouse, IV. 141 Gerbilles, The, III. 113 ; molar teeth, * 114 German Cockroach, VI. 133 Germon, The, V. 90 Gerow, The (see Sam bur). Ghost Moth, VI. 63 Giant Ant, V. 382 Crane- fly, VI. 78 Cuttle-tish, V. 170, 171, *172 Penguin, IV. *221 Gibbons, The, 1. 73-83 : the True Gibbon, 78; jaw of the Gib- bon, * 83 Gibbs' Mole Shrew, I. 376 Gibraltar, Animal remains found at, I. 125, 126; the only abode of the Monkey in Europe, 124, 125 Gigantic Cockroach, VI. 134 Gill-footed Crustacea, VI. 215 Gilliespie's Hair Seal, II. 218, 224 Gill-tentacles, Types of, V. * 271 Gilthead, The, V. 82 Giraffe, The, III. 43, 44, *45j skeleton, *44 Glass-rope Sponge. VI. 318, * 319, 321, 330 shell, V. 221 Snakes, IV. 298, 299 Glires (or Rodentia), III. 82 Globe Fish, V. 2, 6, ?, 48, 50 Globose Cacopus Frog, IV. 358 Glossy Ibis, IV. 189 Starlings, IV. 103, 243 Glow-worm, The, V. 296, 332— 325 Glutton, The, II. 182, * 183 Gnat, The Common, VI. 71, 72 ; head of the female, * 70, 71 ; head of the male, * 76 ; eggs, •76 , The House, VI. * 76 like Diptera, VI. 74—82 Gnats, V. 287, VI. 74—77 Gnu, The, III. * 25 Goana, The, IV. 278 Goat, The, III. 10-13 Antelope, II. 78. 153 — Moth, VI. 25, 63 - -sucker, The Common, III. 244, 309, 368, *369; foot of, IXDEK TO POPULAR NAMES. 381 Goby, The, V. 16, 92, 103 Godwits, IV. 163, 164, 196 Gold-crested Kinglet, IV. 73 crests, IV. * 68 Goldfinch, The, IV. *97 Gold Fish, V. 125, 127 Goldsmith-beetles, V. 326, 328 Gold-tail Moth, VI. 21, 58 — Wasp?, V. 372 Golden Dog, II. 147 Eagle, III. 281, * 282. 283 — Eye Breeze-fly, VI. 86 - — --eyed Fly, VI. 12 Howler, I. 168 Mole, I. 344, 365—337 , The Cape, I. 366 Oriole, IV. 25, * 23, 27 or Red Mouse, III 111 Plover, IV. 168, 170, 171 Wasps, V.383 Goosander, The, IV. 191 Goose-footed Hyla, IV. 363, *364 Gopher, The, III. * 92, 93 Tortoise, IV. 252 Goral, The, III. * 24 Gorebill, The, V. 68 Gorgeted Bird of Paradise, IV. *24, 25 Gorilla, The male, I. *8: the female and young, * 9 ; skuil, * 10, * 17 ; some account of the animal, 10—39 ; face, * 15 ; foot and hand, *16; teeth, * 20, 22 ; skeleton, * 21 ; throat, *22; lanl of the, *24; arm- bones, * 25 ; shoulder-bone, * 25 ; hand-bones, * 28 ; ankle and foot bones, compared with those of man, * 33 ; hunting the, *32j the young Gorilla, * 16, * 38 ; voice of the Gorilla, 166 Gorillas, A family of, I. *13 Goshawk, The True, III. 271, *272 Gould's Fruit Bat, I. 273 Gour, The, HI. 34 Gourami, The, V. 106 Graining, The. V. 130 Grakle, The, IV. 99, 103 Grampus (see Eisso's Grampus). Grand or Thick-tailed Galag -, I. 239 ; tail - muscles and tendons, * 238 ; foot-bones, *238 Grant's Ga^e le, III. 15 Grayling, The, V. * 119 Grasshopper, The, V. 283, 288, 292. 298, 338. 374, VI. 94, 101, * 125, 126, 212 ; auditory appa- ratus, * 127 Grass Moths, VI. 68 Quit, IV. 82 Warblers, IV. 46, 55—53, 77 Gray's Argus, TV. 133 Australian Hair Seal, II. 226 Great Ant-bear, III. 176, * 177, 178 Ant-eater, III. 217 Armidillo, III. * 183; bones and c aw, • 181 Auk, IV. 214 Bird of Paradise, IV. 22 Black Woodpecker, Plate 35 Blue Shark, V. 30 Bustard. IV. * 173, 174 Oab, VI. 198 - — - Dalmatian Trout, V. 116 — Dragon-fly, VI. 145 eared Leaf-Bat, I. 333 Egret, IV. 184 F..rk Beard, V. 62 — Green Grasshopper, VI. »125 Tree Frog, IV. 333 Greenland Whale, V. 35 Grey Shrike, IV. 63, 64, Plate 38 • Hare lipped Bat, I. 317; head, » 317 Hornbill, III. *352 Horned Owl, I. 353 Kansaroo (sec Kangaroo) Lake Trout, V. 115, 11 5 Great Land Tortoises, IV. 219— 252 Macaw, III. 313, Plate 34 Munis, III. 174 Northern Diver, V. 94 Owl Moth of Brazil, VI. *65, 66 Palm Cockatoo, III. 310 Peacock Moth, VI. 62 Pipe-fish, V. 55 — Python, IV. 333 — Eock Kangaroo, III. 193 Sea-Slater, VI. 210 Skua, IV. 207 Spotted Cuckoo, III. * 328 -- Woodpecker, Plate 35 • -tailed Leech, VI. 242 Titmouse, or Ox-eye, IV. 66—69 Water Newt, IV. 370, 371, Plate 48 — White Heron, IV. * 179 — Wood Ant, V. 382 Greater Black-backed Gull, IV. 203 Harpy Bat, I. 277 — Horseshoe Bat, I. 281, *282; head, *281 — Sand Eel, V. 6<5 — Spotted Woodpecker, III. 316 • Weever, V. 92 Grebe, The, III. 251, IV. 214, 218, 219, 239; the Crested, *220 Grecian Greyhound, II. 132 — - Tortoise, IV. * 251 Green and Red Monkeys, Plite 4 • Forester Moth, VI. 24, 57 Leech, VI. 210 Fruit Pigeons, IV. 124 • Frog, IV, 347 — Hair-streak Butterfly, Vf. * 46 Iguana, IV. * 279, 280 Jay, IV. 16 Lizard, IV. 273, 274 Monkey, 1. 110 — - Oak Moth, VI. 63 • Parrots, III. 310 Toad, IV, 360 — Turtle, IV. 241, 258 ; catch- ing the, * 257 — Woodpecker, III. 334, 335, * 337 ; dissection of the head of, * 334, * 335 ; skull of, * 335 Greenbottle Flies, VI. 95 Greenland Jer- Falcon, III. 294 or Eight Whale, II. 263, 264, Plate 21 -Seal, II. 235, * 233 Greenl-ts, IV. C4 Gressorial Picarise, III. 303 Grey Cuckoo Shrikes, IV. 31 — Diemenia, IV. 309 False Touraco, III. 332 — Fruit Bat, I. 271, 272 ; head of, * 273 Gurnard, V. 96 headed Fruit Bat, I. 272 — hound, The, II. * 117, 130 Leech, VI. 240 Mini vet, IV. 30,31 Mullet, V. 101 — or Broad - nosed Lemur, I. 224, * 225 Wild Goose, IV. 193 Parrot, III. 310, 312, *313 ; skull, 323 Petebary, IV. 65 — Phalarope, IV. 163 Plantain-eater, III. 332 — Plover, IV. Ifi8, 169, 170, 171 Ptarmigan, IV. 142 Seal, II. 238 Shar"-, V. 31, 32 Skate, V. 41 Squirrel, III. 87, 88 tailed Thickhead (Shrike), IV. 63 Trout, V. 115, 116 Gribble, The, VI. 211, 212 Griffon, The, III. 258 Vulture, III. » 259 Orison, The, VI. 211, 212 Grivet Monkey, I. 103, 111 Grizzled Skipper Butterfly, VI. 53 Grizzly Bear, III. * 168, 176 Harlequin Beetle, V. 298 Grubs, V. 288 Snake, IV. 310 Grysbok, The, 17, 18 Harmless Snakes, IV. 300, 301 Grooved Tortoise, IV. 252 Harnessed Antelopes, III. 23 Ground Colubrides, IV. 330 Harpoon, The, II. * 265, 353, 357 Cuckoos, IV. 134 Harp Seal, II 236 Horubills, III. *355, 356 shells, V. * 198, 203 Eat, or Ground Pig, III. Harpy, The, III, * 276 133 Bat, I. 276, 308 : skull, * 308 Eollers, III. 354 Eagle, III. *276 Squirrels, III. 91 Fruit Bat, I. 303 Group of Apes and Monkeys, Harrier-Hawks, III. 270, 297 and a Lemur, I. * 1 Harriers, II. 138, III. 255, 268, Group of Howlers, I. * 165 297. Hartebeest The III 23 24 Plate 3. Hart!aub's Sun-bird, IV. 75 Grouse and Partridges, IV. 141 Harvest Bug, VI. 181 —149 men, VI. 160, 164 , The, IV. 141—144 Mites, VI. 181 Grunting Ox, III. 38 Mouse, III. * 109, 110 Guachero, The, or Oil-bird, III. — Spider, VI. 182 *368 Hatteria, The, IV. 290; skull, Guanaco, The, III. 77, 78 *290 Guans, The, IV. 129 Hawk Eagle?, III. 281 Guava Viva, The, III. 69 Flies, VI. 87 Guazus, The, III. 69 Moths, VI. 55—57 Guazuti Deer, III. * 69 Owls, III. 301 Gudgeon, The, V. 11, 15, 125, 128 Hawks and Owls, How to dis- Guenous, I. 103—106: 158; tinguish, III. 255, 297 origin of the name, 105 Hawk'sbiU Turtle, IV. 245, 228, Guereza, The, I. * 101, 102 259, * 260 Guib, The, III. 23 Hazel Grouse, IV. 141, 144 Guillemot, The, IV. 214, 215, Heart-cockle, The. V. 231, 245 * 216, 218 urchin, The, VI. 270 Guinea-fowls, IV. 131, * 137 ; Hfath Moths, VI. 67 fossil forms, 240 Hedgehog, The, I. 353—357: Guiuea-pig, The, III. 143, 141, dentition, *343 149, IV. 322 , The Collared, I, 357 Worm, The, VI. 252 , The Common, I. 353, * 354 Gulls, IV. 203— 213, 215 , The Long-eaied. I. 357 Gundi, The, III. 129 Hellbender, The, IV. 377 Gunn's Perameles, III. 209 Hehnet-shells, V. 261, 267 Gurnard, The, V. 2, 13, 14, 16, Shrike, IV. * 30 27, 95, 96, * 97 Helmeted Wood Shrike, IV. 29 Gymnogenes, The, II 1. 368 Hemipodes, The, IV. 128, 149, 162 Herniptera. V. 296, VI. 201 Hen Harrier, III. 268 Henslow's Swimming Crab, VI. *200 H Herd of Elephants in Ceylon, II. * 281 Haast's Apteryx, IV. 235 Hermit Crab?, V. 189, VI. 302, Haddock, The, V. 60 203, * 201 ; group of, Plate 67 ; Hag, The, V. 11, 13, 15, 146 parasites, 218 Hair-footed Crusi acea, VI. 216 Heron, The Common, IV. 178 —218 , The Great Wh'te, IV. * 179 streak Butterflies, VI. 46 , The Night, IV. » 181 Seals, IL 216, 217, 222 ; , The Purple, IV. * 180 distribution of the, 218 Herons, III. 248, 252, 251, IV. Hairy Armadillo, III. 186 armed Bat, I. ,,01 178-191, 201 Herpeton, The Long-nosed, IV. -eared Rhincceros, II. 332, 327 *333 Herring, The, V. 6, 8, 10—14, Saki (see Parauocu). 60, 62, 119,135, * 136 ; vertebra, • Sloth, III. *16t * 135 ; f ood of the, VI. 217 tailed Mole-shrew, I, 376 Gull, IV. 205, 207 Tapir, 11 318, 321 Salmon, V. 119 Woodpecker, III. 336 Hessian Fly, VI. 80, 81 Hake, The, V. 62, 63 Heterocercal fishes, V. 25 Half-Apes, or Lemurs, I. 5, 215, Heteropoda, The, V. 227, 228, 217 229 " Half-looper " Moths, VI. 63 Hickory Girdler, V. 318 Halitherium, The Fossil, II. Highland Cattle, III. 32 2 38, 272 ; skeleton of, * 272 Himalayan Bear, II. 170, * 171 Hamadryad S lake, IV. 307, Griffon, III. 260 *308 Lineate.l Barbet, III. 312 Hamadryas, A young, I. * 141 Water Shrew, I. 380 Hammer-headed Bj,t, I. 276, Hipparion, The, II. 316 *277 Shark, V. 2, * 28 Hippopotami near the Senegal, 11. * 348 ; hunting of, by the kop, IV. 181 harpoon, * 353 -ojster, V. 231, * 238 Hippopotamus, The, II. 336, Hamster, The, III. 112, 113, *352, P.ate21; skull, * 349 ; Plate 28; molar teeth, III. lower jaw. 349; stomach, *113 *319; Biblical and other al- Hand-drinking Monkey, I. 191 lusious to, 319, 350; arrival Handsome Monkey, I. 191 of the first living spscimeu iu Hing-nests, The, IV. 25, 77, 99, England, 351 ; hunting of. 100 *353, 354—359; fossil speci- Hanno on Gorillas. I. 7, 33 mens, 359, * 360 Harp, The Com-non, III. 147, family, II. 348—360 * 148 ; dentition, * 82, 85 Hive Bee, V. 357, * 359, 360, 365, Indiau Dog, II. * 104, 127 337. 370, 378 Kangaroo, III. 196 Hoary Bat, I. 310 Hares and Rabbits, III. 143— Jungle Ba-b3t, III. 312 —149 Marmot, III. 91 Harlequin Bat, I. 303 Hoatzins, IV. 130 382 NATURAL HISTORY. Hobby, The, III. 293, 308 Hocco, The, IV. 129 Hoe, The, V. 34 Hoffmann's Sloth, III. 167, * 168 Hog-Ape, I. 155 Deer, III. 49, 59, 70 family, II. i36— 347 ; divi- sions of the, 337 nosed Snake, IV. 329 Holboll's Jer Falcon, III. 294 Holibut, The, V. 5, 67 Hollow-horned Euminants, III. 5—44 Ho'oderma, The, IV. 279 • Holothurians, V. 65, VI. 26), 261, 262, 271, 272; the Soatli American, 264 Homelyn Bay, V. 41 Homooercal Fishes, V. 25 Honev Badger, II. 292 * Bee, V. 365, 366, 374; para- sites, VI. 98 Buzzard, III. 289 eaters, IV. 73-77 Guides, III. * 329 Kite. II f. 255, 290 Honeycomb Moth, V. 365 Hooded Crow, IV. 7, * 8, 9 — Spider Monkey, 1. 178, * 18) Hoofed Quadrupeds, II. 295— 360 Hooker's Sea Bear, II. 230; palate of, * 224 Hoolook, The, I. 79, *80 ; skull of, * 79 Hoonunian Monkey, I. 92—94,98 Hoopoe, The Common, III. 337, * 358, 359 Hop Fly, VI. 115 Hornbiils, III. 351—357 Homed Bee, V. 363 Ceratophrys, IV. * 356 • Lizard, IV. 287 Owls, III. 305 Kay, V. 44 Euminants, III. 4 Sand Snake, IV. 314 Screamer, IV. 192 Viper, IV. 317, * 318 Hornet, The, V. 371 ; bead of, *28i Horn-shell, The, V. * 209 Horrible Moloch, IV. 285, * 287 Hoi rid Rattlesnake, IV. 317, *31S Horse Leech, VI. 242, 243 Mackerel, V. 86 Mussel, V. 239 ; Crabs in shell of, VI. 202 — parasites, VI. 97 Sponge, VI. 317 Stinger, VI. * 144, 145 ; nymph and perfect insect, •145 — - tribe, II. 296—316 ; early use of the Horse, 298 ; Bibli- cal allusions to the, 298 ; im- provements in the breed, 299 ; dentition, * 300, * 301 ; bones of fore and hind limbs, * 301 ; anatomy, 301 ; skeleton, * 302; diseases, 303 ; brain, * 303 Horseman Crab, VI. 202 Horseshoe Bat : the Greater, I. 281—283 ; the Lesser, 283 ; the Mourning, 284; the Austra- lian, 285 Bats, I. 265, 280—286 Crab, VI. * 213, 223 Horsfield's Bangsring, I. 349 Hottentot Fruit Bat, I. * 270, 274 Ho md=i, II. 138—141 House Ant, V. 383 — Cricket, VI. 122, 123 Fly, The Common, V. £87, 291, VI. 70, 71, * 72, 93, 94 Gnat (see Gnat) Spider, VI. 173, 175 Houtou, The, III. 361, * 362 Howler, The Yellow-tailed, I. *169 Howlers, The, I. 166 — 171; origin of the name, 166 ; jiroup of, * 165 ; tail-bones, * 167 ; section of head and air-w, * 168 ; breast - bone, * 168 ; brain, * 168 Howling Monkey, I. 170, 203, 210 Huamel, The. III. 49 Huauaco, The, III. 77 ; attacked by a Puma, * 76 Huia, The, IV. 17, * 18 Humble Bee, V. 365, 366, 367, 370, 377, 380, VI. 39, 92, 93, 184, 254 Humboldt's Lagothrix, I. 171 Humming - bird Hawk Moth, VI. * 55 Birds, III. 336, 372, 376— 380, IV. 240, VI. 55 Hump-backed Whales, II. 265 ; suckling of the young, * 266 Hungarian Bull, III. ^33 Hunting Cheetah, II. 76 — the Gorilla, I. *32; the Hippopotamus, * 353, 354 — 359 Hutia Carabali, III. 133 Conga, III. * 132 Hyaena-dog, II. 162, * 163 — family, II. 79—81; skull, *79; teeth, *79; lower jaw, * 79 ; skeleton, * irO HySBnas in an Aral ian Ceme- tery, II. * 83 Hydra, The, VI. 277, 285 ; sec- tion of, * 285 Hydroids, The, VI. 286-288, 292 Hydrozoa, The, VI. 277—294 Hyla, The Common, IV. 363; other species, 363, 364 Hylodines, The, IV. 356 Hymenopterous wing, Diagram of a, V. * 354 " Hyoid " bone of an adult Fowl, T. 168, III. * 334 Hyrax, The, II. 292, 294 Ibex, The, III. 10, * 11 Ibijara, The, IV. * 294 Ibis, The Sacred, IV. * 189 Iceland Jer-Falcon, III. 294 Ichneumon F.y, II. 91, *92, V. * 1, 2, 23, 24, 43, 49 ; wing of, *2 | Ichthyopterygia, The, IV. 339 Ichthyosaurus, IV. 340, V. 163 ; skeleton of, IV. 339 Ide, The, V. 130 Iguana, The, IV. * 279 ; verte- bra of, 280, 303 Ima?o state of Insects, V. 283 Impalla, The, III. 17 Imperial Eagle, III. * 235, 280 — Pigeons, IV. 124 Impeyan Pheasant, IV. 134, * 136, 240 Indian Antelope, III. * 16, 17 - Black Bear, II. 170 Bull Frog, IV. 355 Crocodiles, IV. 264, 266 Deerlet, III. 70 Elephant, II. i77, 278, *279, 280 — Falconet, III. 291 — • Fish Owl, III. 300, IV. 75 Flving Fox, I. 266, 267, 238, 269—271, Plate 9 ; sternum of, » 261 Grey-necked Crow, IV. 11 —13 ' Hog, IT. 338 Muntjac (see Munt.jac) — Paradise Flycatcher, IV. 31 - Bntel, II. 194 — Rhinoceros, II. 330, * 331, 343 — Scavenger Vulture, III. 262 — Scissor-bill, IV. 203 — Serpent Eagle, III. 284 Tapir, II. 318, 321 Toads, IV. 361 Tortoise, IV. 250 — Tree-frog, IV. 365 pie, IV. 14 Indian Vulture, III. 260 — Water Lizard, IV. 278 White Bear, II. * 169 Wild Dog, II. 147 Infusoria, VI. 350; where found, 353, 354 ; reproduction, 363 ; the larger, 367 ; in the field of the microscope, * 353 ; struc- ture of, 355 ; cilio-flagellate Infusoria, * 356 ; ciliate In- fusoria, 356, 357, 359, 362 Infusory Animalcules, VI. 353 — 374 Innocuous Colubriforin Snakes, IV. 324—336 Insect-eaters, V. 1 — 6 Insectivorous Bats, I. 273 Insects, V. 281— VI. 149; ana- tomy of, 282—287; transfor- mations, 288, 297 ; pupa state of, 289 ; nervous system, 290 ; digestive organs, 292 ; circu- litory apparatus, 293; repro- duction, 29 i; classification, 295 Invertebrates, V. 150-28); cha- racteristic features, 151; clas- sification, 153 loqua shell, V. 219 Iris of the Lemuroid, I. 213, *214 Irish Greyhound Pig, II. * 342 Irregular-tailed Crustacea, VI. 202—204 Isis, The, VI. 234 Isopod Crusta?ea, VI. 188 Isopods, VI. 210, 214, 222; nerves of, * 197 ; a gigantic, * 210 • a remark ible, * 211 ; aberrant forms, 211 Italian Greyhound, II. * 116, 132 Itch-mites, VI 185 Ivory, Use of, II. 274 Ixalus, The Variable, IV. 366 Jacamar, The, III. 343 Jacana, The, IV. 156, 157, 237 Jacare, The, IV. 269, 270 Jackal, The, II. 155, * 156, 157, Plate 15 ; the Jackal's horn, 156 — Buzzard, III. 274 Jackdaw, The Common, IV. G, *7 Jaguar, The, II. 44, * 45, 46 Jaguaroudi, The, II. 55, *56 Jakie, The, IV. 357 Jamaican Stenoderm, I. 337 Japan or Masked Pig, II. 343, *344 - Whale, IT. 263 Japanese Deer, III. 49, 55 - Hump-back Whale, II. 265 Jaracarn, The, IV. 320 Javan Deerlet, or Chevrotain, III. *70, 336; bones of the left fore-limb, * 335, 336 Rhinoceros, II. 332 Javelin Bat, I 325, 326, 327, 323, 331 ; head, * £31 Snake, IV. 298 Jay, The Common, IV. 14, * 15 " Jeau-le-Blauc," The, III. 234 Jelly-fish, The, V. 153, VI. 259, 277, 278, 280; method of re- production, 281, Plate 69 Jerboa, The, III. 124, * 126— 128; molar teeth, * 125 Jericho Sim-bird, IV. 75, * 76 Jet Ant, V. 379, 381, 382 Jigger, The, VI. 100 Job Ludolphus, Drawing of Baboons by, I. 132, * 133 John Dory, The, V. 86, * 87 John Leo, on Apes, &c. , I. 129, 130 " Johnnie," The, IV. 222, 223 Johnston's Crocodile, IV. 266 Judgment-scene from an Egyp- tian monument, I. * 132 Juliform Myriopods, VI. 222 Jumping Shrews, I. 350, 351 Juugle-eat, The Common IL 70 — -fowl, IV. 131 K Kagu, The, IV. 175 Kahp, the Dyak name for the Long-aosed Monkey, I. 90 Kaka Parrot, III. * 321, 322 Kakapo, The, III. 316, *317, 318 Kukerlaks, VI. 132 Kalong, The Great, I. 271, * 272 ; head of, * 266 Kanchil, The, III. 70, 71 Kangaroo, The Great, III. 191 — 196,P!ofe30; skeleton, * 192; teeth, * It3 ; stomach, 195 ; brain, * 196 - Beetle, V. 348 - family, III. 191—203 — Rat, III. 124, * 199, 200, 201 ; teeth, * 199 ' Keitloa, The, II. 325, * 326, 329 Kestrels, The, III. 294 Keyhole Limpet, V. 190, 216, 217 Kidansr (see Muntjac) Killer Whale, II. 254, 255, 257, * 258, 265 King-bird, The, IV. 115, * 116 King Bird of Paradise, IV. 22 — Charles's Spaniel, II. 132, 133 - Crabs, VI. 196, * 213. 214, 223 - Crow, IV. 27, 28 - Parrakeet, III. 315 - Snake, IV. 319 - Vulture, III. 230, 263 Kingfisher, The Cominon, III. 344, * 345, 347 - , The Pied, III. * 348, 349 Kingfishers, III. 344-351; di- gestive organs, * 248 ; sup- posed fossil, IV. 239 Kinkajou, The, II. 179 ; skull of, * 179 Kite Eagle, III. 283 Kiwi, The, I. 103, IV. 235, PM« 44 Klipspringer, The, III. 17, 21 Knot, The, IV. 166 Koala, The, III. 200, 203, * 204 Kokako, The, IV. 19 Koodoo, The, III. 5, * 22 Koolo-Kamba, The, I. 39, 42, Krait, The, IV. 309 Kuhls Bat, I. 302 — Frog, IV. 355 Kukang (see Slow Loris) Kusimanse, The, II. 207 Labrador Jer-Falcon, III. 294 Labyriuthodonts, Extinct, IV. 379, 380, V. 24- Lac insect, VI. 1 Mirmots, III. 91, 92; molar teeth, * 92 — , TueTrue. III. 94 Marsh Bat, I. * 259, 232 — Crocodile, IV. 235 fish, V. 21 Harrier, III. 2SS, * 239 Shrew, I 380 Marsupial or Pouched Animals, HI. 191—224; classification of, 221 ; fossil specimens, 226 Marsupium, The, or Pouch, III. 192 Marten, The, II. 184 Mirtin, The, IV. 91, * 92 Martinique Frog, IV. 336 Mary Sole, V. 68 Maryland Yellow Throat, IV. 83 Masked Crab, VI. 200, *201 Fmfoot, IV. 172 Pig, 11.343, *341 Mason Bee, V. 337, 339, 368, *3G9 Massasauga, The, IV. 318 Masseua Trogou, III. 366 Mastiff, The, II. * 109, 143 Mastodon, The, II. 273, 287 Matamata, The, IV..217, 255 Matico, The, III. 181 Mauge's Dasyure, III. 214, 215 Mavis, The, IV. 42, 103 May-bug, V. 322, 3>8 May Flie=, VI. Ill Mazarna, The, III. 27 Meadow Mou-e, III. 117 Meal Moths, VI. 67 Meat Fly, VI. 70 Meckel's cartilage, V. 6 Medusa, The, V. 61 62, VI. 274, 280—282, 285; method of re- production, 281 of a Hydroid, VI. * 290 Medusoids, The, VI. 282 Megaderm, The African, I. * 290 ; head, * 289 Megapodes, IV. 150—155, 237 Megrim, The, V. 69 384 NATURAL HISTORY. Melon-shell, The. V. 202 Meminna, The, III. 70 Merganser, The, IV. 192, 194, 239 Msrian's Opossum, III. * 222 Marino Sheep, III. 5, * 6 MorK The, IV. 103 Merlin, The, III. 293 Mesotherium, and other Ro- dents, III. 156 Metallic Cuckoo Shrikes, I /. 31 Metamorphoses of Insests, V. 239, 235, 297 — of the Processiouary Moth, £c., Plate 61; of the Lepi- doptera, VI. 21—26 Mexicai Blue Jay, IV. 13 Pouched Bat, III. 122, 123 ; molar teath, *\2i; tkull, *123 Tree Porcupine, III. 135, *137 — Turkey, IV. 138 Mias (or Orang-utan) hunting, I. 60-70 Microscopic Animals, VI. 353, * 354,* 355, * 338— * 374 Midges, VI. 77 M'dsuminer-chafer, V. 327 Migratory Locust, VI. * 128, 128 Miller's Do?, The, V. 27 Thumh, or River Bullhead, V. 93 Millepores, The, VI. * 293 Millipedes, VI. 150, 152, 155 Minivets, IV. 30 Mink, The, II. 191 Minnow, The, V. 125, 130 Minyas, The, VI. 302 Missel Thrush, IV. 35, 40, 42 Mississippi Alligator, IV. 237, * 238 Missouri Rattlesnake, IV. 318 Mites, VI. 160, 179—185, 223 Mitre-shell, The, V. * 193, 2 >3 Moa, The (fossil), IV. 225, 239, 210 Moccasii Snake, IV. 319, 329 Mockin? Bird, 17.37, 51, 59, 60, * 61, 62 Mole Amblystoma, IV. 375 Cricket, V. 283, 304, VI. 123, * 124 Rat, III. 120, * 121, 122 ; skull, * 121 Shiew, The Hairy-tailed, I. 376 Moles, I. 337—372 Moloch. The Australian, IV. 236, * 287 Molucca Bat, I. 277 Mollusca, The type, V. 153—251 Mona Monkey, I. 108 M"uads, VI. 351 Monaul, The, IV. 13 1, 135, * 136 Money Cowry, V. * 205, 219 Mongoose Lemur, I. 221, *229 Monitor, The Nile, IV. 277, * 278 Monk Bat, I. 320, 321 Seal, II. 232, 238 , The, 1. 192, *193 ; brain of, •192 Monkey, The, why so named, I. 5 ; foot and hand of a, * 6 : a Catarrhine and aPlatyrrhiiie (or Old and New World representatives), *6; cheek- pouches *6, 84, 85 , The American, I. * 2 Monkeys and men, Darwin on the resemblances between, I. 204 , Group of, I. * 1 — of the New World, I. 164— 204 ; difference between, 173 ; classification of, 203 of the Old World, I. 3, 84—163 , Wanton massacre of, by Europeans, I. 113, 143 Monk-fish, V. 4, 35, * 36, 38 Mono, The (see Black Howler) Montagu's Blenny, V. 99 — - Harrier, III. 268 Monteiro's Galago, I. * 239, 240 Moon-eye, The, V. 131 Moot- Buzzard, III. 268, *239 hen, The, IV. 156, 157, 159, 160 Monkey, I. 117, * 121, 122 Mooruk, Th*>, IV. 232, 233 Moose Deer (see Elk) Morse, The, II. 209, 212—216 (see Walrus) Mosquitoes, VI. 74—77, 82 Moss animals, V. 232, 239—276 ; cell and anatomy of, *272; the animal retracted in its cell, 273 ; classification, 276 Moths, V. 287, 289, 297, VI. 20, 25—30, 54—69; best method of collecting, 30-32 Motmot, The, III. 331, * 362 ; bill, *361; tail-feathers, *363 Mouflon, The, III. 8 Mound-birds. IV. 155 raising Megapode, IV. 151 Mountain Bat, I. * 314 Curassows, IV. 129 Goat, III. 27 Hare, III. 149 Mourning Horseshoe Bat, I. 284 ; head, * 284 Mouse-bird, III. 333 coloured Bat, I. 305; skeleton, * 260 ; head, * 305 Gala :o, I. 237 like Rodents, III. 85, 101— 128 Mouth-footed Crustacea, VI. 21)9 — , Organs of the, in Insects, V. * 235 Mad-fish, The, V. 3, 14; the African, 18, 19; the North American, 21 fishes, V. 18—21, 143 Lamprey, V. * 145 or 8oft Tortoises, IV. 242, 245, 258—253 Mulberry Silkworm, VI. 60, * 61 ; caterpillar cocoon, and moth of, * 61 Mule and Hinny. The, II. 312 Armadillo, III. 187 Deer, III. 69 Mullet, The, V. 81, 100, 101 Multivalve shells, V. 189 Mungoos, The, or Ichneumon, II. 91, * 92 Muntjac, The, III. 49, 61, *62; Chinese name for, 61 Murina Opossum, III. 323 Murine Bangsriug, I. 349 MuA Deer, III. 42, *43, 43; skull, * 42 Ox, III. 30, *31, 32 Bat, I. 378, 379, III. 117 Shrew, I. 378 Musky Mole, I. 372 Musquash, The, III. 117, * 118 Mussel, The, V. 230; parasite, VI. 227 Myriopods, VI. 150—157, 221; external and internal struc- ture, 150, 151 ; reproduction, 151 ; fossil forms, 151 ; classi- fication, 151 Myrmecobius, The, III. 211, 212 Myrmicine Ant, V. 381 Myxinoids, V. 145 N Nagor, The, III. 19, 20 Naked Mole-Bat, III. 121 -tailed Opossum, III. 322 Nakoo, The, IV. 266 Napu, The, III. 70 Narrow-billed Plant-cutter, IV. 121 muzzled Seal, II. 241 Narwhal, The, II. 255, * 260, 261 ; its tusks, * 261 Native Bea-% III. *204 " Devil," III. 212 Natterer's Bat, I. 305 Natter-jack Toad, IV. 360, * 361 Nautilus, The, V. 154, 155, 183 Needle-fish, The, V. 55 Negro Bat, I. 302 Monkey, I. 87, * 88 Tamarin, I. -'00 Nematoid parasites, VI. 250 — '.!5i Nestors, III. 320 ; tongue, * 320 Neptune's Drinking Cup, VI. 3.8, * 319, 328 Nerites, The, V. 218 Nervous system of Insects, V. *290, *29L Neuwied's Large leafed Bat, I. 332 Newfoundland Dog, II. *121, 136—138 Newts, IV. 370, 371 New World Monkey?, I. 3, 4, 5, *6 — Zealand Bat, I. * 301, 311 Berardius, II. 251 • Fur Seal, II. 229 ; flip- pers, * 230 — • Goose, The extinct, IV. 193 — - Hump-back Whale, II. 265 Parrot, III. 2i3 Short-tailed Bat, I. 322, 323, *324; head, *323; teeth, * 323 ; thumb and foot, *323 Smelt, V. 113 — -Wood-Crow, IV. 17, *18 Night Apes, I. 183 Hawk, IV. 2'3 — Heron, IV. * 81, 183, 184 jjrs, or Goat-suckers, III. 365—372 Moths, VI. 64 — or Owl Monkeys I. 205, 211 Nightingale, The Common, IV. 43, 44,"* 45 Nigua, The, VI. * 100 Nile Crocodile, IV. 262, 264, Plate 46 Nilsson's Bat, I. 302 Noctule, The, I. 299—301 ; head of, * 299 No i-Buminantia, Characteristic features of, II. 333 Noolbeuger, The, III. 208 North American Mud-fish, V. 21 Wolf, II. 106, 153; va- rieties, 154 Island (N. Zealand) Kiwi, IV. 235 Northern Cirratule, VI. 235 Diver, IV. 218 Fur Seals, II. 218, 219 ; a rookery of, * 220 Hare, III. 149 Leopard, II. 42 Pocket Gopher, III. 123 Sea Cow, II. 269 Norway Jer-Falcoii, III. 291 — Lobster, VI. * 206 Notched-eared Bat, I. 307 Nschiego Mbouve, The, I. 39, * 40-^2, 58 ; skeleton, * 41 Nubia, A village in, I. * 142 Nubian Vulture, III. 258 Numb-fish, The, V. 39 Nummulites, VI. 349 Nurse Hound, V. * 32, 33 ; egg- purse of, * 33 Nutcracker, The, IV. * 12 Nuthatches, IV. 65, * 68, 69 Nyctophile, Geoff'-oy's, I. 296 Nyl-Ghau, The, III. 29, *30 O Oak, Aphides on the, VI. 116 — Eggar Moth, VI. 62 feeding Silkworm, VI. 61 Frog, IV. 362 gall produced by Gall-flies, VI. 4, *5 Oared Shrew, I. 379 Oar-fish, V. 107 — -footed Crustacea, VI. 196, 216-218 Oblong Chelodine, IV. 256 Sun-fish, V. 53 Ocellated Lizard, IV. 274, 278 Pond Tortoise, IV. 253 — Turkey, IV. * 138 Oceloid Leopard, II. 54 Ocelot, The, II. * 51, 52 Octopod, The, V. 112 Octopus, The, V. 154, 155, 156, 157, 153, Plate 53; tongue, * 155 ; cross section of arm, * 158 ; suckers, * 158 ; ink-bag, 178 , The Common, V. 157, * 159, 160-165 Odontophores, IV. 144, V. 222 Oil-Beetle, V. 337, 338 — -bird, III. * 368 • Sardine, V. 37, 138 Oleander Hawk Moth, VI. * 55 Old Lady Moth, VI. 65 Wife, V. 81 — World Ant-thrushes, IV. 114 Monkeys, I. 3, 4, * 6, 84 — Vultures, III. 253 • 252 Ohgochete Worms, VI. 247 Olives (shells), The, V. 198 Ombre Chevalier, V. 117 Onager, The, II. *311, 314 Onappo, The, I. 187 Ondalra (see Musquash) One-humped Camel, The Ara- bian, III. 73 — Pack Camel, III. 73 Oorial, The, III. 8 Opab, The, V. * 88 Open-bills, The, IV. 186 Ophidioid fishes, V. 65, 63 Ophiocephalus, The, V. 105 Ophiophagus, The, IV. 307 Oph'urds, The, VI. 2.0, * 232, 234 ; longitudinal section of, * 268 ; cross-section of an, *269 Opossum anil young, Plate 31 — family, III. 219—224; va- rious species, 222; fossil spe- cimens, 226 Mouse, II r. 208 — Shrimp, VI. 203, * 210 , The Common, III. 220 ; teeth, * 219 Orau'je Bat, I. * 285, 283, 287 Cowry, V. 203 tip Butterfly, VI. * 49 ; at rest, * 49 Orang-utan and Chimpanzees in Berlin Aquarium, Frontispiece to Vol. I. , The, 1. 59—74 ; a sick, *53 ; huutiug of the, 59—69 ; face, * 61; the animal at bay, !i 64 ; a family of, * 65 ; nest of, * 68 ; young specimens, * 69, * 2 J9 ; air - pouches and brain, * 71 ; wrist - bones, * 72 ; fossil re- mains, 66 Orang-utans, Plate 2 Orca, The, II, 257, *258 Oregon Mole, 1. 374 Organ -pipe Coral, VI. * 309, *310 Orinoco Crocodile, IV. 233 Orioles, IV. 2, 25-27 Orrner, The, V. 216 Ornithosauria, The, IV. 339 Orthopterous Pseudoueurop- tera, V. 1) Orycteropus, The, III. 169— 171 Oryx, The, III. * 28 Osprey, The, III. 255, 256, *293 Ostraciou, The, V. 49, 50 Ostrich, The, III. * 229, 236, 248, IV. 186, 226—232, 239 ; skull, *242 South American, IV. 224, 225, Plate 43 Ostriches, IV. 225-232 Otter, The Common, II. 198, *200; skull, *198 TO POPULAR XAMES. 385 Otter-hound, II. 141, 199 , The Sea, II. 201—203 Ounce, The, II. "49 Ourebi, The, III. 17, 18 Ouistiti, The, I. 197, 199 Oven Bird, IV. 112, 113 Ovipositor of Insects, V. 294, 353, 355, 358, VI. 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8 Oweii's Apteryx, IV. 235 Owl-faced Bat, I. 330; head, *330 family, III. 297-308 Monkeys, I. 188-191 Parrot, III. 316, 317, " 318 Ox Breeze Fly, VI. 85, * 86 Ray, V. 44 , The, III. 32-34 ; various breeds, 33 tribe, III. 4 Oxen, III. 29—40 Oyster, The, V. 188, 230, 231— 235, VI. 189; anatomy of the, V. 231 ; young Oysters, * 234 ; group attached to a block of wood, * 234 catcher, IV. 171, 204, 205, V.218 Paca, The, III. * 141, 142 ; skull, * 141 Pachyderms, IE. 273 Paddle-fish, The, V. 12, 47 Pages (Moths), VI. 54 Painted Bat, I. 308 — Discoglossus, IV. 357 Einys, IV. 254 — Lady Butterfly, VI. 38 Plectropus, IV. 368 — Kay, V. 42 — Snipes, IV. 162 Palaeotherium, The, II. 296, 316 Pale Chestnut Mastiff Bat, I. 319 — Clouded Yellow Butterfly, VI. 48 footed Chinchilla, II. 139 headed Tree Boa, The Cuban, IV. 335 Palestine Bush Babbler, IV. 51 Palisade Worm, VI. 253 Pallah, The, III. 17 Pulniated Smooth Newt, IV. 371 Pampas Cat, II. 53 Panda family, II. 180 — , The, II. 181 Paugolius, III. 172—180 Pangshure, The, IV. 253 Panther Toad, IV. 362 Pautheriue Snake, IV. 329 Pap-boat, The V. 1&3 Paper Nautilus, V. 156, Plate 53 ; fabled position of the, * 156 ; natural position, * 157 ; in its shell, 157, * 157 ; poeti- cal references to the, 157 Pardiue Lynx, II. 75 Pariah Dogs, II. 145—147 Parrot. The New Zealand, III. 243 PaiTots, III. 309—323 ; bill of a Parrot, :;•_':.' — proper, III. 509 Pan-akeets, III. 315 Parti-coloured Bat, I. 301 ; head of, 301 Partridge, The Bearded, IV. 145; Common, 145, * 146, *148 ; other species, 148, 149 Partridges, IV. 144—149 Paseug, The, III. 13, 11 Passenger Pigeon, IV. * 125 Passeres, The True, III. 309 Passerine Birds, IV. 1—121 Pastors (Starlings), IV. 103 Patagouiau Cavy, 111. * 144 Sea Lion, II. 236, 220 ; palate of, * 224 Patas Monkey, I. Ill Peacock Butterfly, VI. 38 Pheasant, IV. * 133 287 Peacocks, IV. 131—134 Pea Crab, VI. 202 Peafowl, IV. 131 Pearl-bearing Mussel, V. 242 — Moths, VI. 67 Oyster, V. * 237 Skipper Butterfly, VI. 53 spotted Barbet, III. *3i2 Pearls and Pearl-fishing, V. 2:37, 238 Pearly Nautilus, V. 154, 1.55, 178, 182, 183, 184, 186, 190 ; in- terior of shell, * 185 ; exterior, * 186 ; section of ditto, * 186 ; fossil species, 188 Nereis, VI. 231 Peba, The, III. 187 Peccaries, II. 337, III. 1 Peccary, The, II. 336, 346, * 347 ; dentition, 346, * 347 Pecten, The, V. 231 Pee-wit, The, IV. 168 Pekan, The, II. 185 Pelican, The Common, IV. 201, •202 Pelicans, III. 257, 254, IV. 195 — 203 Pelornedusa, The, IV. 256 Pel's Fish-Owl, III. 301 Peludo, The, III. 186 Penelopes, The, IV. 130 Penguins, III. 254, IV. 214, 222 Pennant's Marten, II. 185 — Swimming Crab, VI. 199 Peunsylvauiau Mud Terrapin, IV. 2.54 " Penny Dog," The, V. 27 Pentacriuoid, Definition of, VI. 263 Pepper-aud-SaltMotb, VI. 67 Perch, The. V. 3, 10, 11, 13 ; skeleton, * 3 River, V. * 78 Pe idling Birds, III. 253, IV. 1 —21 Peregrine Falcon, HI. 291, * 292, 293 ; inferior larynx of, *251 Perforate Corals, VI. 300 Periwinkle, The, V. 195, 225 Persian Deer, III. 49, 55 — Fallow Deer, III. 58 — Gazelle, III. 15 Greyhound, II. 132 Horse, II. 307 Tick, VI. 184 — Trident Bat, I. 287 ; head of, » 267 Petchora Pipit, IV. 170 Petiolated Hymeuoptera, VI. 4 Petrels, IV. 203, 208-213 Petrodrome, The, I. 352 ; sole of foot of, * 352 Plmlauger family, III. 203—203 Phalangers, III. 203, 201 Phalaropes, The, IV. 166 Pharaoh's Chicken, III. * 261 Phascogale, The Brush-tailed, III. 217, * 218 — , The Freckled, III. 217 , The White-footed, III. 218 , The Yellow-footed, III. 218 Phascolomys Wombat, III. ~f 201, * 202 ; skeleton, 201 ; lower jaw, 202 ; teeth, * 203 Pheasant, The Common. Plate 41 shell, V. 214 tailed Jacana, IV. * 157 Pheasants, IV. 131—137 Philander Opossum, III. 222 Philantomba, The, III. 18 Phillips's Pocket Mouse, III. 121 Phocodons, The, II. 248 Phosphorescence of the Sea, how caused, VI. 353 Phylloxera, The, VI. 115. 116 Picariau Birds, III. 253,308-380 Pichiciago, The, III. * 189 Pichiy, The, III. 186 Picked Dog-fish, V. * 34 Piddock, The, V. 251 Pied " Dishwasher," IV. 78 Gralliua, IV. * 28, 29 Hornbill, III. 352 Kingfisher, III. * 348, 319 Pied Seal, II. 238 — Wagtail, IV. 78—81 — Wolf, II. 154 Pig, The, 11.312—345; bones of the left fore-limb, * 335, 333 ; Jewish abhorrence of the, 337 ; head of the, * 342 ; milk dentition of, * 342 ; bones of the foot, * 343 faced Trigger-fish, V. 48 footed Perameles, III 210 tailed Baboon, 1. 144, * 145 —148 ; skull, 147 — Macaque, I. 117, 123, * 124 Pigeons, III. 253 ligmy Bush-buck, III. 18 — Owlets, III. 304 Parrots, III. 310 — Shrew, Plate 12 Pikas, The, III. 149 Pike, The, V. 8, 11, 13, 15, 120 headed Alligator, IV. 267, *268 Pilchard, The, V. 26, 41, 61, 87, 137, 138 Pileated Vulture, III. 262 Pill Bug, VI. 210 Pilot-fish, V. * 90, 91 — Whale, II. "255, 256; stomach of, * 245 Pine Marten, II. 184 • Mouse, III. 117 Pinna, The Great, V. • 239 Pinnated Grouse, IV. 141 Piimipedia, The, II. 209, 211 Piimoctopus, The, V. * 164 Pipe-fish, V. 8, 9, 15, 16, 53, 55, 56,101 Piper, The, V. 96 Piping Hares, III. 149 Pipistrelle, The, I. 265, * 298 Pipit, The, IV. 77 ; wing of, * 77 Pit Vipers (see Rattlesnakes) Pithecus, The, I. 124 Placoid scales, V. * 9 Placuna, The, V. 235 Plagiostomes, V. 16 Plagiostomatous Fishes, V. 25 — 45 Plaice, The, V. 2, 69, *70, 71 Plain Bonito, V. 91 Plant Bugs, VI. 106 cutter, The, IV. * 120 eating Beetles, V. 348, VI. 2 lice, V. 294, 380, 381, VI. 13, 114, 115 Plantain-eaters, III. 330—333 Plasmodium, Definition of, VI. 351 Plastron of the Tortoise, IV. *243, 241 Platyrrhines, or New World Monkeys, I. 3, 4, 5, * 6, 164— 204 Matysteruou, The, IV. 245 Plesiosanrus (fossil), IV. 341 ; skeleton of, * 340 Pleurodont jaw of the Iguana, IV. * 275 Plovers, IV. 167, 168—172 Plume Moths, VI. 69 Pochard, The, IV. 181 Pocket Gophers, III. 122 Podabrus, The, III. 219 Poey's Leaf Bat, I. 335 Pogge, The, V. 96 Pointer, The, II. * 140, 141 Poisonous Colubrine Snakes, IV. 303 Sea Snakes, IV. 310 Terrestrial Colubrine Snakes, IV. 304-310 Poku, The, III. 20 Polar Bear, II. 174, * 175, 176 ; skeleton, * 5 ; teeth, * 164 — Whale, II. 263 Polatouche, The, III. 89, 90 Pole, The, V. 72 Polecat, The, II. 189, *190; skull, 190 Pollack, The. V. 56, 61, 62 Pollan, The, V. 119 Polycistines, The, VI. 344 Polygamy among animals, I. 209, 210 Polygastrica, VI. 355 Polypes, VI. 259, 277 Polypterns, The.V. 5, 16, 22, 23 Polyzoarium, Portion , of, V. *275 Pomeranian Bream, V. 133 Dog, II. * 125, 138 Pond Snails, V. 220, 224 Poudicherry Crocodile, IV. 265 Pongo, or Gorilla, I. 7 Pontoporia, The, II. 247, 250 Poodle, The, II. *m Poppy Bee, V. 369 Porbeagle Shark, V. 29, 30 Porcellanous Foraminifera, VI *347 Porcupine Ant-eater, III. 227 — , The Australian, VI. 100 like Pvodents, III. 85, 128 —138 — or Long - spiued Echidna, III. 227, *228, 229; pelvic arch, *227; mouth and nose- snout, *229; shoulder-girdle and sternum, * 232 Sea Mouse, VI. 230 , The Common, III. * 13 1 ; skull, * 134 Porcupines, III. 133—138 ; fossil remains, 154 Pork Tape Worm, The, VI. 250 Porpoise, The Common, II. 256, * iS7 ; brain of, * 245 Port Jackson Shark, V. 33 Portuguese Man-of-war,VI. 277, 282, * 283 Po' oroo, The, III. 200 Potto, The, I. * 241, 242 Pouched Ant-eaters III. 211 Badgers. III. 209 Frog, IV. 3b4, * 365 Mice, III. 122 Rats, III. 122—124 Weasels, III. 217 Poulpe, or Octopus, V. 158 Powaus, The, V. 119 Power Cod, V. 61 Poyou, The, III. 181, * 185 Prairie Dog, III. * 81, 94, IV. 318; burrows of the, III. *93 Mole, I. 374 — Rattlesnake, IV. 318 • Wolf, II. 106, 154, * 155 Prawn, The, VI. 189, 192. 194, * 208, 211; metamorphoses of, *195 Praying Insect, VI. 13 Prego Monkey, I. 181 Pribylotf Islands, Fur Seal of the, II. k!9, 220, 222, 224 223 Prickly Cockle, V. 243 — -skinned animals, VI. 259 -276 Primates, The, I. 5, 163, 215 Prince Albert's Lyre-bird, IV- 111 — Alfred's Deer, III. 59 Privet Hawk Moth, VI. 56 ; mouth of, * 22 ; magnified view of, * 28 Proboscis Monkey, I. 88, 89, 95 Processionary Moth, VI. 23, 59 ; metamorphoses of, Plate 61 Prolific Syllis, VI. 232 " Prominent Moths," VI. 59 Pronghorn Antelope, II. 336, III. 40, * 41, 42 Pi-o-Simia, The, I. 215 Proteus, The Eel-shaped, IV. 344, 369, 376 Protoplasm, Definition of, VI. 332 Protopterus, The, V. 18, *19, 20 Protozoa, The, V. 153, VI. 332 Pseudopus, The European, IV. 299, 301 Pseudopodia, Definition of, VI. 332 Ptarmigan, The, IV. 141, * 142, *143 Pudu Deer, III. 69 Puff Adder, IV. 315 — Birds, III. 344 Pufim, The Arctic, IV. * 217 , The Common, IV. 218 386 NATURAL HISTORY. Pus Moths, VI. 67 Puma, The, II. 46, 47, * 48 Pupa state of Insects, V. 289 Pupation of Butterflies, VI. 25, 26 Purple Emperor Butterfly, VI. 41, 42 Egg-urchin, VI. * 262, *271 heart Urchin, V. 24* Hair-streak Butterfly, VI. 46 Heron, IV. * 180, 183, 201 Martin, IV. 115 Starling, IV. 103 Puss Moth, VI. 22, *59; cater- pillar of , *59 Pygmy Parrots, III. 310 Pygopus, The Australian, IV. 298, 301 Pyreuean Desman, I. 375 Python, The, IV. 186, 300, 331 ; vertebrae of, 302 Pythonides, The, IV. 301 Pyxis Tortoise, IV. 245 Q Quadrumaua, The, I. 1- -258 ; general remarks on, 203 Quail, The, IV. 148 — , The Californian, IV. 144, *145 , The Common, IV. * 148 — , The Virginian, IV. 144 Quata (see Coaita) Queen Bee, The, V. 357, 362 of Spain Fritillary, Trans- formations of, VI. * 37 Quesal, The, III. 366 Q'aica Opossum, III. 222 Eahbit. The, III. 118; skeleton, *83 eared Perauieles, III. 209 • like Reithrodon, III. 112 ; head of, * 112 Racehorse, The, II 303, * 304 Rachiodout Family, IV. 327 Racoon, The, II. 177, *178 ; skull of, * 177 Dog, II. 96, 162 Family, II. 177—180 Radiata, The, VI. 259 Radiated Tortoise, IV. 252 Rails, The, IV. 156—162 Rainbow Wrasse, V. * 76, 77 Rain Paddock Toad, IV. 362 Rasse (see Lesser Civet) Rat, The, III. 106—108 Ratel, The, II. 192, * 193 Hat-tailed Kangaroo Rat, III. 200 Serpent, IV. 319 Shrew, I. 378, * 379 Rattlesnake, The Common, IV. 316, * 317 • , Horrid, IV. 317, * 318 Rattlesnakes, IV. 316 — 324; skull of, * 275 Raven, The Common, IV. 4, * 5 Ravens, The True, IV. 4 Ravine Deer, The, III. 14 Rays, V. 10—16, 25, 23, 37—45 Ray's Bream, V. 83 Razor-back, The, II. * 267 bill, The, IV. 214, 215 • -fish (see Razor-shell) shell, V. 231, * 248 Red Ant, V. 316, 383 backed Shrike, III. 239 Bat, I. 309 ; skull, * 303 beaked Hombill, III. 353 • Bear-Cat, II. 181 -bellied Monkey, I. Ill, *113 • billed Carew, IV. 162 • -Wood Hoopoe, III. 359 Red-breasted Goose, IV. 193 Merganser, IV. 194, 206 — Brocket, HI. 69 — Bugs, VI. 106 -capped Snake, IV. 309 — Coral, VI. 294, * 307 ; en- larged section of stem, * 308 Cylindrophis, IV. 335 — Dace, V. 131 Deer, II. 336, II I. 47, 48, 52, * 53—55, 68 ; growth of antlers, III. * 46, * 47; various types of antlers, 48, * 49 ; Red and Fal- low Deer in winter, * 54 ; Red Deer fighting, * 55 ; Fly .pests of, VI. 96. 97 — -eye, The, V. 130 faced Goshawk, III. 271 — -fin, The, V. 131 footed Douroueouli, 1. 191 Grouse, IV. 141, 142, 143 Gurnard, V. 93 -headed Woodpecker, III. 338, IV. 115 — Kangaroo, III. 196 legged Bug, VI. 104 Lynx, II. 75 Maggot, VI. 81 Monkey, I. Ill — Mullet, V. 68, 81 necked Grebe, IV. 222 Phalarope, IV. 166 or Golden Wolf, II. 153 Pheasant, IV. 135 — Riband, V. 93 — Semnopithecus, I. 95 — Shanks, The, IV. 179 tpider, VI. 181 throated Diver, IV. 218 — Whelk, V. 193 whiskered Bulbul, IV. 49 Wolf, II. 155 — Wrasse, V. 75 Reddish-grey Bit, I. 305 Redman's Bat, I. * 334, 335 Red Sea Anemone, VI. • 303 Redstarts, IV. 43 Redwing, The, IV. 36, 39, 42 Reed Warblers, IV. 44 Reeves' Muntjac, III. 49, 62, 69 — Pheasant, IV. 135 Reem, the word translated " Unicorn," II. 321, 322 Regent Bird, IV. * 52, 51 Reh-bok, The, III. 21 Reindeer, The, III. 66, *67; Fly pests of, VI. 96, 97 , The Canadian, III. 68 Reitbok, The, III. 19, 20, 21 Reithrodon (see Rabbit-like Reithrodou) Remora, The, V. 5, * 91 Renicrine Sponge, VI. 329 Reptiles, IV. 241— 3 U Reproduction in Insects, V. 294 — of limbs, &c., VI. 226 Respiration in Insects, V. 293 Restless Cavy, III. 143 Flycatcher, V. 34 Bete vnirnbile, The, I. 213, * 245, 246, 257, II. 246, 269, III. 159, 180 Retriever, The, II. * 113, 141 Reticulose Rhizopods, VI. 344 Retzius' Helmet Shrike, IV. 29 Rhea, The South American, IV. 224, 225; 239, Plate 43 Rhesus Monkey, I. 119—122, 207, 208 Rhinoceros, The, II. 321 ; skele- ton, * 323 ; femur, * 324 ; den- tition, * 324 ; varieties, 324— 333; hunting of the, 327, * 328 ; African names of the, 329; Gordon Cumming's de- scription of the African spe- cies, 329 ; fossil remains, 333, *334 Beetle, V. 323, 326 Chameeleou, IV. 292 family, II. 321—3:33 — Hombill, III. 351 — Mice, III. 108 Rhinoceroses, African, II. 324 —330 Rhinoceroses, Asiatic, II. 330 — 333 — , Fossil, II. 333 Rhiuopome, The Egyptian, I. 316, * 317 Rhipiphorus, The, V. 338, 239 khizopods, VI. 332-352 Rhynchocyon, The, I. * 352 Ribbon Fish, V. 16, 107 — Worms, VI. 225, 254 Rice Bird, The, IV. 99 field Mouse, III. Ill — Teudrac, I. 360 Rifle Birds, IV 21 Right Whale, II. 263, 265, Plate 21 Ring Dottrell, IV. 171 — Dove, IV. " 124. 196 footed Gnat, VI. 77 — Hals Slang, The, IV. 306 necked Pheasant, The Chinese, IV. 135 — Ouzel, IV. 36, 40, 43 — tailed Cat (see Cacomixle) Eagle, IV. 147 — Lemur, I. 210, 226— 228 ; group of, Plate 7 Ringed Plover, IV. 165, 201 — Seal, II. 233, * 231 Snake, IV. *328, 329; head and sub-caudals of, * 329 Worms, V. 290, VI. 224— 243 Risso's Grampus, II. * 256 ; larynx of, * 246 River and Marsh Crocodile, The Indian, IV. 264 — Tortoises, IV. 252— 258 , Bullhead, The, V. 95 Crayfish, VI. 206, 207 Dolphins, II. 248—250 — Horse, The Common, II. 348,319, *352 — Jack Viper, IV. 315 Lamprey, V. * 145 — Limpet, V. 224 Mussel, V. 242 — Shrew, The West African, I. 363, * 364, 365 ; upper jaw, *363; lower jaw, *36l Snail, V. 211 Roach, The, V. 125, * 129, 133 " Roacl-ruuner," The, III. 325 Roan Antelope, III. 29 Robber Crab, VI. * 203 Rock Cavy, III. 144 — Dove, IV. 125 Limpet, V. 155, 218 Pigeons, IV. 149 — Rat, III. 130; dentition, *130 — Snakes, IV. 303, 331—334 Recklings, The, V. 64 Rocky Mountain Locust, V. 338, VI. 128 — Pica, III. 150 Rodent families, Table of the, III. 156 Rodentia, Fossil, III. 151—157 Roebuck, The, III. 49, * 63 ; fore-limb bones, II. *335, 336 Rollers, or Short-tailed Snakes, IV. 303, 324, 335 (Birds), The, III. 365-365 ; IV. 240 ; fossil forms, 240 Rook, The Common, IV. *3; head of, * 2 — Chinese, IV. 3 Root-headed Crustacea, VI. 196, 218 Root Vole, The, III. 117 Rorquals, The, II. 263, 265— 267 Rosary-shell, The, V. 215 Roseate Tern, IV. 205 Rose Aphis, VI. * 115 — Beetle, V. 381 Rosechafers, V. 322, 326. * 331 Rose-cheeked Kingfisher, III. 349 Rosella, or Rose Parrakeet, III. 315, * 316 Rose-ringed Parrakeet, III. 313, *314 Rossi's Stick-insect, VI. * 131 Ross's Large-eyed Seal, II 241 Rostrum, The, or suctorial organ in the Rhynchota, VI. 101, *103 Rosy Feather-star, VI. 273, 274 ; Larva of, * 265 — Idya, The, VI. 280 Rotifers, The, VI. 245—249 Rotche, Tbe, IV. 209, 218 Rough-backed Caiman, IV. 269 — Dab, The, V. 67 head, The, V. 131 — Hound, V. 32, 33, 63 necked Jacare, IV. 270 tail Snakes, IV. 324 -winged Shallows, The South African, IV. 91 Rouliu's Tapir, II. 318, 321 Round and Thread Worms, VI. 249—254 Round-faced Macaque, I. 117, 118 Roussette, The, I. 274, *275 Roux's Horseshoe Bat, I. 285 Royal Tiger. Pfafe 14 Ruby-tail, The, V. 384 Kud'd, The, V. 130 Ruft, Tbe, IV. * 165, 166 Ruffe, The, V. 79 Ruffed Black-and-white Lemur, I. 229 • Lemur, I. 226, 229, * 230 ; skeletons, 231 Rufous Kangaroo Rat, III. 199 Oven Bird, IV. 112 Swallow, IV 77 Ruminant animal, III. 1 — £0 ; chew ing of the cud, . 1 — 3 ; characteristic features of the, 3 ; classification, 4 ; typical and aberrant Ruminants, 4, 5 Rumination, The act of, III. 3 Ruminants, Fossil, III. 78—80 Runners, The, VI. 121 Running Bugs, VI. 104 Rush Toad. IV. 360, *361 Ruppell's Griffou, III. 260 Rusiue Deer, III. 49, 59—61 Russell's Viper, IV. 315 Rusty-spotted Cat, II. 57 Sable, The, II. 185, * 186 Antelope, III. 28 Sabre-toothed Tiger, II. 204, 205 Sacred Apes, I. 86 Baboon, 1. 136, * 140, P!a(e5 Ibis, IV. * 189, 190 — Monkeys, I. 86 ; a Veuetiau traveller's account of, 86 Saddle-back Seal, II. 235, * 236 Sagittated Calamary, V. 169 Saiga, The, III. *15,16 Sail Fluke, V. 68 Sajou, The, I. 178-185 Saker Falcon, III. 294 Said, The, I. 185, 191-196, 203 Salamanders, IV. 344, 369-376 — - Tadpole, IV. 372 Sa^maudroids, IV. 371 Salmon, The, V. 2, 5, 6, 8, 12, 13, * 113— 115, 117 , Parasites of the, VI. 217 — Trout, V. 115, 116 Salpa-rhaius, V. * 257 Saltie, The, V. 71 Sanibur Deer, III. 49, * 55, 59 Sand Eel, V. 65, 115 , The Greater, V. * 66 , The Lesser, V. 66 Flea, VI. 100 Flies, VI. 82 Grouse, III. 24t, IV. 149 hopper, The, VI. 212 Launce, V. 79, 86, 92 Lizard, IV. 272, * 273 Martin, IV. 91 Monitor, IV. 278 piper, The, IV. 163—166, V. 145 Plovers. IV. 168 Smelt, V. 10) Snakes. IV. 335 . star, The, VI. 259, 269 TO POPULAR NAMES. 387 Sand sucker, The, V. 67 — Wasps, V. 374 Sandwich Tern, IV. 204, 205 Sandy Kay, V. 42 Sao Worm, VI. * 228, 231 Sapphirine Gurnard, V. 96 b'arco le, Definition of, VI. 332 Sarcoblast, Definition of, VI. 343 Sardine, The, V. 66, £0, 138 Sassaby, The, III. 24 Satellite Moth, VI. (jo Satin Bird, IV. 54 — Bower Bird, * 53, 51 Saub.i Ant, V. *383 Saury, The, V. 123 iSauvtgardr, The South Ameri- can, IV. *276 Savi's Warbler, IV. 51 fc-aw-tish, V. 10, 12, 26, 38 fly, The, V. 355, VI. 7, 8, 17, 94 ; larva of, V. * 355 tooth Kterrinck, II. 243 Scabbard Fish, V. 86 Scad, The, V. 86 Scale- back, The, VI. "30 — Worms, VI. 230 Scales of different genera of Lepidoptera, VI. *27 — Fish, V. *9 Scale-winged Insects, VI. 21— 69 Scallop, The, V. 230, 231, 236 Scaly Ant-eaters, III. 172—180 Scansores, The, III. 309 Scansorial Barbets, IV. 31 order of Picariau Birds, III. 309 Scaptonyx, The, I. 373 Scarabseus Beetle, V. 322, 321 *325 Scarlet-faced or White-skinned Saki, 1. 193-195 Ibis, IV. 189 Mite, VI. 181 Tauager, IV. 94 Scheltopusik, The, IV. * 299, 336 Schlaugeubad Snakes, IV. 329 Schlegel's Japanese Otary, II. 221 Schomburgk's Deer, HI. 49, ' 60, 63 Schreiber's Bat, I. 310 Scincoids, The, IV. 295 Scissor-bills, The, IV. 203 Sclater's Hornbill, III. 353 Sclavonian Grebe, IV. 212 Scombroid Fishes, V. 8!> Scopulipede Solitary Apidae, V. 367,368 Scolopeudrine Scale-back, VI. 2:50 Scorpion, The, VI. 162 — Fly, VI * 15, 16 shell, Tbe, V. • 192 Scorpions and Spiders, VI. 158 —179, 223 Scotch Arsus Butterfly, VI. 35 Drover's Dog, II. 138 Greyhound, II. 131 Shepherd's Dog, II. * 119, ]38 — Terrier, II. 145 Scoters, The, IV. 192, 194 Scottish Grouse, IV. 141 Screamers, IV. 191, 192, 237 Screw-shell, The, V. 210 Scytodides, Tl-e, VI. 174 Sea Adder, V. 55, 103 — Anemone, VI. 204, 259, 277, 29 1, 295, 297, Plate 70; verti- cnl section of, 302; thread- cells of, * 303 — Bear, II. 219 ; palate of, "221. — Birds, IV. £03-213 Bream. V. 81, 87 . — , The Blavk, V. 81 him, VI. 270 Cat. II. 219, V. 92 Cocks, V. 96 — Cucumber, V. 65, VI. 213, 259, 260, 271, * 27-' Devil, V. 4J,93 Eagle, III. 285, 233; head and bill, * 255 • eggs, VI. 269 Sea Fan, VI. 309 Geese, IV. 193 hedgehog, VI. 259, 269 Horse, II. 212, V. 2, 53, £5, 56,57 — Lainprey, V. * 144 Lemons, V. * 227 — Leopard, II. 232, 241, * 242 ; teeth of, • 2 4:i lily, VI. 259, 263, *273 — Lion family, II. 216— .31, Plate 20; palate of tLe Pata- gouiau, II. * 224 — , The, in six different attitudes, II. * 227 — Lions on the Farallone Islands, II. *223 Lobsters, VI. 205 Long Worm, VI. 258 mats, V. 270, 279 n osses, V. 269 — 276 ; classi- fication, 276 — Mouse, VI. * 230 Mussel, V. * 239 — Oak Coralline, VI. 290 — Otter, II. 201, * 202, * 203, 209 ; skull of, • 201 pens, VI. 305, 306 — Pie, The, IV. 171 Scorpion, V. * 95 scurfs, V. 279, 280 — Serpent, The Supposed, V. SO — Slugs, V. 227 — Snail, V. 97 — Snakes, IV. 327 — Snipe, V. 103 — Spiders, VI. 160 — Squid, V. 154 squirts, V. 253, 270 — Swallows, IV. 204—206 Unicorn (see Narwhal) Urchin, V. 115, 153, VI. 259, 260, 261. * 262, 283, 269, " 1 70, 271, 273 Seals, II. 209—244; a seal fight, * 221 ; teeth of Common Seal, * 232 ; skeleton, " 232 ; Eskimo hunters waiting for, *235; Seal-huntin?, 237 Seal-toothed Whales, II. 247 Secretary Bird, III. 265, *266, 267 Sedge Warblers, IV. 44 Senegal Galago, I. * £36, 237 — Jackal, II. 157 Mud Turtle, IV. 258 — Parrot, III. 314 Sennaar Galago, I. 238 Seraphim Motbs, VI. 67 Serotine, The, I. 301 Serow (or Surrow), The, III. 26 Serpent Eagles, III. 284 — , Viscera of a, IV. * 337 ; eye of, 337 Sertulariau Polypes, The, VI. 277 Serval, The, II. 56 Sessile-eyed Crustacea, VI. 206, 210 Setter, Tbe, II. 141 Seven-gilled Shark, V. *32 — -spotted Lady-bird, V. *35l Sevputeen-years' Locust, VI. 112 Sewellel, The, III. 96, 97 Sex in Bees, V. 357 Sezekorn's Leaf Bat, T. 335 Shad, The, V 6, 135, 137 Salmon, V. 119 Shag, The, V. 72 fhagreeu Ray, V. 41 Shank-shell, The, V. 193 Shanny, The, V. 99 Sbnpoo, 'I he, III. 8 "Shark "Moths, VI. 65 Sharks, V. 2—4, 7—16, 15—37, 97 ; parasites of, VI. 218 Sharp-nosed Eel, V. 140 shinned Hawk, III 270 Sheep, III. 5—9 ; brain of, * 3; various breeds of the domestic Sheep, 5 — 7; bones of left fore limb, II. * 335, 336 — Dog, II. 138 pests, VI. 97 — Tick, VI. 97 Sheldrake, The, IV. 194 Shell-covered Crustacea, VI. 196, 216 structure, Sections of, V. * 260, * 261 Shelled Insects, VI. 215 Shells, Knowledge of the Mol- lusca from, V. 154 ; uses of the shell, 189 ; various kinds of shells, 191 Shetland Pony, II. * 305, 306 Shield Bugs, VI. 104 Shoe-Hlled Stork, IV. 184, * 185 Shore Crab, V. 161 — The Common, VI. 194, 197, 199, *200, 211; meta- morphoses of, * 194 Short-eared Owl, HI. *S04, 305 headed Flying Phalanger, III. 207 — Whale, II. 252, 255 tailed Baugsriug, I. 3JO — Bat, '1 he New Zealand, I. 322—324 — Chinchilla, III. 139 Crustacea, VI, 197— 202 — Eagle. III. 284 — Indris, 1. * 221, 222 Kangaro", III. 197 Mole, I. 372 Mouse, III. 115 — Opossum, III. 222 — or Five-fingered Pan- go in, III. 174, * 175 — Pangolin, III. 174, "175 Snak--s, Family of, IV. 335 tongued Lizards, IV. 279— 290 Sliorthorn Cattle, III. 32, 33, 34 Shovel-head, The, V. 45 Shoveller, 'I he, IV. 194 Shrew, Ihe Common, I. 376; skeleton of, * 343 footed Uropsile, I. 376 — Mole, The Common, I. 373 Mouse, I. 376 Shrews, I. 376—382 Shrikes, IV. 63 Shrimp, The, VI. 189, 192, * 208 fciamaug, The, I. * 74, 75, 7t>, 163 ; skeleton, * 76 Siamese Muggar, IV. 265 Sibbald's Rorqual, II. 267 Sickle-billed Birds of Paradise, IV. 21 — -bills, The, IV. 21 Sifac, or White Indris, I. 218, 220 Sisaliou, The Boar-shaped, VI. 230 Sileuus Ape, I. 117 Silkworm, The, VI. 21, 25, 60, *61 Silky Tamarin, I. 202 Siluioid Fishes, V. 7, 12, 14, 16, 108, 111 S.lver-studded Blue Butterfly, VI. 43 Y Moth, VI. 65 Silvery Gade, V. 64 — Gibbon (see Wow-wow) Gull, IV. 207 Hairtail, V. 86 Shrew Mole, I 374 Simpai, The (see Black-crested Monkey) Simple Ascidians. V. 252—254 toothed Rodents, III. 85 -145 Singing Birds, IV. 2, 36- 109 Sing-sing Antelope, III. 19, 20, 21 Siusriuars, I. 347 Siren, The, FV. 343, 344, 375, 376 Sisel, or Suslik, The, III. 93 Siskin, The, IV. * 97 Sitaris, The, V. » 337, 338, 339 Six-banded Armadillo, III. 181, *185 — -gilled Shark, V. 31 -plulned Bird of Paradise, IV. 25 Skate, The, V. 2, 10, 11, 97; brain, * 25 Skate, The Burton, V. 41 — Common, V. 41 Long-nosed, V, 41 White, V. 41 • -sucker, The, VI. 242 Skeleton Shrimp, VI. 212, 213 Skeletons : — Armadillo, III. * 182 Civet, II. * 87 Common Lizard, IV. * 275 — Perch, V. * 3 Crab-eating Opossum, III. •220 Dog - headed Thylaciuus, III. *217 Domestic Cat, II. * 62 Frog, IV. * 346 Giraffe, III. *44 Gorilla, I. * 21 Great Kangaroo, III. * 192 Halitherium, II. *272 Hyeena, II. * 80 Horse, II. * 302 Indian Elephant, II. * 273 Irish Elk, III. * 79 Lion, II. * 5 Logger-head Turtle, IV. *245 Mammoth, II. * 288 Manatee, II. * 268 Mandrill, I * 162 Mouse-coloured Bat, I. * 260 Nschiego, I. *41 Otaria, II. * 210 Plesiosaurus, IV. * 340 Polar Bear, II. * 5 Rabbit, III. * 83 Rhinoceros, II. * 323 Ruffled Lemr.r, I. * 231 Seal, II. * 232 Shrew, I. « 343 Siamang, I. * 76 Sloth, III. * 161 Snake, IV. * 303 Sperm Wha'e, II. * 246 Tortoise, IV. * 243, * 245 Weasel, II. * 182 Wolf, II. * 98 Wombat, III. 201 Skimmers, 'Ihe, IV. 203 Skink, The Common, IV. * 295, 296 Skipper, The, V. 123 — Butterflies, VI. 52, 53 Skittle-dog, The, V. 31 Skua, The, IV. 198, 203, 207, *208 Skulpin, The, V. 98 Skunk, The Common, II. 196, * 197, 198 Skye Terrier, II. 145 Skylark, The Common, IV. 107, *108 Slender Loris, I 247 — -beaked Spider Crab, VI. 197, »198 Slipper Animalcule?, VI. 355 — -shell, The, V. 213 Slit-shell, The, V. * 216 Sloan's Rhinoceros, II. 325, *326 Sloth Animalcules, VI. 185 — Bear, II. 172, * 173, 174 — , The, III. 163; skelet'-n, * 161 ; fckull, * 163 ; stomach. *167 Sloths, III. 158—165 ; group of. •158 Slow Lemuroids, The Asiatic, I. 245—248 — Lemurs, The African, I. 241—245 Loris, I. 241, * 244, *2;5 -worm, The, IV. * 297 Slug, The, V. 219, 220, 222, 223. 216 Small Copper Butterfly, VI. * 44 Eft, IV. 370 — Eggar, VI. 26 — 'J ortoiseshell Butterfly, VI. *38 — -nailed Seal, II. 241 Smaller Bird of Paradise, IV. 23 Smelt, The, V. 13, * 118, 131 — , Tbe New Zealand, V. 113 Smew, The, IV. 194 Smith's Helmet Shrike, IV. 29 388 NATURAL HISTORY. Smoky Mastiff Bat, I. 320 Smooth Blenny, V. 99 Dab, V. 71 Hound, V. 28, * 29 Sarranus, V. 80 Snakes, The European, IV. 327 Sole, V. 69 winged Swallows, IV. 91 Snail, The, V. 190, 218—222, 230 Snake-charmers, IV. 306, 324 — -flies, VI. 15 -headed Tortoises, IV. 255 -like Lizards, IV. 301 — -ueck, The, IV. * 199, 200 poisoning, IV. 323 Snakes, The, IV. 300— £38 ; ana- tomy of a Snake, 302, 322, 323 ; skeleton, * 303 ; scales on head, *303 • , Hatred of, by Monkeys, I. 101, 105 Snapping Turtle, IV. 251 Snipes, IV. 162—167 "Snout" Moth, VI. 66 Snow Bunting, IV. 4 Cocks, IV. 143 • Mouse, III. 117 • Partridge, IV. 146, 147 Suowy Owl, III. * 303, 301 Snub-nosed Cachalot, II. 255 Social Ascidians, V. 254 • Hymenoptera, V. 371 - Vulture, III. 257 Soemmerrius's Gazelle, III. 15 Soft-fiimed Fishes, V. 58—74 • shelled Tortoise, IV. *24l, 256 Tortoises, IV. 25ft— 258 Soko, The, I. 46—49, 58; a joung Soko, *47; a S3ko hunt, *48 Soldier Crabs, VI. 204, 304 Moth, VI. 67 Sole, The, V. 72—74 like Fishes, V. 67—74 Solenette, The, V. 73 Solid-hoofed breed of Pigs, II. 343 ; foot of, * 313 Solitaire, The, IV. 122, * 123, 240 Solitary Bees, V. 367 - Wasps, V. 372, 373 So-ag Thrush, IV. 36, 37, * 38, 39, 42 Songless Birds, IV. 109-121 Soothsayer, The, VI. 13, 130 Sooty Albatross, IV. 211, * 213 Tern, IV. 205 - Water Mouse, III. 114 Soricine Bat, I. 333 ; head of, »333 Sounds of Beetles, V. 298 South African Chanting Gos- hawk, III. 271 Griffon, III. 260 American Mud-fish, V. 20 Ostrich, IV. 224, 225, Plate 43 — Tortoises, V. 253 Pacific Whale. II. 263, 2,5 Southern Cavy, III. 144 Caracara, III. 264 Field Vole, III. * 116 Sow, The Domestic, II. *311 Sowerby's Whale, II. 251 Spallanzani, Abbe, Experiments on Bats by, I. 262—261 Spanish Mackerel, V. 89 Sparrow-Hawk, The, III. 255, 268, 272, *273, 308 , The Common, III. 272 Spawn-eater, The, V. 131 Speckled Emys, IV. 253 Spectacled Bear, I£. 174 Cheirogale, I. 235 Cobra, IV. 301 Stenoderm, I. 336 ; head of, * 234 : mouth of, * 328 Vampire, I. 262, 264 , or Skeleton Shrimp, VI. 212, *213 Spectre Tarsier, I. 218, 250 Speke's Antelope, III. 23 Sperm Whale, II. 252—255, V. 163 ; typical specimen, * 253 ; skeleton of, * 216 ; tooth of, » 252 ; hunting of the, 253, 254 Spermophiles, The, III. * 92 Sphargis, The, IV. 260 Sphenodon Lizard (seeTuatera) Sphinges, The, VI. 25, 29, 31, 54 —57 Sphinx Baboon, I. 148, 150 Spider Ants, V. 377, 381 — Crab, VI. 19S Monkey, I. 172—174, 203 ; group of, Plate 6 ; brain, ]. * 173 ; jaw, * 174 ; hand, * 174 — or Scorj ion Shell, V. 192 Spiders, V. 376, VI. 164—179 ; anatomy, 167, 168 ; classifica- tion, 160, 169 Spindle-shell, The, V. 193 stromb, The, V. 192 Spine-tails, The, IV. 111—113 Spiuous Loach, V. 133 — Shark, V. 35 Spider Crab, VI. 198 Spiny-tinned Fishes, V. 78— 1"7 — or Hedgehog Eat, III. 131 Lobster, The Common, VI. 201, 205, Plate 66; larva of, *205 — Triouyx, IV. 256 Spire-bearers, The, V. 265 Spirula, The, V. 181 Split tongued Lizards, IV. 272 —279 Sponges, V. 153, VI. 277, 312— 331 ; Robert Grant's re- searches, 313—* 315 ; various kinds of Sponges, 318; the canal system ; 318, 319 ; Sponge spicules, 320, *321, * 322, * 330 ; a silicious Sponge, * 323 ; a calcareous Sponge, *324 Spoonbill, The, IV. * 183 Spoonbills and Ibises, IV. 187— 190 Spotted Axis Deer, III. 49 Dog-fish, V. * 32 — Ellipsoglossus, IV. 370 — Emu, IV. 233, 235 Flycatcher, IV. 94 Goby, V. 98 — Hog Deer, III. 59 — Hyena, II. 81 ; teeth, * 81 — Menobrauchus, IV. 376 — Kay, V. 42 — Salamander. IV. 371, * 372 — Snake, The English, IV.331 Wild Cat, II. 59 Wrasse, V. 75 Spout-shell, The, V. 203 Sprat, The, V. 13, 133, * 137 Spriug-b;>k, The, III. 15 Springer, The, II. 132 Spurred Tree Frog, IV. 335 Spur-shell, The, V. 214 winged Geese, IV. 193, 237 Squalodons, The, II. 217. 218 Squid, The, V. 92, 155, 162, 163, 165, 166, * 167, 170 — family. V. 165-180 Squirrel, Flying thalanger, III. 207, * 208 — Monkey, I. 185, 186, 203 — , The Common, III, * 86, 87, 88 — -like Eodents, III. 85, 86— 101 Squirrels, The True, III. 87 St. Bernard Dog, II. 135, Plate 17 — James's Shell, V. 236 Stag, Parasites of the, VI. 98 — -beetle, The, V. 298, 322, 323, 324, 347, Plate 58 -horned Longiroru, Plate 59 — hound, The, II. 139 Staircase Shell, V. * 209 Stalked Crinoids, VI. 264, * 273, 274, 276 Stalk-eyed Crustacea, VI. 197, 206. 210 Stanleyau Deerlet, III. 70, * 71 Star-fish, The, V. 6-5, 163, 190, 234, VI. * 259. 260, 263, 261, 267, 268, 269, 270, 274; larva of, * 263 ; bloo 1-vascular system of, * 266 • gazer, The, V. 16, 92 -nosed Mole, I. 373 ; snout, *373 Starling, The Common, IV. 103, * 101 — -like Birds, IV. 101—109 — Perching Birds, IV. 101—103 Starlings, IV. 77, 103—109 Statoblasts of Sponge, VI. * 327, 328 Steiubok, The, III. 17, 18 Stellerids, The, VI. 261, 271 Steller's Blue Jay, IV. 16 — Rhytina, II. 269 — Sea Lion, II. 218, 222—221 Steuoderm, The Jamaican, I. 337 — , The Spectacled, I. 336 ; mouth of, * 328 Sterlet, The, V. 46, 47 Stick and Leaf Insect?, VI. 133 -132 — Insects, VI. 130, * 131 Sticklebacks, The, V. 11, 16, * 101, * 102 ; various species, 102, 103 Stiff-tailed Ducks, IV. 195 Stigmata, Use of, VI. 72 Stilts, or Stilt Plovers, IV. 167 Sting Kays, V. -13 Stinging Hymeuoptera, V. 359 —384 Sting-winkle, The, V. 192 Stoat, The, II. 188, * 189 Stock Dove, IV. 125 Stomach of a Ruminating ani- mal, III. *2 • the Camel, Til. 72; water-cells of the, * 73 Stone Bass, V. 80 Curlew, IV. * 172 Fly, VI. 142 Lily, V. 154 — Marten, If. 185 Stony Corals, VI. i77 — Miilepores, VI. 277, 307 Stork-billed Kingfishers, III. 349 Storks, The, IV. 184—187, 190 Stormy Petrel, IV. 2J8, *203, 210, 213 Straight-billed Parrots, III. 309, 319 Strand Mole Rat, III. 122 Stmtiomyides, The, VI. 83 Straw - coloured Bat, I. 311 ; head of, *312 — Tabularia, VI. * 289 Streaked Gurnard, V. 96 — 'Taurec, I 360 Striped-bellied Tunny, V. 90 — Hyaena, II. 79, 83, Plate 15 ; teeth, II. * 81 — Mouse, III. Ill — Sack-winged Bat, I. 313 ; dentition, * 313 ; wing, * 313 ; arm, * 313 Spermophile, or Gopher, III. * 92, 93 — Surmullet, V. 81 Wrasse, V. 75 Stroml.s, The, V. 191, 192 Struthious Birds, III. 239, 254, IV. 224-236 Stump-tailed Lizard, IV. * 296 Sturgeons, V. 2, 7, 8, 10—15, 45 -47 Stylasters, The, VI. 277, 293 Stylops, The, V. * 339 Siib-elapbine Deer, HI. 57—59 Snberite Mouaxouid, Piafe 71 Suckers, The, V. £6 Sucking Fish, The, V. * 91 — Lice, VI. 103 Sulphur-bottom Whale, II. 267 Sumatra Monkey, I. *92, 95 Suroatrau Broadbill, IV. 120 — Rhinoceros, II. 324, 332; head of, * 330 Summer or Wood Duck, IV. *193 — Snipe, IV. 164 Yellow Bird, IV. 82 Sun Animalcules, VI. *341 — Bear, II. 170—172 Beetle, V. 303, 3 '8 Birds, III 333, IV 73, 75, 77 — Bittern, IV. 175 Sun Fish, The, V. 3, 10, 11, 14, 48, 52, 53 Sunset shell, The, V. 247 Suricate, The, II. 207, * 208 Surinam Toad, IV. 349, * 350 Surmullet, The Striped, V. 81 Susu, The, or Gangetic Dol- phin, II. 2.8, * 249, ; skull and teeth of, * 248 ; flipper of, *249 Swainson's Cuckoo - Falcon, III. 291 Swallow, The Common, IV. 92, * 93 : parasite of, VI. 98 — Dicseus, IV. * 85 tailed Butterfly, VI. 34, 40, 50, 52 Kite, III. 287 Moth, VI. 66 Swallows, IV. 77, 89 — 94; sternum of a Swallow and a Swift, * 90 Swamp Deer, III. 49, 55, 59, 64 Swans, IV. 192, 394 ; eye of, III. 280 " Swift " Moths, VI. 64 — , The, III. 244, 328 Swifts, III. 372-376; sternum of a Switt, IV. * 90 Swimming Crabs, VI. 199, 203 Swine, III. 1 Swinhoe's Deer, III. 49, 59 Sword-bill Humming Bird, IIL '377 — -fi-h, V. 2, 6, 11, 14, 30 — , The Common, V. * 85, Plate 51 — , The Flyiug_, V. * 85 Sword-fishes, V. 85 ; alleged battle between Sword-fishes and Fox Sharks, 85 tail Crustacea, VI. 193, 213 Sycon Calcisponge, Plate 71 Sykes' Monkey, I. 107 Syrian Bear, II. 169 Tadpole Hake, V. 64 Ta-lpoles, IV. 3(7, 348, 349, 352, 357, 360, 366; structure of, *348 Ta-uan, The, III. 88, *89; skull, * 82 ; teeth, * 85 Taguar Phahnger, III. 203 Tahr, The, III 12 Ta'led Amphibia, IV. 369—379 — and Vermiform Amphi- bians, TV. 369—379 Wasps, V. *353, 355; VI. 6,7 Tail-less Ape, I. 123, 124 — Batrachiane, IV. 345—368 ; anatomy of the, 345, 346 — Shrew, I. 381 Tailor Bird, IV. * 57, 53 Tait, or Noolbenger, III 208 Tajuca, The, II. 347 Takin, The, III. 27 Talapoin, The, I. * 110 163 Tamandua, The, III. 178 Tauiarin Monkeys, I. 185-197, 200-203 Tana, The, I. 347 — , The Golden-tailed, I. *348 Tauagers, IV. 91, 120 Tangle-fish, V. 55 Taugue (see Taurec) Taurec, The, I. 359-363, Plate 11 ; dentition, * 359 Tapayaxin, The, IV. 286 Tape Worms, VI. 224. 255, * 256 ; leproduct'on of, 255 Tapir, The, II. 317-321; foot of, * 377 ; skull, * 317 , The American, II. *319 , The Malayan, II. * 320 Tapoa Tafa, The, III. 217 Tarpan, The, II. *296, 297 Tasmanian Devil, II. 206 Tataupa, The, IV. 224 Tatouay, The, III. 1S4 Tawny Owl, III. 306 Tayra", The, II. 192 INDEX TO POPULAR XAMES. Teal, The, IV. 191 Tequexin, 'Ihe Common, IV. * 276 Teledu, The, II. 196 Teleostean nshes, V. 24, 48 — 143 ; fossil species, 148, 149 Telescope-tish, V. 127 shell, V. 190 Tel air's Tendrac, I. 360, Plate Jl Temminck's Bat, I. 302, 303; head of, * 303 — Snapper, IV. 255 Temple of Serapis, Perforations made by Lithodomi in the, V. *240 Tench, The, V. 9, 12, 13, 125, *131 Tenurac, The, I. 360, Plate 11 — , The Eice, I. 360 Tengmalm's Owl, III. 297, 305 ; skull, * 297 Ten-spined Stickleback, V. * 101, 103 Tent Caterpillar, IV. 16 Tentacled Cirratulus, VI. 235 Terebrant Hymenoptera, V. 358 Teredo, The, V. 239 Terns, or Sea-swallows, IV. 195, 198, 203, 204— 2u6 Termites, V. 353 Terrapins, The, IV. 252 'J errestrial AuamMae of the Old World aud Australia, IV. 284 -287 Terrier, The English, II. 141 , The Scotch, II. 145 Tetr.Klons, The, V. 50, 51 Texan Shrew Mole, I. 374 Thainyn, The, III. 60 Thick-footed Bat, I. 302 ; denti- tion of, * 292 knee, or Stone Curlew, IV. * 172, 174 legged Bats, I. 312—324 ; dentition of, * 292 tailed Opossum, III. 222 Galago (tee Grand Galago) Thigh-mouthed Crustacea, VI. 213 Thong Seal, II. 237 Thorn back, The, V. 38, *42 Tnorn-i'evil, The Australian, IV. 286 • 287 headed Worm', VI. * 250 tailed Agama, IV. 284 Thorny Oyster, V. 203, 236 Thrash, rs, The, IV. 59 Thread Worms, VI. 224, 2cO, 252, * 253 Three-bearded Booklinsr, V. 64 clawed Ai, III. 161, 165 horned Chainseleon, IV. 292,293 spined Stickleback, V. 102 striped Owl Monkey, I. 189 -191 ; arm-bone of, * 189 toed Sloth, III. 165; bones of hand, * 162 Thoth, The Egyptian, I. 137 Thresher, or 'Fox Shark, II. 254, 265, V. 30, 32 Thrips, or Thrip, The, VI. 14" Thrushes, IV. 35—43 — proper, IV. 36 • Thrush-like Perching Birds, IV. 2—35 Thumbless Monkeys, I. 99—102, 172 Thnrgi, The, IV. 253 Thylacine, or Tasmanian Wolf, II. 206 Tibet Dog, II * 144 Tibetan Sun Bear, II. 170 - Water Shrew. I. 381 Ticks, The, VI 181 Ti^er, The, II. 30^10; anato- mical character, 31 ; in the jungle, * 32 ; the dying, * 33 ; Sir J. Fayrer on the, 32—34, 38; habits, 33: tiger- hunting, 36, *37, 38—40 , The Royal, Plate H Beetles, V. iP8, 300—303 -Bittern, IV. 195 • -Cat, The Marbled, II. 53 Tiger Cat, The Long- tailed, If. 54 Moth, VI. 23, 58 — -shell, V. 204 Wolf, II. 81 Tinamou, The, III. 254, IV. 223, 221 , The Elegant, IV. 224 Tinker, The, V. * 101, 102 Titmice. IV. 65 Toad, The, IV. 341, 317, 358; habits, 359; tongue, 360 , The Common, IV. 358, 360, *361 — , The Surinam, IV. 349, *350 — Lizards, IV. 286 Tolypeutes, The, III. 187, 190 Tomb Bat, I. 315; skull, *315; dentition, * 315 Tooth-billed Kites, III. 290 Pigeon, IV. 123 shells, V. 219 — Coralline, VI. 289 Toothed Whales, II. 247-262 Tope, The, V. 27 Topknot, The, V. 68, 69 Top-shell, The, V. 193 Toque, The, I. 117 Torpedo, The, V. 4, 10, 12 Torsk, The, V. 64 Tortoise, The, IV. 341; skele- ton, * 243, * 245 ; anatomy, 243 —249; scapular apparatus, *246; skull, *247; lungs, *248 Tortoises, The Family of, IV. 249—260 , Great Land, IV. 249— 252 Tortoiseshell, IV. 244, 259 — Burterfly, VI. 24 Toucan, The, III. 338, 339, * 310 ; bill of, * 341 Touraco, The, IV. 131; fossil forms, 240 Townseud's Bat, I. 293 ; ear and head of, Z296 Tragopan, The, IV. 134 Trap-door Spiders, VI. 170, Plate 65 Tree Boa, The Soiith American, IV. 335 — Creepers, III. 309, IV. 70, 111 — Frogs, IV. 346, 347, 363, 365, 366 Lizards, IV. 326 Mice, III. 113 — -Pies, IV. 14 — Porcupines, III. 135, * 136 Ttat, III. 110 — Snakes, IV. 300, 324, 326 — Squirrels, III. 88 — Swifts, III. 373 Tremoctopus, The, V. 164 Trepang, The, II. 252, VI. 271, 272, 273 Triangular Crabs, VI. 197 Trichiuriformes, The, V. 85 Tricuspid Sertularella, VI. 289 Trilobite, The, VI. 196, 210, 214 ; eye of, * 207 Trimeresurids, The, IV. 320 Triton, The, IV. 343, 370, V. 191 ; shell, *191, 195 — , The Great, V. 200 Troglodytes, The Great, I. 4 Trcgons, The, III. 365—367 Tropic Birds, IV. 195, * 197 Trotting Horse of America, II. 304 Trout, The, V. 115, 116, 117, Plate 52 True Babblers, IV. 51—55 - Bustards, IV. 174 Camel, III. 73, *74; head of, *73 — Colubrines, IV. 301, 329 — Cranes, IV. 175 — Compound Ascidians, V. 254-256 — Dolphins, II. 259 Ducks, IV. 192 — Eagles, III. 280 — Finches, IV. 95—99 - Frogs, IV. 354, 356, 358, 363 Gibbons, I. 74, 76 True Goshawks, III. 271 — Gulls, IV. 206 - Herons, IV. 178—184 Honey-eaters, IV. 73—75 — Jerboas, III. 125 — Laniellicoruia, V. 324 — 330 Lice, VI. 117, 147 - Locust, VI. 126 — Moles, I. 367, 372 Nuthatches, IV. 69 — Paradise Birds, IV. 21 - Petrels, IV. 202, 210 — Pheasants, IV. 131, 132— 137 — Pigeons, IV. 124—128 — Plovers, IV. 168—171 — Porcupines, III. 131 — Bails and Crakes, IV. 158 — Bavens, IV. 4 ringed Worms, VI. 225 Buminauts, III. 4 — Serpents, IV. 336 — Skate, V. 40 Spiders, VI. 166—169 — Starling, IV. 103 — Storks, IV. 181, 186 — Swine, II. 337 Voles, III. 115 - Wasps, V. 375 Trumpeters, IV. 178 Trumpet-fish, V. 103, * 104 Truuk-fish, The, V. 8 Trygons, The, V. 43 Tschakmeck (see Chameck) Tschiego, The, I. 39 Tsetse Fly, VI. • 95 Tuatera, The, IV. 290, 341 ; skull, • 280 Tube Coral, VI. 294 makers, 1 he, VI. 233— 210 Tubularians, The, VI. 277, 286— 288 Tub-fish, The, V. 96 Tukotuko, I he, III. 130 •i un, The, V. 199 Tunicata, Ihe, V. 151, 153, 232, 252—257 Tunicate, Structure of the, V. - 252 Tunny, The, V. 5, 8, 10, 13, 15, 16, 89, 90, 91 Turatt, The, III. 196 Tui-bellarian Worms, VI. 247, 257 Turbo, The, V. 214 Turbot, The, V. 2, 8, 13, 67— 69 Turdiformes, Group of the, IV. -2 Turf Ant, V. 381 Turkey Buzzard, IV. 197 Vulture, III. 256, 263 ; bill of, * 256 Turkey Sponge, VI. 312, • 313, *315 Turkeys, IV. 137—139 Turkish Dog, II. 135 Greyhound, II. 131 Hemidactyle, IV. * 283, 290 Turnip-fly, The, V. 296, 349 — -jack, V. 348 Turnspit, The, II. 141 Turnstones, IV. 168 Turtles, IV. 258-260 ; head of Turtle, * 246 Tuscan Shrew, I. 378 Tnsseh Silkworm, VI. 61 Twaite Shad, V. 1:57 Twelve-wired Bird of Paradise, IV. 21, '22 Twenty-plume Moth, VI. * 69 '1 wo-banded Water Lizard, IV. 278 fingered Sloth, III. 161, 162, 166 horned Black Rhinoceros, 11.329 humped Camel, III. * 75, 76 toed Ant-eater, III. 179, *180 Sloth, II r. 159 toothed Cachalot, II. 251 wineed Flies, V. 295 Tyrant Birds, IV. 115-117 Tyrian purple, V. 193 U Uakari, The, I. 193-195 Ularburoug, The, IV. 324 Umbre, The, IV. 184 Umbrella Bird, IV. * 48 Umbres, The, IV. 184 Unau, The, II [. 159, 162, 161, 166 Unctuous Lump-sucker, V. 97 Unicorn, The, II. 321, 322 shell, V. 198 Uuio family, V. 211, 242 Univalve shells, V. 189 Upholsterer Bee. V. 369 Urraca Magpie, III. 270 Ursine Dasyure, III. 212—215; teeth, * 214 ; brain, * 214 ; skull, * 215 Urson.The, III. 136 Urus, 'Ihe, II. 321, 322, III. 35 Vacuoles, Definition of, VI. 336 Valve-tailed Bat, I. 316 Vampire Bat, I. 331 ; head of, •331 Vampires, I. 271. 324—340 ; blood-sucking habits of, 325 — 327 Van Beneden's Whale, II. 251 — Bosnian's Potto, I. 242 Vapourer Moth, VI. 58 Varanus, The, IV. *278 Vardon's Antelope, III. 20 Variable Ixalns, IV. 366 Toad, IV. 360 Variegated Monkey, I. * 93, 95 Sole, V, 73 Spider - Monkey, I. 177, » 179 Vaulting Monkey, 1. 109 Velella, The, VI. 284 Velvet Fiddler Crab, VI. 199 Sponge, VI. 318 Venada, The, III. 69 Vendace, The, V. 119 Venomous Colubrines, IV. 300 Venus' Basket, VI. 318, * 319, * 329, 330 Girdle, VI. * 279 Vermes, The, V. 153, 281 Verreaux's Cuckoo-Falcon, III. 291 Vertebrata, Former divisions of the, IV. 242 Vespertilionine Alliance of the Microchiroptera, I. 280—312, 340 Victoria Crowned Pigeon, IV. *127 Vicuna, The, III. 77, 78 Violet Carpenter Bee, The, V. 367 — Land Crab of Jamaica, VI. *202 Snail.V. 216, * 217; its raft, »217 Viper, The Common, IV. 311, »313 Viperiue Snakes, IV. 311—324 Viper?, IV. 300, 301, 311, * 312 Virgii. iau Deer, III. 68 Eared Owl, III. 301 or Common Opossum, III. 220 ; teeth, * 219 Quail, IV. 144 V scacha, The, III. 133, Plate 29 Visiting Ants, V. 382 Vitreous Forarninifera, VI. *347 Viverriue Cat, II. 53, 86 ; skull of, *53 — Dasyure, III. 215 Viviparous Blenny, V. 100 larva (see Cecidornyid) Lizard, IV. 273 Voles, The, III. 115 Volutes and Cones, Plate 55 , The, V. 262, 203 Vulpine Phalanger, III. 205, » 203, 225 390 NATURAL HISTORY. Vultures, The American, III. 262-264 , The Old World, III. 256— 262 Vulturine Sea-Eagle, III. 313 Wading Birds, III. 254, IV. 156 —178, 201 Wagtail Flycatcher, IV. 34 Wagtails and Pipits, IV. 77, 78 -81, 107 Wah (see Panda) Wainscot Moths, VI. 64 Walking-fish, V. 105 stick Insects, VI. 130, 132 Wall-creeper, The, IV. 76 Lizards, I. 349, IV. 274 Wasp, V. 372 Walrus, The, II. 209, 210, 211, 212—216; head of, * 212; skull, *212; on the ice, *215 family, II. 212—216 Wandering Albatross, IV. 211 Penguin, V. 58 Wanderoo, The, I. 117, 127, * 128 ; face of the, * 127 , The Great (see Maha) Wapiti, The, III. 49, 55, 68 Warblers, The, IV. 43, 44 Warrior Ant, V. 381, 382 Wart Hogs, II. 337, 345, *346 Snakes, IV. 324 Warty-faced Honey-eater, IV. 74 Wasp-like Lougicorns, V. 345 Wasp, The, V. 289, 294, 297, 338, £39, 345, 346, *355, 356, 357, 369, 370—373, 380, VI. 92, 93, 91 Water Antelope, III, 17—19, 20 — Beetles, V. 300, VI. 183 Boatmen, VI. Ill Box Tortoises, IV. 254 breathers, VI. 211 buck, The, III. * 19, 20, 21 Bugs, VI. 104, 109—111 Chevrotain, III. * 1, 335, 336; bones of left fore-limb, *335 - — Deer, The Chinese, III. 43, 63 Dperlet, III. * 1, 71 Fleas, VI. 196, 250 hens, IV. 159 Lizards, IV. 277 , The Indian, IV. 278 , The Ocellated, IV.278 Mice, III. 114 ; skull, * 114 Mites, VI. 182 Mole, (>ee Duck-billed Platypus) Newt, The Great, IV. 370, 371, Plate 48 Opossum, III. * 223 T>adda '« oad, IV. 362 - — Pig, III. 145 Rail, IV. 158, 159 Eat, III. 115 ; molar teeth, *115 -rattle, IV. 317 Scorpion, The Common, VI. * 110, 183 - — Shrew, I. 379—381, Plate 12 , The Tibetan, I. 381 Snake, IV. 327, 336 Spaniel, II 134 Spider, VI. * 174 Viper, IV. 319 Vole, III. 115 ; molar teeth, •115 - Wagtail, III. 327, IV. 78, 81 Watering-pot Shell, V. * 250 Wattled Bird of Paradise, IV. 25 — Honey-eater, IV. *74 Wave Moths, VI. 67 Waxen Chatterer, IV. 86, 87, *88 Weasel family, II. 182—198 Lemur, I. 223, * 224 , The Common, II. 186— 188 ; skeleton, * 182 Weaver Bird, IV. 77, 101— K3 , The Indian, IV. 101—103, Plate 40 ; nest, IV. * 101, 102 Weaver's Shuttle, The, V. 206 Weddell's Seal, II. 243 Wedge-tailed Eagle, III. 280 Weeper Capuchin (see Cai) Weevers, Greater and Lesser, V. 92 Weevil, The, V. 299, 336, 310, -341, 342, 374 Welwitsch's Bat, I. * 303, 308 Weutletrap, The, V. 203, 209 West African Kiver Shrew, I. 363, * 364 ; upper and lower jaws, * 363, * 364 — Indian Fire-fly, V. 332, * 333 Westennanu's Pern, III. 290 Whalebone Whales, II. 245, 247, 262—266 ; skull, * 262 Whales, II. 245—267 ; food of, VI. 209, 216, 217 Wheatear, The, IV. 43 Wheat Midge, VI. *80, 81; larva of, 80 Wheel Animalcules, VI. 225, 245—249 Whelk, The, V. 189, 190, 194, 195, * 196, VI. 189 tingle. The, V. 234 Whiff, The, V. 68 Whip-poor-will, The, III. *370 " Whip-Tom-Kelly," IV. 64 Whip Snakes, IV. b'24 — Worm, The, VI. 252 Whirligig Beetles, V. 311 Whiskered Bat, I. 306 Whistler, The, III. 94 White Admiral Butterfly, VI. »4l — Amphisbsena, IV. * 294 — and Red Ermine Moths, VI. 58 — Ant, The American, VI. 363 Ants, IV. 277, V. 297, 356, VI. 121, 136—139; different forms of White Ants, * 137 ; a female from the African coast, *138; nests, 138; sup- plementary females, 139 backed Coly, III. 333 Griffon Vulture, III. 260 — Skunk, II. 198 — - -bearded Monkey, I. 97 bellied Dwarf Snake, IV. 331 Hare-lipped Bat, I. 318 Sea-Eagle, III. 285 Seal, II. 238 Water Mice, III. 114 booted Racket Tail, IV. *378 — Bream, V. 132 Hutterflies, VI. 3 — Cabbage Butterflies, VI 48 — --crested Plantain-eater, III. *331 Elephants, II. 382 eye, The, III. 324 ejebrowed Bulbul, IV. 50 eyelid Monkey, I. 112 footed Hapalote, III. Ill ; molar teeth of, * 111 Mouse, III. Ill Phascogale, III. 218 — --fronted Lemur, I. 228 Goby, V. 98 — Grouse, IV. 141 handed or Lar Gibbon, I. 77 ; musical representation of its cry, 77 — -headed Duck, IV. 195 — S.,ki, I. * 196 Titmouse, IV. 67 — Indris, I. 219 — Letter Hair-streak Butter- fly. VI. 46 lipped Peccary, III. 347 — Mouse, III. 108 necked Otary, IT. 226 • Noddies, IV. 206 nosed Monkey, I. 103 Plume Moth, VI. 69 — Polar Bear, II. 209 rag Worm, VI. * 2.32 White Rhinoceros, II. 324, *325, 329 rumped Swallow, IV. 81 • shafted Fautail, IV. 32 — Stony Coral. VI. 295 Stork, IV. 186, * 187 — -tailed Easle, III. 281, 285, *287 — Gnu, II. 315 Mole, I. 372 throated Monitor, IV. 271 — Spine -tailed Swift, III. *376 — Wagtail, IV. * 80 Whale, II. 255, 257, 260 winged Chough, IV. 20 — Crossbill, IV. * 98 Wolf, II. 153, 154 bait, V. 133, 136 — , The Japanese, V. 112 White's Fruit Bat, I. 276 Whiting, The Common, V. 13, *61 , Couch's, V. 61 Pout, V. 61 Whooper, IV. 194 Widow Monkey, I. 186, 187 Wild Ass, The Abyssinian, II. * 312, 314 Bees, V. 365 — Boar, II. 337, 338, * 339 ; dentition, * 338 ; hunting of the, 340—342 ; head of, * 342 Cat, III. 215 Duck, IV. 194 Fowl, IV. 191—195 Goose, IV. 193 — - Horse of Tartary, II. * 297 — Horses in America, II. 307 -309 — in Australia, II. 309 Pigeon, IV. 125 — Sheep of Barbary, III. 9, *10 Swan, IV. 194 — Turkey, IV. 138 Willow Fly, VI. 142 — Grouse, IV. 141—143 — Wren, IV. 76 Wilson's Petrel, IV. 208, 210 — Phalarope, IV. 166 Wiudermere Charr, V. 117 Wind- Hover, The, III. 294, *295 Window-shell, The, V. 235 Wing-handed Animals, I. 259— 341 Wingless Bird of New Zealand, III. 246 Wing-shells, V. 191, 228, 237 Winter Midges, VI. 79 Wire Worms, V. 332, VI. 155 Wolf, The, II. 149,— 155 ; three views of skull of, * 96, * 97 ; teeth, 97 ; skeleton, 98 ; varie- ties of, 153 ; young wolves, Plate 18 — , The Indian, II. 153 — -fish, V. 12, 99 — Spiders, VI. 172 Wolverene, The, II. 182, * 183 Wombat, The, III. 201, * 202, 225 ; skeleton, * 201 ; lower jaw, * 202 ; teeth, * 203 Women, Influence of, on Ba- boons, I. 145 Woodchuck, The, III. 94 Woodcock, The, IV. 162 Woodland Caribou, III. 68 Woodpecker, The, III. 247, 248 — , Greit Black and Great Spotted, Plate 35 Woodpeckers, III. 3^9, 334— 333 ; local names of the. 337 Wood Ant, V. 378, 379, 381, 382 ; larva, nymph, and cocoon of, *356 Baboon (see Drill) — -Iwriusf Beetles, V. 342 — -Chat Shrike, III. 239 — Cricket, VI. 123 — Duck, IV. * 193 eating Beetles, VI. 2 — Gnat, VI. 77 hens, IV. 152 — -hewers, IV. 112, 113 — Hoopoes, III. 359 — Ibises, IV. 186 — Leopard Moth, VI. 63, *64 Wood Lice, VI. 156 — Louse, The Common, VL 210, 242 Owls, III. 299, 305 Pigeon, IV. * 124, 125 Rat, III. 112 — Shrikes, IV. 2, 28—30 Swallow, IV. 106 , The Brazilian, III. 34i Wasp, V. 371 Woogura Mole, I. 372 Wool, Importation of colonial and foreign. III. 7 Sponge, VI. 318 Woolly Bear, VI. 58 Cheetah, II. 76 Indris, I. * 220 Lemur, I. 221 — Macaco, I. 228, * 229 Makis, I. 222 — Monkeys, I. 171 — Rhinoceros, II. 333 Wooyen Ape, I. 79, * 81 Worker Bee, V. 377 Worm Pipe-fish, V. 56 shell, The, V. * 210 Worms, VI. 224—258 ; character, 224; classification, 225 Wow- wow, The, I. 81 Wrasse, The, V. 11, 12, 75 Wreck-fish, The, V. 80 Wren, The Common, IV. 46, 47, * 48 ; ancient custom of hunt- ing the Wren, 46; a Wren's nest, 47 like Spine-tail, IV. 113 Wrinkled Hornbill, III. 353 Wrynecks, The, III. 334, * 336 Xantharpyia, The, I. 274 Xylophagides, The, VI. 84 Xylophagous Crustaceans, VI. 212 Yak, The, III, 33, 37, * 38 Yapock, The, III. * 223 Yellow Baboon (see Drill) bellied Flying Phalanger. III. 207 — Water-Mice, III. 114 billed Parrot, III. 311 — Woodpecker, III. 336 crested Cockatoo, III. 215 footed Armadillo, III. *185 Phascogale, III. 218 - -hammer, The, IV. 65, 98 — Pocket Mouse, III. 124 Sally Insect, VI. 142 Snake of Jamaica, IV. 335 spotted Emys, IV. 253 tailed Howler, I. 167—170 ; typical specimens of, * 169 throated Ai, III. 165 Underwiug Moths, VI. 64 — Viper, IV. 319 Yuen, The, I. 79-81 Zebra, The, II. '313, * 314 Wolf, III. 216 Zebu, The, III. 33. 31 Zeuglodous, The, II. 247, 248 Zimocca Sponge, VI. 317 Ziphoid Whales, II. 250—252 Zokor, The, III. 120 Zoophytes, The, VI. 277 Zoospores, Definition of, VI. 333 Zorilla, The Cape, II. 196 Zygodactyl Picariau Birds, IIL 323—343 INDEX TO CLASSES, ORDERS, FAMILIES, GENERA, SPECIES, &c. ABBREVIATIONS. — c., class; s.c., sub-class; o., order; s.o., sub-order; i., family; s.i., sub-family ; g., genus. %* An asterisk preSxed to a page denotes that an illustration w.ll be found on that page. Abramidina, V. 132 Abramis, g., )v iq<, A. blicca, f V' ld" A. braina, V. 132, 133 Abraxas grossulariata, VI. 67 Acalephse (see Discopiora) Acalypterse, VI. 95 Acanthia columbaria, ) VT 1fl7 A. hirundinis, ) Vi- 1U/ A. lectularia, VI. * 107 A. pipistrelli, VI. 107 Acanthias, g., V. 34 A. uyatus, V. 35 A. vulgaris, V. * 34 Acanthicus, g., V. 110 Acanthobdellidse, f., VI. 242 Acanthocephala, o., VI. 250 Acanthoclinidee, f ., V. 100 Acanthoclinus, g., V. 9 A. littoreus, V. 103 Acanthocystis, VI. 342 Acauthoderes, g., V. S46 Acauthodesma, VI. 343 Acanthoglossus, g. III. 227, 229 Acanthometra, VI. 343 A. echiuoides, VI. * 343 Acauthoinetriiia, V. 230, VT. 337, 351 Acanthomys, g., III. Ill Acaiithophis antarcticus, IV. 310 Acanthophorus serraticornis,V. 345, Plate 59 Acanthopterygii, o., V. 78 — 107 Acanthospongia, VI. 331 Acauthotheca, f., VI. 187 Acaridffi, f., VI., 181, 183, 184, 186 Acarina, o., VI. 160, 179—185 Acarus ursellus, VI. 186 Acasta sulcata, VI. * 219 Accipiter, g., III. 272 A. fuscus, III. 270 A. nisus, III. 272, * 273 Accipiti-es, o., III. 253, 256 A. diurui, \ TTT „„ A. nocturni, ) Ali' ™" Accipitrinse, s.f., III. 253, 255, 267—273 Acentronnra, g., V. 56 Acerina cernua, V. 79 Aceratherium, g., II. 334 .Acetabulifera, V. 155 Achffius, VI. 197 Acliarnes, g., V. 80 Achatiua, g., V. 195, 222 A. fulica.V. *222 A. zebra, Plate 56 Acherontia atropos, V. 365, VI. 29, *56, *57 Acklyodes busirus, VI. 53 Achrioptera, o. , V. 295 Acbroia alvearia, V. 365 A fusca, ) y 225 Acicula, g., ) Aciculidae, f., V. 225 Acidalidte, g., VI. 67 Acineta, g., VI. 357, 364 A. tuberosa, VI. * 357, 364 Acipenser, g., V. 45, 47 A. brevirostris, V. 47 A. huso, V. 46 A. ruthenus, V. 45, 47 A. sinensis, V. 47 A. stellatus, V. 45 A. sturio, V. * 45, 46 Acipeuseridee, f., V. 45 — 47 Aclis, g., V. 208 Acontias, g., IV. 298, 301 A. meleagris, IV. 298 Acrsea, g., VI. 35, 36, 41 A. gea, VI. * 41 Acrseinae, g., VI. 35 Acred ula caudata, IV. 66, 67 A. Irbii, IV. 67 A. trivirgata, IV. 67 A. vagans, IV. 66, 67 Acridia, g., VI. 127 Acridiiiise, f., VI. 126—128 Acris, g , ^ TV A. gryllus J IV" Acroceridse, f., VI. 88 Acrochordidae, f., IV. 324 Acrochordus javanic Acromyodi, III. 253, '109 Acronuridse, f., V. 86 Acropbylla titan, VI. 131 Actteon, g., V. 208 Acteonia, g., V. 227 Actias, g., VI. 61 Actiuariu, s.o.,VI. 3 364 Actinia, g., VI. 303 A. anguicoma, VI. 303 A. mesembr *30I A. pallida, VI. 303 A. venusta, VI. 304 Actiuidffi, f., VI. 302, 311 Actininse, VI. 302 Actinocera, g., V. 187 Actinocrinus, g., VI. 260 Actinophryna, VI. 337 Actinophrys, g., VI. 341, 342 A. sol, VI. * 341 Actinosphserium, VI. 342 Actinote, g., VI., 35, 36 Actinotrocha, VI. 245 Actinurus neptunius, VI. 247 Aculeata, V. 358, 359—384 Adainsia ett'oeta, ) T7T OA. A. palliata, f VL 304 Adelarthrosouiata, VI. 161 Adelidae, f., VI., 68 Adelosina, VI. .S47 Adept aga, V. 300—312 -iEga, g., VI. 212 ^Egeriidse, f.,VI. 57 JEgialitis, g., IV. 168, 171 JE. hiaticula, IV -aSgina, g., VI. 291 ^ginidse, f., VI. 291 .Sgirus, g., V. 227 .SDlurichtliys uuchalis, V. 109 .Sluroidea, II. 180, 204 JEolidse, f., V. 227 -Eolis, g., V. 227 47 JEpyceros melampus, III. 17 Alepocephalidse, f., V. 138 f. 47 JEpyoruis, IV. 225, 239 Alepocephalus rostratus, V. 138 ./Equipalpia, VI. 17 Aleurodes chelidonii, VI. 117 15, 47 3Tc ilinn rr V ^9*} ^HibiillLlcL, g., V . .)_. ) Algee, VI. 336, 337, 341 JEschna grandis, VI. 145 Alligator, g., IV. 267 5 ^Eschiiida, VI. 145 A. cynocephalus, IV. 270 ,46 ^theria, g., ) y „,., A. lucius, IV. * 268, 271 15—47 JE. elliptica, | ' A. sclerops, ") jy ogq Aetobatis, g., V. 44 A. trigonatus, ( 301 Agseleeinse, s.f., IV. 99 Allopora, g., VI. 293 298 Agamidss, f., IV. 284—286 Allotria, g., VI. 6 41 Aganisthos odius, VI. 42 Alopecias, g., V. 29 Agapornis, g.. III. 310 A. vulpes, V. 30 Agaricia, g., VI. 300 Alpheadaj, f., VI. 208 r. 66, 67 Agelena, g., ) yl ,?5 AlpheUS, g., )TTT q^o A. labyrinthica, j A. ruber, | ^^ .67 Ageronia, g., ) yT .Q Alucita hexadactyla, VI. * 69 ,67 A. feronia, f Alucitidae, f., VI. 69 Aglaophenia, g., VL 290 Alveolina, VI. 348, 350 —128 Aglossa, s.o., IV. 349—351 Alytes obstetricans, IV. 357 „ Agonus cataphractus, V. 96 Amara, g., V. 303, 308 Agree, g., V. 308 Amauris niavius, VI. * 53 3 Agrammus, g., V. 98 Amblycephalidse, f., IV. 325 . 324 Agrias, g., VI. 42 Amblycephalus Boa, IV. 325 us, IV. 324 A. aedon, \ yj ,„ Amblychila cylindriformis, V. IV. 2, 36— A. phalcidon, j" 303 Agrion puella, VI. * 145 Amblyopsis, g., V. 10, 11 Agrionides, s.f., VI. 144, 146 A. spelaeus, V. 125 131 Agrius fallac'osus, V. 303 Amblyopus, g., V. 98 Agrotis, g., VI. 30, 64 Amblypharyngodon, g., V. 129 Ailaiithus glaudulosa, VI. 61 Amblypodia, g., VI. 47 Ailuridee, f., II. 180, 204 Aniblyrhynchus, g., IV. 280 2-304, 311, Ailuropus, g., II. 181 A. cristatus, IV. 280, 281, Ailurus fulgens, II. 181 *282 Alachtherium, g., II. 213 A. suberistatus, IV. 282 I. 303 Abictaga jaculus, III. * 127 Amblystoma mexica-") iemum,VI. Alauda arvensis, IV. 107, * 108 nus, ^IV. 375 Alaudidae, f., IV. 77, 106 A. talpoidea, j 3 Alans oculatus, V. 332, * 333 Amblystomidsa, f., IV. 374 04 Albertia, g., VI. 246 Ameiva vulgaris, IV. * 277 311 Albula conorhynchus, V. 138 Aineividae, f., IV. 276 Albulina, V. 138 Ametrida centurio, I. 337 r Alburnus lucidus, V. 133 Amia, g., V. 14, 24 260 Alca, g., IV. 214 A. calva, V. 21 7 A. torda, ) Tv 91 , Amiidaa, f., V. 21 341,342 A. impennis, f IV" 214 Amiurus, g., V. 109 Alcedinidse, f., III. 344—351 Ammocetes, g., V. 12 342 Alcedininse, s.f., III. 344 Ammocharidffi, f., VI. 234 36 Alcedo, g., III. 349 Ammodytes, g., V. 65 A. bengalensis, III. 344 A. lanceolatus, V. 65 VI. 247 A. hispida, III. 344, *345, A. tobianus, V. * 66 -384 346, 349, IV. 209 Ammodytina, V. 65 QA.4. A. nigricans, IV. 120 Ammonites, g., V., 188 . oU* Alces machlis, III. 49, * 50, * 51, A. subradiatus, V. 188 1.161 52 Amoeba, g., VI. 333, 334, 335, Alcidae.f., IV. 214 336, 337, 338, 340, 341, Alcinae, s.f., IV. 218 347, 350, 351, 353, 354, 356 2 Alcippe, g., VI. 220 A. polypoda, ) yl 33J) Alcyonaria, o., VI. 301, 305— A. porrecta, f V1'M 311 A. proteus, VI. * 333, * 335, 171 Alcyonidse, f., VI. 303, 310, 311 337,338 165, 171 Alcyouidium gelatinosum, V. A. radiosa, VI. 339 *272 A. vei-rucosa, VI. 337 Alcyoninae, s.f., VI. 309, 310 A. villosa, VI. 337, 339 Alcyonium, g., V. 225, VI. 305 Amcebiua, VI. 337, 339 ?, V. 109 A. digitatum, VI. 310 Ammophila, g., V. 374 4 Alder ia, g., V. 227 Alepidosaurus, g.,") v i10 A. kirsuta, ) v 071: A. sabulosa, f Y* W8 »j? t v * LiZ A. ferox, ) Ammothea, g., VI. 310 392 NATURAL HISTORY. Ammothoa pycnogonoides, VI. * 187, 188 Amorpbina paiiicea, VI. 327 Ainpelidae, IV. 86—89 Anipelis, g., IV. 86 A. gamilus, IV. 86, 87, *88 Amphibia, c., IV. 342—380 Amphibola, g., V. 212 Ainphictiouidae, f., VI. 237 Amphieyon, II. 205 Amphidasidse, f., VI. 67 Amphidiscus, VI. 343 Amphmomidse, f., VI. 233 Arnphioxus, g., V. 145, 147, 150, 152 A. lanceolatus, V. 3, * 147 Amphipnoina, V. 139 Amphipuous cuchia, V. 139 Amphipoda, o., VI. 196, 210, 211, 212 Amphiprion, g., V. 75 Amphiprionichthys, g., V. 83 Amphipyridae, f., VI. 65 Amphisbaeua alba, IV. * 294 Ainphisbaenoida, s.o., IV. 294 Amphisile, g., V. 103, 104 Amphistegina Lessonii.VI. *349 Amphitrite ventilabrum.VI. 237 Ampbinma means, ) TTT 077 A. tridactyla, f1Vl 677 Ainphiumidae, f., IV. 377 Amphizoa, g., V. 306 Amplipalatales, IV. 95 Ampullaria, g., V. 190, 211 A. canaliculata, V. * 211 Ampnllinse, II. 53 Auabas, g., V. 106 A. scandens, V. * 106 Anableps, g., V. 12, 124, 125 Anacauthmi, o., V. 58 — 64 Auacyrtus gibbosus, ) y j^ A. microlepis, f Auarrhicbas, g., V. 12 A. lupus, V. 99 Anarta myrtilli, VI. 65 Anas auser, IV. 193 A. boscas, IV. 194 A. ferina, IV. 181 Anastoma globulus, V. 221 Anastomus, g., IV. 186 Auatidaa, f., IV. 190, 191, 192- 195 Anatina, g., V. 249 A. subrostrata, V. 249 Anatinella, g., V. 247 Anatinidae, f., V. 249 Anchomeninae, V. 308 Anchoracephala, VI. 196 Aiicillaria, g., )v lqQ A. glabrata, f v ' Ancistrodon contortrix, IV. 319, *320 Ancula, g., V., 227 Ancyluris, g., VI. 43 Ancylus, g., V. 224 Andrenae, g., V. 369 Andrenidae.V. 369, 370 Androctonus, g., VI. 162 A. occitanus, VI. * 161, 162 Audroglossinae, s.f., III. 310 Auemonia, g.,~) A. cereus, >VI. 303 A. tuedia, ) Anguilla, g., V. 140, 141 A. australis, ~> A. bengalensis, > V. 140 A. boston ieusis, ) A. latirostris, V. 141 A. vulgaris, V. 140 Anguillulidse, f., VI. 2.54 Angnis, g., IV. 297, 301 A. fragilis, IV. * 297 Anillus, g., V. 304 Animalcule, VI. 353 Anisodactylinae, V. 308 Anisonyx rufa, III. 96 Anisoscelis, g., VI. 105 Anistiophora, I. 280 Annelida, c., V. 259, VI. 150, 151, 152, 225—243, 258 Annuloida, VI. 259 Annulosa, V. 282, 288, VI. 223 Auodon, g., V. 242 Anodonta ensiformis, V. 242 Auolis, g., III. 133 A. occipitalis, IV. 280 Anomala, g., ") v o28 A. Prischii j v" &a* I Anomalopterae, s.f., V. 108 Auomaluridae, f., III. 95, 151 Anomalurus, g., III. 95 A. fulgens, III. * 96 Anomia, g., V. 231, 235 Auoiniadae, f., V. 235 Auomma arcens, V. 382 Auomoura, VI. 196, 202—204 Auophthalmi, V. 304 Auoplophyra, g., VI. 366 A. prolifera, *366 Anoplotheridae, f., II. 336, 360 Anorrhinus corrugatus, III. 353 Anoura, o., IV. 345—368 Anser, g., IV. 191, 193 Anseres, o., III. 254, IV. 190, 191—195 Autecbiuus, III. 219 Anthea, VI. 303 Authersea mylitta, VI. 61 A. pernyi, ) amai, ) l A. yama Anthia thoracica, V. * 308, 309 Anthise, g., V. 309 Authicidae, f., V. 336 Antbocopa papaveris, V. 369 Anthosoridae, f., VI. 107 Anthocoris uemoralis, ) VT ,-_ A. nemorum, f ;**• ij' Anthophysa, g., ) V1 q7q A. vegetansj V1"i'-i Antbomyia lardaria, VI. 96 Anthomyiae, VI. 95 Authophora, V. * 359, 367 A. acervorum, V. 367 Anthoptiluin Thomsoni, VI. 306 Anthozoa, c., VI. 277, 294—311 Antbracoceros malabaricus, III. 352 Anthrax, g., VI. 89 Anthreuus, g., y 321 ' A. museeorum, Anthribidae, f., V. 343, 344 Anthropomorpha, s.t'., I. *3, 84, 162, 163 Anthus seebohmi, IV. 170 Aiitillia, g., VI. 299 Antilocapra americana, III. 40 Antilope bezoartica, III. * 16, 17 Autiopa, g., V. 227 Autisathes arborea, VI. * 302 Antipitharia, s.o., VI. 294. 301, 311 Autrozous pallid us, I. 295 Aiiura, g., I. 336 Auuraea, VI. 247 Anurosorex, g., I. 381 A. squamipes, I. 381 Apainidse, f., VI. 64, 65 Apatamia, g., VI. 19 Apathus, g., V. 366 A. Barbutellus, V. 367 A. vestalis, V. * 366, 367 Apatura, g., VI. 37, 41 A. ilia, VI. *42 A. iris, VI. 41 Aphanapteryx, IV. 240 Aphaniptera, o., V. 295, VI. 73, 98—101 Aphididae, f., VI. 115 Aphidius, g., VI. 3 Aphirza virgata, IV. 168 Aphis humuli, VI. 115 Aphodiinae, s.f., V. 325 Aphodius, g., V. 325 A. porcus, V. 326 Aphredoderidae, f., V. 106 Aphredoderus sayanus, V. 106 Aphrodita aculeata, VI. * 230 A. hystrix, VI. 230 Aphroditidae, f., VI. 230—233 Aphrophora, g., VI. 114 A. bifasciata, ) ria, f ,, . A. spumaria, f Aphyocypris, g., V. 129 Apiariae, f., V. 359—370 Apidse, s.f., V. 359, 369 Apioorinus, g., VI. 260, 264 Apiou, g., V. 342 Apis, g., V. 359 A. ligustica, V. 360 A. melliflca, V. 359 Aplodontia, leporiua, III. 96 Aplydium, g., V. 256 Aplysia, g., V. 226 A. inca, V. * 226 Aplysiadre, f., V. 226 Apoda (amphib.), o., IV. 378 Apoda (echiuoderm.), o., VI. 260 Apoderus coryli, V. * 342 Apuros:i, VI. 296, 311 Aporrhais, g., V. 209 A ppeudicularia, V. 257 Apterygidee, f., IV. 225 Apteryx, g., IV. 235, 246 A. australis, ) r-,r OOK A. Haasti, |'IV' 235 A. Mantelli, IV. 235, 236 A. Oweni, IV. 235 Apus, g., VI. 196, 215 A. caiicrifonnis, VI. *215 Aquias, g., I. 285 Aquila, III. 280 A. chrysaotus, III. 281, * 282, 283 A. heiiaca, III. * 235. 280 Aquiliuse, s.f., III. 277—287 Arachnida, c., 158—188, 201, 221 —223 Aradus depressus, VI. 108 Aranius, g., IV. 158 Araueida, o., VI. 160, 166—179 Arapaima gigas, V. 134 Araschnia prorsa, VI. 37 Area, g., V. 240 A. Breislaki, V. 204 Arcadae, f., V. 210 Arcella, VI. 336, 340 A. areuaria, VI. 340 Archseocidaris, g., VI. 260 Archseopteryx lithographica, III. 239, 243, 244, 245, IV. 236, *237, 238, 239, 240,341 Architeuthis dux, V. 170, 171 A. nionachus, V. 170, 171, "173 Archonias, g., VI. 47 Arctictis binturong, II. 94 Arctiidae, f., VI. 23, 58 Arctipalatales, IV. 96 Arctocebus, g., I. 243—245, 257 A. calabareusis, I. 242, * 243 Arctocephalus antarcticus, II. 229 Arctocyou, g., II. * 205 Arctoidea, II. 9, 180, 204 Arctomyinae, s.f., III. * 92 Arctomys, g., III. 94 A. bobac, ) TTT „, A.flaviventer, [iu-"i A. marmota, III. 94, * 95 A. mouax, III. 94 A. pruinosus, III. 95 Arctopitbecini, I. 197, 198, 202, 203 Arctopithecus, g., III. 164, 165, 185,190 A. Ai, III. 165 A. castauiceps, III. * 163 A. flaccidus, III. 165 A. griseus, III. * 158 Arotophoca, g., II. 228 Arctopsis, g., VI. 197 Arcturus, g., VI. 211 Ardea, g., IV. 183 A. cinerea, IV. 178 Ardeidae, f., IV. 178-184 Arena fragilis, VI. * 234 Arenacea, VI. 347 Arenicola piscatorum, VI. * 233, *234 Argas, g., VI. 184 A. persicus, ) yl Ig4 A. reflexus, f VL1» Argentina, g., V. 113 A. hebridica, V. 120 Argiope, g., V. * 266 Argouauta argo, V. 183 Argonautidserf., V. 156 Argulus, g., VI. 217 A. catostoini, ) VT 017 A. foliaceus, fvl-5 Asthenosoma, g., VI. 260, 264 Astreea, g., VI. 300 Astrseaceae, s.f., VI. 299 Astneidae, f ., VI. 298—300. 311 Astrseinae, VI. 298, 299, 311 Astrangia, g., VI. 300 Astrangiaceae, s.f., VI. 300 Astrape, g., V. 40 Astrapia gularis, IV. 25 Astromma, VI. 343 Astroniycter, I. 373 INDEX TO CLASSES, ORDERS, FAMILIES, GENERA, SPECIES, ETC. 393 135 Astroiiestkes, g., ) v ,10 A. niger, j" v ' "* Astropecten irregularis, VI. * 259 Astrophytida, g., VI. 260, 269 Astropkyton, g., VI. 260 Astrosiga, g., VI. 374 A. disjuucta, Plate 72 A. moniliformis, Plate 72 Astur, g., III. 371 A. Cooperii, IV. 62 A. palurabarius, III. 271, •272 Astylu?, g., VI. 293 Atalapha, g., I. 303 A. caudata, A. cineiea, A. Ega, A. egregia, }•!. 310 A. Frautzii, A. Grayi, A. intermediaj A. novseboracensis, I. * 309 A. pallascens, ~) A. Pfeitferi, [-1.310 A. varia, ) Ateleopodidse, f., V. 66 Ateleopus, g., V. 66 Ateles, g., I. 172—178, 203 A. ater, I. 203 A. cucullatus, I. 178 A. Paniscus, 1. 174, 175, * 176 A. sub-pentadactylus, 1. 176 *177 A. variesratus, I. 177, * 179 Atelornis, 111. 361 Ateuckus, g., V. 325 Athalia spinarum, VI. 8 Athene cunicularia, III. 94 Athericera, VI. 74, 91—97 Atherina, g., V. 100 A. hepsetus, ~) A.lacustris, [-V. 100 A. presbyter, ) Atherinidse, f., V. 100 Atherixibis, VI. 9) Atherura africaua, ) A. fasciculata, f Athyma.g., VI. 41 Atlanta, g., V. 228 Atlantidse, f., V. 228 Atrachelia, V. 336 Atropus pulsatorius, VI. 110 Attacus, g., VI. 61 A. atlas, ) VT or. A. cynthia, t" V Attageuus, g., V. 321 Aturia zic-zac, V. 188 Atypus, g., V. 80 Atypus Sulzeri, VI. 170 Auckenia, g., III. 76 Aulacodus Swinderianus, III. 133 Aulopkorus, g., VI. 227 Aulopora, g., VI. 301 Aulostonia, g., V. 103 Aulustomurn, g., VI. 243 Aurelia, g., VI. 281 A. aurita, )yj *OQI A. fiavidula, j ' Auricula, g., V. 224 Auriculidse, f., V. 220, 224 Auxis, g., V. 91 A. rockei, V. 90. 91 Aves, c., III. 235, IV. 240 Avicula, g., V. 2:57, 238 A. margavitifera, V. 2 Aviculidae, V. 237—239 B Babiaua, g.. IT IQQ B. sulpkurea, f1'1* Babirusa, g., II. 337, 343 Bacillus Eossii, VI. * 131 Bacteria, g., VI. 351 B. aurita, VI. 131 Balatro, g., VI. 247 Balaena, g., II. 263 B. antipodarum,^ B. australis, B. biscayeusis, }• II. 263 B. japonica, B. inysticotus, J 288 ii. Bateniceps rex, IV. 184, * 185 Balsenidae, f., II. 262 Balsenoptera, g., II. 266, 267 B. musculus, B. rostrata, B. Sibbaldii, B. sulfureus,^ BatenopteridfB, f., II. 263 Balanidse, o., VI. 196, 219 Balanus, g., VI. 219, * 220 B. balanoides, VI. 212, S20 B. tintinnabulnm, VI. *219 Bahstes, g., V. 43 B. bursa, V. 49 B. capriscus, V. 48 B. erytkrodon, ") B. niger, ^V. 49 B. ringens, ) Balistina, V. 48 Barbickthys, g., V. 128 Barbus, g., V. 127 B. keteronema, V. 128 B. vulgaris, V. 127 Bascanium constrictor, IV. 319, 329 Basiliscus mitratus, IV. 280, •281 Ba^saris astuta, II. * 180 Batesia kypocklora, IV. 40 Bathyactis syminetrica, VI. 300 Batkyerginse, III. 121 Bdtkyergus maritimus, III. 122 Batkygnatkus, IV. 341 Batkynomus, g., VI. 210, 211 B. gigauteus, VI. * 210, 211 Bjtocera, g., V. 346 Batoidei, s.o., V. 37-^5 Batrackia, V. 6, 8 Batrackidffi, f., V. 93 Batrachoceps, IV. 376 Batrachostomus, g., III. 369 Batrachus didactylus, V. 93 Baza, g., III. 290, 291 B. ceylonensis, B. cuculoides, B. erythrotkorax, B. madagascariensis, B. magnirostris, B. Eeinwardti, B. subcristata, B. sumatrensis, B. Verreauxi, Bdella, g.,VI. 243 B longicoruis, VI. 181 Bdellidse, f., VI. 181 Bdellostoma, g., ~) B. cirratum, >V. 146 B. polytrema, ) Belemnitidse, f., V. 174 Belideus, s.g., III. 208 Belleropkon, g., "V. .__S Belone, g., V. 121, 123 III. 291 J B. acus, ") B. euxini, >V. B. tseniata, ) 121 B^ vulgaris, V. * 122 Belostoma grande, VI. 110 Beloteuthis, g., V. 174 BerarJus Arnouxi, II. 251 Beris, g.,VI.84 B. chalybeata, ~) B. clavipes, >-VI. 85 B. vallata, ) Bernieria, g., IV. 51 Beroe pileus, VI. * 278, 279, 290 Berycidse, f., V. 83 Beryciformes, V. 83 Berytus, g., VI. 105 Beryx, g., V. 83 Bestise, I. 347 Bkringa, g., IV. 27 Bibio, g., VI. 82 B. kortulanus, VI. 82 B. marci, VI. * 82 Bibionidse, f., VI. 82 Bigenerina, g,, VI. 348, * 349 B. nodosaria, VI. *349 Biloculina, VI. 347 Biomyxa, VI. 344, 345 Biorkiza apteris, VI. 6 Bipinuaria, VI. 262, 263, 264 Birgus latro, VI. * 203, 204 Bison, g., III. 35 Bitkyaia, V. 211, 243 Bittacus, g., ) yr ,g B. tipularius, f Biziura lobata, IV. 195 Blanus, g., IV. 294 Blaps, g., I. 357 B. mortisaga, V. 336 Blariua Dekayi, I. 377 Blastoidea, c., VI. 260, 265, 276 Blastopkaga, g., VI. 4 Blastotrockus, g., VI. 298 Blatta germauica, ) yT -„, B. lappouica, ) * Blattidse, f., VI. 132 -134, 136, 148 Bleekeria, g., V. 65 Blenniidse, f , V. 98-100 Bleuniiformef, V. 98 Blennius, g., V. 99 B. gattorugiue, V 99 B. ocellaris, V. * 99 B. pkolis, V. 99 Bocydium, g., VI. 114 B. tintinnabuliferuui, VI. *114 Bolbocerus, g., ~) y „„« B. proboscideus, ) Bolborkynchus, g., III. 315 Boleopktkalmus, g., V. 98 Bolina, g., VI. 279, 294 BoUtopkila, g., VI. 79 B. f usca, VI. * 72 Boltenia, g., V. 254 B. peauuculata, V. * 254 Bombinator, g., IV. 346 B. igneus, IV. * 358 Bombus, g., V. 365 B. fragrans, B. lapidarius, B. lucorum, B. muscorum, B. skrimskiranus, V. 377 B. terrestris, V. 365, 366, VI. 254 Bombycidse, f., VI. 60 Bombyliidte, f., VI. 89 Bombylius, g., VI. 89 B. major, VI. * 89 B. medius, VI. 89 Bombyx, g., VI. 22, 23, 26, 31, 54 B. mori, 60, * 61 Bonasia betuliua, IV. 141, 144 Bonellia, g., VI. 243, 244 Bopyrus, g., VI. * 211, 218 Boreus, g., VI. 16 B. hiemalis, V. * 16 Bornella, g., V. 227 Bos, g., III. 33 B. taurus, III. 32 Bostrickidse, f., V. 335 Bothriocepkalus, g., VI. 256 Botkrops atrox, ( j-y oon B. brasiliensis, j iv ' *M B. lauceolatus, IV. 319, * 321 Botia, g., V. 134 Botryllidae, f., V. 2-54—256 Botryllus, g., V. 255 Botydse, VI. 67 Botys urticalis, ) •&-, CQ B. verticalis, f vl- b8 Bouckardia, g., V. * 266 Bovidae, f., III. 4, 5—44 Bowerbankia, g., V. * 277 Box vulgaris, V. 82 Brackelytra, V. 315 Brachininse, s.f., V. 309 Brackinus crepitans, V. 335 Brackiolaria, VI. 262, 264 Brackionidse, f., VI. 247, 258 Brackionus, g., VI. 247 B. ampkiceros, VI. * 247 B. brevissimus, VI. * 248 Brackiopoda, V. 153, 258—269 Brachyceutrus nubilus, VI. 20 Brachycei-a, VI. 74 Brachymerus bifasciatus, IV. 368 Brackypkylla cavernarum, I. 337 Brachypleura. g., V. 69 Brackypodiuse, s.f., IV. 49 — 51 Brackysoma diadema, IV. 309 Brackytarsomys, g., III. Ill Brachyteles, g., I. 173 Brachyura, VI. 193, 197-202, 204 Brackyurus calvus, I. 193, 194 B. rubicuudus, I. 204 Bracon, g., VI. 3 Bradypodidse, f., III. 163 Bradypus, g., III. 16.3, 164, 190 B. crinitus, III. * 164 B. didactylus, III. 159 Bradypus (continued) r— B. torquatus, III. * 164 B. tridactylus, III. 159, 160, 165 ' Brama Eaii, V. 28 Branchelion, g., VI. 241 Branchicolffi, s.f., V. 108 Branchifera, V. 191 Branchiobdellidse, f., V. 242 Branchipoda, VI. 196, 215, 216 Branchipus, g., VI. 196 B. stagnalis, VI. * 215 Brassolinee, s.f., VI. 35 Braula seca, V. 365 B. cseca, VI. 98 Braulidas, f., VI. 98 Brentliid®, f., V. 343 Brenthus, g., IV. 193 B. bernicla, ) TV ,qo B. ruficollis, f 1V' la' Breviliugues, s. o., IV. 294— 299 Briaraceae, VI. 309 Briareum, g., VI. 309 Brissus, g., VI. 260 Broscus cephalotes, V. 308 Brosmius brosnie, ) v ,,. B. flavescens, f v- °* Bmchidffi, f., V. 343, 344, 348 Bruchus pisi, V. 344 Brata, o., III. 158—190 Brycon, g., V. Ill Bryozoa,' V. 269—276, VI. 301, 305 Bubo ignavus, III. 301 B. maculosus, III. 332 B. inaxi iiius, I. 357 Bubonidse, f., III. 300 Buboninae, s.f., III. 300, 305 Buccininse, f., V. 195—199 Buccinum, g., V. 195 B. undatum, V. 194, 195, * 196 Bucconidse, f., III. 334 Buceros bicornis, ) TTT OE, B. cavatus, f UL 354 B. rhinoceros, ) TTT „., B. ruficollis, f "*• 6aL Bucerotidse, f., III. 351—355 Buchauga albirietus, IV. 58 B. atra, IV. 28 B. leucogenys, IV. 27 Bucorax, g., III. 355-357 B. cafer, III. 355 Budytes, IV. 78 Bufo americanus, ) TV qco B. angusticeps, )" v ' M* B. calamita, IV. 360, *361 B. carens, IV. 361 B. erythronotus, ) Tv „,,„ B. gariepensis, ) v ' M* B. rnelonostictus, IV. 361 B. pantherinus, ) rv 9at> B. quercus, f lv' *- B. variabilis, IV. 360 B. vulgaris, IV. 358, *361 Bufonidee, f., IV. 358 Bugula avicularia, V. * 275 Bugulapur purotincta, V. * 269 Buliniina marginata, VI. 348, *350 Bul:mus, g., I v 261 B. ovatus, f V' Jbl B. sultanus, Plate 56 Bulla, g., V. 226 B. oblonga, V. * 226 Bullidffi, f., V. 226 Bungarus, g., IV. 309 B. coeruleus, IV. 309 B. fasciatus, IV. * £09 Bunodes, g., VI. 303 B. gemmaceus, VI. 304 Buphaginse, s.f., IV. 103 Buprestidas, f., V. 299, 300, 330, 331, 332, 333, 335, 344, 374 Bursaria truncatella, VI. * 367 Bursariadffi, f., VI. 367 Buteo, g., > TJ-J 074 B. augur, j "*• ^* B. Harris!, III. 270 B. jackal, III. 274 B. vulgaris, III. 274, * 275 Buteoninse, s.f., III. 273 Bycauistes cristatus, ) III. B. subcylindricus, ) 353 Byrrhidffi, f., V. 321 Byssoarca, V. 240, 241 394 NATURAL HISTORY. . 94 Cachicames, III. 190 Caecidotea stygia, VI. 203 Ceecilia, g., IV. 301, 342 C. lumbricoides, IV. 379 Csecilius fenestratus, VI. * 140 Caecum, g., V. 210 Caelonotus, g., V. 56 Cterebidce, f., IV. 77, 81, 83 Caiman, g., IV. 2G7 C. palpebrosus, ) Tv 9,,n C. trigonatus, f lv- -jj Oalamaria, g., ) T-rr Qoi C. albiventer, f 1V' dcU Calamaridse, f., IV. 331 Calamoichthys calabaricus, V. 23 Calandra granaria, V. 341 C. oryzBB, V. 341 Calaudrinae, s.f., V. 341 Calcarina Defrancii, VI. 349, *350 Calcispongiae, o., VI. 319, 320, 325, 323 Caligo, g., VI. 35 Caligus, g., VI. 217 Callepteryx virgo, VI. 141 Callianassa, g., VI. 211 Callichthys, g., 7 v no C. barbatus, j V< ll C, lucida, V. 14 Callichromae, V. 443 Callicore, g., VI. 39, 40 Callidea, g.,VI. 104 C. Stolli, VI. 104 Callidina, g., VI. 247 Callidinae, s.f., V. 308 Callimome bedeguaris, VI. * 4, 6 Callionymus lyra, V. 98 Calliste, g., C. brasiliensis, C, cay ana, Callithea, g., ) VT ^ C. sapphira, | vi'w Callithrix, g., I. 185—188, 190, 203,204 C. amictus, I. 187, * 188 C. discolor, ) T -, Q7 C. lugens, ) L- W C. sciurea, I. 188 C. sciureus, I. 207 Callocephalus, g., II. 232 Callophis, g., IV. 307 Callorhinus, g., II. 219, 223 Callorhynchus, g., > y 05 C. antarcticus, f Callula picta, IV. 368 Calocaris Macandrse, VI. 209 Calycophora, s.o., \-y-r 0^4 Calycozoaria, s.o., f Calodroinus elegans, IV. 224 Caloptenug spretus, V. 338. VI. 128 Calosoma, g., V. 305, 303 C. sycophanta, V. * 281, VI. 60, Plate 61 Calycophorae, s.o., VI. 283 Calymene, o., VI. 196 Calyptoblastea, VI. 289, 294 Calyptorhynchi, III. 310 Calyptrffiidae, f., V. 213 Calyptrea, g., V. 213 Cambarus, g., VI. 207, 209 C. pellucidus, VI. 209 Camelopardalis giratfa, III. 43, *44, *45 Cainelus, g., III. 73 C. bactrianus, III. * 75, * 76 C. dromedarius, III. * 73, *74 Campanularia, s.o. , VI. 286, 288, 289, 294 Campanulavia, f., VI. 290 Campodea, g., VI. 222 C. staphylinus, VI. 143 Campodeidae, f., VI. 149 Campophaga, g., \-fv „, C. lugubris, )lv-dl Cainpopkagidae, f., IV. 30 Camptolophiuae, s.f., lit. 309 Camptosomse, V. 348 Cancellaria, g. , V. 208 Cancellariadae, f., V. 208 Cancer pagurns, VI. 189, 198 Cancrisocia expausa, VI. 204 Caiidona, g., VI. 196, 218 C. liispida, VI. *216 Canidae, f., II. 96, 100, 104, 105, 148, 152, 158, 160, 162, 165, 204 Canis, g., II. 8, 96, 100, 103, 105 C. antarcticus, II. 104 C. anthus, II. 157 C. aureus, II. 155 C. Azaree, II. 157 C. cancrivorus, II. 157 C. Dingo, II. 148 C. dukhenensis, II. 147 C. familinris, II. 8, 98, 99 C. ingse, II. 130 C. jubatus, II. 155 C. lagopus, II. 159 C. laniger, II. 153 C. latrans, II. 10 i, 154 C. lupus, II. 8, 106, 149 C. Melitaeus, II. 135 C. mesomelas, II. 135, 157 C. niger, II. 153 C. occidentals, II. 154 C. pallipes, II. 153 C. primaerus, II. 147 C vulpes, II. 158 C. zerda, II. 160 Cantatores, IV. 107 Cantharides, V. 338 CautharidiuaB, V. 339 Cantharis vesicatoria, V. 338 Cantharus lineatus, V. 81 Canthon.g., V. 325 Caouana olivacea, IV. 259 Capeota damascina, V. 127 CapitonidfB, f., III. 341, IV. 31 Capnea samruiuea, VI. 303 Capra, g., III. 10 Caprella, g., VI. 212, * 213 Capreolus caprea, III. *63 Capriinulgtdse, f., HI. 309, 368— 372 Capromysrg., III. 133, 142 C. pilorides, III. * 132 C. prehensilis, in. 133 Capros aper, V. 112 Capsula, g., V. 247 Capsus, g., VI. 107 C. ater, ) VT 1ft7 C. capillaris, f VL 107 Carabidse, f., V. 300, 3)3-309, 310, 311, 312, 315, 316, 336 Carabus, g., V. 305, 305 C. adonis, V. * 305 C. auratus, V. * 304, 305 Carangidse, f . , V. 83 Carapus, g., V. 139 Carassius, g., V. 125 C. auratus, V. 127 C. vulgaris, V. * 126, 127 Carcharias, g., V. 26, 72 C. gliucus, V. 26, Plate 49 Carchariidae, f., V. 26—29 Carcharadou, g., V. 29, 30 Carchesium, g., VI. 370 C. polypiuum, VI. * 370 Carcinus, g., VI. 199, 212 C. msenas, V. 161, VI. 199, * 200 Cardiadas, f., V. 243 Cardiopoda, g., V. 228 Cardisoma, g., 1VT 2ft] C. caruifex, f V1> 201 Cardita, g., V. 245 Cardiuin, g., V. 243 C. aculeatum, V. 243 C. echiuatuni, V. * 244 C. edule, V. 243, * 244 C. rusticum, V. 243 Caretta squamata, IV. 259 Cariama cristata, III. 267 Cariuaria, g., V. 203, 227, 228 C. cymbium, V. *227 C. vitrea, V. 203 Carinatee, III. 239, 254 — IV. 224 Carine brama, III. 284 C. noctua, III. 298 Carmarina bastatn, VI. * 292 Carnivore, II. 1—208 Carollia brevicauda, I. 331 Carpocaps;!, g., ) VT PC C. saltitans, f vl> bb Carpococcyx radiatus, III. 325 Carpophaga, IV. 124 Carpophilus, g., V. 319 Caryatis phileta, VI. 31 Carychium, g., V. 224 - V. 199 Caryoborus, g., V. 344 Caryocnnus, g., VI. 260 Caryophyllia, g., VI. 297 C. borealis, VI. 240 C. cyathus, VI. * £97 C. Sniithii, VI. 297 CaryopbylliacesB, s.f., VI. 258 Caryophyllus, g., VI. 259 Casarita, g., IV. 113 Cassida, g., V. 350 Cassidaria, g., V. 199 C. animiralis, V. 2Jl, Plate 55 C. Brownii, ~) C. caledouicus, >V. 201 C. cedonulli, ) C. geograplms, Plate 55 C. gloria-maris, V. 201, 203, Plate 55 C. imperialis, Plate 55 C. neptuni, V. 201 C. nobilis, ~l C. tesselatus, > Plate 55 C. textile, ) C. thalassiarchus, V. 201 Cassididue, f., V. 199, VI. 134 Cassidiuse, s.f., V. 348, 350 Cassis, g., V. 199 C. cunaliculatus, V. * 199 C. cornuta, V. 199 C. madagascariensis, V. *199 C. rufa, > C. tuberosa, j" Castalia, g., V. 242 Castnia, g.,VI. 55 Castniidffi, f., VI. 54 Castor canadensis, III. 99 C. europasus, III. 99 C. fiber, III. * 98, 99, 152 C. Trogontherium, III. 152 Castoridse, f., III. 97—101, 152 Castoroididse, f., III. 152 Casuarinoe, s.f., IV. 232—235 Casuarius Beunetti, IV. 232, *233 C. galeatus, ) IV. C. uniappendiculatus, ) 2->3 Casyapa, g., VI. 53 Catagramma, g., VI. 39, 40, 42 Catapliracti, f., V. 96, 143 Catarrhactes, g., IV. 207 Cathartes, g., IV. 197 C. papa, III. 263 Cathartidce, f., III. 250, 256 Catta, g., V. 127 Catoblepas, g., III. 25 Catocala fraxini, VI. * 64, 65 Catocalidse, f., VI. 65 Catodontes, f., IV. 336 Catonephele, g., VI. 3J Catops, g., V. 317 Catopsilia, g., VI. 48 Cato-simius volaus, I. 344 Catostomina, V. 125 Catostoinus, g., ) TT v>z C. carpio, f v ' Cavia aperea, III. 143 C. australis, ) TTT , ., C. boliviensip, | 111- L* C. cobaya, III. 143 C. rupestris, III. 144 Caviidse, f., III. 143—145, 154 Cavolina, g., V. 229 C. tridentata, V. 233 Cebiaae, f., I. 164—196 Cebrionidae, f., V. 332 Cebus, g.,1.203, 204 C. albifrous, I. 180 C. Azarse, 1. 185, 206 C. capuchinus, I. 182, 183, *184 C. fatnel us, I. * 181 Cecidomyia, g., VI. 80, 81 C. bursaria, ~) C. cratsegi, [-VI. 81 C. circumdata, ) C. destructor, VI. 80 C. rosaria, ) VT B1 C. salicis, f V1< 81 C. tritici, VI. *80, 81 C. veronicse, VI. 81 Cecidomyidffi, f., VI. 80, 81, 82 Celonites apiformi?, V. 373 Cencbris piscivorus, IV. 319 Ceuia, g., V. 227 Cenotoita brunuea, VI. 203 C. diogenes, VI. 203, * 204 Centetes, g., I. 359 C. ecaudatus, I. *353 C. semispiuosus, I. 36d Centetidoe, f., I. 359-363, 382, 383 Centrina, g., V. 31 Ceutriscidue, f., V. 103 Centrisciformes, V. 103 Ceutriscus, g., V. 103 C. scopolax, V. 103, * 101 Centre labrus, g., ) v 7, C. exoletus, ) v ' '° Centrolophus britan-"^ nicus, >-V. 87 C. pompilus, ) Ceutrouotus gunellus, V. 100 Centropelma uiicropteruni, IV. •2-2-2 Centropliorns, g., ) v o- C. ccelolepis, f Centropus. g., )TTT ^, C. bengalensis, f111-324 Centropyxis, VI. 340 Centroscylliuin, g., V. 35 Centrotu-, g., ) VT n L C. cornutus, f v xl Ceuturio, g., I. 337 C. McMurtrii, ) T oo-, C. senex, ) *• M7 Cephalodesmius, g., V. 325 Cephalomyia auriborbis, ) yj C. ovis, [• (.7* C. trompe, Cephalopterus, g., IV. * 118 Cephalotes, g., I. 277, 330 Cephalopoda, c., V. 154—188, 230. C. foramiuifera, ) •&-{ "ic* C. siphouifera, f vl> ** Cephus, g., ) vr - C. pjgmaeus ) Cepola, g., } v C. rubescens, j V' M Cepolidse, f., V. 98 Cerambycidse, f., V. 344, 345 Cerambyciuae, s.f., V. 345, 346 Cerambyx heros, V. 298, Pl«ti 'oS Ceramius Fouscolombi, V. 373 Cerastes caudalis, IV. 315 Cei-aticbthys, g\,V. 128 Ceratiua, VI. 331 Ceratiuidee, s.o., VI. 325 Ceratinm, g., VI. 357, 372 C. f nsus, VI. * 356 C. longiconie, VI. * 356, 357 C. tripos, VI. * 356 Ceratodus, g., V. 23 C. Foster!, V. * 21 Ceratophrys, g., (.TV q=;7 C. cornuta, f1'-857 Ceritopogon, g., ) VT 7ft C. bipuuctatus, I Ceratoptera, g., Ly 44 C. vanipjrus, ) ' Ceratosoma, g., V. 227 Ceratorkiua Petersiana, V. 33) C. polyphemus, V. *330 Cercaria, VI. 256 Cerceris, g., V. 374 Cerchneis, g., III. 294 C. tiuuuuculus, III. 294, *295 Cercocebus, g., I. 106, 163 Cercoleptes caudivolvulus, II. 179 Cerooniouas, g.. VI. 357, 373 C. typica, VI. * 355, 356, 373 Cercopidsa, f., VI. 114 Cercopis, g., VI. 114 C. bivittata, VI. 114. Plate 63 C. sanguiuolenta, VI. 114 Cercopithecus, g., I. 103, 104, 163 C. ajtliiops, I. 112 C. Callitrichus, I. 110 C. Diana, I. 107 C. erythrosaster, I. Ill, *112 C. Mona, I. 108 C. petaurista, I. * 109 C. ruber, I. Ill C. talapoiu, I. * 110 Cereopsis novae bollaudiae, IV. 193 Cereornis, g., IV. 135 Cereus, g., VI. 303 C. bellis, C.chrjsopleniura, ( yj JQ^ C. gemmaceus, ( C. venusta, J TO CLASSES, ORDERS, FAMILIES, GENERA, SPECIES, ETC. 395 Ceria conopsoides, VI. * 7" Ceriantkidse, f., VI. 302, 311 Ceriautkus, g., VI. 302 Ceritkiadas, f., V. 209 Ceritkium, g., V. 209 C. aluco, V. * 209 C. telescopium, V. 190 Cerospongise, o., VI. 320, 325, 328 Certhia familiaris, IV. 71 Certkiidee, f., IV. 2 Certkiimorpkffi, IV. 71 — 73, 77 €erthiola, g., ) TV B1 C. flavesta, )"lv' 8i Cerura viiiula, VI. 22, 23, *59 Cervidae, f., III. 4, 5, 46-69 Cervulus, g., 3, 61 Cervus, g., III. 52 C. elapbns, III. 49, 52 C. sika, III. 49 Ceryle, g., III. 349 C. rudis, III. * 348, 343 Cestidse, f., VI. 279, 294 Cestoidea, o., VI. 254, 258 Cestracion, g., V. 16, 33 C. philippi, V. *33 Cestracioutidse, f., V. 26, 33 Cestum Veneris, VI. * 279 Cetaoea, o., II. 245 — 267 Cethosise, g., VI. 36 Cetochilus, g., VI. 196, 217 C. septentrioualis, VI. * 216 Cetonia aurata, V. 330, * 331, 381 Cetoniinae, s.f., V. 326, 329, 330 Cetotkerium, g., II. 267 Ceyx, g., III. 349 Ckaca, g., V. 108 Chseropina, V. 76 Ckaerops, g., V. 76 Ckaetogaster, g., VI. 227 Ckaetoguatka, o., VI. 254, 258 Ckffitouotus, g., VI. 247 Cksetopoda, B.C., VI. 225—240, 258 Chaetostomus, g., ) C. guackarote, VV. 110 C. trinitatis, j Ckalcididte, f.,VI. 4,5, 6 Chalcinopsis, g., V. Ill Chalcis sispes, VI. 4 Chalcochloris, g., I. 367 Chalcophora mariaua, V. 331, *332 Chalcosiidse, f., VI. 58 Cbalcosoma atlas, V. 329 Chalicodoma muriiria, V. 368, *369 Chalina oculata, VI. 328 Chaliuese, f., VI. 327 Chalinidse, f., VI. 325, 328 Chalinolobus tuberculatus, I. 304 Chalinopsidiuae, f., VI. 327, 328 Chama, g., V. 231, 237, 243 Chameleon, g., IV. 291 C. montium, ) Txr onQ C. Oweni, f IVl 293 C. vulgaris, IV. *292 Chamseleouidae, f., IV. 291 Ckamaelimnas, g., VI. 44 Charni.lse, f., V. 243 €haniostrea, g., V. 2.50 Chauiua, V. 138 Ckanuit'ormes, V. 105 Ckanodichtkys, g., V. 133 Chanos, g., V. 138 Chaptia, g., IV. -JT Cka/aciuidae, f., V. Ill Characo Ion, g., V. 124 Charadriidre, f., IV. 167 Chai-adriiiiffi, s.f., IV. 168 Charadrius, g., IV. 168 C. fulviu, ) Tv ,-, C. pluvialis, flv> in Ckaraxes, g., VI. 42 C. jasius, VI. * 42 Cbartergus apicalis, VI. 372 Ckarybdeidae, f., VI. 231 Chatoessina, V. 135 Ch mliodes, g., VI. 10, 14 Cbauliodus, g., V. 112 Chauiia ckavaria, ) T,r 1n-> C. Derbiana, fIV 192 Cheilostomata. s.o., V. 269, 274, 276, 278 Cheirocephalus, g., VI. 215 C. stagiialis, VI. * 215 ^re .2o6 Ckeirozale, g., I. 233—235, 257, C. Coquerellii, I. 235 C. furciter, I. * 234 C. naiii, I. 235 Ckeiromydse, f., I. 257 Ckeiroinjs, g., I. 250—256, 257 C. nmdagascarieusis, I. 250 Cheiroteutbis, g., V. 165 Cbela, g.,?V. 133 Ckeletropis, g., V. 212, 229 Cbelidoptera tenebrosa, III. 344 Ckelidura, g., VI. 136 Chelifer caucroides, VI. * 163, 164 C. muscoruni, IV. 164 Cbeliferidae, f., VI. 161, 163 Ckelino, g., V. 80 C. rostratus, V. 80 Ckelodma longicollis, ) - C.oblouga, [ Chelouariiim, g., V. 322 Cbelouia, o., IV. 242-261 C. uiidas, IV. 258 C. squamata, IV. 259 C. virgata, IV. 258 Ckelura, g., lyj 113 C. terebrans, \ Chelydra, g., IV. 234 C. serpentitia, IV. 245, 254, Chelys flmbriata, IV. 255 Cbelysoma, g., V. 254 Cbemnitzia, g., V. 208 Chersydrus granulatus, IV. 324 Cbiasognathus Grantii, V. 324 Chilinia, g., V. 224 Ckilobotkrus inornatus, IV. 355 Cbilobranclius dorsalis, V. 139, 140 Ckilognatka, o., VI. 152, 155 Cliilomycterus, g., ^ y 52 C. geometrieus, f ' Ckilonyeteris, g., I. 330 C. Macleayii, ~) C. Parnellii, I T OQA C. personata, C *• C. rubiginosa.J CbUopoda, o., VI. 150, 152 Chimaera, g., V. 7—19 C. affinis, V. 25 C. colliei, V. * 24, 25 C. moustrosa, V. 10, 24 Ckimaeridae, f., V. 24 Chinchilla brevicaudata, III. 139 C. lanigera, III. * 139 ChinckillidfB, f., III. 138—140, 143, 154 Chirocentridae, f., V. 138 Chirocentrus dorab, V. 138 Chirodernm puailluni, ) T 00-7 C. villosum, f*-W Cliirodota, g., VI. 260 Cbiromeles torquatus, I. * 321, *322 Chironectes, g., III. 224 C. variegatus, II f. 223 Ckirouomids), f., VI. 77 Chironomus, g., ) T,T 77 C. pluinosus, f '' Cbiroptera, o., I. 259—341 Clrirotes caualiculatus, IV. 294 Cbiiiis, g., V. 98 Chiton, g.,V. 189, 191 C. magnificus, V. * 219 Chitonidffi, f., V. 219 Chlfjeniinse, s.f., V. 308 Cblainydodera maculata, IV. 54 Chlamydodon mnemosyne, VI. •371 Cklamydopkorus, g., III. 159, 190 C. truncatus, III. 189 Cklamydosaurus, g., IV. 284 Cbloroperla viridis, VI. 142 Chlorops, g., ) VT ng U. liiieatus, J vl> w C. tceuiopus, VI. *96 Choano-flagellata, VI. 374, Plate 72 Chcerocampa, g., > VT ~R C. celerio, ) v A< °° C. Nerii, VI. *55 Choerouycteris niexi-") caua, >I. 33 j C. minor, ) Choeropithecus, g., I. 155, 160 Ckoeropus, g., III. 210, 224 C. castanotis, III. 210 Ckolccpus, g., III. 164, 190 C. didactylus, III. 166 C. Hoffmanni, III. 161, 167, *168 Ckolcepodidae, f., III. 163, 164 Chologaster cornutus, V. 125 Chondrocladia virgata, Plate 71 ChondrosiadfB, f., VI. 325, 326 Chondrostei, o., V. 45—47 Ckondrostoma, g., V. 131 Chonetes, V. * 259 Chorisockismus, g., V. 104 Ckoristidae, f., VI. 325, 329 Ckromides, f., V. 74, 78 Chromis, g., ' v 7e C. gaklseus, f V' 78 Ckrotopterus auritus, I. 332 Ckrysididae, f., V. 372, 383 Ckrysiridia madagascariensis, VI. 54 Ckrysis ignita, V. 384 Ckrysobotkris, g.,~) C. femorata, [-V. 331 C. Harrisii, ) Ckrysockloridae, f., I. 365—367, 382 Ckrysockloris, g., I. 366, 367 C. capensis, I. 366, 367 C. obtusirostris, ) j og? C. Trevelyani, I Ckrysomela, g., C. Banksia, C. cerealis, C. nientkrastri, C. polita, C. stapkylea, J Ckrysomeiinae, s.f., V. 348, 349 Ckrysornyia, g., VI. 84 Ckrysopa, g., lyi ]2 C. vulgaris, | Ckrysopkrys aurata, V. 82 Ckrysops csecutiens, VI. 86, Plate 62 Ckrysotkrix, g., I. 185, 190 Ckrysotis, g., III. 310 C. asilis, in. 311 Chthamalus stellatus, VI. * 220 Cicada, g., VI. * 111, * 112 C. haeinatodes, VI. Ill C. omi, VI. 112 C. plebeja, VI. 102, * 103 C. septendecim, VI. 112 Cicadellina, f., VI. 114 Cicadidae, f., VI. Ill Cichlomorphae, IV. 30 Ciciudela, g., V. 302 C. campestris, V. * 302 C. chinensis, "^ C. germanica, I C. maritima, J-V. 302 C. octogutta, j C. sylvatica, J Cicindelidse, f., V. 300—303, 305 Ciconia alba, IV. 186, * 187 CicoiiiidfB, f., IV. 184—187 Ciconiinae, s.f., IV. 184 Cidaris, g., VI. 260 Ciliata, o., VI. 357, 358, 359, 361, 362, 363, 364—372 Cilio-flagellata, o., VI. 357, 358, 362, 372 Cimbex, g., VI. 8 Cimoliorms dioraedius, IV. 239 Ciniflo atrox, VI. 175 Ciniflonides, s.f., VI. 174 Ciimii-iuiorpkae, IV. 73—77 Cinnirys Hartlaubi, > jy 75 C. obcurus, ) C. osea, IV. 75, * 76 Circaetus, g., Irri 284 C. gallicus, f Circe, g., V. 245 Circulioides Austicii, V. 239 Circus, g., III. 268, 297 C. seruginosus, III. 268, *269 C. ryanens, \ jjj 26g C. pygargus, ) Cirratulidse, f., V. 235 Cirratulus, VI. 235, Pl-ite 68 C. borealis, VI. 235 Cirrbina, g., V. 127 Cirrkitidae, f., V. 82 Cirripatkes, g., VI. 301 Cirripedia, VI. 194, 196, 207, 218, * 219, 220 Cirrostomi, f., V. 147 Cirroteutkis, g., V. 164 C. Mulleri, V. * 164 Cistelidse, f., V. 336 Cisticola cursitans, IV. 55, 56 Cisticolinse, s.f., IV. 46, 55 Cistudo Carolina, IV. 252 Citkarickthys, g., V. 68 Citkarinus, g., V. 12 Citkarus, g., V. 69 Citigradee, f., VI. 172 Cixius nervosus, VI. 113 Cladocera, o., VI. 196, 215, * 218 Cladocora CEespitosa, VI. 300 Cladocoracese, s.f., VI. 300 Cladonema, g., VI. 373 C. laxa, VI. *373 Cladorkiza abyssicola, Plate 71 Clarias, g., I v ins C. anguillaris, f v> lw Clatkruliua, VI. 342 C. elegans, VI. * 342 Clausilia, g., V. ISO, 222 Clavagella, g., V. 250 Clavellina, g., V. 254 ClaveUinidse, f., V. 254 Clavicornia, V. 317, 350 Clavidee, f., VI. 288 Claviger, g., V. 316 C. Duvalii, V. 317 C. testaceus, V. 316 Clavularife, VI. 311 Clemmys, g., I ry or, C. caspica, ) lv' *** C. insculpta, IV. * 254 Cleodora, g., V. 229 C. coinpressa, ") C. cuspidata, >• V. *229 C. lanceolata, J Clepsme, g., VI. 124 C. bioculata, VI. 242 Clepsinidse, f., VI. *42 Cleridffi, f., V. 335 Cliidse, f., V. 229 Clinus, g., V. 100 Clio, g., > „ n-.,. C australis, r-229 C. borealis, II. 264, V. 229, 230 C. cuspidata, V. 230 Cliona, g., VI. 328 Clisiocampa americana, IV. 16 C. neustria, VI. 62, * 63 Clistenterata, o., V. 260, 263, 265—269 Clitellaria epbippium, VI. 84 Clitellio areDarius, VI. 227 Cloeon dimidiatum, ) VT •, 1Q C. diptera, J V1> W Clupea, g., V. 135 C. allosa, V. 137 C. caspia, V. 135 C. finta, V. 137 C. harengus, V. * 135, * 136 C. pilchardus, V. 137 C. sagax, V. 138 C. scombrina, V. 37 C. sprattus, V. 136, * 137 Clupeidse, f., V. 134—138 Clupeina, V. 135 Clymenidse, f., VI. 234 Clypeaster, g., VI. 260 Clypeastrida, o., VI. 260, 270 Clythra quadripunctata, V. 349 C. trideutata, V. 348 Clytus, g., V. 345 Cnemiornis, IV. 193, 240 Cnetkocaompa, g., VI. 23 C. pityocainpa, VI. 59 C. processionea, VI. 23, 59, 60, [Plate 61 Cnidoglanis, g.. V. 108 Cobitidina, g., V. 125 Cobitiua, V. 133 Cobitis, g., V. 9 C. tamia, V. 133 Coccia ovata, V. 112 Coccidte, f., VI. 116 Coccinella, g., V. 351 C. septernpunctata, V. * 351, 352 Coccinellid®, f., V. 351, 352 Coccus adouiduni,") C. cacti, [• VI. 117 C. lacca, ) Cocklispodium, VI. £40 Cocklognatkus ornatus, V. 128 Codaster, g., VI. 260 NATURAL HISTORY. Codisiga, g., VI. 374 C. alloides, "•) C. botrytis, C. cymosa, ,- Plate 72 C. grossularia, I " C. umbellata, ) Coelenterata, VI. 277, 325 Ccelogenys paca, III. * 140, * 141, *142 Coelops Frithii, I. 287 Ccenocyathus, g., VI. 298 Ccenurus cerebialis, VI. 256 Colsenis, g., VI. 36, 41 Coleophoridae, f., VI. 59 Coleoptera, o., V. 295, 296-352, VI. 221 Colepidse, f., VI. 365 Coleps birtus, VI. * 362, 365 Colias, g., VI. 48 C. edusa, VI. 48, 49 C. hyale, VI. 49 Coliinse, s.f., III. * 333 Coliomorphse, III. 253, IV. 2 Colius capensis, III. 333 Collembolla, VI. 14^, 149 Collocalia, g., III. 373 C. fuciphaga, III. 376 C. nidifica, III. 374, 376 Collosphsera, VI. 343 Collyrides, g., V. 302 Collyrioncincla, g., IV. 29 Colobus, g., I. 86, 99—102, 161, 162, 163 C. ferruginous, I. 102 C. Guereza, I. * 101, 102 C. polycomos, I. 10J C. verus, I. 99, * loO, 102 Coloeus monedula, IV. 6, * 7 Coluber, g., IV. 329 Colubridse, f., IV. 327—330 Colubriformes, s.o., IV. 324— 336 Colubrinse, s.f., IV. 327, 329 Coluinba palumbus, IV. 196 Columbse, o., III. 253, IV. 121- 128 Columbella, g., \ v ,9, C. mercatoria, ) Columbidse, f., IV. 124-128 C"lurus, g., VI. 248 Colydiidse, f., V. 320 Colymbiufe, s.f., IV. 218 Colymbus arcticus, IV. 218 C. glacialis, IV. 218, V. 294 C. septentrionali s, IV. 218 Colpoderus forcipatus, V. 345 Comatu'a, g., VI. 233, 260, 264, 273, 274, 275 C. Escbrichtii, VI. * 275 C. parvicirra, VI. * 274 C. rosacea, VI. * 264, * 265, »274 Comephoridffi, f., V. 96 Comephorus baikalensis, V. 96 Conchifera, c., V. 230—251 Conchylodes diphtheralis, VI. 29 Condylostoma patens, VI. * 361, 367 Condylura cristata, I. 373 Conepatus mapurito, II. 198 Conger, g., V. 140 C. vulgaris, V. 141, * 142 Congrogadus, g., V. 66 Congromursena, g., V. 140 Conidse, f., V. 200 Conocephalus, g., VI. 128 Conops, g., VI. 93, 94 C. flavipes, VI. * 9i Conularia, g., V. 229 Conurinse, s.f., III. 313 Conurus carolinensis, III. 315 Conus, g., V. 190 C. aulicus, V. 201 Convolutidse, f., VI. 257 Convolvulus, g., VI. 30 Copepoda, o., VI. 196, * 216—218 Copiphora, g., "> yj jog C. cornuta, j Coprinse, f., V. 324, 325 Coptoderinse, s.f., V. 309 Coraciadse, III. 363—365 Coracias garrula, III. 363 Corallinse, s.f., VI. 306, 307 Corallium, g., VI. 305 C. rubrum, VI. * 307, * 308 C. spicule, VI. *307 Oorallus hortulanus, IV. 335 Corbis, g.,V. 221 Crax, g., )IV 12q Ctenostomata, V. 276, 278, 279 Corbula, g., V. i!49 C. alector, } Cucujidse, f., V. 320, 322 Corcorax melanorhamphus, IV. Crenilabrus melops, V. 76 Cuculidse, f., III. 323-329 20 Crepidogaster, g., V. 101 Cucullea, g., V. 241 Cordylophora lacustris, VI. 288 Crepidula, g., V. 213 Cucullia, g., VI. 65 Cordylus, g., ) Iy 2qfi Creseis, g., V. 229 Cucullus cauorus, III. 309, 325, C. giganteus, ) 1Vl "98 Cricetinse, s.f., III. 112 •326 Coregonus, g., V. 118, 120 Cricetodipus flavus, ) jj j , 0 , Cucumaria, g., VI. 260, 272 C. albula, ~) C. parvus, f C. Planci, VI. * 272 C. clupeiformis, ^V. 119 Cricetomj s gambianus, III. Culex, g., VI. 76 C. clupeoides, ) 113 C. annulatus, VI. 77 C. lapponicus, ) v 11S Cricetus frumentarius, III. C. ciliaris, VI. * 76 C. lavaretus, f T " *113 C. nemorosus, ) VT -7 C. Lloydii, }_v 1lq C. songarus, III. 113 C. pipiens, f vl> '' C. lucidus, J Y ' Criniger, g., IV. 49 Culicidae, f., VI. 74—77 C. oxyrhynchiis, V. 118 Crinoidea, c., VI. 269, 273 Cimiculus torquatus, III. 120 C. pollan, V. 119 Crioceriuse, s.f., V. 348 Curculionidse, f., V. 340—342 C. quadrilateralis, V. 118 Crioceris asparagi, V. 348 Cursoria, VI. 120, 121, 128— 134 C. vandesius, V. 119 C. merdigera, V. 348, * 349 Cursorius, g., IV. 172 Coreidee, f., VI. 105, 108 Cristatella, g., V. 269, 277 C. coromandelicus, ) IV. Corethra, g., )_VI -- C. mucedo, V. * 270j C. isabellinus, j" 174 C. plumicornis, ) Cristellaria rotulata, VI. * 34^, Cuscus, g., IV. 224 Coris, g., V. 77 349 C. albus, I -rjj QQJ. C. julis, V. 76, 77 Cristiceps, g., V. 103 C. maculatus, f ' Corixa Geoifroji, VI. Ill Crocidura, g., I. 378 Cuterebra, g., VI. 96 Cornularinse, s.f., VI. 309, 310, C. aranea, ), oi-g Cuvieria, g., V. 229 311 C. etrusca, } ' Cyanea, g., VI. 281 Cornuspira polygra, VI. 347, C. myosura, I. 378, *379 C. arctica, VI. 280 *348 C. Perroteti, I. 379 C. aurita, V. 61 Corone capellana, IV. 9 Crocodilia, o., IV. 262—271 Cyanocitta, g., IV. 16 C. comix, IV. 7, * 8, 9, 10 Crocodilus acutus, IV. * 265, C. coronata, ") C. corone, IV. 9, 10 266 C. cristata, C. hiemalis, IV. 7, 9 C. biporcatus, IV. 264 C. diademata, 1 jy ,g C. splendens, IV. 11 C. bombifrons, IV. 265 C. frontalis, Coronella, g., IV. 330 C. cataphractus, IV. 264 C. macrolopha, C. Jsevi?, IV. * 330 C. Dixoni, IV. 270 C. Stelleri, J Coronellinse, s.f., IV. 327, 330 C. frontarosus, IV. 26 1 Cyathocrinus, g., VI. 260 Coronula diadema, VI. * 219 C. Hantonieusis, IV. 270 Cycla, g., V. 230, 245 Corrodentia, VI. 121, 139, 140 C. Johnstoni, IV. 266 Cycladidaa, f., V.245 Corvidse, f., IV. 1—20 C. niger, ITV 264, Cyclica, V. 349 Corvinse, s.f., IV. 2, 3—18 C. palpebrosus, f Cyclocephala, g., V. 328 Corvus, g., IV. 4 C. palustris, ") IV. Cycloclypeus, VI. 349 C. corax, IV. 4, * 5 C. pondicherrianus, ) 2b5 Cycloderma, g., IV. 258 C. culminatus, ^ C. porosus, IV. 264 Cyclodus giga?, ) jy 0, - C. leptonyx, (TV 4 C. rhombifer, IV. 266 C. nigro-luteus, f ' ~ C. mendicantium, f C. siamensis, IV. 265 Cyclophis, g., IV. 330 C. umbrinus, ) C. toliapicus, IV. 270 Ciclophorus, g., V. *225 Corydalis, g., ) yj 14 C. vulgaris, IV. 262 Cyclopides uracyntlius, VI. * 27 C. cornutus, f Crossarchus obscurus, II. * 207 Cyclops, g., VI. 194, 196, 216, Corydon sumatrauus, IV. 120 Crossopterysridffi, f., V. 22 217, 219, 252 Corynactis, g., VI. 303 Crossopus, g., I. 381 C. quadricornis, VI. *216 Corynorhinus, g., ~) j ogg C. todiens, I. 379 Cyclopterus, g., V. 96 C. macrotis, ) ' C. hirnalaicus, ) -, oon C. lumpus, V. 97 C. Townsendi, I. * 296 C. platycephalus, j Cyclostoma, g., V. 225 Coryphsenina, f., V. 88 Crotalidse, f., IV. 316—324 C. De Burghse, ) y 02- Coryphodon, g., )jy 329 Crotalophorus, g., ~) C. elegans, )" C. pantlurinus, J C. miliarius, >IV. 318 Cyclostoniata, V. 143—146, 278 Corystes, g., VI. 194 C. tergerninus, J Cyclostomidas, f., V. 2i'5 C. Cassivelaunu?, VI. 200, Crotalus adamanteus, IV. 317 Cyclostrenia, g., V. 215 *201 C. confluentus, IV. 318 Cyclothurus, g., III. 176 Corythaix musopha-^a, III. *331 C. durutsus, IV. 316, * 317 Cyclura carinata, IV. 283 Corythornis, g., IIL 249 C. horridus, IV. 317, * 318 C. didactylus, III. 179, Cotile riparia, IV. 209 C. Lecontei, ) jy gig *180 Cotingidse, f., IV. 117 C. lucifer, J Cydippidee, f., VI. 279 Cottina, f., V. 95 Crustacea, o., VI. 160, 162, 187— Cygnus, g., IV. 194 Cotto-scombriformes, V. 86, 93 220, 222, 223, 353, 354 C. atratus, IV. *192, 194 Cottus bubalis, | v Q1- Cryphalus binodulus, V. 343 C. nigricollis, IV. 194 C. gobio, } V< 95 Cryptangia, g., VI. 3-30 Cylicia, g., VI. 300 C. scorpius, V. * 95 Coturnix dactylisonans, IV. Cryptobrauchus, g., ) jy o-o C. japonica, J Cylindrella, g., V. 222 Cylindrodes Canipbelli, VI. 124 *148 Cryptohelia, g., VI. 293 Cymba, g., ) y nno Couchia, g., V. 63, 64 Cryptophagidee, f., V. 320 C. olla, f C. argentata, V. 64 Cryptom'scus planaroides, VI. Cymbulia, g., V. 229 C. glauca, V. 63 218 Cyuiodocea, g., V. 329 Crabro, g., V. 373 Cryptoprocta, g., ) jj g^ Cymotboidse, )_ yj QII C. brevis, ) y 373 C. ferox, ^ C. brauchiferae, ) C. cribrarius, J ' Cryptoproctidee, f., II. 201 Cynaelurus, g., II. 10, 76 C. sexmaculatus, ) y 074 Cryptopus, g., IV. 258 Cynictis peuicillata, II. 207 C. vagus, J ' Cryptornis, IV. 239 Cynipidaa, f., VI. 4—6 Crabronidse, f., V. 373—375 Cryptostomte, V. 350 Cynips, g., VI. 5,*6 Cracidse, f., IV. 129 Cryptothyria, g., VI. * 211, 212, C. insana, Vl. 5 Cracinae, s.f., IV. 129 218 C. quercus-folii, VI. 5, 6 Cracticus, g., IV. 28 Crypturi, o., III. 254, IV. 223 C. tinctoria, VI. 5 Crambi, VI. 68 Crypturus tataupa, IV. 224 Cynocepbalus, g., I. 129—163, Crambidse.f., VI. 43, 68 Crystophora cristata, II. 238 203, 220 Cranchia scabra, V. 167 Cteuiza fodieus, VI. 170, Plate C. Anubis, I. 149, * 152 Crangon, g., VI. 208 65 C. gelada, I. 143 C. vnlgaiis, VI. *208 Ctenodactylinffi, s.f., III. 129 C. leucophseus, 1. 159, * 160 Crangonyx, VI. 209, 212 Cteuodactylus, g., ) ITI ,„-, C. mormon, I. 154, * 156, Crania, g., V. 267 C. Massoni, / * 157, * 158, * 162 C. anomala, V. * 264 Ctenolabrus, g., ^ y „„ C. niger, I. 159, 160, * 161, Craniadae, f., V. 261, 264, 267 C. rupestris, ) ' 206, 207 Craspedocephalus brasiliensis, Ctenomys brasiliensis, III. 130 C. papio, I. 150, * 153, 154 IV. 320 Ctenophora, o., VI. 79, 259, 278— C. porcarins, I. 144, *145, Crassatella, g., V. 245 280,294 •147 Crassilingues, s.o., IV. 279 — C. pectinicoruis, VI. 79, C. sphinx, I. 148 Crateropus fulvus, IV. 51 Plate 62 Cynodon, g., I . 205 290 Ctenopoma, g., V. 106 Cyuodoutia, IV.341 IXDEX TO CLASSES, ORDERS, FAMILIES, GENERA, SPECIES, ETC. 397 v v ' v v" Cynogale, g., II. 206 C. Bennettii, II. * 203 ' C. velox, I. 363 Cynoidea, II. 96 Cynomorpha, I. 161—163 Cynomys columbianus, III. 94 C. ludovicianus, II. * 91, *93, 94 Cynonycteris, g., I. 274 C. eegyptiacus, I. 268, 274 C. auiplexicaudata, I. 267, 268, 274 C. collaris, I. 268, 274 Cynopitkecus, g., I. 163 Cynops, g., IV. 375 Cyuopteri, g., I. 275 C. marginatus, I. 275, * 276 Cynthia, g., V. 253 C. microcosmus, V. *253 Cyprsea, V. 202, 203, 204, 206, 219 C. argus, V. * 205 C. aurora, ") C. Barclay!, > V. 204 C. guttata, ) C. histrio, V. * 205 C. leucodon, V. 204 C. madagascariensis, ) V. C. mappa, j*205 C. moneta, V. * 204 C. nucleus, ) C. pantherina, j" C. princeps, ) v C. pyrum, )" Vt C. Scottii, C. testudinaria, C. tigris, V. * 203, * 205 C. turdus, V. 203 C. undata, V. * 205 Cyprseidae, f., V. 202—206 Cypricardia, g., V. 245 Cyprina, g., V. 245 C. islandica, VI. 235. 242 Cyprinidffl, f., V. 125—134, 245 Cyprinion, g., V. 129 Cyprinodon, g., - C. calaritanus, v 191 C. cypris, r »• « C. dispar, Cyprinodontidae, C. carnivorae, > V. 124 C. linmophagae, ) Cyprinus, g.,V. 125,127 C. carpio, V. 125 Cypris, g., VI. 196, 216, 218, 219 Cypselidae, f., III. 372-376 Cypselus apus, III. 372, * 373 Cyrena, g., V. 245,247 C. carolinensis, V. 247 Cyrestis, g., VI. 40 Cyria imperialis, V. * 331 Cyrtonus, g., V. 348 Cystiactis, g., VI. 304 Cysticercus, VI. 255, 256 Cystignathus, g., IV. 357 Cystoidea, c., VI. 260, 265, 276 Cythere, g., VI. 216, 219 Cytherea, g.,V. 231, * 232, VI. 202 C. chione, V. * 244 C. geographica, \v «„,,, C. maculata, f ' Cyttina, f., V. 86 D Daboia, g., IV. 315 Dacelo, g., III. 349 Daceloninae, s.f., III. 344, 349 Dactylethra capensis, IV. 351 Dactylethridse, f., IV. 351 Dactylocalyx Stuchburyi, g., VI. 318, * 319, 330 Dactylosphserium, VI. 339 Dacus oleae, VI. 96 Daraa, g., III. 57 D. me«opotamica, III. * 58 D. vulgaris. III. * 56, 57 Damalidae, f., III. 23 Bamaster blaptoides, V. *306 Danainae, s.f., VI. 33, 34, 36, 47, 48, 52 Danais, g., VI. 33, 34 D. chrysippus, VI. * 33, 34, 35/36,41 D. dor,ppus, VI. 34 Dansrila, g., V. 127 Danio, g., V. 132 Dauionina, V. 132 Daphnia, g., VI. 215 D. pulex, VI. 215, * 216 Daptiou capensis, IV. 210 Dascyllidse, f., V. 333 Dascyllus, g., V. 75 Dasmidse, s.f., VI. 293 Dasornis, IV. 23J, 240 Dasydites, g., VI. 247 Dasygastres, V. 368 Dasypeltis scaber, IV. 327 Dasyprocta aguti, III. 140 D. acouchy, III. 141 D. Azara?, III. * 140, 141 Dasyproctidse, f., III. 140—142, 143, 154 Dasypus, g., III. 183, 190 D. apar, III. 187, * 188 D. gigas, III. * 183 D. bybridus, ) m .„ D. Kapplcri, f111' 187 D. miuutus, III. 183 D. Peba, III. 187 D. sexciutus, III. * 185, 186 D. Tatouay, III. 184 D. villosus, III. 186 Dasyuridee, f., III. 211—219, 224, 225 Dasyurus, g., III. 212—215 D. macrurus or maculatus, III. 215 D. Maugei, III. 214, 215 D. virsinus, III. 212, *213, * 214, * 215 Danlias luscmia, IV. 43 Dawsouella Meekie, V. 222 Decapoda, o., V. 165-183, VI. 194, 196, 197—209, 210 Decticus verrucivorus, V. * 282, VI. 125, 126 Degeeria nival is, VI. 149 Deglubitores, IV. 107 Deima,g., VI. 260 Deinamceba, VI. 338, 339 Delias, g., VI. 43 Delphax, g., VI. 113 Delphiuidae, f., II. 243, 255—260 Delphinula, g., V. 215 Delphinus delphis, II. 259 D. sinensis, II. 261 D. tursio, II. 259 Deltocyathus, g., VI., 298 Deltoids;, f., VI. 66 Demodex folliculorum, VI. * 185, 186 Dendritina aibnscula, VI. 347, *350 Dendrobates, g., ) TV a™ D. tinctoria, f •"•-•* Dendrobatidae, f., IV. 368 Dendrochelidon, g., III. 373 Dendrocitta, g., D. Bayleyi, D. occipitalis, D. rufa, Dendrocoela, s.o., VI. 257 Deiidrocolaptidae, f., III. 309, IV. Ill Dendvocolaptinae, s.f., IV. 112 Deudroeometes, g., VI. 364 Dendroga'e, g., I. 349 Dendrcica aestiva, IV. 82 Dendrolagus, s.e., III. 199, 224 D. inustus, HI. 199 D. ursiuus, III. * 198 Dendromyinae, s.f., III. 113 Deudromys mesoinelas, III. 113 Dendronotus, g., V. * 227 Dendrophidse, f., IV. 326 Dendrophila, g., IV. 69 Dendrophyllia, g., VI. 300 D. ramea, VI. * 300 Dendropoemen, g., V. 325 Dendrosoma radians, VI. * 358 Dentaliadae, f., V. 219 Dentalina elegans, VI. *343, 349 Dentalium, g., V. 189, 190, 191, 204, 219 D. elephantimnn, V. * 219 Dentex, g., > v 80 D. vulgaris, ) v • «" Denticete, s.o., II. 245, 247 Depressaria, g., VI. 68 Dermanyssus, g., ) VT 1Q. D. avium, fVl. 1» Dermatoclemys, IV. 261 Derinestes, K., V. 321 D. lardarius and vulpinus, V. * 321 Dermestidse, f., V. 321 Dermoptera, s.o., I. 344, 382 Derotremata, IV. 375, 376 Desmacidina3, f., VI. 325, 326, 328 Desmodus, g., I. 328, a38, 339 D. rufus, I. 337, 338, 339 Desmognathus, g., IV. 373, 374 Desniosticha, o., VI. 260,270 Desoria glacial is, VI. 149 Diacria trispinosa, V. 229 Diactor, g., VI. 105 D. bilmeatus, Plate 63 Diaptomus, g., VI. 196 Diazona, g., V. 254, 256 Dibranchiata, o., V. 155, 156— 183 Dicaeidffi, f., IV. 77, 84—86 Dicseum hirundinaceum, IV. 84, *85 D. nigrimentum, IV. 84 Diceras, g., V. 231 Dicerobatis giornse, V. 44 Dichoceros bicornis, III. * 352 Diclidurus albus, I. 316 Dicotyles, g., II. 337, 346 D. labiatus, ) TT „.- D. torquatus, )" • **' Dicruridae, f., IV. 2, 27 Dictyochidae, VI. 337, 351 Dictyocysta, g.,VI. 368 Dictyonina, g., VI. 329, * 330 Dictyonina, f., VI. 325, * 330 Dicynodon, IV. 341 Dicynodoutia, IV. 341 Didelphidse, f., III. 219-223, 224 225 Didelphys.'g., III. 224 D. d'Azarse, III. 221 D. cancrivora, III. * 22] 222 D. crassicaudatus, III. 222 D. dorsigera, III. * 222 D. ekgaus, ) TTT 223 D. muiina, >'m'223 D. virginanuin, III. *219, 220 Didemnium, g., V. 255 Dididse, f., IV. 121 Didunculus strigirostris,IV.123 Diemenia psainmophis ) T-,r Qnn D. superciliosa, j"lv-309 Difflugia, VI. 336, 339, 340, 3A7 Diglossa,, g., IV. 81 Dimyaria, V. 232 Dinictis, g., II. 205 Dinomyidse, f., III. 42 Dinomys Branickii, III. * 142 Dinops, g., I. 318 Dinornis, IV. 225, 239, 240 Diobroticus, g., III. 152 Diodou, g., V. 6, 10, 15, 48, 50, 51,52 D. hystrix, V. 51 Diomedea, g., IV. 208 D. fuligmosa, IV. 211, * 213 Dione, g., (^VT ^ D. juno, ) V1' * Diphucephala, g., V. 327 Diphyes, g., VI. 283 Diphylla, g., I. 328, 329 D. ecaudata, I. 338, 310 Dipbyllidia, g., V. 227 Dipbyllodes speciosa, IV. 25 Diplodonta, g., V. '^44 Diploglossata, o., V. 295 Diplonychus, g., VI. 110 Diplophrys, VI. 342 Diplopsalis lenticula, VI. * 3=16 Diploria cerebriformis.VI. * 229 Diplozoon, g., VI. 257 Dipneumones, VI. 169, 171—179 Dipnoi, o., V. 18-21, 146 Dipodidse, f., III. 124—128, 153 Dipodinse, III. 125 Dipodomys Ordii, ) TTT ,0) D. Phillipsii, f111-12-* Dipsadidse, f., IV. 324 Dipsas dendrophila, IV. 307, 324, * 326 D. fusca, IV. 324 Diptera, o., V. 295, 353, VI. 70— 98 D. genuina, VI. 74 Diptychus, g., V. 128 Dipus seiryptius, III. * 126 D. platyrus, III. 15 J Disciiia, ?., 260, 261, 234, 267, 268 D. lamellosa, V. * 258 Discinidse, f., V. 261, 264, 267 Discoboli, f., V. 96, 104 Discodactyla, IV. 351 Discognathus, g., )„ ,„„ D. lamta, ) v> i£l Discoida, s.o., VI. 284. 294 Discojrhora, o., VI. 278, 280— 282, 294 Discopyge, g., V. 40 Discorbina, VI. * 347, 349 Discosoma, g., VI. 303 Dismorphia, g., VI. 47 D. orise, VI. * 47 Dissemurus, g., IV. 27 Distoma, P.O., ~) D. hepaticum, SVI. 256 D. lanceolatum,,) Distomus, g., V. 256 Ditomus, g., V. 303 Pitrema, g., V. 16, 77 Ditrupa, g., V. 219 D. subulata, VI. 240 Docophorus, g., VI. 147 Dodecaceria conchorum, VI. 235 DolabeUa, g., V. 226 Dolichouyx oryzivorus, IV. 99 Dolichopodidse, f., VI. 90, 91 Dolichopus discifer, VI. * 90 Dolichosaurus longicollis, IV. 341 Dolichotis patachonica, II. *144 Doliolum, g., V. 257 Dolium, g., V. 199 Dolomedes, g , 1 VT 172 D. nmbriitusJVI-172 D. mirabilis, VI. * 172 Donacise, g., V. 348 Donax, g., V. 248 D. truuculus, V. * 248 Doras, g., V. 109 Dorcadiou, g., V. 346 Dorcus, g., ") D. parallelopipe- >-V. 324 dus J D. Titan, V. *32l Doridse, f., V. 227 Doridiuin, g., V. 226 Dorippe, g., VI. 204 Doris, g., V. 227 Dorthesia urticse, VI. 117 Doryichthys, g., D. caudatus, D. mento, D. pleurostictus. Doto, g., V. *227 Draco Dussurnieri, ) TV OQ) D. volans, f*».«» Dracunculus medinensis, VI. 252 Drassus cuprseus, VI. * 173 Dreissena, g., V. 230, 240 Drepanornis, g., IV. 21 D. Albertisi, IV. 25 Drepanulidse, f., VI. 22 Drilime, s.f, V. 335 Drilus llavescens, V. 335 Dromaeus, g., IV. 233 D. irroratus, IV. 233, 235 D. novae hollandiae, IV. 223 Dromia, g., VI. 194, 203 Dromicia, s.g., III. 206 Dromicus autillensis, IV. 330 Dryadinae, s.f., IV. 327, 330 Drymocataphus, g., IV. 51 Drymoica curvirostris, IV. 56 D. gracilis, IV, 77 Dryiophidse, f., IV. 324 Dryoscopus, g., IV. 114 Duplicidentata, III, 85, 145—150 Dussuinieriina, V. 138 Dyctis, g., VI. 35 Dynastes Hercules, V. 328, 347 Dynastidee, f., V. 347 Dynastinae, s.f., V. 326, 328 Dysactis, g., ) VT qao D. biserialis. J VI> 303 Dysderidse, f., VI. 174 Dysderides, VI. 174 Dysporus, s.g., IV. 198 Dysteriidffi, f., VI. 371 D. armata, VI. *371 398 NATURAL HISTORY. Dyticidss, f., V. 300, 305, 309— 3 1 1,313 Dyticus, V. * 293, *310, 311, 313 E Eburna, g., V. 196 Eeheneis, g., I V 91 E. nanorateSi ) E. remora, V. * 91 Echidna, g., III. 227—225, £34, 243 E. Bruinii, III. 229 E. hvstrix, III. * 227, * 228, *229, TI 10) E. Lawesii, I TTT n.™ E. setosa, f111-229 Echinococcus, VI. * 255 Echinoeyamus, g., VI. 230 Echmodea, c., VI. 230, 239, 273 Echinoderes, g., VI. 249 Echinodermata, V. 115, VI. 243, 259, 260 Echinomyinoe, s.f.. III. 131 Echinomys, g., III. 131, 133 Ecbinonemata, f., VI. 325, 327, 328 Echinoporce, VI. 300 Kchiuop-i Telfairi, I 380 Echinorhinus, g., ) v o- E. tpinosus, f Echinorhynchus, g , VI. 250 E. angusta, ) VT » 2V> E. nodulata, 5 V1' *M Echinosorex, g. , I. 358 Echiuospbaerites, g. , VI. 260 Echinothrix, g., III. Ill Echinozoa, Vi. 230, 261, 262, 235, 274, 275, 276 Echionus, g., VI. 260 E. lividus, VI. * 262, 271 E. microstoma, VI. * 270 Echiostoma, g.. V. 112 Echirurus, g., VI. 24 1 Echis, g., IV. 241 E. carinata, IV. 316 Eciton, g., V. 383 Eclectus, g., III. 310 Ectomyarii, III. 245 Ectoprocta, V. 270, 276 Edentata, o., III. 158—190 Edessa, g., VI. 105 Edolius forficatus, IV. 28 Edriophthalmia, VI. 210—213, 223 Edwardsia callimorplia, VI. *304 Effodienta, III. 19) Egretta alba, IV. 184 Elanoides furcatus, III. 287 Elaphrus, g., V. 306 Elapburus Davidianus, III. 64 Elapidffi. f., IV. 304-310 Elaps pulvius, IV. 310 E. corallinus, IV. * 310 Elasmobranchii, V. 15 Elasmopoda, o., VI. 260, 234, 272 Elaterid®, f ., V. 331, 332, 333 Eleginus, g., V. 92 Elenchu?, g., V. 204, 215 Eleotragus, g., III. 19 Eleplia-s africanus, II. 277, 282, *282 E. antiquus, II. 287 E. iudicus, II. 277, * 279 E. meridionalis, II. 287 E. primigeniu?, II. * 288 Ellipesurus, g., V. 44 Ellipsoglossa iieevia, IV. 370 Elminaj, s.f., V. 314 Ellobius, g., ^) E. luteus, [• III. 120 E. talpinus,.) Elopina, V. 138 Elops, g., V. 7, 138 Elpidia, g., VI. 230 Elynmias, v., V. 35 E. nnduliiris, VI. 33, 35 Elymiiiiuse, s.f., 33, 35 Elysia, g., V. 227 Emargiuula, g., V. 217 Einballonura, g., I. 314, 316 E. monticola, I. 314 E. nigrescens, > T „, - ** E. semicauda , > T ta, j ** Emballonuridae, f., I. 310, 312 —324, 325, 328, 330, 340, 341 Emberi/a melanocephala, IV. 101 Enibia mauritauica, ~) E. Savignyi, [-VI. 143 E. bolieri, Embiidffi, f., VI. 140 E.nbiotocidae, f., V. 74, 77 Embletonia, g., V. 227 Emesis, g., VI. 44 Empbis tessellata, VI. 88 Empbytus glossularise, VI. 8 Empidae, f., VI. 88, 90 Empusa pauperata, VI. * 129 Emys, g., IV. 253 K. Bealii, IV. 253 E. concinua, IV. 243 E. europaea, ") E. Hainiltoiii, [-IV. 253 K. ocellatus, ) E. picta, IV. 254 E. reticulata, IV. 253 E. tccta, IV. 2.53, 261 E. Tburgi, ) TV „.„ E. trijusra, r ij Enaliornis Barrett! , IV. 239 Encheliophis, g., V. 65 Encbelys farcimen, VI. * 385 Enchytraeidae, f., ) vr 227 E. veriniculiris, ) Eudomychidae, f., V. 352 Endoprocta, V. 270, 276, 278 Endothyra, VI. 343 Eagteus, g., VI. 204, 207 Eugraulina, V. 135 Hhigraulis encrasicholus, V. 135 Engystoma caroliuense, IV. 362 Eugystomidae, f ., IV. 362 Euhydra, g., II. 209 E. lutris, II. 201 Enhydrina, g., IV. 311 Enhydrus sulcatus, V. 311, * 312 Enneapterygius, g., V. 83 Ennomidse, f., VI. 67 Ennomos, g., VI. 67 E. illustraria, VI. * 66 EnnychidEB, VI. 67 Enoicyla, g., VI. 17, 19 Euopliinse, V. a35 Enoplosus, g., V. 79 Eooploteuthis, g., V. * 169 Enteroplea, g., VI. 248 Eutomophaga, V. 353, VI. 1—6 Eutomostraca, V. 228, VI. 207, 215, 216, 217, 276 Entomyarii, III. 245 Entoniscus, g., VI. 218, 222 Epalzeorhynchus callopSerus, V. 127 Epanodoutes, IV. 336 Epeira apoclisi, VI. 178 E. diadema, VI. *177, 178 E. quadrata, VI. 177 Epeiridae, f., VI. 169, 177-179 Ephalotidee, f., VI. 364 Ephemera vulgata, VI. * 112, *143 Epbenieridae, f., VI. 142, 143, 144, 254 Ephestia clutella, VI. 68 Ephippus, g., V. 5, 80 Epbistemus g., V. 320 Ephydra, g., VI. 94,96 Epibulus, g., V. 77 E. insidiator, V. * 77 Epicauta cinerea, "} E. marginata, ( y goo E. peunsylvauica, ( ' E. vittata, ) Epicopus, g., V. 92 Epicrates angulifer, IV. 335 Epicrium bvpocyanea, IV. 379 Epidapus, g., VI. 79 Epilissi, V. 325 Epimachiuse, s.f., IV. 21 Epimachus, g., IV. 21 Epiphlffius, g., V. 335 Epiodon australis, II. 251 Epistalis, g.,,VI. 370 E. flavicans, VI. *370 Epistylis Ki-aiidis, VI. 362 E. vuubil cata, VI. *370 Epomopborus, g., ) T ««• E. Wbitii, J-1-*"" Equidae, f., II. 295, 236—316 Equoridae, f., VI. 291 Equus caballus/II. 297 Erateinidse, f., VI. 67 Erato, g., ^ v ?03 E. tevis, J i V--°J Erebia, g., VI. 35 E. eurvale, VI. * 35 E. medea, VI. 35 Erebidae, f., VI. 66 Eremopbila, g., VI. 129 Ergatis; g.,Vl. 175 Ericulus, g., \ T ORA E. spiuosus, j" ' w Eriuaceida;, f., I. 350, 353- 359, 382 Erinaceus, g., I. 354 E. amureiisis, ^ E. auritus, ( T »**, E. collaris f1' BW E. concolor, ) E. europaeus, I. 353 E. inacracanthus, ) T oc? E. megalotis, )" ' *)/ Eriodes, g., I. 173 Eriogaster lanestris, VI. 26 Erismatura leucocephala, IV. 195 Eristalis, g., VI. 93 E. tenax, VI. * 93, 94, Plate 62 Eros minutus, V. 333 Erotylidte, f., V. 352 Erotylides, V. 350 Erotylinae, s.f., V. 351 Erotylus Hopei, V. 351 Errautia, s.o., VI. 223, 229-232, 258 Errina, g., VI. 293 Ervillia, g., V. 248 Erycidffi, f., IV. 335 Erycinidae, f., VI. 43, 67 Eryrna niodestiforiuis, VI. 207 Erytbizon dorsatus, ) TTT 1Qi E. epixantbus, f 1Ul ld Erythriuus, g., V. 14, 111 Esocidae, f., V. 120 Esox, g., V. 120 E. lucius, V. * 1, 120 Esperia, g., VI. 322 Estheria, g., VI. *215 Euataria cinerea, II. 230 Eucecrypbalus Schultzei, VI. 34 1, *345 Eucblanis, g., VI. 248 Euchloe cardamines, VI. * -49 Euciiemidae, f., V. 331, 332 Euccelum, g., V. 255 Eucope, g., VI. 291 E. diaphana, VI. *2D1 E. lagena, ~) VT * 01 • Eucyrtidium, ) vl- d Eudasmouia, g., VI. 61 EuJendriuui, g., VI. 287 E. iusigue, VI. *287 Eueides, g., VI. 33 Euglena, g., VI. 374 Eu^lossa, g., V. 367, Plate 68 E. dimidiate, V. 367 Englypha, VI. 340 Eulima, g., V. 200, 208 Eulimella, g., V. 208 Eulopbus pecticomis, VI. 4 Eumaeus, g., VI. 47 Eumenes, g., V. 373 Eumenides, V. 372 Euiii»'topias, g., II. 222 Eunectes murhius, IV. 334 Euuica, g., I VI 39 E. margarita, j VJ Eunice, g., ) VT o^ E. siiiguinei, f V1-JK> Eimicidse, f., VI. 230, 231 Eiiomphalus, g., V. 228, 236 Eupbsedra eleus, VI. 34 Euphractus, III. 186, 190 Euphrosyne, g., VI. 230 Eupbylliaoae, s.f., VI. 298 Enphysetes Grayii, II. 255 Eupitbecia, g., VI. 67 Euplcea, g., VI. 34. 41, 50 E. inidamus, VI. *3t Euplectella iispergillum, V. 182 E. suberea. VI. 318, * 319, *329, 330 Etiplexoptera, VI. 120, 121, 134 —136 Euplocamus, g., IV. 134 Euplotes charoii, VI. 371 Eupoda, V. 348 Euprotomicrus, g., V. 35 Eupsamminae, s.t'., VI. 300, 311 Euptycbia, g., VI. 43, 46 Eurerna, g., VI. 48 Eurostopodus, III. 369 Euryale, g., VI. 260 Eurybia, g., V. 229 Euryceros Aii^asii, III. 23 Eurydice pulchra, VI. 212 EurylaBmiidsB, f., IV. 119 Eurylepta banguinolenta, VI. 257 Eurypteridae, o., VI. 214 Eurypterus, g., VI. 196, 2^4 Eurypyga helias, IV. 175 Eurypyginae, s.f., IV. 175 Eurystonia, s.o., VI. 279, 280, 294 Eurystomus, g., IV. * 119 Euscbema militaris, VI. 66 Euscbemidae, f., VI. 67 Euscbemon Kafflesiae, VI. 54 Euselasia, g.,VI. 43 Euselasiinas, s.f., VI. 43 Eusmilinae, VI. 298, 299 Euspougia, g., VI. 317 E. officiualis, VI. 312, * 313, * 315, 316, 317, 318, 32 } E. zimocca, VI. 317 Eustrongyltis gigas, VI. 252 Evania, g., ) y, „ E. appendigaster, f Excalfactorin, g., IV. 150 Exccetus, g., V. 123 E. evolaiis, ) v ,„„ E. lineatis, f V' L~6 E. volitans, V. * 12 3, 124 Fabularia discolithus.VI. * 349 Faenus jaculator, VI. 3 Falcinellus igueus, IV. 189 Falco, g., ^VT „„., F. jesalon, ) VI" 293 F. melanogenys, ~) F. minor, ^III. 231 F. nicriceps, ) F. peregriuns, III. 291, *292 F. subbute-«, III. 293 Falcoues, s.o., III. 253, 255, 256 —234 Falconidse, f., III. 264—295 Falconinee, s.f., III. 290—295 Farrea, g., VI. 330 Fasciola, VI. 256 Fasciolaria, g., \v ,„„ F. gigantea, fv> ly' Favia pallida, VI. * 298 Favositidae, f., VI. 29 4, 305 Felidae, f., II. 9 — 14, 105, £04, 211 Felis, g., II. 8, 10, 18 F. aurata, II. * 58, 59 F. bengalensis, II. 58 F. caiiadensis, II. *73, 75 F. caracal, II. * 74, 75 F. catus, II. 10, 59, * 61, IV. 206 F. cervaria, II. 75 F. cbaus, II. 70 F. concolor, II. 47 F. domestica, II. 61, * 62, *64 *69 F. eyra,' II. 56, *57 F. ferox, II. 54 F. jaguarondi, II. 55, *56 F.jubat.1, II. 42, *76, *77 F. lauea, II. 76 F. leo, II. 10, 14, 18 F. lynx, II. 71, * 72 F. macroaelis, II. 49, *50, 51 F. inacrura, II. * 54 F. maniculata, II. 59, * 60, •62 F. manul, II. 59 F. marmorata, II. 53 F. onci, II. 44, *45 F. pojeros, II. 53 F.pardalis, II. *52, 54 F. pardina, II. 75 F. pardus, II. 40. 51 IXDSX TO CLASSES, ORDERS, FAMILIES, GENERA, SPECIES, ETC. 399 Felis (continued): F. rubiginosa, II. 57 F. rufa, II. 75 F. serval, II. 56 F. sniilodou, II. 50 F. spelsea, II. 10, 204 F. tisrina, II. 54, * 55 F. tigris, II. 10, 30 F. torquata, II. 59 F. uucia, II. * 49 F. viverrina, II. 53 Feuestella, g., V. 278 F. nodulosa, VI. 294 Fiber zibetlucus, III. 117, * US FidiciuaatratD, VI. Ill Fidonidae, f., VI. 67 Fierasfer, g., irasfer, g., ~) F. dentatus, > F. Hoinei, ) Fierasferiua, V. 65 Figites, g., VI. 6 Filariu, g., VI. 252 F. Bancroftii, VI. *252 F. sanguinis homini, VI. 252 Filograua, g., VI. 240 Fiona, g., V. 227 Firolidae, f., V. 227 Firoloides, g., V. 228 Fissilingues, s.o., IV. 272—279 Fissipedia, II. 1, 198 Fissirostres, s.o., III. 253, 303, 343—380 Fissurella, g., V. 216, 217 Fissurellidae, f., V. 217 Fistularia, g., V. 5, 8, 103 F. serrata, \ y ,/y> F. tabaccaria, ) ' Fistularidse, f., V. 101, 103 Fitzro.\ia, g., -V. 121 F. multidentata, Flabellum, g., VI. 298 Flagellata, o., VI. 350, 356, 357, 358, 359, 361, 362, 363, 372—374 Flagellat i - Pantostomata, s.o., VI. 373 Flata limbata, VI. 113 Floscularidae, f., VI. 248, 258 Floscularia, g., VI. 243 F. trifolium, VI. *249 Flustra, g., V. 270 F. foliacea, V. 2G9 Folliculiua ampulla, VI. * 388 Foramiuifera, VI. 276, 337, 338, 344, 315, 346, 347, 348, 319,350, 351 Forficesila gigautea, VI. 136 Forficula auricularia, VI. * 135, 13S Forficulicke, f., VI. 134—133 Formica, g., V. 312, 382 F. congerens, V. 380 F. cunicularia, V. 381 F. flava, V. 379 F. fuliginosa, V. 379, VI. 81 F. fusca, V. 381 F. gigas, V. 382 F. ligniperda, V. 379 F. jiigra, V. 379 F. rufa, V. 379, 380, 382 F. saiiguinea, V. 381, 382 Formicidse, f., V. 378— 383 Formicinae, s.f., V. 382 Formicariidffi, f., IV. 114 Fossarus, g., V. 212 Francolmus vulgaris, IV. 144 Fregatidae, f.. IV. 195—197 Fregiiiiise, s.f., IV. 2 Fregilupus varius, III. * 243 Fringilla Calebs, IV. 94 FrmC'illidae, f., IV. 77, 95—99 Fringilliformes, s.o., IV. 77— 100 Frondicularia Goidfussi, VI. * 348, 349 Frugivora, I. 266—278 Fulgora candelaria, VI. * 113 F. laternaria, VI. 113 Fulgorulffi, f., VI. 112, 115 Fuliciuae, s.f., IV. 160 Fuhnarus. g., IV. 210 Fundul is hispanicus, V. 121 Fungi i patella, VI. 303 Fuugidoe, f., VI. 300, 311 Fimginse, s.f., VI. 300 Furcularia, g., VI. 3J7 Furia, g., I. 310 Furipterus coerulescens, \ j 0 F. horrens, ) Furnaviiuffi, s.f., IV. 112 Ftmiarius, g.. IV. 182 F. cunicularius, IV. 112 F.torridus, IV. 112, "113 Fusulina, VI. 350 Fuscus, g., V. 193, 194 F. antiquus, ~J F. bernicieusis, > V. 194 F. colus, ) F. coutrarius, V. 190 F. Dalei, ~\ F. deformis, f v 101 F. fusiformis, f v F. norve^icus,,) F. proboscidalis, V. * 194 F. Turtoui, V. 194 G Gaeana maculata, VI. Ill Gadiculus, g., V. 62 Gadidae, f., V. 58—64 Gadopsidse, f., VI. 58 Gadopsis, g., V. 58 Gadus, g., V. 14, 61, 62, 6J G. iEglefinus, V. 60 G. luscus, ~i G. merlangus, f V. 61 G. miuitus, ) G. morrbua, V. 4, *5, J G. pollacbius, ") G. pputassou, >• V. 61 G. virens, j Galaeosaurus, IV. 341 Galago, g., I. 236— 241, 257 G. crassicaudatus, I. * 238, 239 G. Demidoffii, I. 237 G. Maholi, I. *236, *237, 238,240 G. Monteiri, I. * 239, 240 G. murinus, I. 237 G. senegalensis, I. * 236, 237 G. sennaarensis, I. 238 Galatea, g., V. 248 Gulatbea, g., VI. 203, 211 Galaxias, g., V. 120 Galaxidae, f., V. 120 Galbulidae, f., III. 343 Galecynus, II. 205 Galeocerdo, g., IV. 27 Galeodes araneoides, VI. * 165, 166 G. fatalis, VI. 166 Galeoides, g., V. 83 Galeomma, g., V. 244 Galeopithecidae, f., I. 344—347, 382 Galeopitheous, g., I. 341, 344, 346, 347 G. philippinensis, I. 3i7 G. volans, I. 344 Galeruca capreae, ") G. halensis, >• V. 319 G. tanaceti, j Galerucinae, s.f., V. 349 Galeus, g., V, 11, 27 G. canis, V. 27 Galgulidfc, f., V. 103 Galgulus oculatus, VI. 103 Galictes barbara, II. 192 G. vittata, II. 191, * 192 GaUeridae, f., VI. 68 Gallinse, o., IV. 121, 128—155 Gallinula cliloropus, IV. 159 Gallinulina3, s.f., IV. 159 Garnasidae, f., VI. 181, 183 Gamasus coleoptratorum, VI. *183 Gammaridffi, f., VI. 121 Gammarus, g., VI. 196, 247 G. pulex, I. 380, VI. 250, 364 Ganoidei, o., V. 21—24 Gargara genistas, VI. 114 Garrulus, g., IV. 14, 16 G. glaudarius, IV. 14, * 15 Gastatacantha, g., VI. 179 G. arcuata, VI. * 179 Gasterocbisma, g., V. 88 G. inelampus, V. 88, 89 Gasterophilus (see Gastrus) Gasteropoda, c., V. 183—228 GasterosteHae, f., V. 101 Gasterosteiformes, V. 101 Gasterosteus, g., V. 101 G. aculeatus, V. 102 G. pungitius, V. * 101, 103 G. spinacbia, V. 103 Gastrana, g., V. 247 Gastrocbsena, g., V. 2;0 Gastroehenidae, f., V. 25 J Gastropaoba quercifolia, VI. 62 Gastropeculus, g., V. Ill Gastropterou, g., V. 226 Gastrotokeus, g., V. 56 Gastrus or Gasterophilus, g., VI. 97 G. elephautis, VI. 97 G. equi, VI. * 97 G. baemorrhoidalis, VI. 97 Gaviae, o., III., 254, IV. 203-213 Gavialis gangeticus, IV. 266, * 267, V. 105 G. macrorhynchus, IV. 270 Gazella, g., III. 13 G. Bennettii, II. 78, 153 G. Molir, III. 13 Gecarcinidae, f., VI. 201 Gecarcinus, g., VI. 194 G. ruricola, VI. 201, * 202 Gocinus viridis, III. 334, 335 Gecko guttatus, IV. 290 Geckotidffl, f., I. 349, IV. 287- 290 Gelasimus, g., VI. 232 Gelecbidae, f., VI. 68 Gena, g., V. 215 Genetta vulgaris II. 91 Geococcyx californianus, III. 325 Geocores, VI. 104—109 Geodelphaga, V. 300 Geodina, g., VI. 322 Geogale aurita, I. 361 Geomalax, g., V. 222 Geomelania, g., V. 225 Geometrae, g., VI. 67 Geometridae, f., VI. 22, 54 Geomyidae, f., III. 122-124, 153 Geomyinae, s.f., III. 122, 123 Geomys, g., III. 123 G. bursarius, III. 122 Geophilides, VI. 155 Geophilus, g., "^ G. Cumingii, G. electricus, I V-T i KC G. Gabrielis, f VI' 155 G. longicornis, G. subterraneus.J Georychus capensis. III. 122 Georyssidse, f., V. b!4 Georyssus pygmaeus, V. 314 Ueoteuthis, g., V. 174 Geotria chilensis, V. 145 Geotrupes, g., V. 298, 323, 326, VI. 184 G. stercorarius, V. 298, 326 G. Typhoeus, V. 326 Geotrupinae, s.f., V. 326 Gephyrea, c., VI. 225, 241?, * 24i, 258 G. armata, ") G. inermia, > VI. 244, 268 G. tubicola, ) Gerardia, g., VI. 301 Gerbillinae, III. 113 Gerbillus erythrurus, III. 281 Gerridae, f., V. 74, 78. VI. 109 Gen-is, g , VI. 90, 183 G. lacnstris, VI. 109 Geryonia bastata, VI. *292 Geryonidae, f., VI. 291 Girardinus, g., V. 125 Glaudulina, VI. 349 G. laevigata, VI. *3t9 Glaiicidium, g., III. 304 G. passerinum, III. 305 Glaucomya, g., V. 246 Glaucopis cinerca, IV. 19 Glaucus, g., V. * 227 Gleuodinium acuminatum, VI. »:rs Globa a, >.o., VI. 294 Globigeriua, g., V. 229 Gl. conglomerata, VI. * 3 18 Gl. bulloides, ) V-T QIQ Gl. cretacea, f vl< 6t' G'.obiocepbalus melas, II. * 255 , . pteryx, g., ~) . cleopatra, >• VI. 48 . rbamiii, ) Glomeridae, f., VI. 156 Glossina iiiorsitans, VI. * 95 Glossonycteris lasiopyga, I. 333 G^ossopbaga, g., I. 334, 333 G. soricma, I. * 333 Glottidia, V. 267 Glyphidodon, g., V. 75 Glyptospbserites, g., VI. 260 Gnatbodon, g., ) v „._ G. cuneatus.j v' *v Gnathopoda, VI. 196 Gobiesocidao, f., V. 16, 104 Gobiesocifonnes, V. 104 Gobiesox, g., V. 104 Gobiidae, f., V. 97 Gobiiforiues, V. 96 Gobio, g., •) G. ttuviatilis, [• V. 128 G. ivranoscopus, ) Gobius, g., ) v „_ G. njger, f v' a7 G. minutus, ) v oa G. paganellus, f v • ^ Goera, g., VI. 19 Goliatbiies, V. 330 Goliatbus Druryi, V. * 329, 330 Golofa Porteri, V. 329 Gomphonema, VI. 342 Gompbus vulgatissimus, VI. 145 Gonatocera, V. 340 Gonatus amaena, V. 167 Gonepteryx, g., G. G. Goniaster, g., VI. 263 Goniastraea, VI. 299 Goniatites, V. 188 Goniodorus, g., V. 2.7 Goniopora, Vi. 301 Gonorbynchidse, f., V. 133 Gonorbyncbus Greyi, V. 134 Gonostoma, g., V. 112 Gonyleptes, g., VI. 164 Gordius, g., VI. 254 Gorgonia, g., VI. 305, 308 G. flabellum, VI. *309 G. verrucosa, VI. 308 Gorgonella, g., VI. 309 Gorgouias, s.f., VI. 306, 309 Gorgouidae, f., VI. 306—309, 311 Gorgouinae, s.f., VI. 307 Gorgouocephalus, g., VI. 260 Goura, IV. * 127, 128 Gralte, o., III. 254, IV. 156—178 Grallina picata, IV. * 2S Grampus giiseas, II. * 256 Granatocrinus, g., VI. 260 Grantia compressa, VI. 323 Graphiurus, g., III. 102 Grapsidffi, f., VI. 201 Graucalus, g., IV. 28 G. melanops, IV. 30 Gregarina, VI. 334, 351 Grouiia, VI. 344, 346, 353. 354 G. terricola, VI. *345, 34S Gruinse, s.f., IV. 175—178 Grus cinerea, IV. 175 Gryllidae, f., VI. 121-124 Gryllotalpa, g., G. didactyla, G. vulgaris, Gryllus, g.. VI. 124 G. campestris, VI. 122, 123 G. domesticus, VI. 12J Guepanda, g., II. 10 Gulo luscus, II. 182, * 183 Gundlachia, g., V. 224 Gygis, g., IV. 206 Gymnarcbidae, f., V. 120 Gymnarchus, g., V. 12 G. niloticus, V. 120 Gymiielis imberbis, V. 58 Gymnoblastea, VI. 294 Gymnocypris dobula, V. 128 Gymnodium sj)irale, VI. * 356 Gymnodontes, f., V. 48, 50—53 Gymnopus, g., IV. 253 Gymnorbma, I. 280 Gymnosomata, V. 229 Gymnotidae, f., V. 139 Gymnotus, g., V. 8, 12, 16 G. brauohiurus, V. 16 G. electricus, V. 139 Gymnura, g., I. 350, 358 3-3 G. Kaftlesia, I. 358 Gtpnetus bai-batus. III. 277, 278, •279 G. ossifragus, III. 280 . - ., ) y la, f V> 1 s, VI. 12:i 400 NATURAL HISTORY, Gypohierax angolensis, III. 313 Gyps fulvus, III. 259 Gypsophoca tropicalia, II. 229 Gypsoruis, IV. 239 Gyrinidae, f., V. 300, 311 Gyrinus distinctus, V. 311, *312 G. natator, V. 311 Gjroceras, g., V. 187 H Habracoma, g., III. 129 Hsematophilina, HI. 338 Haematopoliuae, s.f., IV. 171 Haematopota pluvialis, VI. 86 Haematopus ostralegus, V. 218 Haementaria, g., VI. 242 Haemopsis sauguisuga, V. *24l Haimea, g., VI. 311 Halacaridse, f., VI. 183 Halacarus, g., VI. 183 Halargyreus, g., V. 62 Halcyon, g., III. 319 Halcyornis, IV. 239 Haliaetus albicella, III. 265, *287 H. vocifer, III. 285 Halichaerus griseus, ) TT 0oQ H. gryphus, f «• BB Halicore, g., ) n 2Qt) H. Dugong, [ li> •* Halictus, g., V. 370 Haliomma, VI. 313 Haliopbis, g., V. 66 Haiiotidae, f., V. 216 H. funebris, V. 216 H. tricostalis, V. * 215 Haliplinse, V. 310 Haliplus fulvus, V. * 311 Halobates, g., VI. 109 Halisarca, g., VI. 320, 325 H. lobularis, VI. 320 Halisarcidee, f., VI. 325 Halosauridee, f., V. 139 Halosaurus, g., > v ,00 H. Oweni, f V' 13 Halmaturus, s.g., III. 197 Halteria grandinella, VI. 359, *368 Haltica, g., V. 373 Haltioides, g., V. 349 Halticinae, s.f., V. 348 Halys, g., IV. 320 Hamanumida dsedalus, VI. 41 Hapale, g., I. 185, 197—200, 203, 204 H. humeralifer, > T 1qq H. Jacchus, r'ly Hapalemur, g., I. 224, 257 H. griseus, 1.224, * 225 Haplocercus ceylonensis, III. 300 Haplochilus, g.,V. 124 Haplochiton, g., V. Ill Haplochitonidse, f., V. Ill Haplodon, g., III. 96 H. ruf us, III. 97 Haplodon tidee, f., III. 96, 151 Hapolotis, g., ) m m H. albipes, flli>U Harpa, g., V. 198 H. anicularis, ) v * 1Q8 H. imperialis, j Harpogornis, IV. 240 Harpalinae, s.f., V. 398 Harpalus, g., V. 303 Harpioeeplialus, g., I. 308 H. harpia, I. 308, * 309 Harpodon nehereus, V. 112 Harpy ia, g., I. 277 H. cephalotes, I. 276 H. major, I. 277 H. Pallasii, I. 308 Hebetidentata, III. 155 Hebomoia, g., Ivr 49 H. glaucippe, f v ' Hectocotylus octopodis, V. 157 Helarctos, g., ) n 170 H. malayanns, f"-1*' Heleopora, VI. 340 Heliustraea, g., VI. 299 Helicidas, f.,"V. 220—222 Helicina, g., V. 225 Helicinidse, f., V. 225 Heliconiuse, s.f., VI. 34, 36, 43, 48 Heliconius, g., VI. 31, 36 Helicopis, g., VI. 44 Helicopsyche, g., VI. 20 Helictts, g., II. 196 Heliolites, g., VI. 305 Heliophobius, g., III. 83 Ht argenteo-ciuereus, III. 123 Heliop ira caerulea, VI. 3D5 Helioporidae, f., VI. 305, 311 Heliornithinse, s.f., IV. 162 Heliothida;, f., VI. 65 Heliozoa, VI. 341, 342 Helix, g., V. 220, 221 H. arbustorum, V. 221 H. aspersa, V. 221, Plate 56 var. scalaris, ibid. H. citrina, Plate .56 H. globulus, V. 221 H. horteusis, V. 221, 368 H. Mackeuzii, Plate 56 H. nemoralis, V. 335, 368 H. pomatia, V. * 221 H. Stuartii, H. translucida, H. undulata, H. Waltoni, Helogenes, g., V. 109 Helophilus pendulus, VI. £3 Helops pallidus, ) v „„„ H. striatus, ) v' ** Helostoma, g., V. 106 Helotarsus ecaudatus, III. 2S5, 284, * 285 He^otinae, s.f., V. 351 Hemerobiidae, VI. 12, 14 Hemerobius, g., VI. 12 H. humuli, VI. 13 Heruerodromia, g., VI. 88 Heinicentetes, g., I. 330 Hemichromis, g., V. 78 Hemicyon, g., II. 205 Heinidactylus vei ruculatus, IV. 290 Hemi-f usus coloss»us, V. 194 H. proboscidalis, V. * 194 Hemigaleus, g., V. 27 Hemimerus.g., V. 286 Hemimetab,)In, VI. 222 Hemiptera, V. 296, VI. 201 Hemiptycha punctata, Plate 63 Hemiramphus, g., ") H. cuspidatus, >V. 123 H. fluviatilis, ) Hemirbombus, g., V. 69 Heniochus, g., V. 80 Hepialidae, f., VI. 54, 63 Hepialus humuli, VI. 29, 63, 64 Heptanchus, V. 31 Hermaea, g., V. *227 Herodiones, o., III. 254, IV. 178 —191 Herpestes griseus, II. 91 Herpetohtha Umax, VI. 300 Herpnemata, VI. 337, 351 Hesperia, g., > vr -„ H. malv83,)V1>53 Hesperiid83, f., VI. 47, 52—54, 55 Hesperomys, g., III. 112 H. aureolus, H. leucopus, ill. Ill H. aureolus, ~) H. leucopus, [ill. H. palustris, ) Hesperornn, g., III. 247 H. regalis, IV. 239, 240 Heteralocha acutirostris, IV. 17, * 18 Heterobranchus, g., ) y JQO H. tapeinopterus, ) ' HeterocephaTus glaber, III. 121 Heteroceridse, f., V. 314 Heteroconger, g., V. 141 Heterodon, g., IV. 329 Heterogyna, V. 377 Heterolepidina, f., V. 98 Heteromera, V. 336-334 Hetercinastigidae, f., VI. 372 Heteromastix proteiformis, VI. *356 Heteromeron, V. 339 Heterornyinse, s.f., III. 123 Heteroinys, g., III. * 122, 124 Heteronotus reticulatis, Plate 63 Heteronychus, V. 328 Heteropbrys, VI. 312 Heteroptera, s.o., VI. 103—111 Heteropterae, s.f., V. 108, 109 Heteropus, s.g., III. 198 Heteropygii, f., V. 125 Heterostegiua depressa, VI. *349 Heterotis niloticus, V. 131 Heterotriclia, s.o., VI. 367 HexactiuellidfB, VI. 321, 322, 325, 330 Hexancbus, V. 31 Hierotalco, g., ~~ H. candidans, H. gyrfalco, H. Holbolli, H. islandus, H. labradorus.j Hilarae, g., VI. 88 Himautinopinas, s.f., IV. 167 Himantopus melauopterus, IV. 167 Hipistes bydrinus, IV. 327 Hippoboscidas, f., VI. 97 Hippobosco equina, VI. *97 Hippocampus, g., ) y ._ H. autiquorum, i H. guttulatus, I v «j H. longirostris, f v ' °° Hippoci-epian Bryozoa, V. 273 Hippoglossoides limandoides, V. 67 Hippoglossus vulgaris, V. 67 Hippo lyte, g., VI. 211 Hipponyx, g., V. 213 Hippopotainidse, f., 335, 348- 360 Hippopotamus auipbibius, II. 348, * 319, '352 H. liberieusis, II. 359 Hippospougia, g.,)VI „,- H. equina, ) H. gossypiua, ) VT „.„ H. meandi-iformis, / vl< w Hiresia, g., V. 302 Hirudinea, B.C., VI. 210—243, 258 Hirudo, g., VI. 242 H. interrupta, ) VT 9,n H. medicinalis, i VI'240 H. muricata, V. 41 H. officinalis, VI. 240 HirundinidaJ, f., IV. 77, 89—94 Hirundo rufula, IV. 77 H. rustica, III. 378, IV. 92, *93 Hispinse, s.f., V. 348, 350 Hister, g., V. 381 Histeridse, f., V. 322 Histiophorus, g., V. * 85 Histioteuthis, g., V. 168 Histiotus velatus, I. 295 Histriobdella hornari, VI. 242 Histriobdellidse, f., VI. 212 Holacanthus, g., V. 80 Holobranchiata, o., V. 271, 276 Holocephala, o., V. 24 Holoderma, g., IV. 277 H. horridum, IV. 279 Holops, IV. 270 Holorhaphidota, o., VI. 327 Holostomata, V. 207 Holotricha, s.o., VI. 364, 365 Holothuria, g., III. 252, VI. 243, 260 H. tubulosa, VI. *263, * 261 Holothursidea, c., VI. 260, 270 Holtenia, g., VI. 329 Homseosauria, IV. 341 Homalocranion, g., IV. 331 Homalogonatse, III. 245 Homalopsida;, f., IV. 327 Homalopterse, s.f., V. 108 Homalopterina, V. 125, 133 Houiarus vulgaris, VI. 204,* 205, 206 Homoeomyarii, III. 245 Hornoptera, s.o.,V. 340, VI. 103, 111-117, 146 Hoplides, f., V. 327 Hoplocephalus curtus, IV. 310 Hoplognatbidaa, f., V. 82 Hoplopbora coutractilis, VI. 183 Hornia minutipeunis, V. 339 Huecbys sanguinea, VI. Ill Huroiiia, g., V. 187 Hyaena, g., II. 79 H. bruuuea or fuses., II. 73, b2 H. crocuta, II. 70. * 81, 204 H. opelsea, II. 204 H. striata, II. 79, 83 Hyaeuictis, g., II. 205 Hyaeuidae, f., II. 79, 2M Hyaenarctos, g., II. 205 Hyaeuodou, g., II. * 205, 206 Hyalcidae, f., V. 229 Hyalea, g., V. 229 H. gibbosa, lv *22T H. lougirostris, f v ' aJ Hyalolampe, VI. 342 Hyalonema Sieboldii, VI. 318, * 319, 321, 330 Hyalopatb.es, g., VI. 301 Hyalospheuia, VI. 340 Hyas, g., VI. 197 Hybernidae, f., VI. 67 Hyborhyncbus, g., V. 128 Hydatineae, f., VI. 248, 258 Hydnocera, g., V. 335 Hjdr.i,g.,VI.284 H. fusca, VI. 285 H. viridia, VI. 284, *285, •286,362 Hydraclma concharum, VI. 183 H . globulus, VI. * 182 Hydrachnidae, f., VI. 181, 182 Hydractinia, g., > VT 987 H. eohinata,? VL 287 Hydradephaga, f., V. 300 Hydra-tuba, VI. 281 Hydridse, f., VI. 2a5 Hydrochoeus, g., III. 145 H. capybara, III. 144, * 145, *143 Hydrocorallina, o., VI. 278, 292 _ 294 Hydrocorallinae, s.o.,VI. 286,292 Hydrocores, IV. 109-111 Hydrocyon, g., V. 6 Hydroida, o., VI. 278, 284-291, 294 Hj droinedusa, g., IV. 265 Hydromedusae, c., VI. 277—294 Hydrotnetra stagnorum, VI. 109 Hydromyinae, s.f., III. 114 Hydromys, g., III. 83 H. chrysogaster, III. 114, 231 H. fuliginosus, )TTT 11A H.leucogaster, f111'11 Hydropbasianus cbirurgus, IV. *I57 Hydrophidae, f., IV. 304, 310 Hydrophilidae, f., V. 300, 313 Hydrophilus, g., V. 313 H. piceus, V. * 313, 314 Hydrophis, g., IV. 311, 327 Hydrophorus, g., VI. 90 Hydroporus, g., V. 311 H. griseostriatus, V. * 311 Hydrosaurus, g., ) TV 97Q H. giganteus, j i ' Ja* H. salvator, IV. 278 Hydropsycbidaa, VI., 17, 20 Hydroptilidae, VI. 17, 20 Hydrous carahoides, V. 314 Hydrozoa, c., VI. 277—294, 364 Hyla, g., IV. 346 H. arborea, IV. 363 H. aurea, IV. 364 H. elegans, IV. '.363, 364 H. Euriugii, ~) H. palmata, [-IV. 364 H. versicolor, ) Hylaeus.g., V. 370 Hylesinus crenatus, V. 343 H. raxini, V. 342 Hylidse, f., IV. 3(53, 364 Hylinae, s.f., IV. 366 Hylobates, g., I. 73, 74, 83, 163 H. agilis, I. 81, *82, 205 H. Hooluk, I. 79, * 80 H. lur, I. * 77, 205 H. leuciscus, I. 81 H. pileatus, I. 79, * 81 H. synaactylus, I. * 73, 74 Hylodes martiuicensis, IV. 366 Hylodus ocularis, IV. 366 Hylomys,g.,I. 347, 383 H. peguensis, I. 350 H. suillus, I. 350, 359 TO CLASSES, ORDERS, FAMILIES, GENERA, SPECIES, ETC. 401 Hylorauae, f., IV. 363 Hylotoma, g., ) VT „ H. rosaruui, j" Hymenoptera, o., V., 295, 297, 345, 353, VI. 8, 71, 73, 87 Hyodon tergisus, V. 134 Hyodontidae, f., V. 134 Hyoiiycteris, g., I. 311 Hypena probosciJalis, VI. 66 Hyperion Schroeteri, V. * 308 Hjperodapedon, IV. 200, 341 Hyperoodou rostratas, II. 252 Hyperopisus, g., V. lit H> pherpes corallirostris, IV. 69 Hypnos, g., V. 40 Hypochrysops, g., VI. 43 Hypoderas, g., VI. 185 Hypoderma bovis, VI. 98 Hypolirnnas, g., VI. 4:> H. charithoniae, VI. 33 H. inaria, VI. 34 H. uit-lpoinene, VI. 36 H. misippus, VI.* 3:?, 34, 41 H. salniacis, VI. 41 Hypophtbalmichthyiua, V. 132 Hypophtbaluiichthys, g., V. 132 Hypophthalmus, g. V. 109 Hypopus, g., VI. 185 Hyix>tricha, s.o., VI. 371 Hypsaucheniabalista, Plate 63 Hypsignatkus nioustrosus, I. 276, » 277 Hypsiprymuodon, g., III. 224 H. moschatus, III. 201 Hypsiprymnus, s.g., III. * 199, * 200, 224, 225 H. murinus, I TTT q/^ H.penicillatus, »" M) H. rufesceus, III. 199 Hyracoidea, o., II. £73, 292—294 Hyrax, g., ) H. capensis, -II. 292 H. syriacus, j Hyria, g., V. 237, 242 Hysterocarpus, g., V. 77 Hystrieids:, f., III. 133—138, 154 Hystricinae, s.f., III. 134 Hystricomorpha, III. 128—133 Hystrix cristata, III. * 134 H. hirsutirostris, ) TrT ,.,,- H. javanica, f IIL 135 lantbina, g., V. 216 I. communis, V. * 217 lantbiuidae, f., V. 216 Ibalia cultellata, VI. 6 Ibidorhynchus Strutbersi, IV. 162 Ibis religiosa, IV. * 189 I. rubra, IV. 189 Ibycter australis, III. 2G4 Ichneumon, g., V. *1, * 2, 3 Ichneumon idee, f., VI. 1 — 3, 4 Ichthyobdellidae, VI. 242 Ichthyocampus, g., V. 56 Icbthyoidea, s.o., IV. 369, 375 —378 Ichthydium, g., VI. 243 Ichtbyophthiriidae, f., VI. 365 Ichthyophthirius uiultiflliis, VI. * 363 lohthyornia, III. 247 I. dispar, IV. 239 Icteridse, f., IV. 25, 77, 99 Icterinse, s.f., IV. 99 Icteinis baltimore, IV. 99, Plat* 39 Ictitnerium, g., II. 205 Ictouyx zorilla, II. 196 Idalia, g., V. * 227 Idolothi-ips, g., VI. It! Idoteidse, VI. 211 Itf uaua tuberculata, IV. *279, 280 Iguanidse, f., IV. 279, 280 Illamus Barriensis, VI. 210 Iluantbos Mitcbelli, ) vr o^i I. scoticus, t" v *• OJ Ilyodaernon, g., VI. 2'i* Impennes, o., III. 2c4, IV. 222 Imperator, g., V. 214 Inachus, g., ^ VT 197 I. Kempferi, j VI' 197 289 Inaequipalpia, VI. 17 luaequitelae, f., VI. 175 Iiica clathrata, V. 330 Indicator, g., III. 329 I. exilis, ) I. major, -III. 330 I. Sparrinanui, ) Indicator-Idas, III. 329 Indris, g., I. 217—* 219, 257 I. brevicaudatus, I. 222 I. diadema, I. 219, * 220 I. laniger, I. 222 I. Verrauxii, I. * 213 Infusoria, VI. 276, 350, 351 I. eiliata. VI. 356 Inii, !,'., II. 247, 268 I. Geott'rensis, II. 250 Ino, g., VI. 57 I. statices, VI. 24 Inoperculata, V. 220 Insecta, c., V. 281, VI. 9, 149, 221, 223, 283 Insectivora, o., I. 279, 342— 381 I. vera, I. 347, 382 Insessores, IV. 1 Inuus, g., I. 114—129, 161, 163 I. ecaudatus, I. 123, 126 Invertebrata, V. 150—280 Iridina, g., V. 242 Irrisor, g., III. 359 I. erythorhynchus, III. 359 Isastraea, g., VI. 300 Ischnoglossa uivalis, I. 335 Isch) romyidae, f., III. 151 Isidinae, s.f., VI. 306, 307 Isis, g., •) I. coralloides, SVI. C07 I. bippuris, ) Ismene, g., ) VT „ I. iphis, f VI' M Isocardia, g., V. 231, 237, 245 Isophyllia, g., VI. 299 Isopoda, g., VI. 196, 210 Ispidina uatalensis, ) TTT QIQ I. picta, (iJ.i.Jt- Issus coleoptratus, VI. 113 Istiopbora, I. 280 Ithoraia, g., VI. 34, 4t I. flora, VI. * 35 Itbomiola, g., VI. 44 Ixalus variabilis, IV. 366 Ixodes, g., > VT 1R. I. erinaceus, J vl- » I. flavomaculatus, VI. * 184 I. marginatus, VI. 184 Ixodidee, f., VI. 181, 184 lynx, III. 334 Jacare, f., IV. 267 J. curua, "} J. hirticollis, f jy 070 J. latirpstris, f J. lougiscutata, ) J. iiigra, IV. 269 J. ocellata, ~) J. punctata, > IV. 270 J. sclerops, ) Japygidae, f., VI. 149 . Japyx gigas, ) VI ,.„ J. solit'ugus, ) Jassidae, f., VI. 114 Jenyiisia, g., V. 124 Julidae, f., VI. 1.55, 156 Julidiua, V. 76 Juhiis sabulosus, VI. 155 J. terrestris, VI. * 152, 155, 156 Juncella, g., VI. 309 Jimonia, g., \ VT „„ J. laomedia, ) Kabassous, III. 184, 190 Kalliuia, g., VI. 38 K. inachis, VI. *39 K. paralekta, VI. 39 Kellia, g., ) v 24. K. rubra, | V> *** Kerivoula, g., I. 303 K. picta, I. 304 Ketupa ceyloueusis, III. 300, IV. 75 Kinixys, y., IV. 252 K. Homeaiia, IV. 245 Kinosternon, g., )_ IV. K. pennsylvanicuni, )" 254 Kogia, g., II. 252 K. breviceps, ) TT 0.. K. Grayii, [ IL WS Kraussiua, g., V. 267 Kurtidffi, f., V. 83 Kurtifonnes, V. 83 Labia minor, VI. 136 Labrax, g., V. 79 L. lupus, V. * 79 Labridffi, f., V. 74, 75—77 Labrus, g., V. 75, 76 L. maculatus, ) TT -rr L. mixtus, f v- /a Labyrintbibranchii, V. 105 Labyrinthici, f., V. 105 Labyrinthulea, VI. 351 Laccophilus, g., V. 311 L. variegatus, V. * 311 Lacerta, g., IV. 272-275 L. agilis, IV. 272, * 273 L. nmralis, ~) L. ocellata, [• IV. 274 L. viridis, ) L. vivipara, IV. 273, * 274 Lacertilia, o., IV. 272—299 Lachesis mutus, IV. 319 Lacbnis, g., VI. 115, 116 Lachnolaimus, g., V. 76 Lachnosterna quercina, V. 328 Lacinularia, g., V. 243, 249 L. socialis, VI. 243 Lacuna, g., V. 212 Leemargus, g., ) v „,. L. borealis, f v ' ** Laamodipoda, VI. 212 Lafoea, g., VI. 290 Lagena, VI. 349 Lageueeca, g., VI. 374 L. cuspidata, Plafe 72 Lagenidse, VI. 349 Lagidium Cuvieri, ) TTT ,00 L. pallipes, f "*• 131 Lagomyidse, f., III. 149, 154 Lagomys alpinus, III. * 150 L. princeps, III. 150 Lagopus mutus, IV. 141, *142, •143 L. albus, IV. 143 Lagostomus tricbodactylus,III. 138, Plate 29 Lagotbrix, g., I. 171, 203 L. Humboldtii, ) T 171 L. olivaceus, ) ** in Lama buanacos, ) TJJ — L. vicugna, )" Lamellibranchiata, V. 258 Lamellicornia, V. 299, 322—330 Lamiiuse, s.f., V. 346 Lamna, g., V. 29, 30 L. coruubica, V. 29 Lamnidfe, f., V. 26, 29—31 Lamnina, V. 29 Lampades, V. 258 Lampris luna, V. * 88 Lamprima, g., V. 324 Lampyridje, f., V. 334, 335 Larnpyrinee, s.f., V. 333 Lampyris noctihica, V. 334 L. splendidula, V. * 334 Languriinee, s.f., V. 351 Laniidae, f., IV. 63 Lanius auriculatus, ) TTT ooo L. collyrio, f iU' SB L. excubitor, IV. 63, Plate 38 I.aparostictica, V. 324 Larentidae, f., VI. 67 Laridae, f., IV. 203—213 Larinse, s.f., IV. 216 Larinus, g., V. 342 L. maculosus, V. * 343 Lams arsreutatus, IV. 206 L. canus, IV. 207 Larus argeiitatus (continrted) : — L. fuscus, ) TV 9n~ L. marinus, ( iv • ^ Lasia flavitarsis, VI. 88 Lasiocami>a quercus, VI. 62 Lasiocampidae, f., VI. 62 Lasioptera obfuscata, VI. 81 Laterigradse, f., VI. 173 Lathridiidss, f., V. 320 Latrodectus, g., ) VT 1*0 L. malmignattus, ) 'J--1'0 Latruuculus albus, V. 98 Lebiasiua bimaculata, V. Ill Lebiinae, s.f., V. 308 Lecaniuni hesperidum, VI. 117 Leda, g., V. 341 Lembidse, f.,VI. 365 Leinbus velifer, VI. * 359, 361 Lernoniiiise, s.f., VI. 43 Lemur, g., I. 210, 225—222, 257 L. albifrons, I. 228 L. macaco, I. 230 L. Majottensis, I. 228 L. mongoz, I. 228, * 229 L. niger, I. 226, 231 L. psilodactylus, I. 252 L. varius, I. 226, 229, 230 L. volans, I. 344, III. 88 Lemuridae, f., I. 257 Lemuroida, s.o., I. 210—258 Leo nobilus, II. 10, 18 Leopardus melas, II. 42 LepadidsB, o., VI. 196, 219 Lepadogaster, g., ^ L. bimaculatus, (. tr iiu L. Caudollii, r »• *» L. gouanii, ) Lepas, g., VI. 219, 220 L. australis, VI. * 220 Lepidoceras, g., VI. 235 Lepidonotus, g., ) VI OQQ L. squamatus, ) Lepidopus caudatus, V. 86 Lepidoptera, o., V. 295, 297, 353, VI. 21—69, 71, 72, 73, 89, 94, 102 Lepidosiren, g., V. 3, 4, 7, 11, 13—15, 19—21 L. paradoxa, V. 20 Lepidosteidse, f., V. 23 Lepidosteus, g.^V. 6, 9, 10, 23, 24 L. osseus, V. 23, 24 L. platystomus, V. 23 L. viridis, V. 23, 24 Lepidurus Angassi, VI. * 215 Lepilemur, g., I. 233, 257 L. mustelinus, I. 223, * 224 Lepisma saccharina, VI. * 148 Lepismidse, f., VI. 148 Leporidae, f., III. 143—149, 154 Lepralia, V. 58, 196, 2£0 Leptalis tbeonoe, VI. * 35 Leptidae, f., VI. 89 Leptis vermilio, VI. 90 Leptobarbina, V. 128 Leptobarbus Hoeveuii, V. 128 Leptocatcliaras, g., V. 28 Leptocardii, V. 47 Leptocephalus, V. 143 Leptoceridas, f., VI. 17, 20 Leptocircu?, g., VI. 51, 52 L. curius, VI. * 51, 52 Leptoclinum, g., V. 255 Leptoderiuae, V. 317 Leptodirus, g., V. 317 Leptodon, g., III. 290 Leptogaster cylindiicus, VI. 87 Leptogorgia, g., VI. 308 Lepton, g., V. 244 Leptonyx Weddellii, II. 243 Leptopenus discus, VI. 300 Leptophilus argala, IV. 186 Leptoria, g., VI. 299 Leptosoma discolor, III. 364 Leptura, g., ~) L. auruleuta, V V. 345 L. quadrif asciata, J Leptus autumnalis, VI. 181 Lei)us cuniculus, III. 148 L. europseus, III. 147, * 148 L. variabilis, III. 149 Lerneadse, f., VI. 217, 218, 222 Lerneonema spratta, VI. 218 Lerneopoda, g., VI. 218 Leucandra uivea, VI. 326 Leucauidae, VI. 64 Leucisciua, V. 129 402 NATURAL HISTORY. Leuciscus, g., V. 129. 130 L. cephalus, V. 130 L. cornutns, V. 131 L. erythrophthalmns, V. 130 ; var. aztirine, 130 L. hudsouicus, V. 131 L. idus, V. 130; var. orfus, 130 L. lancastriensis, ") L. innticellus, > V. 130 L. pboxinus, ) L. rutilus, V. * 129, 133 L. vulgaris, ) v L. zeregi, f V> Leucodora ciliata, VI. 236 Leucones, f., VI. 325, 326 Leucosiadae, f., VI. 192 Leucospis dorsigera, VI. 4 Libellula depressa, VI. * 144, *145 Libellnlidse, f., VI. 142, 143—146 Libytbeinse s.f., VI. 42 Licininse, s.f., V. 308 Lieberkuhnia, VI. 314, 345 Ligyrus bituberculatus, V. 328 Lima, g., ) v o^ L. hians, / V" M Limacidse, f., V. 220, 222 Limacina, g., V. 229, 250 L. arctica, V. 250 L. helicina, V. 230 Limacinidae, f., V. 229 Limacodidae, f., VI. 22, 23 Limapontiu, g., V. 227 Limax, g., V. 222, 223 Limenitis, g., VI. 37, 41 L. Camilla, VI. 41 L. sybilla, VI. *41 L. agrestis, I. 355, 377 Lining, g., V. 221, 224 L. stagnalis, V. * 224 Limnseidse, f., V. 220, 224 Limnas, g., VI. 53 Limnias ceratophylli, VI. 249 Limnobia, g., ) -TJ-J 7a L. replicata, j" vl- '" Limnocodium, g., VI. 291 Limnopbilidae, f., VI. 17, 19 Limnophilus fiavi-") cornis, \ VI. * 18, 19 L. lunatus, } L. politus, VI. 19 L. rhombicus, VI. * 18, 19 L. stigma, ~> VT 1Q L. vittatusj VI>19 Limnoria, g., ) VI 212 L. lignorum, f L. terebrans, VI. 211 Limopsis, g., V. 241 Limosa eegocepbalus, ) jy jg^ L. lapponica, j Limulus, g., VI. 207, 213, 214 L. moluccanus, ) yj * 9^3 L. polyphemus, f Lindia, g., I VT 24« L. torulosa, f Yt " Lina populi, V. 349, * 359 Lineus longissimus, VI. 258 Liuguatulina, o., VI. 160, 186, 223 Lingula, g., V. 260, 261, 264, 267, 269, 280 L. anatina, V. * 261, *263 L. pyramidata, V. 261, * 262 Lingulella primeva, V. 267 Lingulidfe, f., V. 264, 266 Lingulina, VI. 349 Linypbise, VI. 176 Liotheidaa, f., VI. 147 Liotheum, g., VI. 147 Liparidse, f., VI. 58 Liparis, g., V. 96 L. dispar, V. 321 L. vulgaris, V. 97 Lipoptena cervi, VI. * 97, 98 Lissotritou, g., IV. 371 Lithistidae, f., VI., 325, 329 Lithobiides, s.f., VI. 1.54 Litbobius, g., VI. 154 L. forficatus, VI. 153 Lithodes, VI. 203 Lithodomus, g., 190, * 240 Lithoglypus, g., V. 213 Litbornis, IV. 239 Lithosiidse, f., VI. 34, 58 Lithotyra, g., ") L. dorsalis, \ VI. 220 L. truncata, ) Litiopa, g., V. 212 Litorina.'g., V. 197,212 L. lotorea, ) v 010 L. rudis, ) VlSaa Litorinidse, f., V. 212 Lituola, VI. 348 Lizzia, g., VI. *207 Lobata, s.o., VI. 294 Lobiger, g., V. 226 Lobodon carciiiopbaga, II. 243 Lobopborse, g., VI. 67 Lobosa, VI. 340 I Lobostominae, I. 330 Locusta, g., VI, 124 L. viridissima, VI. * 125 Loeustidae, L, VI. 124-126 Loddigesia mirabilis, III. 377 Loftusia, VI. 347, 350 Loligo, g., V. 162, 165, 166, 167, 170 L. media, V. 166 L. vulgaris, V. 166, * 167 Loligopsis, g., V. 167 L. Veranii, V. 158 L. vermicularis, V. * 168 Lomanctuf?, g., V. 227 Lomaptera, V. 330 Loncberes, g., III. * 132, 133 Lonchoglossa caudifera, I. 333 Lonchorhina aivrita, I. 332 Longipennes, IV. 203 Lopliiomyidae, f., III. 103—105, 153 Lophiomys Imbausi, III. * 104, 105 Lophius, g., V., 6, 10, 14, 15, 93 L. piscatorius, V. 93 Lophobranchii, o., V. 12, 15, 53 —58 Lophogorgia, g., VI. 308 Lopbohelia prolifera, VI. 298 Lophopbea, F.O., V. 276 Lophophorus, g., IV. 134 Lophopus, g., V. 276 Lophortyx californiauus, IV. 144, * 145 Lophoserinae, s.f., VI. 300 Lophostoma amblyotis, ") L. bidens, > I. 332 L. sylvicola, Lopbotes cepedianus, V. 206 Lophotidae, f., V. 106 Lophuroinys ater, III. 113 Lophyropoda, VI. 126, 216—218 Lophyrus piui, VI. *8 Loricaria, g., V. 110 L. acipenserina, ") y , , ~ L. barbata, 5 L. cataphracta, V. * 110 L. depressa, V. Ill L. vetula, V. 110 Loriculus, g., III. 319 Loris, g., I. 246, 257 L. gracilis, I. 247 Lota vulgaris, V. 63 Loxodon, g., V. 27 Loxosoma, g., V. 269, 277, 279, 280 Lueanidae, f., V. 322, 323 Lucauus cervus, V. 324, Plate 58 Lucernaria auricula, VI. 282 L. octoradiata, VI. * 282 Lucernariae, VI. 282 Luciftiga, g., V. 65 Lucifugae, VI. 132 Lucina, g., V. 244 L. Children!, V. 237 Luciuidae, f., V. 213 Lucinopsis, g., V. 243 Luciocephalidae, f., V. 106 Luciocephalus pulcher, V. 108 Luttaria, VI. 331, Plate 71 L. Archeri, Plate 71 Lumbriculus, g., VI. 227 Lumbricus, g., VI. 226, 235 L. anatomicus, VI. 227 L. fcetidus, VI. 226 L. terrestris, VI. * 225, * 226, 227 Lupus albus, ~*i L. ater, L. griseus, Vll. 154 L. mibilus, | L. sticte, J Lutra canadensis, II. 199 L. vulgaris, II. * 198 Lutraria, g. V. 247 Lutrictis, g., II. 205 Lycsena, g., VI. 44 L. dispar, VI. 45 L. gordius, VI. * 45 L. phleeas, VI. 41 Lycaenidse, f., VI. 25, 43, 44—47 Lycaon, g., II. 96 L. pictus, II. 163 Lycime, s.f., V. 333 Lycocorax, IV. 21 Lycodidae, f., V. 58 Lycodontidee, f., IV. 3^4 Lycosa, g., VI. 172, 173 L. andrenivora, VI. * 167 L. piratica, ) -^y 17) L. tarantula, )' v±> 17a Lycosidas, f., VI. 169, \1i Lyda, g., ^ L. betulee, (VT s L. campestris, f L. pratcnsis, ) Lygasidffi, f., VI. 105, 106, 107 Lygeeus, g., •) L. equestris, f -,r-r ,,,£. L. familiaris, f V1> 105 L. saxatilis, J Lygia oceanica, VI. 210 Lyncus, g., II. 10, 71 Ljonsia, g., V. 242 Lyrurus tetrix, IV. 141 Lyssakina, f., 325, 329, * 330 M Macacus, g., I. 114—129, 161,163 M. brunneus, I. 123 M. cyclopis, I. 118 M. cynomolgus, I. 61, 70, 114, * 116, 117, 118 M. maurus, I. * 121, 122, 206 M. nemestrinus, I. 123, *124 M. radiatus, I. 119, * 120, 204 M. rhesus, I. 119, * 120 M. silenus, I. 114 M. speciosus, I. 123 M. sylvanua, I. 123, * 125 Macartneya, g., IV. 134 Macgillivrayia, g., V. 212, 229 Macbserhampbus, g., ) TTT 9on M. alcinus, f111' *" M. Andersoni, III. 255, 290 Machserodus, g., II. 204 Macbetes pugnax, IV. * 165, 166 Macbilis, g., ~) M. maritima, [-VI. 148 M. polypoda, ) Macraucbenia, g., II. 334 Macraucheniada3, f., II. 296, 334 Macrobasis unicolor, V. 338 Macrobdella, g., VI. 241 Macrobiotus Hufelaudi, VI. *186 Macrocera, g., VI. 79 Macrochires, III. 372 Macroclemmys Temminckii, IV. 255 Macrodactylides, V. 327 Macrodon, g., "^ M. aimara, >V. Ill M. trahira, ) Macroglossa stellatarum, VI. *55 Macroglossus, g., I. 278 M. minimus, I. *,278 Macronycbus quadritubercula- tus, V. 314 Macropbthalmus, g., VI. 191 Macrophyllum Neuwiedii, I. 332 Macropodidse, f., 191—203, 224, 226 Macropus, g., III. 224, 226 M. ngilis, III. 192 M. Beuuetti, III. 197 M. Brunii, III. 198 M. gigauteus, III. 191 M. leporoides, III. 196 M. penicillatus, III. * 197 M. rcbustus, I TTT 1Qft M. rufus, j-111-19' Macropus, g. (ichtby.), V. 106 Macropygia, g., IV. 125 Macro rhiiius angusti-") rostris, SII. 243 I. elephantinus, ) M. elepha Macroscelides, g., I. 351, 352 M. Rozeti, I. 351 M. tetradactylus, I. 210 M. typicus, I. 351 Macroscelididae, f., I. 350—353 Macroschisma, g., V. 217 Macrotus californicus, ~) M. mexicauus, VI. 333 M. Waterhousii, ) Macroura, VI. 196, 204-209 Macraridae, f.. V. 66 Macrurus, g. V. 66 Mactra, g., V. 246 M. subtrunuata, V. 217 Mactridae, f., V. 246 Madrepora plantaginea, VI. 301 Madreporaria, VI. 295, 296, 297, 301, 311 M. aporosa, VI. 297—300 M. perforata, VI. 300, 301 Madreporidae, f., VI. 300 Maeaudrinae, VI. 299 Maeua vulgaris, V. 80 Maia, g., VI. 197, 198 M. squiuado, VI. * 197, 198, "199 Magilus, g., V. 198, 231, 236 M. antiquus, V. * 198 Magospbaera, VI. 351 Malacauthidae, f., V. 92 Malachius, g., V. 335 Malacobdella grossa, VI. * 242 Malacobdellidae, f., VI. 242 Malacodermata, V. 333— 33j MalacodermidfB, f., V. 333 Malacopterus, g., V. 76 Malapterurus, g., ) y -.o M. elecfricus, j ' Mallaspis, g., V. 315 Malleus, g., V. 231 M. alba, V. * 238 Mallomoiiadidae, f., VI. 372 Mallomonas Plosslii, VI. *356 Mallophaga, o., V. 295, VI. 12ft 121, 147 Mallotus villosus, V. 118 Maltbe, g., V. 93, 94 M. vespertilio, V. * t>l MaltMuus, g., V. 335 Mamestra brassicae, VI. 64 Mauatus americanus, ~) M. latirostris, \II. 270 M. senegaleusis, ) Manis, g., III. 172, 174, 190 M. brachyura, III. 174, * 175 M. Dalmannii, ~) jjj ,7^ M. gigantea, ) M. peutadactyla, III. 174, *175 M. Teoiinhickii, III. * 172 M. tetradactyla, III. * 173. 174 M. tricuspis, III. 171 Mauticora, g., V. 303 Mantidse, f., V. 2&3, VI. 13, 128— 130 Mantis oratoria, ) VT ,.-,„ M. religiosa, j v 1- "* Mautispa, g., VI. 13 M. pagaiia, VI. 14 Mantispidae, f., VI. 13 Mauucodia, g., IV. 21 Margarita, g. , V. 216 Marginella, g., V. 202, 203 Marginulina, VI. 349 Marsipobrancbii, o., V. 143-~ 116 Marsupiala, o., III. 191—234 Marsupiata, s.o., III. 191—226 Marsupibraiicbii. V. 15 Masarides, V. 373 Mastacembelidse, f., V. 100 Mastigarnoeba, VI. 339 M. aspersa, VI. * 339 Mastigocera, g., VI. 218 Maurolicus borealis, V. 112 Meandrina, V. 198 Mecistops cataphractus, IV. 20 1 Medusa, g., VI. 278, 280-282 Megaceras choriuKus, V. * 328 Megachile ceutuucularis, V. 368 TO CLASSES. ORDERS, FAMILIES, GEXERA, SPECIES, ETC. 403 Megachiroptern, s.o., I. 266— 278, 340 Megaderma, g., I. 288 M. cor, I. 290 M. frons, I. * 289, * 290 M. lyra, I. *288, 289,29) M. spasma, I. * 289, 290 Mesalaema a^iatica, M. cmiceps, M. Hodgsoni, M. zeylauica, ., Megulopbrys montano, > IV. M. iiasula, j 337 Megalops, g., V. 135, 1:38 Megalopteia, f., VI. 11—14 Megalotis, g., II. 96 M. Lalandii, II. 162 M-galotrocha, g., VI. 249 Megalura, g., VI. 40 Megamorina, VI. 329 Megapodius, g., IV. 152 M. Cumingi, IV. * 151, 152 Megaptera, g., ~] M. Lalandii, | jj M. longimana, ^9fi- M. Kuzira, M. novae zeylandiaej Megascolex coeruleus, VI. 226 Megasomi. typ'-.on, V. 328, *329 ' Megathymus yuccae, VI. 53 Megerlia, g , V. * 26(5 Melactes, g., VI. 303 Melanactes, g., V. 332 Melandryidae, f., V. 336 Melanerpes formicivorus, III. 338 Melania, g., V. 211 M. mnarula, V. *211 Melaniadae, f., V. 210 Melanopsis, g., V. 211 Meleagridae, f., IV. 137—139 Meleagrina, g., V. 2i>7 M. margaritifera, V. * 237 Meleagria gallopava, ) Tv ,00 M. mexicana, f M. ocellata, IV. * 138 Meliboea, g., V. 227 Melicerta ringeus, VI. 249 Melicertum, g., VI. 290 Melidae, f., II. 182 Melierax, g., \ „_ M. canorus, j ili> J70> al M. gpbar, ~) M. niger, [-III. 271 M. polyzouns, ) Meligethes, g., ) v „.„ M. aeneus, j " Melipbaga phrygia, IV. 74 Meliphagidae, f., IV. 73—75 Melipona, g., V. 365 Melitaea, g., VI. 37, 43 Melithfea, g., VI. 307 Mellita, g... VI. 260 Mellivora capensis, ) II. 192, M. indica, I"* 193, 191 Melo, g., V. 202 Melodiuium, g., VI. 357, 372 M. uberrimnm, VI. * 356 Meloe, g., V. 338, VI. 222 M. cicatricosus, V. * 337 Meloidae. f., V. 337, 338, 339, 370, VI. 221 Melolontha vulgaris, V. * 327 Melolonthides, V. 327 Melolputhinae, s.f., V. 326, 327 Melonites, g., VI. 260 Melonycteris melanops, I. 278, *279 Melophagus pvinus, VI. * 97 Melursus labiatns, II. 172 Melyridae, V. 335 Melyrinae, s.f., V. .335 Membracidae, f., VI. 113 Membracis crueuta, ) !>;„,„ ™ M. elevata. f Plate ffl Menibrauacea, f., VI. 107 Membranipora inembrauacea, iMeuobranchus, p., IV. 376 M. Jateralis, IV. 37o, *377 M. punctatus, IV. 376 Meuopomidae, f., ) IV. M. alleghanieusis, )"377 Menura Alberti, ) TV ... M. superba, f Meuuridae, f., IV. Ill Mephitis rnapurito, II. 198 M. mephitica, II. 196 M. putorius, II. 198 Mergauetta, g., IV. 195 Mergulus, g., IV. 218 M. albellus, IV. 194, 195 M. alle, IV. 203, 218 M. australis,|IV m M. castor, j M. serrator, IV. 194, 103 Merluccius vulgaris, V. 62 Meruiis, g., ) yj 2- , M. iiiyrescens, ) Meropidee, f., III. 344, 360 Merops apiaster, III 360 Merostomata, VI. 196, 213 Merulinae, VI. 300 Meseiie, g., VI. 44 Mesodesiua, g., V. 248 Mesomyodi, IV. 109—121 Mesoplodon, g., II. 251 M. Sowtrbicusis, II. *251 Mesosemia, g., VI. 43 Mesotaria auibigua, II. 218 Mesotherium, g., III. 156 M. cristatuin, III. * 155 Metabola, o., V. 353, VI. 222 Metastemma gattula, VI. 109 Metazoa, VI. 312, 325 Methona psidii, VI. * 47 Meyeria, g., VI. 322 Miastor, g., VI. 81 Micrabacia, g., VI. 300 Micrastur seuiitorquatus, III. 270 Microcliiroptera, s.o., I. 270, 340 Microdonta bicolera, VI. 59 Microgaster glomeratus, VI. 3 Microglossus aterriinus, III. 310 Microhierax ccerulescens, III. 291 Microsauria, IV. 379 Microstoma, g., V. 113 Micryphantes, g., VI. 176 Midas, g., I., 185, 197, 200—203 M. argentatum, I. 202 M. Devillii, I. 201, 202 M. leoninus, I. 201 M. rosalia, I. 202 M. ursulus, I. 200, 202, 203 Miletus syniethus, VI. 44, 46 Miliola, VI. 345, 347, 348 M. qiiimiueloculina, VI. *347 Miliolidae, VI. 347 Millepora, g., VI. 287, 292, * 293 Milleporidffi, f., VI. 292 Milvus ictinus, III. 288, * 289 Miminse, s.f., IV. 59—63 Minion Benuettii, ) T Q(n M. megalotis, j 1- M Miniopterus, g., I. 310, 311 M. australis, I. 310 M. blepotis, I. 281 M. Schreibersii, > T Qln M. tristis, 'JI-310 Mino Dumonti, IV. 25 Minyadinse, VI. 302 Miuyas coerulea, IV. 302 Miomorplia, III. 101—128 Miranda, g., V. * 227 Miris, g., VI. 107 Misguruus, g., ) v ,.,., M. fossilis, f V' M3 M'topliora dubia, VI. * 356 Mitra, g., V. 193 M. episcopalis, V. * 193 M. regina, ~) M. Stainfcrthii, >V. 193 M. zonata, ) Miniotiltidse, f., IV. 77, 82 Modiola, g., V. 229 Mogera, g., I. 372 Molanua augustata, VI. 20 Molgula, g., V. 253 Molina, g., V. 52 Molinia americana, IV. 266 Mollusca, V. 154—251 Molluscoida, V. 153, 258—28') Moloch horridus. IV. 286, *£87, 341 Molpadia, g., VI. 260 Molothros pecoris, IV. 99 Molossus, g., I. 317, 318, 320 M. nasutus, I. 32(> Molva, g., ) M. vulgaris, )" Momotidse, f., III. 361—363 Momotus Lessoni, ) TTT » „,,,, M. mexicauus, j" 11J" c M. subrut'escens, III. 362 Monachus albiventer, t TT „„„ M. tropicalis, j" "• ^ Monactiuellidae, VI. 326 Mouadonta, g., V. 215 Mouautliia cardui, VI. 108 Monas, VI. 350, 373 M. Dalliugeri, * 372, 373 Monaxouidae, s.o., VI. 325, 326, 328, 329 Monera, VI. 333, 342, 351 Monitor, g., IV. 278 M. albogularis,") M. arenaricus, >-IV. 278 M. birittatus, ) M. chlorostigma, IV. 279 M. dracaena, IV. 278 M. niloticus, IV. * 278 Monitorid83, f., IV. 277—279 Monocanthus, g., V. 48 M. Perpuii, V. 49 Monocentris, g., V. 83 Monoceros, g., V. 195, 198 Monocirrhus, g., V. 83 Monolabis, g., VI. 247 Monomerasomata, VI. 180 Monomyaria, V. 232 Mononyx, g., VI. 109 Monophyllus, g., I. 334 M. Eedmanii, I. * 334, 335 Monoi)tenis, g., V. 139 Monoptygina, g., V. 208 Monosiga, g., VI. 374 M. fusiformis, Plate 72 Monostoma, s.o., VI. 294 Monostyla, g., VI. 248 Monotremata, s.o., III. 227—234 Montacuta, g., V. 241 Montiporinee, s.f., VI. 301 Moiitlivaltia, g., VI. 299 Mopsea, g., VI. 303, 307 Mora, g., V. 62 Mordacia niordax, V. 145 Morelia argus, IV. * 333 M. variegata, IV. 333 Moringa, g., II. 240 Mornio maura, VI. 65 Mormolyce phyllodes, V. * 307 Mormon, g., IV. 214 M. fratercula, IV. 218 Mormop.s, I. 330 Monnops, g., I. 330 M. Blamvillii, I. * 328, * 329 Mormyridse, f., V. 120 Mormyrops, g., V. 120 Monnyrus, g., V., 12, 13, 120 Morphinse, s.f., VI. 28, 35 Morpho, g., VI. 35 M. cypris, VI. *35 Moschus moschiferus, III. * 42, 46 Motacilla, g., ~\ M. lugubris, ( T v „„ M. inelanope, f lv- '° M. Yarrelli, ; Motaeillidse, f., IV. 77, 78—81 Motella, g., M. cirnbria, (VI M. maculata, > v 1- M. inustela, Mugil, g., V. 100 M. capito, V. 101 M. cephalits, V. 100 M. curtus, V. 101 M. uepalensis, V. 109 M. septeutrionalis, V. 101 Mugilidae, f., V. 100 Mugilifornies, V. 100 Mulleria, g., V. 237, 242 Mullidffi, f., V. 81 M lullus, g., ") M. barbatus, |-V. 81 M. surmuletus, ) nida, g., VI. 203 r»na, g., V. 142, 143 M. macrurus, ~) M. Eichardsonii, >V. 142 M. uudulata, ) -V. 63 Murasiiesorex, g., V. 141 Mursenichthys, g., V. 142 Muraenidoe, f., V. 140—143 Murnsenophis, g., V. 7 Murex, g., V. 192, 193 M. adustus, V. 192 M. braudaris, V. 193 Murex (contijiwed): M. tenuispina, V. 192, * 193 M. trunculus, V. 192 Muricea, g., VI. 308 Muricidae, f., V. 192—194 Muriuae, f., III. 105—120, 153 Murinae, s.f., III. 106 Murium leo, II. 67 Mus, g., III. 106, 111 M. alexandriuus, III. 108 M. arboreus, III. 110 M. bannicota, III. 110, 281 M. barbaius, III. Ill M. decumauus, III. 106, 101/ M. minutus, III. 110 M. musculus, III. 108 M. rattus, III. 106, 108 M. sylvaticus, III. 108 Musca caesar )VT „_ M. comicina, ) M. domestica, VI. £3, 94 M. erythrocepbala, VI. 95 M. meditabunda, VI. * 72 M. yomitoria, VI. 94, * 95 Muscarise, VI. 94 Muscicapa grisola, IV. 31, 32, 94 Muscicapidae, f., IV. 27, 31, 46, 77, 115 Muscidae, f., VI. 93-97 Musophasddffi, f., III. 330—333, IV. 131 Mustela, g., II. 9, 186 M. americana, II. * 186 M. foina, II. 185 M. martes, II. 181 M. Pennantii, 7 TT 1QK M. zibellina, I 11- 18' Mustelidae, f., II. 9, 182, 185, . 190, 198, 201, 204 Muste'iina, V. 28 Mustelus, g., V. 28 M. vulgaris, V. 28, * 29 Mutilla,^., V. 377, 381, 382 M. europaea, V. * 377 Mutillidse, f., V. 376—378 Mya, g., V. 195 M. arenaria, V. *244, £48, *249 M. truncata, V. 248 Myacidae, f., V. 248 Myadora, g., V. 252 Mycetes, g., I. 166-171, 204 M. Beelzebub, I. 203 M. carayu, I. 166, 210 M. chrysum, I. 167, * 169 M. villosus, I. 170 Mycetophagidae, f., V. 320 Mycetophi'idce, f., VI. 79 Mycetophyliia, g., VI. 299 Mycetopu V. 383 M. ruginodis. ) M. scabrinodis, V. 381, 383 Myrmicime, s.f., V. 379, 382, 383 Myrus, g., V. 142, 143 My=d-, g., VI. 206 M. chameeleon, VI. * 210 Mystaoiua, g., I. 312, 325 M. tnberculata, I. 311, 322, * 323, * 324 Mysticete, s.o., II. 245, 247, 262 Mytilidse, f., V. 239 Mytilus, g., V. 237, 239 M. edulis, V. * 239 Myxine, g., V. 11, 12 M. glutinosa, V. 146 Myxogastrea, VI. 333 Myxomyceta, VI. 333 Myxopoda, VL 332 Myxospongise, o., VI. 320, 325 Myxostomum, g., VI. 232 N Nabis, g., VI. 109 Naidse, f., VI. 227 Nais proboscidea, VI. 227 Najii. g., IV. 304-303 N. haemachates, IV. 306 N. haje, ) yy oft, o^ N. tripudiaus, )"•«*«" Najidse, f., IV. 307 Nandidae, f., V. 81 Nanuocampus, g., V. 56 Narcine, g., lv 40 N. brasiliensis, f v ' Narcissus, g., VI. 93 Karesia cyathus, V. 278 Nasalis larvatus, I. 61, *89, *90 Nasiternae, s.f., III. 310 Nassa, g., V. 196, 219 N. reticulata, V. 195, * 196 Nassula, VI. * 360, 3o2 Nasua narica, II. 178, * 179 Natalus, g., I. 310 N. stramineus, I. 311, *312 Natica, g., V. 207, 219 N. papilionis, V. *207 Naticidae, f., V. 207 Natricinse, s.f., IV. 327-329 Natrix torquata, IV. 327 Naucoris ciinicoides, VI. 110 Naucrates ductor, V. * 90, 91 Naiitiliadse, f., V. 183-188 Nautilus, g., V. 183, 188 N. macromphalu*, V. 184 N. poinpilius, V. 183, 181, 187 N. umbilicatus, V. 186 N. zic-zac, V. 188 Navicella, g., V. 218 Nebalia, g., VI. 215 N. bipes, VI. * 215 Nebela, VI. 340 Nebria, g., V. 303 Necrobia ruficollis, ) v ootr N. ruftpes, (•»««* Necrodes littoralis, V. 318 Neerophaga, V. 317^22 Necropbllus arenarius, VI. 13 Nesrophori, g., V. 298 Necropliorus, g., V. 317, 318 N. vespillo, V. 317, * 318 Necroruis, IV. 210 Neetariniidae, f., III. 333, IV. 75-77 Nectariniiuaj, s.f., IV. 75 Necyria, g., VI. 44 Neides, g., VI. 105 Nemachilus, g., ~) N. barbatulus, > V. 133 N. stolickae, ) Nemadaotylus, g., V. 82 Nemathelmintha, c., VI. 25, 249—254, 258 Nernatoidea, o.,VI. 250-254, 258 Nematus saliceti, ) yj g N. ventricosus, ) v 9 v' ^ Nemeobiinae, s.f., VI. 43 Nemeobius luciua, VI. 43 Nemertina, s.o., VI. 257, 258 Neuiestrina lougirostris, VI. 89 Nemichthys scolopacea, V. 140 Nemobius sylvestiis, VI. 123 Nemocera, VI. 74—83 Nemoptera, g., VI. 13 N. coa, VI. * 13 Nemura, g., I VI U1 N. variegata, | v±- I4 Neocrinoidea, o., VI. 260 Neophoca lobata, II. 226 Neophron ginginianus, III. 232 N. percnopterus, III. * 261, 277 N. pileatus, III. 262 Neopus malayensis, III. 283 Neotoma cinerea, 1 TTT , , 0 N. floridaua, f *"• iL* Nepa, g., VI. 110, 18:3 N. cinerea, VI. * 110 Nephelis, g., VI. 243 Nephrops norvegicus, VI. * 206 Neph.tb.ya, g., VI. 310 Nephthys cseca, VI. * 232 N. lougisetosa, VI. * 228 Nepidae, f., VI. 110 Nepticula niicrotheriella, VI. 69 Nepticulidee, f., VI. 22, 69 Neptis, g., VI. 41 Nereidse, f., VI. 231 Nereis, VI. * 231 N. cost®, VI. 312 N. inargaritacea, ) VT not N. pelagion, J vi' ai Nereites, VI. 258 Neriene, g., VI. 176 Nerita, g., V. 218 Neritidee, "., V. 218 Neritina, g., N. corona, N. fluviatilis, N. meleagris, N. sulcata, N. viridis, J Neritiiiee, V. 119 Nerophis, g., V. 55 N. sequoreus, N. lumbriciformis, \r N. ophidion, v ' N. teres, Nesokia Griffith!, III. 114 Nesouays, g., III. Ill Nestor, g., III. 320 N. meridionalis, III. * 321, 322 N. notabilis, ) N. productus, Nettapus, g., IV. 193 Nettastpma, g., V. 141 Neuronia phalaenoides, VI. 19 Neuroptera, o., V. 295, 299, VI. 9—20, 120, 136 Nicothoe astaci, VI. * 216, 217 Nilionidse, f., V. 336 Niphargus stygius, VI. 209, 212 Niphon, g., V. 79 Nirmus, g., VI. 147 Nisaetus, g., III. 284 Nisoiiiades tages, VI. 53 Nitidulidae, f., V. 316, 319 Noctilio, g., I. 312, 317, 325 N. albiventris, I. 318 N. leporinus, I. 317, 318 Noctiliones, I. 330 Notiluca, g., VI. 358, 363 N. miliaris, VI. * 374 Noctua, g., VI. 64, 65, 63 Noctuidse, f., VI. 64 Nodosaria lamellosa, VI. * 349 N. spinicosta, VI. * 348 Nomada, g., V. 369 Nomeina, f., V. 88 Nooneus, g., V. 89 Nonionina, VI. 349 Nops, g., VI. 174 Northia tnbicola, VI. * 228, 231 Notacantha, VI. 74, 83—85 Notacauthus, g., ) v 1fl- N. rissoanus, f V- 1U' Notarcus, g., V. 226 Not ens, g., VI. 248 Nothura, g., \ Iv 224 N. niaculosa, ) x v ' *** Notidaiiidse, f., V. 26, 31 Notidanus, g., V. 31 N. cinereus, V. 32 TTT "*• Notidanus (continued): N. ^ruseus, V. 31 N. indicus, ) v 90 N. platycephalus, f ' Notodoutmse, f., VI. 22, 25, 59 Notommata, g., ~) N. longiseta, > VI. 248 N. tardigrada, ) Notonecta, g., VI. Ill, 146 N. glauca, VI. * 111 Notoiiectidse, f., VI. 103, 110 Notopteridce, f., V. 138 Notopteris, g., I. 330 N. Macdonaldii, I. 278 Notopterus, g., V. 138 Notomis Mantelli, IV. 240 Notosaurus, IV. 341 Nototrema, g., IV. 334 N. marsupiatum, IV. 364, *365 Nucleobranchiata, o., V. 227 Nucula, g., V. 241 Nudibrauchiata, V. 227 Numeniinse, s.f., IV. 162 Numenius, g., IV. 163 Numida, IV. 241) Numidinse, s.f., IV. 131, 137 NummulitidBB, VI. 349 Nyctala Ter,gmalini, III. 297, 305 Nyctea scandiaca, III. 104 Nycterentes, g., II. 96 N. procyonides, II. 162 Nycteribiidse, f., VI. 98 NycteridfE, f., I. 288—291, 316, 325, 340, 341 Nycteris, g., I. 291, 316 N. capensis, ^ N. grandis, | N. hispida, )• I. 291 N. javanica, j N. macrotis.J N. thebaica, I. * 290, * 291 Nycticebus, g., I. 245, 257 N. tardjgradus, I. 245 Nycticebidee, f., I. 2j7 Nycticejus, g., I. 281, 303 N. luteus, I. 281 Nycticorax griseus, IV. * 181, 183 Nyctinomus, g. &s.g., I. 318,319 N. brasiliensis, I. 319 N. Cestonii, I. 318, * 319 N. plicatus, ) T OIQ N. tragatus,/1 9 Nyctopbilus, g., I. 292, 296, 325 N. Geoff royi, I. 296, * 297 N. timoriensis, I. 297 Nyctipithecus, g., I. 185, 188— 191,203 N. fel nus, ) T 101 N. oseryi, )" ** 1J N. rufipes, I. * 190, 191 N. trivirgatus, I. 181, * 189 —191 Nymphalidee, f., VI. 32—43, 47 Nyruphalinaa, s.f., VI. 33,33, 38, 39, 43 Nymphidiuin, g., VI. 44 Nym])hoii, g., VI. * 187 N. gracilis, VI. 188 Nymphonidse, f., VI. 188 O Oceanitis, g., IV. 210 O. oceaiiica, IV. 208, 210 O. pelagiea, IV. 208, * 209 Ochetodon hnmilis, III. Ill Ochthera mantis, VI. 96 Octodon, g., III. 129 O. Cumingi, III. * 129 Octodontidte, f., III. 128—133, 142, 143, 154 Octodontinae, s.f., III. 129, 130 Octopoda, V. 156—165 OctopodidfB, f., V. 157—165 Octopus horridus, I y * igQ O. macropus, J ' Oculinidse, f., V. 298, 311 Ocydromia, g., VI. 88 Ocydromus, g., IV. 158 Ocypoda, g., VI. 202 Ocypodidaj, f., VI. 201 Ocypus olens, V. * 315 Odacanthinse, s.f., V. 309 Odaciua, V. 77 Odax, g., V. 77 Odontaspis, g., V. 29 Odontocera fasciata, V. 345 Odoutochila, g., V. 302 Odontophora, g., V. 222 Odoiitopteryx toliapicus, IV 239, 240 Odontornithes, III. 247, IV. 239 Odostomia, g., V. 208 Odyuerus parietum, V. 372 CEcistes, g., VI. 249 CEcodoma cephalotes, V. * 383 CEdemia, g., IV. 194 CEdicnemus, g., IV. 172 CE. crepitaus, IV. * 172 CEdipoda cinerascens, VI. 128 (E. migratoria, VI. * 126, 128 CEstrides, s.f., VI. 96 CEstms, g, ~) CE. actaeou, >'VL 96 CE. bovis, ) CE. equi, II. 303 CE. tarandi, VI. 96 Ogmorhinus, II. 24t Oligochasta, o., VI. 225—227,258 O. Hmicola, VI. 2^7 O. terricola, VI. 225 Oligodon, g., IV. 331 Oligontida;, f., IV. 331 Oligotoma Michasli, VI. 140 Oliva, g., V. 198 O. erythrostoma, ) -rr * 1QO O.porphyrij, ) v' L Omacantha gigas, V. 346 Omaseus vulgaris, V. 303 Ommastrephes, g., V. 169, 170 O. sagittatus, V. 170 Ommatophoca Bossii, II. 241 Omus, g., V. 30 J Oncidiadae, f., V. 220, 223 Oncidium, g., V. 223, 224 Oncyderes, g., V. 346 O. cingulatus, V. 348 O. vomicosus, V. * 347, 348 Oncorhynchus, g., } y ,,- O. sanguiuolentus, ) ' Oniscia Dennisont, V. 202 Oniscidse, f., VI. 210 Ontscus, g., VI. 194 Onthophagus, g., V. 324 Onychocerus scorpio, V. 345 Onvchophora, o., VI. 152 Ouychoteuthis, g., V. 158, 168 O. Banksii, \v lfiq O. Duss'-uiieri, )" v ' 10 Opali--ia, g., VI, 366 O. ranarum, VI. * 366 Opalinidaa, f., VI. 363, 366 Opatrum subulosum, V. 336 Optrculata, V. 225 Operculiiia, VI. 349 Opheliadaa, f., VI. 234 Ophibolus gttulus, IV. 319 Ophichthys, g., V. 142, 143 O. boro, I V 142 O. quadrates, | v ' 1% Ophidia, o., IV. 300—338, V. 8 Ophideridse, f., VI. 66 Ophidiidse, f., V. 64—66 Ophicliina, V. 65 Ophidium barb.ituni, V. 65 Opliiocephalidae, f., V. 105 Ophiocephalus, g., ) v 1rir O. striatus, j v ' Ophiocoma, g., V. 163 Ophiocoma (ecliiu.), g., VI. 260 Ophiodes, g., VI. 290 Ophiodon, g., V.98 Ophion, g., VI. 2 Opbiophagus, g., IV. 307 O. elaps, IV. 307, * 308 Ophiothrix, g., VI. 260 O. fragilis, VI. * 267 Ophisaurus ventralis, IV. 299 Ophiura, g., VI. 260 Ophiurida, o., VI. 260, 269 Ophiuroidea, c., VI. 260, 267, 269 Ophrydiuaj, s.f., VI. 37p Ophrydium eichhornii, VI. * 370, 271 Ophryodendron, g., VI, 36 1 O. multicapitatum, ) VI. O. pedice!latum, ) *364 Ophryogleua, g., VI. 365 OphryogleuidfE, VI. 365 INDEX TO CLASSES, ORDERS, FAMILIES, GENERA, SPECIES, ETC. 405 Opisthobranchiata, o., V. 225 — 227 Opisthocornidffl, f., IV. 130 Opisthocomus cristatus, IV. 131 Opisthopterss, s.f., V. 108 Opistomidas, f., VI. 257 Orbiciilina, VI. 347, 343 • O. numismalis, VI. * 349 Orbitoides, VI. 349 Orbitolites, VI. 348 Orbulina, g., V. 229, VI. 349 Orca gladiator, II. 257, * 258 Orcella, g., II. 256 Orchesella ciucta, VI. * 149 Orchestes, g., ) y 3^.? O. pratensis, ) Orchestia, g., VI. 212 Oreas caima, III. * 20, 21 Oreinus, g., V. 128 Oreodera, g., V. 346 Oreophasiuae, IV. 129 Oreophasis, g., ) TV 130 O. Derbiauus, |" Orgyia autiqua, VI. 58 Oribatidse, f., VI. 180, 181 Orioliidse, f., IV. 2, 25—27 Oriolus galbula, IV. 25, * 26 Oruitliobia pallida, VI. 98 Ornithomyia avicularia, VI. 98 Oniithomyiae, III. 365 Ornitboptera, s.g., VI. 50, 51 O. ampbri>us, VI. 51 O. Brookeaua, ) yj -Q O. urvilliaua, £ Ornithorhyiicluis, g., III. 229— 234,243 O. an itiuus, III. 229, 230, * 231, * 232, * 233 Omithosauria, IV. 339 Orpheus rufus, IV. 62 Ortalis, g., VI. *96 Ortbagoriscus, g., V. 52 O. lauceolatus, V. 53 O. mola, V. 52 O. trimcatus, V. 53 Orthis, g., V. *235 Orthoceras, g., V. 187 Orthoceiutites, V. 210 Orthonia fabrici, VI. 238 Orthoptera, o., V. 29.5, 296, 297, 299, VI. 9, 10, 99, 101, 118— 147 Orthoptera genuina, s.o., VI. 120. 121—136 Ortliosidae, f., VI. 44 Orthosoma cyliudricum, V. 331 Orthotomus sutorius, IV. *57 Ortvgometra, g., IV. 156 O. crex, IV. * 158, 159 Orycteropus, g., III. 190 O. aethiopicus, III. 171 O. capensis, III. 169, * 170, 171 0. seuegalensis, III. 171 Oryctes rhinoceros, V. 328 Oryzomya, g., III. Ill Osmerns, g. lv 117 O. thaleichthys, f. ' O. eperlamis, V. * 118 Osmia, g., V. 368, 376 O. auruleuta," O. bicolor, O. bicornis, O. hirta, O. leucomelana, V. * 368 Ospbromenus olfax, V. 103 Osteobroma, g., V. 1:33 Osteochilns, g., V. 127 Osteoglossidae, f., V. 134 Osteoglossum, g., V. 134 Osteolaemus tetraspes, IV. 264 Ostraciou, g., V. 48., 49 O. bicaudalis, ) y rn O. cubicus, j O. quadricornis, V. * 49, 50 O. Reuardi, V. 50 Ostraciontma, V. 48 O*traeoda, o., VI. 196, *216 Ostrea, g., V. 232, 237 O. edulis, V. 232 Ostreidse, f., V. 232—235 Otaria, ir., II. *1U>, *1U, *217, 218 O. albicollis, II. 226 O. cinerea, II. :.':! i O. falklaudica, II. £28, *229 O. Foisteri, II. 229 O. Gillospii, ) TT „. O. Hook-ri, )" Ul *** V. 368 Otaria (continued): O. jubata, II. 226, 229 O. pusilla, II. 229 O. Stelleri, II. 222, 224 O. ursiua, II. 219, 224, 229 Otariidffi, f., II. 209, 211, 216— 221 Otididse, f., IV. 172—175 Otis tarda, IV. * 173, 174 Otocompsa jocosa, IV. 49 Otogale (st c Galago) Otogvp-i auricularis, III. 257, 260 O. calvus, III. 260 O. nuldcus. III. 258 Otolicnus (see Galago) Otonycteris Hetnprichii, I. 295 Ouramoeba, VI. 338 Ovibos moscbatus, III. 30 Ovis, g., III. 5, 7, 10 O. poii, III. 7 Ovulum, g., V. 206 O. acuuiinata, V. 206 O. volva, V. 195, * 203 O. patula, V. 203 Oxudercidae, f., V. 98 Oxybelis fulgidus, IV. 324, * 325 Oxydactyla, IV. 351—362 Oxyderces dentatus, V. 98 Oxydoras, g., V. 109 Oxyglossus, g., IV. 356 Oxygonia, g., V. 302 Oxjgyrus Keraudrenii, V. 228 Oxytrichidse, f ., VI. 359, 361, 371 Oxyurus vennicularis, VI. 252 Ozaenina, V. 306, 312 Ozobranchus, g., VI. 241 Pachjctphala, g., IV. 63 Pachychalina, g., VI. 328 PacLydermata, II. 292 Pachygaster ater, VI. 84 Pachygnatha, g., VI. 176, 179 P. Clerckii, VI. 176 Pachyura, s.g., I. 378 Pagellus centrodontus,") P. erythrinus, f-V. 82 P. Oweni, ) Pdgomys, g., II. 233 Pagopbilus, g., II. 235 Pagrus orpheus, V. 82 Pagurns, g., VI. 203, 211 H. bernhardus, VI. 204 Palsechinoidea, o., VI. 260 Pa'schiims, g., VI. 260 Palaeichthyes, V. 10, 18, 147 Palsemon, g., VI. 208, 211 P. serratus, VI. * 208 Palsemouidas, f., VI. 208 Palseocoryne, VI. 294 Palseocorystes, VI. 200 Palseocrmoidea, o., VI. 260 Palaeogithalus, IV. 239 Palseonictis, g., II. 205, 206 Palseornis, g., III. 313 P. eupatrius or Alexandri, III. 313 P. senegalus, III. 314 P. torquatus, III. 313, * 314 Paleeotheres, II. 296 Palffiotheridae, f., II. 295, 334 Palamedea cornuta, IV. 192, 237 Pala-.nedeida?, f., IV. 191, 192 Palinia rhombifer, IV. 266 Paliiiuridae, f., VI. 204, 205 Paliiiurus, £., VI. 204, 205 P. vnlgaris, VI. 204, * 205, Plate 66 Palpares libelluloides, VI. * 12 Palpicomia, V. 312—314 Paludestriiia, V. 213 Paludicella, s.o., V. 276 Paludiua, g., ) „ „„ P. vivipara, | V<211 Paludinidae, f., V. 211 Paludomus, g., V. 211 Palythoa, VI. 329 Pamphagus, VI. 240 Pamphila, g., | yl „ P. comma,) vl' v<5 Panagsgiuee, s.f., V. 308 Pauagseus crux-major, V. 308 Pancblora maderae, VI. 133 Pandanus, g., VI. 204 Paudion haliaetus, III. 296 Paudiones, s.o., III. 253, 296 Pandora, g., V. 249, 250 Pangasius, V. 14 Paugouia, g., VI. 86 Pauiscus, g., V. 2, 3 P. virgatus, VI. * 3 Panopsea, g., ) v „,_ P. uorvegica, I v ' ^ Panorpa, g., VI. 15, 16 P. cmnmunis, VI. *15 Panorpidae, f., VI. 15 Panthalops Hodgsoni, III. 16 Pantopoda, o., VI. 160, 187, 223 Pantostomata, VI. 358 Papilio, g., VI. £0, 52, 58 P. crossus, VI. 53 P. dionysus, VI. 34 P. meriones, VI. 34 P. macbaon, V. 289, VI. 52]: P. merope, VI. 34, *52, *53 P. ulysses, VI. 51 Papilionidffl, f., VI. 23, 47—52 Papilioninse, s.f., VI. 40, 47, 49 Paractis, g., VI. 303 Paradigalla carunculata, IV. 25 Paradisea apoda, IV. 22 P. papuana, IV. 23 P. regia, IV. 22 Paraclisiidffi, f., IV. 2 Paradisiinee, s.f., IV. 21 Paragorgia, g., VI. 309 Paralcyonium, g., VI. 310 Paralicthys, g., V. 69 Paramecium, g., VI. 357, 358, 360, 361, 363, 364 P. aurelia, VI. * 354, 355, 362, 364 Paraponyx, g., VI. 33 Parascaptor, g., I. 372 Parastacidffi, f., VI. 204, 207 Parastacus pilimauus, VI. 204, 2o7 Pareudiastes paciflcus, IV. 160 Paridae, f., IV. 65 Parinse, s.f., IV. 65 Parkeria, VI. 347 Parmacella, g., V. 223 Parmoijhorus, g., V. 217 Parnassius, g., VI. 49, 50 P. apollo, VI. *50 P. irmemosyne, ) VT -ft P. Stubbendortii, )" *if ou Paniidsa, f., V. 314 Parotia sexpennis, IV. 25 Parrinae, s.f., IV. 156 Parus, ', g-, ~) . britannicus, > IV. 66 . major, ) P. teneritfffi, IV. 4 Passeres acromyodi, ) j-y g P. mesomyodi, ) Passeriformes, o., III. 253, IV. 1-21 Passerita mycterizans, IV. 324 Patella, g., V. 189, 218, 225 P. variegata, V. 218 Patellidse, f., V. 218 Patellmiaiii, V. 307, 308 Pawropoda, o., VI. 152, 157 Pauropus Huxleyi, VI. * 157 P. peduuciilat.us, VI. 157 Paussidaa, f., V. 306, 312, 381 Paussus Favieri, V. 312 Pavouaria, g., VI. 306 Pavoiimse, s.f., IV. 131 Peach ia, g., } VI 304 P. batata,] V1' d° Pecteu, g., V. 236 P. islaudicus, Plate 57 P. Jacobseus, ~) P. maximus, 'r V. 236 P. opercularis, ) P. pallium, ~) P. plica, > Plate 57 P. pwpuratus, ) P. pusio, V. 2£0 Pectinaria belgica, VI. 237 Pectiuator Spekei, III. 129 Pectinidffi, f., V. 236 Pec^'ucul-as, g., V. 219, 241 P. glycimeris, V. 2C4 Pedalion, g., VI. 249 Pedata, o., VI. 260 Pedetes caffer, III. *124, *127, *12S Pedetinae, s.f., III. 127 Pedicellina, s.o., V. 277, ^79, 280 P. ceraua, V. * 277 Pediculati, f., V. 93—95 Pfcdiculidse, f., VI. 103, 118 Pediculina, s.o., VI. 102, 103, 118 Pediculus capitis, VI. * 118 P. tabescentiuui, ) VT 11S P. vestimeuti, )" v Pediononius torquatus, IV. 175 Pedipalpi, VI. 161 Pegasidae, f., V. 143 Pegasus, g., V. 143 P. dracouis, V. * 143 Peiros chinos, II. 130 Pelagia (conchol.), g., V. 229 Pelagia (zooph.), g., VI. 281 Pelagida, s.o., VI. 281 Pelagornis Barretti, IV. 239 Pelamis, g., IV. 311 felamys, g., ) v Q-, P. sardaj v'aj Pelargopsis, III. 349 Pelecanidae, IV. 198—203 Pelecauoides, g.,") Tv 1f , P. urhmtrix, j iV> 10 Pelectrophales uivali-, IV. 4 Pelecanus ouocrotalus, IV. 201 Pelecinus polycerator, VI. 3 Pelmatozoa, VI. 26J, 265 Pelobates fuscus, IV. 358 Pelobatidse, f., IV. 344, 357 Pelias, g., IV. 311 P. berus, IV. 311, *315 P.lodryas coeruleus, IV. 366 Pelomys fallax, III. Ill Pelomyxa, VI. 338 Pelonaia, g., V. 253 Pelopffius spirifex, V. * 375 Pelor tilaiuentosuui, V. 63 Peltogaster, g., VI. 196, 212 218 Pernpheris, g., V. 83 Pernphredoii lugubris, V. 375 Penseus, g., VI. 194, * 195, 223 Penelopinse, s.f., IV. 129 Peneroplis, VI. 347 P. arbuscula, VI. * 350 Pennatula, g., VI. 3' IS P. spinosa, VI. * 305 Peunatulae, s.f., VI. 306 Penuatulidse, f., VI. 305, 311 Pentacrinus, g., VI. 26 J, 263, 275 P. Wyville-Thonisoni, VI. * 273 Pentamera, V. 300—335 Pentameridse, f., V. 265 Peutamerus, g., V. * 265 Pentauemus, g., V. 83 Pentaplatarthus paussoides, V. 312 Peiitastoniatseakiles, VI. * 186, 187 Peutatoma dissimile, VI. * 103 Pentremites, g., VI. 260 Pepsis beros, V. 376 Perameles, g., III. 203, 224, 225 P. doreyanus, III. 210 P. fasciata, III. *210 P. Gunnii, ) nl g^ P. lagotis, | *"• "* P. Moresbyen=is, III. 210 Peramelidffi, f., III. 209, 224 Perca fluviatilis, V. 78 Percarina, g., V. 7J Pericbthys, g., V. 79 Percidaa, f., V. 78—80 Perciforunes, V. 78 Percis, g., V. 92 Percophis, V. 92 Percopsidas, f., V. 80 Percopsis guttatis, V. 120 Perdiciuse, s.f., IV. 144—149 Perdix barbata, IV. 145 P. ciuerea, IV. 145, * 146, *14S Pere'ite, g., VI. 47 Pereuuibranchiata, IV. 375 Perforata, VI. 311 Pericrocotus ciiiereus, IV. 30 Peridinidas, f., VI. 372 Peridiuium, g., VI. 372 P. sanguineum, ) VI. P. splendor-mavis, ) 372 P. tabulatum, VI. * 35ff 406 A TURA L HIS TOR Y. Perigoniinus vestitus, VI. *286 Peripatus, g-., VI. 150, 151. 157. 222, 223 P. capensis, VI. * 157 P. iuliformis, VI. 157 P. novaa-Zealaudiae, VI. 157 Periplaneta americaua, ) -,TT ,00 P. orientalis, fvtlsa Periploma preeteuue, V. 249 Perissodactyla, s.o., II. 295 — 334, 360 Peristethus cataphractum, V. 96, *97 Perioplithalmus, g. , V. 98 Peritricha, s.o., VI. 338—371 Peritromidse, i'., VI. 371 Perla bicaudata, VI. 142 P. margiuata, VI. * 141 Perlidee, f., VI. 140, 141 Perna, g., V. 238 Pernis apivorus, III. 269 Perodicticus, g., I. 242, 247 P. potto, I. 242 Perophora, g., ) v <>,-, P. Listeri, f v' ^ Peropteryx, g., I. 313 Perrhybris pyrrha, VI. 48 Petalosticlia, o., VI. 260 Petaurus, s.g., III. 208, 224 P. ariel, ) in 207 P. breviceps, f111-^07 P. pygmaeus, III. 208 P. sdureus, III. 207, 208 Petricola, g., V, 246 Petrodromus tetradactylus, I. 352 Petromys typicus, III. * 130 Petromyzon brauchialis, V. 145 P. fluviatilis, V. * 145 P. marinus, V. * 141 Petromyzontidae, f., V. 143 Pezophaps solitarius, IV. * 122 Phacochcerus, g., II. 337, 345 P. -SUianus, II. 345, * 346 P. sethiopicus, II. 345 Phacops, g., VI. 19i Phaenicopkaeinae, s.f., III. 324 Phaeoxantha, g., V. 302 P. Klugii, V. 302, *303 Phaethon, g., IV. 198 Phaethontidffl, f., IV. 197 Phaethornis eremita, III. 379 Phalacridae, f., V. 319 Phalacrocorax, g., IV. 198, 200 P. carbo, ) IV 201 P. floridanus.f 1V' M Phalaugiidae, f., VI. 161,164, 165, 176 Pkalangista, g., III. 224 P. fuliginosa, ) TTT one. P. maculatus.f111-"05 P. Nana, III. 20S P. ursinus, III. 204, * 205 P. vulpina, III. 205, *206 Phalangistidae, f., III. 206, 224 Phalangium, g., VI. 182 Phalaropinae, s.f. , IV. 166 Phalaropus fulicarius, IV. 166 P. hyperboreus, IV. 166 Phauaeus, g., V. 324 Phaueroglossa, s.o., IV. 351 Phaps ckalcoptera, IV. * 127 Pharetrospougia Strahani, VI. 329 Pkaroinacrus mocinno, III. 366 Pharyngobraiichii, o., V. 147 Pbaryi gognatki, o., V. 74 — 78 Phascogal'j, g., III. 207, 217— 219, 224 P. melas, III. 218 P. penicillata, III. 217, * 218 Phascolarctus, g., III. 204, 224 P. cinereus, III. * 204 Phascolomyidse, f., III. 201— 203, 221 Phascolomys, g., III. 224 Phascolosoma, g., VI. 244, *245 Phasianella, g., ~> •,,• 01/) P. pullus, f V< n* Phasianidse, f., IV. 131—137 Phasiauiiice, s.f., IV. 131, 154 Phasianus, g., IV. 135 P. colcliicus, IV. 135 P. Reevesii, IV. 136 Phasmidffi, f., VI. 130-132, 131 Pherosopiius cornplanatus, V. 305 Pkerusidse, f., VI. 236 Phihydrida, V. 314 Pliilampelus, g., ) irT ,-« P. labruscas, | vl' &t> Pbilanthus, g., } v o7 • P. apivorus, ) ' P. triaugulum, V. *374 Philiue, g., V. 226 Philodryas viridissimus, IV. 330 Philonexis, g., V. 164 Philopteridse, f., VI. 147 Philopteru?, g., VI. 147 P. selcifrons, VI. * 147 Phlaeomyniffi, III. 114 Phlaeomys, g., \IU 114 P. Cummgii, f111'11 PLlogophora inetictilosa, VI. 65 Phoca baicalensis, II. 235 P. barbata, II. 237, 238 P. caspica, II. 235 P. foetida, II. 233, *234, 235 P. groenlandica, II. 235, *236 P. hispida, II. 233, *234, 235 P. leopardina, VI. 243 P. leptouyx, VI. 241 P. vitulina, II. 232, 233, 231 Phocama comnumis, II. 256 PhocidiB, f., II. 209, 210, 211, 212, 231—244 Phocodou, g., II. 247 Phocodontia, II. 247 Micenicopteridse, f.,IV. 190 Phcenicopterus audiuus, ) IV. P. aiitiquoruin, ) 190 Pholadidae, f., V. 251 Pholadomya, g., V. 249 Pholas, g., V. 251 P. costata, ) P. dactylus, V. * 251 Pholcus pkalangioides, VI. 176 Pholidornis rushiae, ) TV a, P. rubrifrons, I lv Phoraspis, g., ) VI 13, P. picta, p1-"* Phorides, VI. 96 Pborodon humili, VI. 115 Phoronis, g., VI. 243, 244 P. hippocrepia, VI. 241 Phorus, g., V. 213 P. coiichyliophorus, V. * 214 Phractomys aethiops, III. 105 Phragmoceras, g., V. 187 Phryganea grandis, VI. 9 Phryganeidaj, f., VI. 17, 19 Phrynidse, f., VI. 161, 162 Phrynorhombus uuiinaculatu s, V. 69 Phrynosoma cornutum, IV. 187 P. orbiculare, IV. 286 Phrynus, g., VI. 163 P. reniforrnis, VI. *163 Phryxus, g., VI. *211 Phycidaa, f., VI. 68 Phtliirius pubis, VI. 118 Phycis, g., V. 63 P. blennoides, V. 62 Phyllactiuae, s.f., VI. 304 Pbyllactis, g., VI. 304 Phyllidia, g.,V.227 Phyllididae, f., V. 227 Phyllirhoe, g., V. 227 Phyllirhoid83, f., V. 227 Phy Ilium, g., VI. 132 P. siseifolium, VI. 132, Plate 64 Phyllodactylus tuberculatus, IV. 228 Phylloderma steuops, I. 331 Pbyllodoce Kinbergii, VI. * 332 Phyllodocidae, f., VI. 332 Pbyllodocites, VI. 258 Phylloinedusa bicolor, IV. *317, 366, * 368 Phyllomedusidse, f., IV. 366 Pbyllonycteris, g.,~) P. Poe.yi, [I. 335 P. Sezekornii, ) Phyllophora, g., VI. 126 Phyllopoda, o., VI. 196, *215 Pbyllops albomac .lat is, ) I. P. persoiiatus, )"337 Phylloptera, g., S P. laurifolia, -VI. 126 P. myrtifolia, ) Pbyllopteryx, g., V. 56 P. equHS, V. 56, * 57 Phyllorhiiia, g., I. 286, 311 P. armiger, I. 281, * 286 P. bicolor, "i P. cervine, P. gigas, I, 28? P. larvata, ?*•** P. speoris, P. Stoliczkana, J P. tridens, I. 286, 287 Phylloscopus tristis, IV. 170 Pliyllosoma, f., VI. 189 Pbyllostoma, g., I. 328, 331, 332 P. discolor, ) j Dngatum, ) ' 331 P. eloi _ P. hastatum, I. 326, 327, 3£8, 331 Pbj llostomata, I. 316 PbyllostoiniJse, f., I. 324—340, 341 Phyllotreta ixemorum, V. 349 Phylloxera quercus, VI. 116 P. vastatrix, VI. 115 Pliymactis, g., VI. 304 Physa, g., V. 119, 190, 224 P. castanea, V. * 224 Physalia, g., V. 216, VI. 282, 283, 294 P. utriculus, VI. 282, * 283 Pbyseter bidens, II. 251 P. niacrocephalus, II. 252 Physeteridae, f., II. 252-255 Physopbora bydrostatica, VI. 283 Physophor83, s.o., VI. 283 Physopoda, s.o., VI. 120, 121, 146 Physostomi, o., V. 107—143 Phytocoridse, f., VI. 103, 114 Pbytocoris tripustulatus, VI. 107 Pb.ytopb.aga, V. 344, 348-350, 358, VI. 6—8 Phytotoma augustirostrls, IV. 121 Phytotomidse, f., IV. 120 Pliytoptus, g., VI. 185 Pica rusti. a, IV. 13 Kcarise, o., III. 253, 308—330 Picidffi, f., III. 334—338 Picus major, III. 346 P. minor, III. 338 P. villosus, III. 336 Pieris, g., VI. 48 PierinK, s.f., VI. 23, 34, 47, 49 Pileoma, g., V. 79 Pileopsis, g., \v 91o P. ungarica, £ Pimephales, g., V. 128 Pimpla, g., VI. 3 P. manifestator, VI. * 1, 3, 48 Piuguipedina, V. 92 Pinna, g.,V. 202, 237, 238 P. nobilis, V. * 239 Pinnigiada, s.o., II. 209 Pinnipedia, s.o., II. 209 Pinnotheres, g., VI. 202 P. pi^um, VI. * 202 P. veterum, VI. 202 Pinuularia, VI. 336 Pipa, g., IV. 346 P. americaua, IV. *350 Pipidse, f., IV. 351 Pipridae, f., IV. 119 Pirates, g., VI. 109 Pisa, g., VI. 197 P. tetraodon, VI. 197 Pisces, c., V. 1 — 179 ; classifica- tion, 17 Piscicola, g., IvT 24-"> P. gejmetra, ) Pithecia, g., I. 18,5, 191—193, 203 P. albicans, I. 192 P. cheiropotes, I. 191 P. hirsuta, I. 192 P. leucocephala, I. * 196 P. melanocephalii, I. 196 P. mouachus, I. * 192, *193 P. satauus, I. 192, * 194 Pitta angolensis, IV. 114 P. megarhyu^ha, IV. 115 Pittidae, f., IV. 109, 114 Placuua, g., ) -,r c-r>- P. placenta, fV-'^ Plagiacauthidoe, VI. 337, 351 Plagiodou ffidiuui, III. * 132, 133 Plagiostoinata, o., V. 25 — 45 Plakina, g., VI. 320 P. mouolopha, VI. *323 Plakiuidae, VI. 320 Planipeniiia, s.o.,VI. 10, 11—16 Planorbis, g., V. 224, 243 PJanorbulinffi, VI. 345, 349 P. mediterraneiisis, VI. *350 Platacantbyomyiuoe, s.f., III. 114 Platacauthyuiys lasiurus, III. 114 Plataleidaa, f., IV. 187— It 0 Plataleinse, fc.f., IV. 188 Platanista, g., II. 247 P. gangetica, II. 248 Platanistidffi, f., II. 248—250 Platax, g., V. 12 Platbelmintha, c., VI. 225, 254, 258 Platurus, g., IV. 311 Platycercinse, s.f., III. 315 Platycercus eximius, III. 315, *b!6 P. scapulatus, III. 315 Platycrinus, g., VI. 260 Platydactylus, g., ) IV ypn P. fa&cicularis, flv-^t( Platygaster ferrugineu?, VI. 106 Platynota, g., IV. 277 Platypezidse, f., V. 91 Platypus, g., lv 243 P. cyliiidrus, f v • ^* Platyrhiua, g., V. 43 Platyrrhini, I. 164—201 Platysternou megacephal u m, IV. 245, 255 Plecoptera, VI. 121, 141 Plecostomus, g., V. 110 Plecotis, g., I. 293, 295, 296, 297 P. auritus, I. * 293 Plectognathi, o., V. 48—53 Plectronellidae, VI. 320 Plectropoma, g., V. 80 Plectropterus, g., IV. 193, 237 Plectropus pictus, IV. 368 Ples-iosauria, o., IV. 340 Plestiodon erythrocephalus, IV. 296 Pletbodon, g., IV. 375 P. glutiuosa, IV. 373, 375 P. persimilis, IV. 375 Pletkodontidse, f., IV. 373 Pleurobrachia, g., VI. 279, 294 P. rhododactj-la, VI. 279 Pleurobraiichidas, f., V. 226 Pleurobrancbus, g., V. 226 Pleurodeles, g., IV. 373, 375 P. Waltii, IV. * 372, 373 Pleuronectes, g., V. 69 P. asperrimus, V. 69 P. cynoglossus, ) v 71 P. flesus, J*'7* P. italicus, V. 69 P. limanda, V. 71 P. luscus, V. 69 P. microcephalus, V. 71 P. platessa, V. 69, * 70 P. stellatus, VI. 69 Pleuronectidae, f., V. 67 Pleuronectpidei, s.o., V. 67 — 74 Pleuronemidae, f., VI. 365 Pleurostemon, g., IV. 260 Pleurosticta, V. 324 Pleurotoma, g., V. 201 Pleurotomaria, g., V. 201, 216 P. platyspira, \v » 21fi P. Quoyana, ) V> ^ Plexaura, g., VI. 308 Plicatula, g., V. 237 Pliobothrus, g., VI. 291 Pliosaurus, IV. 311 Ploceidse, f., IV. 77, 101 Ploceus baya, IV. * 101, Plate 40 Plotus, g., IV. 198, 200 Plumularia halecoides, VL •290 P. piuuala, VI. 2£0 Plumulariidae, f., VI. 2fO Pluniatella Allrnaui, V. * £72 Plusia, g., ~) P. obrysitis, >V. 65 P. gamrna, ) IXVEX TO CLASSES, ORDERS, FAMILIES, GENERA, SPECIES, ETC. 407 PlusidaB, f., VI. 65 Plusiotis, g., V. 328 Plutas paradoxus, VI. *262 Plavianellus, g., ) Tv -,RO P. sociabili*, l~iv Pneumodermon, g., V. 229 Pocillopora, g., VI. 301 Podabrus, g., III. 21i) Po 'argus strigoides, III. 36J Podica, g., - IV. 162 f. personata, , Po Weeps cristatiis, IV.* 220, 222 P. minor, IV. 219 Podicipitinsa, s.f., IV. 219 Podocerus, g., VI. 212 Podoces, g., IV. 2, 20 P idocueinis expansa, IV. 255 Podoconne, g.. VI. 287 P. carnea, VI. * 288 Podocyrtis, VI. 343, * 344 P. ScUomburgii, VI. * 344 Podopbthalmia, VI. 197—210 Podos imata, o., VI. 187 Podostoma, VI. 339 Podostomata, s.o., V. 277 Podura aquatica, VI. 149 Poduridas, f., VI. 149 Poecilia, g., V. 125 Polistes,'g., V. 371 P. gallica, V. 371, * 372 Pollicepes, g., VI. 196 P. coruucspiae, VI. *219 Polyacantbus, g., V. 106 Polyaeca, g., VI. 374 P. dichotoma, Plate 72 Polyarthra, g., VI. 243 P. platypter, VI. *248 Polybia, g., "^ P. liliacea, ( y 070 P. rejecta, f P. sedula, J Po'ybius Henslowii, VI. * 200 Polyboroides typicus, III. 268 Polyboriuse, s.f., III. 264 Polyborus tharus, III. * 235 Polyceutridae, f., V. 83 Polycentru-i, g., V. 83 Polycera, g., V. 227 Polycbaeta, VI. 233, 258 Polychset.se, o., VI. 225, 227—24) Polycistina, VI. 337, 343, 344, 351, 368 Polyclinum, g., V. 256 Polycystiua, g., V. 230 Polydesmidae, f., VI. 156 Polymorphina, VI. 349 Polyiiemidae, f., V. 83 Polynemit'ormes, V. 83 Polynemus, g., V. 83 Polyuoe scolopendrina, VI. 230 Polyodon, g., ~) P. folium, [• V. 47 P. gladius, j Polyommatus, g., VI. 45, 46 P. adonis, P. aegon, P. argiolus, P. bseticus, ., P. corydon, VI. * 45 P. icarus, VI. 45 Polypedates, g., ~) P. eques, > IV. 365 P. maculatus, ) Polyphylla f uUo, V. 327 Polypifera, VI. 277 Polyprecton, g., IV. 133, 134 P. tibetauus, IV. 134 Polyprion cemium, V. 80 Polypteridse, f., V. 22 Polypterus, g., V. 5, 6, 9, 11, 15, 16, 22 P. bicbir, V. 22 Polyrbacbis, g., )_ y ooo P. nidificans, j Polystoma, s.o., VI. 257 Polystomella, VI. 319, 350 Polytbalamia, VI. 236 Polyzoa, V. 270, VI. 327, 328 Polyzoaria, V. 270 Polyzonium germanicum, VI. 156 Pomacanthus, g., V. 80 Pomacentridae, f., V. 74, 75 Pompholix, g., VI. 248 Pompilidse, f., V. 375 Pompilus, g., P VI. 45 rilus, g., ~) '. fuscus, > V. : '. punctum,.) Ponera, e., V. 382 Poritarachua, g., VI. 183 Pontobdella, g., VI. 242 P. muricatu, VI. 243 Pontoporia Blainvillii, II. 250 Porcellana, g., VI. 211, 218, 350 P. platycheles, VI. 196 Porcellio, g., VI. 194 Porcus Babirusa, II. 343, * 345 Poritidae, f., VI. 300, 301, 311 Poritime, s.f., VI. 301 Porosa, VI. 296 Porphyrio, g., IV. 159 Porphyrophora polonica, VI. 117 Porpita, g., V. 217 Porrorhyucbus marginatus, V. 311 Portax picta, III. 29, *30 Porthesia auriflua, ) VT .„ P. chrysorrhoea, J Portunus, g., VI. 212 P. pelagicus, VI. 203 P. puber, I VI 1 * Prepona, g., VI. 42 Priapulus, g., VI. 244 Priocerae, V. 335 Prion, g., IV. 207 Prionastraea, g., VI. 300 Prioneris, g., VI. 48 Prioninae, s.f., V. 344, 345 Prionirbyuchus platyrbyncbus III. * 363 Prioniturus, g., III. 310 Prionopidae, f., IV. 2, 28-30 Prionops, g., {IV ^ P. talacoma j lv' a Prionoplus reticularis, IV. 19 Prionus, g., V. 345 P. brevicprnis, V. 344 P. coriarius, V. 345 Pristidse, f., V. 38 Pristiopboridae, t., V. 26, 37, 38 Pristiopborus, g., V. 37 Pristipomatidffi, f., V. 80 Pristis, g., V. 38 P. autiquorum,^ P. cuspidatus, P. pectinatus, ^ V. 38 P. perrotteti, P. zysron, j Pristiurus, g., V. 33 Proboscidea, o., II. 273—291 Procellaria nereis, IV. 211 Procellariidffi, f., IV. 208—313 Procerus, g., V. 306 P. gigas, V. * 303 Procliilodus, g., V. Ill Proctouotus, g., V. 227 Proctotrupidae, f., VI. 3, 23 Procyon lotor, II. 177, * 178 P. cauc-rivorus, II. 178 Procyonidse, f., II. 177, 204 Productidse, f., V. 265 Productus, g., V. 280 P. complectens, ~) P. giganteus, > V. * 259 P. longispinus, ) Promephitis, g., II. 205 Promeropinae, s.f., IV. 75 Proraerops caffer, ) Tv ~- P. Gurneyi, j lv> 7o Propitbecus, g., I. 220 P. Verrauxii, I. * 213 Prorodon, g., VI. 364 P. margaritifera, ) V-T * Q«A P. nivens, j VJ" *u Prorodoutidse, VI. 354 Prosena siberita, VI. 94 Prosobranoiiiata, o., V. 191 — 219 Prosopis, g., V. 370 Protamoeba, g., VI. 333, 334, 337 P. primitiva, VI. * 334 Proteidae, f., IV. 376—378 Proteina, VI. 337 Proteiuinse. s.f., V. 316 Proteles, g., II. 85 P. Lalandii or Delalandii, II. 85, 86 Protelidse, f., II. 85, 204 Proteroglyphia, s.o., IV. 301— 311 Proteropodes, s.f., V. 108 Proteropterae, s.f.,V. 108 Proteus auguineus, IV. 376 Proteus dimuens, ) -,?-, „„„ P. priuceps, fVL336 Protista, VI. 351 Protocampus, g., V. 55 Protodermata, VI. 337, 351 Protogonius, g., ) VI ,„ P. bippona, I V1' 4tJ Protomyxa, VI. 333 Protopterus, g., V. 18—20 P. annectaus, V. 18, * 19 Protoplasta fllosa, ) -rrr oia P. lobosa, f VL 24° Protorosauria, IV. 341 Protospongia, VI. 330 Prototroctes, g., V. Ill Protozoa, V. 153, VI. 325, 332, 335, 338, 350, 351, 354 Protula dysteri, VI. 239 Proviverra, g., II. 205, *206 Psalidcgnathus, g., V. 345 Psalidoprocne, g., IV. 91 Psalidoprocninse, s.f., IV. 91 Psammotatis, g., V. 43 Psamniobia, g., V. 247 Psammodyuastes, g., IV. 327 Psammoueuiata, s.o., VI. 325, 331 Psammophidse, f., IV. 326 Psammopbis condanarus. IV. 326 Psammosaurus arenaricus. IV. 278 Pselaphidse, f., V. 316 Pselapbus Heisii, V. * 316 Psepheninse, s.f., V. 314 Psettichthys, g., V. 69 Pseudacreea, g., VI. 41 P. birce, VI. * 41 Pseudastacus pustulus, VI. 207 Pseudaxis, g., III. 57 Pseudechis porpbyriacia, IV. 310 Pseudis paradoxa, IV. 357 Pseudocbromides, V. 92 Pseudodax, g., V. 77 Pseudogyps, g., III. 260 Pseudoliva, g., V. 195 Pseudoneuroptera, s.o., VI. 120, 121, 136—146 Pseudophyllus neriifolius, VI. 126 Pseudopus Palasii, IV. 229 Pseudorhombus, g., V. 69 Pseudotriascis, g., V. 29 Pseudotriton, g., IV. 373 Psittaci orthognathi, )TTT or.-. P. proprii, j Psittacus erythacus, III. 310, 312, * 313 Psocidae, f., VI. 140 Psocus, g., VI. 140 Psolus, g., VI. 260, 264,272 Psophiidse, f., IV. 178 Psyche muxella, VI. * 58 Psychidse, f., VI. 58, 69 Psycboda phaloenoides, ) -rrT c.-> P. sexpunctata, | V1>8:s Psychodidss, f., VI. 82 Psycbrolutes paradoxus, V. 105 Psychrolutidse, f., V. 101, 105 PsyllidiB, f., VI. 114 Pterobrancbiata, o., V. 271, 277 —280 Pteroceras, g., V. 192 P. lambis, V. * 192 Pteroclidse, f., IV. 149 Pterodina, g., VI. 248 Pterodoii, g., II. 205, 206 Pteroeides, g., VI. 303 P. spinosa, VI. * 305 Pterogoii proserpina, VI. 56 Pterogorgia, g., VI. 308 Pterogotus, g., VI. 19o, 214 Pterois, g., V. 83 Pteromys, g., III. 89 P. petaurista, III. 88, * 89 Pteronarcys, g., VI. 142 Pteronotus Davyii, I. 330 Pteronura Saudbachii, II. 201 Pteropboridse, f., VI. 69 Pterophorus pendactylus, VI. * 27, * 69 Pteropidee, f., I. 266—278, 340. 34i Pteroplatea, g., V. 43 P. altavela, V. 44 Pteropoda, c., V. 228— 230 Pteropus, g., I. 267, 268, 274, *340 P. dasymallus, I. 272 P. edulis, I. * 266, 271, * 272 P. Edwardsii, I. 269 P. funereus, I. 271, 273 P. Gouldii, I. 273 P. griseus, ) T 271 P. jubatus, ) *• J71 P. medius, I. 267, 268 P. iiicobaricus, / T 0_, P. Pluto, j L 271 P. poliocephaliis, I. 272 P. vulgaris, I. 274, * 275 Pteroptochidse, f., IV. Ill Pteroptochus rubecula, III. Ill, •IIS Pterostichiinse, s.f., V. 308 Pterostichiuus, s.f., V. 303 Pterotracbea, g., V. 228 Pterygoplichtbys, g., V. 110 Ptilocercus Lowii, I. * 342, 350 Ptilonorhynchus bolosericeus, IV. 54 Ptilopi, IV. 124 Ptilorbis, g., IV. 21 Ptinidse, f., V. 335 Ptyas mucosus, IV. 329 Ptycboptera, g., VI. 79 Ptycbozoou bomalocephalu.nl, IV. * 289, 290 Ptygura, g., VI. 249 Pulmonata, VI. 159 Pulmonifera, o., V. 191, 219— 22} Pulvinulina, VI. 349 Pnncturella, tr., V. 217, 250 Pupa, g., V. 222 P. uva, Plate 56 P. vermilionensis, 'J -„• 0!)0 P. vetusta, /»•"». Pupina, g., V. 225 Pupipara, VI. 73, 74, 97 Pupivora, V. 358 Purpura, g., V. 197, 198 P. lapillus, lv 1Q7 P. patula, fv-197 Putorius, g., II. 186, 191 P. erminea, II. 188, * 189 P. foetidus, II. 189 P. f uro, ~) P. lutreola, [-II. 191 P. vison, ) P. vulgaiis, II. 186 Pycnogonida, VI. 223 Pycnogonidse, f., VI. 188 Pycnogounm littorale, VI. 188 Pycnonotus beemorrbous, IV. 49 P. pygaeus. IV. 50 Pypoderma bilabiatum, I. 337 Pygopodes, o., III. 254, IV. 2 14 —222 Pygopus lepidopus, IV. 298 Pygoscelis taeniata, IV. 222 Pyralidae, f., VI. 51, 67 Pyralis, g., VI. 66 P. farinalis, VI. 67 Pyrameis cardui, VI. 38 Pyraniidella, g., V. 208 Pyramidellidas, f., V. 208 Pyrausta, g., VI. 67 Pyrgia, g., VI. 301 Pyrophorus, g. , V. 332 P. noctilucus, V. 332, •333 Pyrosoma, g., V. * 256 Pyrosomidae, f., V. 256 P j rrhocorax alpinus, IV. 20 Pyrrhocoridae, f., VI. 166 Pyrrbocoris apterus, VI. * 106 Pyrrhopyga, jr., VI. 53 Pyrrbula murina, IV. 4 Pyrula, g., ) P. perversa, J-V. 200 P. spirata, ) Pytbid0?, f., V. 336 408 NATURAL HISTORY. Python, g., IV. 331 P. molurns, IV. 331, *332 P. reticularis, IV. 331 P. Sebce, IV. 331. 332 Pythonidee, f., IV. 331-334 Pythonides, g., VI. 53 Pyxicephalus, g., IV. 355 Pyxicola, g.. VI. 370 P. pyxidiforinis, VI, * 370 Pyxidium, g.,VI. 369 Pyxis, g., IV. 252 P. araclmoides, IV. 215 Quadrimani, V. 307 Quadrula, VI. 339, 340 Quinquelocnliua saxorum, VI. 347, *348 Quiscalinae, s.f., IV. 99 Qniscalus inacrurus, IV. 16, 100 Eadiata, VI. 259 Eadio-flagellata, s.o., VI. 373 Eadiolar.a, VI. 341, 350 Raja, g., V. 40 R. batis, V. 40 E. circularis, V. 42 E. clavata, V. * 42 E. fullonica, ~) E. maculata, >V. 31 E. marginata, ) E. radiata, V. 43 E. vomer, V. 41 Bajidffi, f., V. 40-43 Eallicla, f., IV. 158—162 EaUinee, s.f., IV. 158 Ballus aquaticus, IV. 158 Rana, g., IV. 345, 353, 355 E. esculenta, IV. 353, *354, 355 E. fasciata, ~\ E. fusdgula, ( Tv ore E. Kuhlii, >IV. 3o5 E. oxyrhynchus, ) E. pipiens vel uiugiens, IV. 354 B. silvatica, IV. 35i E. temporaria, IV. 351,* 352, 355 E. tigrina, IV. 355 Banatra, g., IVT nn E. linearis, [VI-n' Banella, g., V. 200, 208 Bangia, g., VI. 279 Eangifer taraudus, III. * 66, * 67 Eaniceps, g., lv 64. E. trifurcus, f ' Eamdffi, f., IV. 354—356 Baphidiophrys, VI. 342 Basbora, g., V. 129 Basborina, V. 128 Bastrites, g., VI. 294 Batitee, III. 239, 240, 243, 245, 253, IV. 224— 233 Becurvirostra, IV. 167 Eedia, VI. 253 Beduviidse, f., VI. 108 Beduvius personatus, VI. * 108, 109 Begalecus, g., V. 16, 107 E. Banksii, V. 107 Beithrodon, g., III. Ill, 112 B. chinchilloides, III. 112 B. cuniculoides, III. * 112 B. typicus, III. 112 Benierinee, f., VI. 325, 327 Benillidse, f., VI. 306 Eeptilia, c., IV. 241—341 Eeticvilaria, VI. 344, 346, 350 Betropinna Eicliordsoui, V. 113 Ehabdoccela, s.o., VI. 257 Bhabdophora, VI. 294 Ehabdophyllia, g., VI. 299 Ehabdppleura, g., V. 271, 278 Bhacbianectes glaucus, II. 265 Ehacoplicrus, g., IV. 366 E. Rbeinhardti, IV. 366, *367 Bhamphastidae, f.,III. 338—341 Rhamphichthys, g, V. 139 Eliamplioleou, g., IV. 291, 292 E. spectrum, IV. 292 RhaphidisB, VI. 15 Rhaphidonemata, o., VI. 327 Rhap'higaster punctipeunis, VI. 94 Ehea, g., IV. 226, 232 E. americana, IV. 224, 225, 232, Plate 43 E. Darwiui, ) jy —.- E. inacrorliyiicba, j" ° Bhina squatina, V. * 36 Ebiiiaster, g., I. 373 Ehinatreina bivittata, IV. 379 Rhiuidae, f., V. 26, 35, 37 Ebinobatidse, f., V. 26, 38 Rhinobatis, g., V. 7 Ehinobatus, g., V. '38 B. granulatus, V. 39 Rhinoceros, g., II. 321—334 E. bicornis major, II. 325 B. bicornis minor, II. 326 E. etruscus, II. 334 E. incisivus, II. 334 E. indiscus, II. 330, * 331 B. javanus, II. 332 B. Keitloa, II. 325, * 326 E. lasiotis, II. 332, * 333 E. leptorhinus, II. * 334 B. megarhiuus, II. 334 E. Oswellii, II. 324 E. simns, II. 324, * 325 E. sondiacus, II. 332 E. sumatrensis, II.* 330, 332 E. trichorhimis, II. 324, ; 3 ! E. unicornis, II. 322 Rhiuocerotidse, f., 295, 321—333 Bhinochetinse, s.f., IV. 175 Rhiuochetus jubatus, IV. 175 Bhiijodermatidje, f., IV. 362 Rliinodon typicus, V. 31 Rhmodontidae, f., V. 26, 31 Bhinodoras, g., V. 103 Ehinoglanis, g., V. 303 Rhinogryphus aura, III. 263 Bbinolophidae, f., I. 280—286, 325, 310, 341 Rhinolophus, g., I. 282, 286 E. afflnus, I. 285 E. Blasii, ~) E. clivosus, >•!. 284 E. euryale, ) E. ferrum-equinurn, I. * 281, * 282, 283 E. bipposideros, I. 283 E. luctus, I. 281, * 284 E. megapbyllus, I. 285, 286 E. minor, I. 281, 285 E. nippon, I. 283 E. Pearsonii, ) T 9c< E. trifoliatus, j"1' ™ Ehinonycteris aurantia, I. * 285, 286, 287 E. naso, I. 314 Rhmophrynidse, f., IV. 362 Bhinophylla pumiMo, I. 331 Bhinopoma, g., I. 312, 316, 325 K. Lepsianum, I. 317 B. micropbyllum, I. 316 Bhinoptera, g., V. 44 Rhipiceridse, f., V. 332 Bhipidius blattarum, V. 339 Rhipidodendron splendidum, VI. * 373 Rhipidogorgia, g., VI. 308 Bhipidura, g., ") TV ^ Bbipipborus paradoxus, V. 338 Ebipipteryx, g., VI. 124 Ehizocephala, o., VI. 197, 207, 218 222 Ebizo-flagellata, s.o., VI. 373 Ehizomys, g.,l nl 121 B. badius.f U1-1A Ehizopoda, VI. 332—325, 353, 354,358 E. filosa, •) vr 24Q E. filigera, j vl> -V. 376 S. repanda, J Sapygidse, f., V. 376 Saperda, g., V. 344 Sapphirina ovatolanceolata, V. *216 Sarcophaga carnaria, VI. 95 Sarcopsylla i^eiietrans, VJ * 100 Sarcoptes, g., )VT 1Qr S. scabiei, f v±< 18 Sarcorhamphiuee, s.f., III. 256, 262 Sarcorhaniphus gryphus, III. *262 Sargus, g., lv 84 S. cnprarius, f ' Sarotherodou, g., V. 78 Satauas, I. 205 fcaturuia carpini, VI. 61, 62 S. cynthia, VI. *62 S. pyri, VI. 62, *63 Saturniidfe, f., VI. 25, 60, 61 Satyrinse, s.f., VI. 34, 35, 43, 46 Sauria, o., IV. 272—299 Saururse, III. 239, 254, 341, IV. 236 Saxicava, g., ) y 250 S. arcticaj ' Scalaria, g., V. 209, 219 S. pretiosa, V. 195, £03, * £0? Scalariadsa, f., V. 209 Scalops, g., I. 37-! S. aquaticus, I. 373 S. argentatus, ) j 3^ S. latimauus, j ' Scalpellum rostratum, VI. * 219 Scaphander, g., V. 226 TO CLASSES, ORDERS, FAMILIES, GENERA, SPECIES, ETC. 409 Scapanus, g., ~) S. Br«.werii, [• I. 374 S. Townsendii, ) Scaphidiidae, f., V. 319 ScapUirbynchus, g., ) v ,- S. cataphractus, f Scaptochirus moschatus, I. 372 Soaptonyx fusioaudatus, I. 373 ScarabceidaB, f., V. 300, 323, 3i4 -330 Scarabanis, g., V. 322, 325 S. egyptiorum, V. 325 S. sacer, V. *325 Scarina, V. 77 Scaritidaa, V. 303 Scaritiua, g., V. 301, 303 Scarus, g., V. 77 Scatophaga stercoraria, VI. 95 JScatopse, g., VI. 82 Sceuopinidae, f., VI. 91 Sceiiopiuus fasciatus, \ yj gi S. fenestralis, ) Schizodon fuscus, III. 130 Schizoueura lanigera, VI. 116 Schizoi-hina, V. 330 Sohizorhis concolor, III. 332 Scbizosiphus sociabs, VI. 371 Scbizostoma Behnii, > S. elpngaturn, > I. 332 S. rnhmtum, ) Scirizo thorax, g., V. 128 Sciaeua aquila, V. * 84 Sciseuidce, f., V. 14, 83 Sciaeniformes, V. 83 Sciara militaris, VI. 79 Scincoidae, f., IV. 294—298 Scincus officinalis, IV. * 295 S. americaiius, IV. 296 Scissurella, g., V. 216 Sciuridae, f., 86-95, 151 Sciurinae, s.t'., III. 91 Sciurymorplia, III. 86 — 101 Seiuropterus, g., III. 89 S. volans, 111. 83, * 90 S. volucella, III. 90 Sciurus, g., III. 87, 88 S. alpiuus, III. 87 S. caroliiifnsis, III. 88 S. uiger, III. 83 S. vulgaris, III. *86, 87 Sclerodermi, f., V. 48—50 brlerarirue, s.t'., IV. 112 Pclerurus, g., IV. 112, 113 Scolo, g., V. 377 Scolopacidse, f., IV. 162 Scolopt ndra, VI. * 150 S. cicgulata, VI. » 153, 154 Scolopendridae, f., VI. 154, 155, 156 Scolytidse, f., V. 342-344 Scolytus destructor, V. 243 Scomber, g., ~) S. colias >• V. 83 S. scomber, ) Scombresocidae, f., V. 121—123 Scombresox, g., ) ^ TOQ S. saurus, f v' "" Scombrina, f., V. 89 Scopelidse, f., V. 112 Scopelosaurus, g., V. 112 Scopelus, g., "j S. asper, f y „., S. boops, f v S. sub-asper,,) Scopelosoma satellitia, VI. 95 Scopinae, s.f., IV. 184 Scorpe3ua, g., V. 83 Scorpoeuinse, f., V. 83 Scorpio enropaeus, VI. 162 S. occitanus, VI. * 160, * 161 Scorpiouidae, f., VI. 161 Scorpis, g., V. 80 Scotodipnus, g., V. 301 Scotopelia Peli, III. 301 Scotophilus, g., I. 302 S. ornatus, I. 303 S. Temminckii, I. 232, 302, *303 S. Welwitscliii, I. 303 Scntnta, f., VI. 114 Scutigera coleoptrata, VI. 154 S. forceps, VI. * 154 fri. uobilis, VI. 154 ScHtigeridse, f., VI. 154 Scyoandra raphanus, VI. * 315 Scydmtenide, f., V. 317 Scyllsoa, g., V. 227 ScyltiidEB, f., V. 26,32 290 Scyllium, g., V.33 S. canicula, V. 32 S. stellara, V. 32, 163 Scymnus lie Ida, V. 35 Scytaliuin, g., VI. 303 Sebastcs, g.', V. 83 Becurifera, V. 353 Sedentari83, VI. 169 Sdacbe, g., V. 29 S. maxima, V. 30 Selacbiua, V. 29 Selacboidei, s.o., V. 26-37 Selenaridae, f., V., 269, 274 Selerostonia syngamus, VI. 253 Seleucides, g., IV. 21, * 22 Semele, g., V. 247 Semiplotma, V. 129 Seiiiiplotns, g., V. 129 Semiiopitbecus, g., I. 84—89, 161 S. barbci, I. 94 S. cbrysomeles, I. 95 H. entellus, I. 92, 98 S. frontatus, I. 94, * 96 S. Jolmii, I. 94 S. maurus, I. 87, * 88 S. Hielalophus, I. * 85, 87 S. uasalis, I. 83, * 89, iO, 99 S. nemaeus, I. * 93, 95 S. nestor, I. 97, 98 S. pileatus, I. 94 S. Pi iamus, I. * 97, 98 S. roxellaua, I. 99 S. rubicuudus, I. 95 S. Thersites, I. 98 Sepedou haemachates, IV. 303 Sepbioteuthis, g., V. 165 Sepia, g., V. 162, 165 S. biserialis, V. 181 S. eleguns, V. * 178 S. officinalis, V. 175, * 176, * 177, 170, * ISO, 181 S. uugula, V. 180 Sepiadae, f., V. 175—181 Sepiola, g., V. 165 S. Koudoletti, V. 167 Seiicide*, V. 327 Sericosomus, g., ) TTT QI>_ S. ci istatus, f In- 325 Seiicostomidse, f., VI. 17, 19 Sericulus melinus, IV. * 52 Serilophus lunatus, IV. 119, 120 Serpeutarius secretarius, III. 265, * 266 Serpulo, g., V. 212 S. contortui'lica, VI. 238, *239 S. verinicularis.VI. 238, *239 Serpulinae, s.f., VI. 237, 238 Sen-anus, g., 7 v 7a S. cabrilla, j v ' 'y S. gigas, V. 80 Serricornia, V. 330—332 Sertularia, g., V. 270, VI. 290 S. ptunila, VI. 290 Sertularella polyzonias, VI. 289 Sertulariidee, f., VI. 289 Sesia bombyliformis, ) -,rT ec. S. fuciformis, ) TL ^ Setabaleuse, Plate 71 Setodes, g., ") S. mterrupta, > VI. 20 S. tineiformis, ) Sbepbeardella, VI. 345 Siagoninae, V. 306 Sialidaa, f., VI. 14 Sialis, g., VI. 14 S. lutaria, VI. * 14 Sicyases, g., V. 104 Sieboldia japonica, IV. 378 Sidiiyum, g., V. 256 Sigaliou boa, VI. 230 Sigaretus, g., V. 207 Sigillina, g., V. 256 Sisniodon bispidus, III. 112 Silieispongise, o., VI. 3iO, 325, 326—330 Siliquaria, g., V. ISO, 198, 210 Sillago, g., V. 92 Silo, g., VI. 19 Silpba, g., V. 318 Silphidse, f., V. 317 Siluridae, f., V. 108—111 Silurus, g., V. 108, 109 S. glauis, V. 108 Silvanus g., V. 320 Siinia, g., I. 66, 16:5 S. morio, I. 59, 62, 66 S. i-alyrus, I. 59, 66 Simocyon, II. 205 Simplicidentata, III. 85—145 Spermopbilus, g., III. 92 S. citillus, III. 93 Simplicimaui, V. 307 S. tridecemlmeatus, III. Simulium, g., VI. 82 * 92, 93 S. columbatschense, ) VI. Sphasridiinae, s.f., V. 313 S. reptans, f 83 Sphoeroma, g., VI. 211 Sinodendrou cyliudricum, V. Spbaerozoum, VI. 343 324 SphsBrularia, g., VI. 254 Sinoxylon sexdentatum, V. 335 Siphneus aspalax, III. 120 Bphagolobas atratus, III. 353 Spbargis, g., \ Iv „„„ S.pbonaria, g., V. 225 S. coriacea, ) ' Sipbonia pyr.formis, VI. *319 Sphocia, g., VI. 57 Sipbonizoutia, f., VI. 156 S. apiformis, VI. *27, 57 Siphouophora, o., V. 230, VI. S. bembeciformis, VI. 57, 278, 294 *58 SiphoEOps aunulata, IV. * 378, Sphecodes, g., V., 370 379 Siphonostoma typble, V. *£4. Sphecomorpha cbalybea, V. 345 Sphegidae, f., V. 373 55 Spheiiotrochus, g., VI. 298 Siphonostomata, V. 191, 195 Sphex, g., ) y _, Sipunculidae, f., VI. 244 S. flavipennis, j" ' Sipiuiculus, g., V. 253, VI. 243, Sphiuctrilla, VI. 320 244, * 245 Sphiugidae, f., III. 378, VI. 24, S. Bernhardus, VI. * 244 29, 55, 56 Siren lacertiua, IV. 376 Sphinguriuge, III. 134 Sirenidse, f., IV. 375 Sphingurus mexicanus, III. 135, Sirenia, o., II. 268—272 •137 Sireuoida, f., V. 18—21 S. prehensilis, ) TTT 1QK Sirex, g., VI. 6, 7 S. villosus, )" LiL- L6S> S. gigas, V. * 353, VI. 7 Sphinx ligustri, VI. *27, 30, 56 S. juvent us, VI. 7 Sphyrsena vulgaris, V. 100 Sisura inquieta, IV. 34 Sphyraenidae, f., V. 100 Sitaris, g., V. 298, VI. 222 Sphyrapicus varius, III. 336 S. muralis, V. * 337 Spilogale putorius, II. 198 Sitella, g., IV. 69 Spilornis cheela, III. 284 Sitta, g., V. 81 Sittinae, s.f., IV. 65, 69 Spilosoina lubricipeda, ) VT cs S. menthastn, ) v ' ° Smerinthus, g., ) VT *„ Spilotes, g., IV. 329 S. gemiuatus, ) v±- ot) Spinacidae, f., V. 23, 34 S. ocellatus, VI. * 56 Spinax, g., ) v or Sminthiuae, III. 114 S. pusillus, ) Sminthus, g., III. 114 Spinipora, g., VI. 293 S. vagus, III. * 114 Spio, g., VI. 235 Smynthurus, g., VI. 143 S. quadricoruis, VI. 235 Socialia, VI. 121, 136—139 Spionidffi, f., VI. 235 Solariadae, f., V. 209 Spirifera glabra, V. * 265 Solarium, g., V. 209 S. lineatus, V. 268 S. perspectivnm, V. * 209 Spiriferidae, f., V. 265 Solaster, g., VI. 260 Spirobolus, g., VI. 156 Solea, g., V. 72, 73 Spirobranchus, g., V. 106 S. aurantiaca, V. 73 Spirocbona, g., VI. 369 S. mentalis, V. 72 Spirogyra, VI. 342 S. minuta, V. 72, 73 Spiroloculiua badcnsis, VI. 347, S. variegata, V. 73 •348 S. vulgaris, V. 72 Spirorbis, VI. 233, 243 Solecurtus, g., V. 24S Spirostomum ambiguuni, VI. Solemya, g., V. 241 *367 Solen, g., V. 231, 248 Spirostreptus, g., VI. 156 S. ensis, 1 y * 043 Spirula, g., V. 165 S. vagina, f S. australis, V. * 181, * 182 Solenella, g., V. 241 Spirulidffl, f., V. 181— 183 Soknidae, f., V. 248 Spirultrostra, V. 182 Solenobia, g., VI. 21 Spizaetus, III. 284 Solenodon, g., I. 359, 361, 362, Spoggodes, g., VI. 310 363, 382, 383 Spondylus, g., V. 203, 231, 236 S. cubanus, I. 362 S. avicularis, 'S S. paradoxus, I. 361, 363 S. crassisquama, 1 Solenoglypbia, s.o., IV. 304, 311 —324 S. gaederopus, J-Pla(c 57 S. imperialis, Solenognathus, g., V. 56 S. radians, j Solenostoma, g., V. 53 S. regia, V. 203 S. cyauopterum, V. 54 S. regius, V. 237, Plate 57 Soleuostomidae, f., V. 53 Spongia avara, VI. 314 Solpugidoe, f., VI. 161, 164, 167 S. coalita, VI. 313 Somateria, g., IV. 194 Spougiae, VI. 312 Sorex, g., I. 377 S. ongilla, g., VI. 327 S. coerulescens, I. 378 S. fluviatilis, VI *3£7 S. ciliatus, I. 379 Spongillina, s.f., VI. 3.6, 327 S. Forsterii, I. 377 Squalodou, g., II. 247 S. Kandianus, I. 379 Squamella, g., VI. 248 S. longirostris, I. 377 S.juamipinnes, f., V. 80 S. murinus, I. 378 Squatarola, g., \TV ^gg S. nigrescens, I. 377 S. helvetica, ) S. palustris, I. 380 Squilla, g., VI. 5:03 S. pygmceu', I. 377 S. mantis, VI. * 209 S. remifer, I. 379 Staluchtis, g., VI. 44 S. serpentarius, I. 379 Staphyliniuae, f., V. 316, 345 S. tetragonurus, I. 377 Stauropus fagi, VI. 22, 59, * 60 S. vulgaris, I. 376 Steatomys prateusis, III. 113 Soricidae, f., I. 376—382 Steatoruis, g., III. 251 SpalaeidfE, f., III. 120-122, 153 S. caripensis, III. * 368 Spalaciruc, s.f., III. 121 Steganopodes, o., III. 254, IV. Spalacopus Poppigii, III. 130 195- i.03 Spalax typblus, III. * 121 Stelgidopteryx, g., IV. 91 Sparassus Bmaragdulna, VI. 173 Stellio, g., fjy gse Sparidae, f., V. 81 S. spiiiipes, ) Spatangus, g., VI. 2CO, 270 Stenamma Westwoodii, V. 380 Spercheus cinargii:atus, V. 314 StenobrauchiiB, s.f., V. 108 410 NA TURAL HIS TOli Y. Stenoderma, g., 32"\ 320 S. jamaicenso, 1. 337 S. ptrspieiUafrinn, I. * 204, * 3-8, 333, 336 S. rufuiu, I. 337 Stenolielia, g., VI. 293 Stenophyl.x, ST., VI. 219 Stenops (sec Loris) Stenoptt ryx birundinis, VI. f 8 Stenorkyiicbns, g., II. 243, 241 S. leptouyx, II. 241, * 242, * 243 S. Weddellii, II. 243 Stenorhjnchus, g., VI. 197 S. tenuirostris, VI. 197, *198 Stenostoma nigricans, IV. 33fi Stentor, g., VI. 358, 362 S. polymorphic, VI. * 307 Stentoridse.f., VI. 367 ., S. Eiclihornii, f V1'^19 StephauoinouadidiE, f , VI. 372 Stephanomonas locellus, VI. *356 StephanophylliK, VI. 300 Steptianops, g., VI. 248 Stepbannrus dentatns, VI. 25 > Stercoravius, g., IV. £0), 107 S. antarctic 'is, } Tv on- S. catarrhactes, > Sterna fissipes, IV. s.0t S. fuligmosa, IV. 203 Sternarch..?, g., V. 139 Stern ispidse, f., VI. 236 Sternoptychidse, f.,V. Ill Sternopygus, g.,V. 139 Sternotherus sinuatus, IV. 253 Sternula minuta, IV. 161 Steropus madidus, V. 303 Stichotricha remex, VI. * 371 SMgmatopbpra, g., V. 56 Stilbum splendiduui, V. 381 Stoastoma, g., V. 225 Stomatopa, o., VI. 96, 200, 210 Stomatella, g., V. 215 Stomatia, g., V. 216 Stomatopora, g., V. 278 S. dichotoma, V. *i.73 Stosnias, g., V. 112 Stomiatidffi, f., V. 112 Stomoxys calcitran?, VI. 95 Strachia oleraceX ) VT ,n/l S. ornata, ) V1' 1U' Stratiomv idee, f., VI. 8! Stratiomys, g.,VI. 4, 84 S. chamseleon, V. *84, Plate 62 Strepsilas iiiterpres, • } Tv 1r8 S.mdaiioceidiala, ) Strepsilatinee, IV. 168 Strepsiptera, o., V. 295, 339 Strepsirrliiiii, I. 213 (see Lemu- roida) Striges, s.o., III. 253, £97—303 Strigidaa, f., III. 300 Strigopinse, s.f., III. 316 Strigops, g., III. 5.43, 316 S. babroptilup, III. 316, * 31 7, 318 Strinsia, g., V. 62 Strix, g., ill. 300 S. flammea, III. *305, *307, 308 Strobila, VI. 281 Stroinateina, f., V. 87 StrombidiE, f.,V. 191 Stronibus, g., V. 191, 237 S. gigiiH, V. * 192 Strongylus armatus, ~) S. contortus, > VI. 253 S.,micrurus, ) S. pergracilis, VI. * 253 Struthio, g., III. 226, 243 S. camelis, IV. 223, * 223 Struthioliria, g., V. 210 Struthionidse, IV. 225 -236 Struthioninaj, s.f., IV. 226, 232 Sturuidse, f., IV. 77, 103—103 Sturniformes, s.o., IV. 101—109 Sturninse, s.f., IV. 103 Stumira chiliensis, ) T „„,, S. lilin in, j-i. ->37 Sturuus purpurescens, IV. 103 Styas Korras, IV. * 303 Stylaster, ST., VI. £93 Stylasteridee, f., VI. 2f'3 Stylifc r Turtoui, V. 194 Stylina, g., V. 208 Stylinaceffi, s.f., VI. 298, 311 Styliola, g., • S. acicula, S. snbulata, S. virgula, ) Stylochidce, VI. 258 Stylochona, g., VI. 369 Stylodictya, VI. 343 S. multispina, VI. * 344 Stylouychia mytilus, VI. * 35D, 362, 371 S. euiolcptus, VI. * 359 Stylophorinse, s.f., VI. 298, 311 Stylophorus, g., V. 107 Stylopidae, f., V. 339, 310, 370, VI. 221 Stylops, g., VI. 222 S. Spencei, V. * 339 Suberitidinse, f., VI. 3£5, 328 Subulicornia, VI. 121, 143 Succinea patris, V. 221, Plate 56 Suctoria, s.o., VI. 364 Suidse, f., II. 336—347 Sula, g., IV. 198 S. bassana, IV. 198 S. fusca, IV. 193 S. piscator, IV. 198 Sulcator, g., VI. 212 SuphLs, g., V. 311 S. ciinicoides, V. * 311 Suricata zenick, II. 5.07, * £03 Suniia, III. 301 Sns, g., II. 337 S. indica, II. 342 S. pliciceps, II. 343 S. scrofa, II. 337, 333, * 339, *342 Sycandra compressa, VI. 323 S. raphanus, VI. * 324 Sycetta immitiva, Plate 71 Sycometra ciliata, Plale 71 Syeones, f., VI. 325, 326 Sycophaga, g., VI. 4 Sycoi-tis levigata, Plate 71 Syllidse, f., VI. 232 Syllis prolifera, VI. 232, 233 SylviiuaJ, s.f., IV. 43, 44 SymbraiichidiB, f., V. 13) Symbrauchiua, V. 139 Symbranchus, g., V. 139 vSympbyllia, g., VI. 299 Syiiallaxinae, s.f., IV. 112 synallaxis tro/lodytoides, IV. 113 Sjnanceiu, g., V. 83 Synaucidium, g., V. 83 Syiiaphobranelms pinnatus, V. 140 Synapta, g., VI. 2CO, 272 Syubrancbus, g., V. 6 Syncoryue, g., >VT £R8 S. pulcbellaj Vi'^88 Syneuxon, g., VI. 55 Synergus, g., lvl 6 S. vulgaris, | V1'° , Syngnatliidae, f., V. 53, 55^^8 Syngnathus acus, /. 55 S. Martensii, ") v c-- S. specifer, ) ' Synodou, tf.r V. 6 Syuodoutis, g., V. 103 SyiKBL-iuin, g,, V. 256 Synotus, g., I. 295,296 S. barbaitellus, I. * 203, * 295 S. darjelinensis, I. * £95 Syutethys, g., V. 2.54 Symiinse, s.f., III. 300, : 05 Syniium, g., III. 299, 305 S. aluco, III. 303 S)romastes margiuatus, VI. 105 Syrphidee, f., VI. 92, 93, £4 Syrphus, g., VI. 92, 93 S. pyrastri, VI. * 92, Plate 62 Syrtis crassipes, )-u-r IAQ S. monstrosa ]" V1> 1U Tabanidae, f., VI. 85 Tabsmns, t,'., VI. 85 'I', aiituinualis, VI. 85 T. boviuus, VI. 85, Plale 62 T. tropicus, VI. 86 Tabnlata, VI. 301 Tachina, g., VI. 91 T. grossa, VI. 94, Plate 62 Tachinariffl, s.f., VI. 9t Tacbydromia, g., VI. 88 Tachysdossus, g., III. 2^7 Tachyris, v., VI. 48 Tacua speciosa, VI. Ill, Plate C3 Toeiiia, g., VI. 255, * 256 T. ccenurus, ) VT 2t;r T. crassicolla, f vl> ^° T. echinococcus, ~j T. mediacanellatn, fVI. 255 T. soliuui, ) Taenianotu?, g., V. &3 Tsoniura, r., ) v 4, T. motoro, f v ' ** Talegallus, g.,. 1 JV ,rf) T.Lathami, f1V' 1"° Talitius, g., ) VT 919 T. locusta, j-V1-^1^ Talpa, ST., I. 308, 372, 373 T. caeca, I. 372 T. europffia, I. *367, 372 T. lentnra, T. nmcrura, T. micrura, T. woogura, Talpidsa, f., I. 367—371 Tanwndua, g., III. 176 T. tetradactylii, III. 373 Tamias asiaticu-», III. 91 T. striatus, III. *91 Tanagridoe, f.,IV. 94 Tamis, g., VI. *211 Tantalus, g., IV. 186 Tanysiptera, g., III. 3!9 T. sylvia, III. 3M) Tanystoma, VI. 74, 85—91 Tapes, g., V. 246 Tai'hozous, g., I. 315, 316, 317 T. affinis, T. australis, T. longimanus, I.T T. mauritiaiius, ' T. melauopogon, T. Peli, T. perforatus. I. * 315 T. saccolaimus, ) T „, „ T. Tbeobaldi, j ' Tapbrocampa anuulosa, VI. 217 Tapiridae, f., II. 295, 317-321 Tapirus,g.,II.317 T. americauus, II. * 317, 318, *319 T. malaya'ius, II. *318, * 320 321 T. villosus,"ll. 318, 321 Tardigrada, III. 158 -135, 190 Tardigra/la, o., VI. ICO, 185, 223 Tarsidoe, f.,I. 257 Tarsipes, g., III. 203, 221, 225 T. rostratns, III. £03 Tarsius, g., I. £03, 243—250 T. spectrum, 1.248, * 2 19 Tasbyris uero, VI. 48 T.itare, g., IV. 51 Tatnamorio, V. 372 Tautoga,e.,V. 76 Tectibraucliiata, V. 225 Tefflus.g., V.308 T. megerlei, V. * 307 Tezenaria civilis, ) VT -i-e " T. doniestica, ) »i-1'a Tegenariid83, f., VI., 169, 173— 175 Teiuopalpus, g., \vl <-n T. imperialis, ) Tejus, g., IV. 277 T. Teeuexin, IV. *276 Teleas laavinsculus, VI. * 4 Telcgonns, g., VI. 53 Teleostei,V.48-143 Telepborinee, s.f., V. 33t Telepborus, g., V. 3:33,335 Telerpeton, IV. 341 Teletuu-idae, f., VI. 233 Tellia apoda, V. 124 Tellina, g., V.247 T. balaustina, V. 219 T. radiata, V. * 247 Tell'iiidae, f., V. 247 Telmatophilus, e., V. 3£0 Temera, g., V. 40 Teuebrionidse, f., V. 336 Teutaculifera, o., VI. 3' 7. .T8, 359, 361, 362, 3K\, 3C4 Tentbrediuidae, f., V. 355, Vi. 7 Tentbredo aethiops, VI. 8 Tepbrotloinis, ST., )_ TV of) T. poudiceriairis, )" ' " Teracolus, g., VI. 49 Teras tern.inalis, VI. 6 Te ebella eouchilega, VI. 236 T. eininalina. VI. *233 T, rebelhdse, f., VI. 236 Terebr i, g., V. £01 T. titrriui, V. * £01 Terebrautia, VI. 147 Terebratella, V. * 266 Terebratula, g., V. * 266, 267 T. cubensis, V. * 258 T. Wyvilli', V. * 267 TerebratulidsB, f., V. 286, 267 Terebratulhia, g., V. 2(iO, 263, * 260, * 5US Teredo, g., V. 23'J, 210, 251 T. uavalis, V. * 251 Terias, g., IV. 65 Tonnes, g., VI. 137 T. bellicosus, VI. 138 T. flavicollis, VI. 137 T. flavipe-, VI. 137, 305 T. lucifugus, VI. * 137, 133 Termiualia cuppa, HIT 335 Termites, g., I. 3U3 Tennitidse.f., VI. 133—139 Teri^iphone.g., Ky % T. paradisi, f1*-^* Tesseratoma chinensi*, VI. 10 1 Testacella, g., V. 219, 222, £23 T. l.aliotide^, V. * 223 Testndines, f., IV. 243 Teotud • Abindoui, IV. 2M T. chileusis, IV. 252 T. elegaus, > Ty .,rf) T. elephautina, j lv' "" T. elephautopus, IV. 249 T. elong.ita, IV. 251 T. ephippium, IV. 21-9^231 T. geometrin, IV. 252 T. grajca, IV. * 251 T. Hoi-sneldii, IV. 251 T. inepta, IV. 261 T. micropbyes, IV. 250 T. nigrlta, IV. £4J, 15J T. pardjlis, "^ T. polypnemns, j T. radiata, ^IV. 252 T. stilcata, | T. tabulata, J T. triserrata, ) Tv 9rl T. Vo-mseri, ) 1V> 2G Tethya, g., VI. 321 Tetkys, g., V. 227 Tetrabrancbiata, o., V. 155, 183 —188 Tetrarjero3, g., III. 19 Tetracha, g., V. £03 Tetractinellidse, s.o., VI. 320, 325, 325, 328, 3£9 Tetragnatba extensa, VI. 173 Tetragon pterus, p., V. Ill Tetragoinirus, g., V. K)0 Tetramera, V. 315, 340 352 Tetrao tetrix, \j\r 1^1 T. nrogalloides, j 1 v ' 14 T. nrogallus, IV. *140, 141 Tetr,iodon, g., I. 291 Tetraogallus himalayrusi^, IV. 146 Tetraonidse, f., IV. 141-149 Tetraonime, s.f., IV. 141 Tetianychus, g., > VT 1fiT T. telariup, j vl- 18 Tetrapneumones, VI. 109—171 Tetrarbynchus, g., VI. 256 Tetrodon, g.,V. 10, 12, 50, 51, 128 T. cutcutia, )_y gj T. erythro'senia, f ' T. fahaka, V. * 50, 51 T. fluv atilis, S T. lagocepbalus, >-V. 51 T. sceleratus, ) Tetrodoiitidse, f., V TO Tettigonia, g., VI. 114 T. auadripnnctata, VI. 114, 'Plato 63 T. viridis, VI. 114 Teudopsis, V. 174 Teuthidse, f., V. 105—174 Teuthididse, f., V. 83 Textnlaria aciculata, VI. * 341 T. globifera, VI. * 348, » 34) T. nodosar a, VI. :!!•!( Tlialassai'ctosiuiiritimiiH, II. 174 INDEX TO CLASSES, ORDERS, FAMILIES, GEXERA, SPECIES, ETC. 411 Thalasseina, g., VI. 243 Tholas-dafithilUB, s.f.. VI. 301 Thalas-icolLi, VI. 313 Tiialassicolliua, VI. 337, 351 Thalassocbelys olivacea, IV. 253 Thamastes dipterus, VI. 19 Thamuastroea, ^., VI. 300 Tliainuophiliuee, s.f., IV. 114 Tlumatoijhidia, s.o.,IV. 303 Tlrimijaiitidse, f., VI. 290 Thecacera, ST., V. 227 Thecididoe, f., V. 266-268 Thecidium, g., V. 260, 26o, 267, 280 T. mediterrai.eim, V. *266 Thecla, g., VI. 4*3, 47 T. in rsyas, VI. 46 T. rubi, VI. *-W T. W album, VI. 46 Thecosni.lia, g., VI. 299 'I'heeosom ita, V. 229 Thebphonus, g., > VJ ]G3 'J1. gijrauteus, j ' Theuea Walli hi1, l-late 71 Tii. rates, g., V. S02 T nereva plebeia, VI. 87 Tlu.e-idffi, f., VI. 87,91 •i heridiidse, f., VI. 169, 175-177 Theridion ueivwm, VI. * 17.3 T. tepidari Drum, ) vr ,», T. vuriegatnm, { vl- 17° Theridomyidee, f., III. 153 T ieti3, ST., V. 249 TuoinisidiB, f., VI. 169, 170 Thomi us citrous, VI. * 173 Thoinomvs, g., ~\ T. c'usius, [ III. 123 T. talpoides, ) Thtyacipoda, VI. 193 Tnoracosaurus, IV. 170 'i'horiotidffl, f., V. 320 Yiiracia, g., \ „ „.„ T. pubeacens, ) v' *ij Th asaetus hatpyia, III. *27J Thripd, g., VI. UO T. cerealium, VI. * 146, Ii7 Throseidae, f., V. 331 Thylacinns, g., III. 215— £17, 224 T. cynoceph ilus, III. 215, *216, *2I7 Thymallus vulgaris, V. *119 Tbymele, g., VI. 52 Thynmi-s thynnus, V. 9, 89, 377 T. alal. .nga, ) v ^ T. pelamys f v' w Thyreopterinae, s.f., V. 303 Thyroptera, g., I. o02 T. albi venter, I. 311 T. tricolor, I. 310, *311, 321 Thysaiiia agrippiua. VI. 66 Thysauura, o., V. 205, VI. 117— 1 19, 222 T. geuv.ina, VI. 148 Tichodronvi m'ir;ir:a, IV. 7o Tiedemaimia, g., V. 229 Tigi-isoma t grmum, IV. 195 Tinea vulgaris V. * 131 'I imelidse, f., IV. 46-63 Timeliiuaa, s.f., IV. 41, 51—55 Tingis, g., V. 103 Tinea ochrareelli, VI. 44 Tineae, VI. 68, 69 Tineidae, f., VI. 68 Tinnunculus ala'idarius, IV. 35 T i nodes, g., VI. £0 Tiutiiuin-i lagenula, VI. *358, 368 Tiphia, g., ) v o78 T. femorata, ) v' d/8 Tipula, g., VI. 16 T. gigantea, VI. 78 T. hortulana, VI. 78, P . .'> Tomatella, g., V. 225 Tornatellidse, f., V. 225 Tornatma, g., V. 226 Torpedo, g., V. 39 T. hebetans, V. 40 T. niaruiorata, V. * :!9 Torpedinidae, f., V. 39 Torquatella, g., VI. 368 Tortrioidffl (Keptilia), f., IV. 335 T.-rtricidse (Iu>ectu), f., VI. 63 Tortrix, g., IV. 354 T. sc.> tiile, IV. * 335 Tortrix viridana, VI. 68 Totsin 1183, s.f., IV. 63 Toxoceres plumbeu*, VI. 119 Toxotes, g., V. 81, Plate 10 Tracheata, VI 159, 223 Tracbelia, V. 33'3 Tracbelocera olor, VI. * 365 Ti-achelocercidae, f.,VI. 363 Trachinirlae, f., V. 92 Tra hinina, V. 92 Tracbinus drajo, 7 ir no T. vipera, j V. 9J Tracbome lusa, o., VI. 194 Trachouiedu?8e, s.o., Vi. 285, 286, 291, 291 Tracboneinidffl, f., VI. 291 Traeburus trachurus, V. 86, 112 Tracbyops ciiThoiiis, I. 332 Trachypterklae, f., V. 103 Tracbypterus, g., ) v Ift7 T arcticus, )" v' lu' Tr gelapbus, a'., III. 9, 23 Traguiidae, f., III. 4, 69 Trapelns sesyptiacus, ) TV OQ> T. megalonyx, / lv' Mj Treinato4a, o , VI. 25o, * 237, 258 Tremoctopus, g., V. 164 Tretenterata, o., V. 2CO 2 3, 264, 267 Tivtost rnon, IV. 2CO Triacai.tliiiia, V. 43 Triacaii'bu--, g., V. 48 Triads, g. , V. 28 Triaeuops persic-.is, I. ' 287 TriartUr®, VI. 218 Triartba longiseta, VI . ?48 Uricbechidee, t., II. iV)9, 212— 216 Tricbecbodon, g., II. 213 Tri.-hiides, V. 329 Tricbiinoe, V. 3oO Trichina spiralis, VI *251 TrichinsB, VI. 251, 252 Tricbius fasciatus, V. 323 Tr chiiiridse f., V., 86 Tricliinrns, g., V. 12 T. lepturns, V. 86 Tricbocepbalus acetabularis, V 157 T. dispar, VI. 252 Trichocyclus, g., V. 52 Tr cboda, g., VI. 365 Tri bodectes, g , VI. 147 Tricbodes, g., V. 335 T. apiarius, V. 365 Trichodiodon, g., V. 52 Trlcboglossi, II'. 320 Trichoinycteruf, g., V. Ill Trichonemidaj, f., VI. 372 Trichonomojpbaagilis, VI. *366 Trichonotidas, f., V. 98 Trichopteru, s.o., VI. 10 16, 20 27 TrichopttrTygirlee, f., V. 318 Tric'iostema, g., IV. 51 T. hemispheric'im, Plate 71 Tricbotropis, g., V. 203 Trie olia, V. 214 Tricondyla, g., V. 332 Trida"iia, g., ~) T. gigas, £V. 243 T. sqnamosa. ) Tridacnidse, f., V. 2i3 Tridactylus, g., ) VT .„, T. variegatus, )" vl> •U2* Triforis, g., V. 190 Trigla guruar lus,^| T. hirunda, | T. lineata, ^V. 98 T. lyra, T. piiii, Trigona, g., V. 365 Trigonia, g., V. 241 T. costata, )„ ,„ „ T. p. ctinata, t v ' ^41 Tr'gouiadse, f., V. 241 Trigouocepbaliis, g., > TV q,0 T. coutortrx, j iv' J15J fr'lobita, o., VI. 193, 214 Triloculina. VI. 3t7 Iritnera, V. 315, 351 Trimerellidee, f., V. 260, 265 Triuema, VI. 3:}6, 340 Triuga alpiua, IV. 165 T. canutus, ) TV ,,,,. T. subarquata.J 1V> 1W Trlngoi les bypoleucus, IV. 164 Triodou, g., V. 50 Triouycides, f., IV. 243, 256— 258 Triunyx ferox, IV. * 241, 256 T. gangeticus, IV. 258 Triopa, g., V. 227 Triplax, g., V. 351 Triton (ainphib.J, g., IV. 370, 371 T. Bibronii, IV. 371 T. cristatus, IV. 370 T. palmipes, ~) T. punctatns, >IV. 371 T. vittatus, ) Triton (concbol.), g., V. * 191, 199, 208, 236 . T. tritonis, V. 200 T. varitgatum, V. *203 Tritou^a, g., V. 227 Tr.toniadoe, f., V. 227 Triv a, g , "^ T. europsea, T. pedicnlus, |-V. £03 T. pnstnlo-a, ! T. stapbylseaj Trocbammina, g., ) WT 0.0 T. gordialisi VVL348 Trocbilidae, f., III. 336, 376— 380 Trocbiliuni, g, \VT „ T. tripuliforinis, ) vl' 0/ Trocbocyathacese, s.f., VI. 298 Trochosmiliacese, s.f., VI. 298 Trochus, g., V. 212, 213 214, 215 T. niloticus, ) v »21r T. virgatus. fv' "* Troginae, s.f., V. 323, 326 Troglodytes, g., I. 46, 49, 66, 67, 68, 71, 72, 75. 96, 159, 163 T. Aubryi, I. 43 T. oalvus, I. 39, 41 T. gorilla, I. 11 T. uiger, I. 11, 43, 49, £0 T. parvulus, IV. 46, ¥ 48 T. Tschiego, I. 39 Troglodj tinae, s.f., IV. 46 Trogon massena, III. 366 Trogonidee, f., III. 365- 367 Trogosita mauritauioa, V. 320 Trogositidee, f., V. 319 Trombidiidse, f., VI. 181 Trombidiuin, g., VI. 1^-0 T. holo erice -m, VI. 181, *182 Trophonia plumosa, VI. *235, 236 Tropicoris rtiflpes, VI. 101 Tropidonotus macropbthalmus, IV. 307 T. natrix, IV. 327 Tropisternus, g., V. 314 'irox, g., V. 299 Troxite-s germaria, V. 299 Trunoatella, g., V. 213 Truncatipennse, V. 303, 303, 315 Tryc!ioc..ra, g., ) VT -q T. hiemaiis, )" vl' /y Trygon, g., T. hast ita, T. hystrix, T. nuda, T. pastinaca, !>V. 43 T. rudis, T. tuberculata, T. sephen, T. rarnak, Tr gonidas, f., V. 43 Trygonorhina, g., V. 39 Trypanseus. g., V. 322 TrypaaoC"rax fr gilsgus, IV. *2, *3 T. pastinator, IV. 3 Trypanosomata, s.o., VI. 373 Trypeta, g., VI. 96 Trypheeua, g., VI. 6t Tubicinella trachea'is, VI. * 219 Tubicola, s.o., VI. 228, 2:53— J40 Tubifex lineata, ) VT no, T. rivulorum, )" V1' "' Tubiflcidaa, f., VI. 227 I. 349 Tubiuares, IV. 208 Tuhipora, g., VI. 310 T. musica, VI. * 309 Tubiporiuas, s.f., VI. 309 Tnbiteloa, f., VI. 173—175 Tubularia, s.o., VI. 285, 286 Tubularia, g., VI. 288 T. indivisa, VI. * 288 Tubulifera, VI. 147 Tubulosa, VI. 301 Tupaia, g., I. 347, 350 T. Belangeri, I. 349 T. chrysura, I. * 343 T. Ellioti, ~ T. jayanica, T. minor, T. murina, , T. nicobarica, ") T. speciosa, [- 1. 318 T. spleudidnla, ) T. tana, I. 347,3^8 Tupaiidaa, £., I. 347, 382 Turbellaria, o., VI. 257, 258 Turbinella, g., V. 193, i!37 T. pyrum, V. 193, U)J T. rapbn, V. lf'?- TurbinidfB, f., V. 214 Turbinolia, g., VI. 298 TurWuolidae, f., VI. 297, 311 TuibinoliuK, s.f., VI. 298 Turbo, g., V. 214 T. argyrostomus, ) v ,01. T. iniperialis, )" v' zl* T. marmoreus, V. 214 Turdidae, f., IV. 35 Turdiformes, s.o., III. 253, IV. 2-77 Turdine, s.f., IV. 36, 43 Turdus, g., IV. 36, 40 T. iliacus, IV. 39 T. merula, IV. 43, * U, 42 T. musicus, IV. 36, 37, * 38, 39 T. pilaris, IV. 43 T. torquatus, IV.43 TurnicidiB, f., IV. 149 Turaix taigoor, IV. 150 Turritella, g., V. 210, 216 T. communis, V. 2 0 T. terebra, V. 67 T. terebeJlat', V. * : 10 Turritellidse, f., V. 210 Tylodina, g., V. 226 Tylonycteris, s.g., I. 302 Tylopioda, III. 4, 71 Tylostoma Ch Idreui, ) T QQ1 T. crenulatum, j" 1- **J Typhis, g., V. 195 Typhlina Cuvieri, IV. 298 Typhlma viridis, VI. 247 Typhlocyba, g., VI. 144 Typhlops lumbricalis,") T. Eiipelli, ^ IV. S33 T. tenuis, Typhlopidae, s.o., IV. 336 Tyrannid83, f., IV. 115 Tyrannus caroliuensis, IV. 115, •118 T. domiuicensis, IV. 65 Tyroglypbus domesticus, VI. *185 U Umbellulai-ia groenlaudica, VI. •306 Umbe:iulid83, f., VI. 306 Umbra, g., ") U. Krameri, [ V. 121 U. limi, J Umbrella, g., V. 226 Uinbridaa, t., V. 121 Vmbriua cirrbos •, V. 83 Uugulata, o., II. 273, 295, III. 8J Unguliua, g., V. 244 Unio, g.. V. 242 U. maigaritifera, V. 212 U. pictorum, V. * 242 Uniouidee, f., V. 2U— 243 Upeneichthys, g., V. 81 Upupa opops, III. 357, * 358 Upnpidffi, f., III. 357— 360 Urauea Sloaueus, IV. 82 Urau a, g., U. fulgens, VT , , Vi' 54 412 NA T URA L HIS TO It Y. Uraniidse, f., VI. 54 Urauoscopus, g., V. 16, 92 U. scaber, V. 92, * 93 Urapterydae, f..VI. 66 Urapteryx sambucaria, VI. 66 Uraster, g., V. 163 Urceolaridce, f., VI. 368 Uria, ST., IV. 214 U. troilc, IV. 215, *213 Urnatella, f,'-, V. 277 Uroaiitus audax, III. 280 Urocampus, g., V. 56 Uroceutruni, g., VI. 337 Urocentrum turbo, VI. 368, *369 Uroceridse, f., VI. 6 Uroconger, g., V. 143 Urodela, o., IV. 369-379 Urogyrunus, g., V. 43, 44 Uroleptus pisois, VI. 371 Urolopbus, g., (_y ,3 U. torpedinns, f ' Uromastix, g. , IV. 284, 285 U. spinipes, IV. 284, * 283 Uropeltidffi, f., IV. 336 Uropoda vegetans, VI. 183 Uropsilus soricipes, I. 376 Urotrichus, g., I. 373, 376, 383 U. Gibbsii, ) T ..7/5 U. talpoides, J 1- anus, II. 170 U. marltinms, ) TT 17j U. ornatus, f ±1> L'* V. spelseus, II. 204 II. syriacus, II. 169 U. tibetauus, II. 170 Urva caucrivora, II. 93 Uvigeriua pygincea,VI. 349, *3iO Vagabundse, VI. 169 Vaginulina, VI. 349 Vagmulus, g., V. 224 Valvata piscinalis, V. 21 1 Valvuliua, VI. 343 Vampyrella, VI. 342 Vampyrops liueatus, ) T 007 V. vittatus, j L- •"' Vampyrus, g., I. 331, 352 V. spectrum, I. *331, 332 Vanessa, g., VI. 38 V. autiopa, VI. * 38 V. C-album, VI. 37, * 33 V. io, VI. 38 V. urtiese, VI. 24, 38 Variants albogularis, ) TV 07Q V. draeama, r*V.H7B V. uiloticus, IV. * 273 V. salvator, IV. 27« Vsirecia (-ee Lemur) Velella limbosa, VI. * 284 V. mutica, VI. 284 Velutiua, g., V. 207 Veneridse, f., V. 245 VeuerupLs, g., V. 246 Veuus, g., V. 245 V. mercenaxia, V. 243 V. pullastra, V. 21Q V. verracosa, V. *216 Veretillidse, f., VI. 303 Verlusia rhoaibea, VI. 10> Vermes, VI. ICO, 157, 222, 224, °5S 353 Verinetus, g., V. 189, 190, 210, 236 V. lumbricalis, V. * 210 Verniilinaues, s.o., IV. 291— 294 Vcrtebralina, VI. 347 Verucella, g., VI. 303 Vespa, g., V. 371 V. coarctata, V. 373 V. crabro, V. * 284, 371 V. sylvestris, V. 371 V. vulgaris, V. *355, 371 Vespertil.o, g., I., 292 V. admirabilis, I. 271, 344 V. Becbsteinii, I. 307 V. Blytbii, I. 281 V. Capacciiiii, K 307 V. dasycneme, ( V. Daubeutonii, I. 303 V. emarginatus, I. S07 V. formosus, I. 304, 307 V. mnrinus, I. *260, * 305, VI. 98 V. mystacinus, I. 303 V. Nattereri, I. 305 V. serotinus, VI. 98 V. soricinus, I. 334 V. tuberculatus, I. 304 V. vampyrus, I. 271 Vespertilionidse, f., I. 281, 292, 293, 245, 297, 300, 312, 325, 340, 341 Vesperngo, g., I. 2.18, 303 V. abramus, I. 302 V. altivolaus, I. 300 V. borealis, I. 302 V. discolor, I. * oOl V. Kuhlii, I. 302 V. Leisleri, I. 301 V. maurus, ) T qn? V. uanus, / L 30^ V. noctula, I. * 299 V. pachypus, I. 302 V. pipistrellu?, I. * 298 V. serotinus, I. 301 V. tylopus, I. 332 Vespidao, f., V. 370—373 Velella, g., V. 216, 217 Vibrioues, VI. 351 Vipera, g., IV. 311 V. ammo lytes, IV. 314 V. aiiatans, . 'S V. atropus, V. caudalis, V. cerastes, V. connita, V. rhinoceros, Vipericlse, f., IV. 311 Vireouidse, f., IV. 64 Vitrina, g., I. 355, V. 221 Virgular.a, g., VI. 306 Vivei-ra, g., II. 87 V. civitta, II. 88, * 89 V. gymnura, I. 358 V. pallida tcit r.isse, II. * CO V. zibetlia, II. 89 Viverridse, f., II. 87, * 83, 180, 204, 206—203 Volncella, g., VI. 93 V. bombylaus, VI. 93 V. pelluceus, VI. * 70, Plate 62 Voluta, g., V. 202, 219 V. abyssicola, ) v on, V. aulica, | V' M* V. cymbium, ^ p, , .- V. Dc-lessertii, f Piaie 5o V. fulgetruni, V. £02 . V. imperialis, Plate 55 V. juiionia, V. 202 V. musica, Pt«tc55 V. papillosa, ~) V. i iperata, ^ V. 202 V. reticulata, ) V. scapb/i, ~) V. uudulata, > Plate 55 V. vexillum, ) Volutidae, f., V. 201 Vorticella, g., VI. 358, 363, 369, 370 V. marina, VI. * 3CO V. microstoma, VI. * SCO V. nebulifera, VI. * 360, * 369 Vorticellidue, f., VI. 363, 368, 369 Vorticellina, s.f., VI. 369 Vulpes, g., ITT i«i V. vulgaris, fn-15i Vultur monachus, III. 258 Vulturidae, f., III. 256—264 Vultui-iuse, s.f., III. 256—262 W Walokeuaera, ET., ) Vr TV W. acuniiimta, f V ' /b Waldbeimia, g., V. 267 W. australis, V. * 261, 267 Xantuura, g., \TV i« X. luxuo a, fiv-10 Xenia, g., VI. 310 Xenocypridiua, V. 129 Xeuopeltis, g., IV. 135 Xeuopterus, g., V. 50, 51 X. modestus, ) v ,.-, X. narit'is, ) v- Oi Xerus rutilans, III. 91 Xiphacantba, VI. 343 X. Mnn-ayaua. VI. *314 Xipbias, g., V. 6, 85 X. gladius, V. 85 Xipbigorgia, g., VI. COS Xiphiidse, f., V. 85 Xipbiiformes, V. 84 Xiphoco!apte3, g., IV. 112 X. emigiMus, IV. 113 Xipbogadus. g , V. ' 5 Xiphorb\'iiclius, g., IV. 325 Xipbostoina, g., V. Ill Xiphosura, o.^VI. 19J, 21:!, 223 XipU.vdria, s;., ) VT - X. camelas, ) Vi" ' Xixuthrus lieros, V. 33^; Xylentes coss'is, VI. 63 Xylinidffi, f., VI. 65 Xylocopa, g., V. 376 X. violacea, V. 367 Xvlopbaga, g., V. 251 Xylopbasia polyodou, VI. 64 Xylotrupes dicbotoma, V. * 328 X. gideon, V. 328 Z Zabrus gibbus, V. 303 Zalopbus, g., II. 221 Zauiolepis, g.,V. 98 ZapodidfE, f., III. 124 Zapodiuas, III. 125 Zapus hudsonius, III. 124, * 125 Zeuma, g., VI. 44 Zephyrus, g., ) VI 4/5 Z. qutrcusj vl-4° Zerenidse, f., VI. 67 Zerltis, g., VI. 41 i^uglodon, g., II. 243, * 247 Zejglodontia, II. i.47 Zeus, g., V. 15, 16 Z. faber, V. 86, * 87 Zeuzera sesculi, VI. 63, * 64 Zeuzeridse, f., VI. & Zipbiidse, f., II. 2EO— 252 Zipbius.g., ") Z. cavirostrls, >•!!. 251 Z. iudicus, ) Zoautbaria, o., VI. 295— £04,311 Zoantbinse, s.f., VI. 304 Zoarces, p., V. 9 Z. viviparus, V. 10) Zciia, g., VI. 1S4— 19 , 222, 223 Zouitis, g., I. 355 Zouuridae, f., IV. 29 i Zonurus, g., IV. 298 Zoobotryon, g., V. * 17 1 Zoophyta, V. 15:1, VI. 277—294 Zooteira, VI. :j42 Zoothanmium, g., VI. 370 Z. niveum, VI. * 370 Zootoca, s.g., ) TV w, Z. vivipara, f 1V> GA Zopberus breniei, V. :536 Zosterops, g., III. 321 Zjgoeua, g., VI. 57 Z. iilipenduliB, VI. * 17, *58 Z. malleus, V. * 28 Zygamidae, f., VI. 5t, 57 Zygaiiiina, V. 28 Zvgodacfyla, g., VI. 2!il Zygodachylte, s.o., III. 253, 309- 330 D BY CASSELL & COMPANV, LIMITED, LA BELLE SACVAOE, LONDON, E.G. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY, BERKELEY THIS BOOK IS DUE~0~N THELAST DATE STAMPED BELOW Books not "turned on time are subject ,tc MI fine of 50c per volume after the third day °™fauB'ooks not in ^SK^^^^S is made before expiration AUG &e 1932 FEB. 8 .1965 75rn-7,'30 ;.6 iflOtO«£ AUG 22 193? 265342 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY ' •vlv/'''*"