•U& .V I CASSELL'S NATUEAL HISTOEY. THE FEATHERED TEIBE8. NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY ALEXANDER MUNTGUMERY, .SPRUCE-STREET. 1854. ODEX. H.l'.iV Aecipitres, 45 African Water- Fowl, the, 48S Agami, the, 4Cfi Albatross, Black, the, 54;i — Wandering, the, ■''41 Alcyon, the, 147 Aptcri.N, the, 4.JS Ara(,'ari, Double- Collared, the, 361 Arada, the, 207 Aromatic Vinago, the, 375 Auk, Great, the, 596 — Little, the, 59S — Razor-billed, the, 597 Avocet, the, 509 Barbet, Parti-coloured, the, 316 Barita, the, 151 Bee-Eaters, the, 149 Birds, Air-cells of, 16 — Bones of, 2 — 6 • — Classification of, 40 — Digestion of, 24 — Kggs of, 28 — Feathers of, 10, 14, 33 — Flight of, 88 — Incubation of, 27 — Migrations of, 36 — Plumage of, 9 — Respiration of, 22 — Voice of, 23 — Wings of, 12 Bittern, the, 500 Blackcap, the, 187 Boatbill, the, 496 Bohemian Wax- Wing, the, 194 Bunting, Cirl, the, 221 — Cow, the, 211 — Foolish, the, 219 — Ortolan, the, 219 — Snow, the, 219 — Yellow, the, 220 Bustard, African, the, 477 — Asiatic, the, 476 — Great, the, 475 Butcher-Bird, the, 151 Buzzard, American, the, 114 — Common, the, 110 — Honey, the, 114 — Red-tailed American, llo — Rough- Legged, the, 112 Calyptomena Viridis, 193 Canary-Bird, the, 220 Cap-More, the, 238 CapercaiUie, the, 429 Cariama, the, 486 Cassowary, the, 457 Cedar-Bird, the, 199 Celepyris, the, 160 Cephalopterus Ornatus, 160 Cereopsis, Xew Holland, the, 576 Chaffinch, the, 2S0 Chough, the, 261 Cochin China Fowls, the, 424 Cockatoo, Greater Sulphur-crested, the, 358 — Lesser Stilphur-crested, 358 — Rose- crested, 357 Colies, 366 Colin, Virginian, the, 445 Condor, the, 47 Coot, the, 522 Cormorant, the, 620 — Chinese, the, 623 — Green, the, 622 Corn-crake, the, 524 Coucal, Egyptian, the, 309 Crane, Common, the, 468 — Crowned, the, 473 — Demoiselle, the, 472 Creeper, Common, the, 282 — Wall, the, 282 Crossbill, the, 241 Crow, Alpine, the, 268 — Carrion, the, 253 — Hooded, the, 255 — Nutcracker, the, 268 Cuckoo, the, 303 — Gilded, the, 306 — Yellow-billed, the, 307 Curassow, Crested, the, 394 — Red, the, 395 Curlew, the, 530 — Stone, the, 478 Dacelo Atricapilla, 148 Darter, the, 624 — Black-bellied, 625 Dentirostres, 150 Dodo, the, 460 Domestic Fowls, 424 Dotterell, the, 526 Dove, Rock, the, 389 — Stock, the, 389 Dove-cote Pigeon, the, 390 Duck, Buffel-headed, 556 — Domestic, the, 363 — Eider, the, 553 — Harlequin, the, 557 — Musk, the, 563 — Scaup, the, 557 — Summer, the, 552 — Wild, the, 560 Dunlin, the, 530 Eagle, Caracara, the, 76 — Caracara, Vulturine, the, 79 — Golden, the, 64 — Harpy, the, 85 — Imperial, the, 61 — Sea, the, 67 — Washington, the, 73 — Wedge-tailed, the, 75 — White-headed Sea, the, 68 Emu, the, 456 Euryceros Prevostii, 280 Falcon, the, 89 — Gyr, the, 91 — Peregrine, the, 92 Falconers ot Falcon Sward, 98 — Practices of, 96 Finch, Black-collared, the, 289 — Gold, the, 225 — Green, the, 226 — Snow, the, 224 Fissirostres, 129 Flamingo, Red, the, 489 — ■ American species of. 490 Flusher, the, 154 Fly-catcher, Tyrant, the, 157 — Pewit, the, 158 — Spotted, the, 159 Frigate Bird, the, 628 Furnarius Fuliginosus, the, 284 Gallinic, 368 Gallinule, Common, the, 520 Gannet, the, 604 — Spotted, the, 521 Goat-sucker, Collared, the, 135 — Fork -tailed, the, 135 Goat-suckers, the, loO Goldfinch, the, 225 Goose, Bean, the, 571 — Bernicle, the, 573 — Brent, the, 574 — Canada, 565 — Domestic, 569 — Egyptian, 577 — New Holland, 576 • — Snow, the, 570 — Spur- winged, 578 — White-fronted, the, 571 — Wild, the, 568 Goshawk, the, 101 Grallatores, the, 464 Grosbeak, Abyssinian, the, 235 — Pensile, the, 238 — • Philippine, 234 — Sociable, the, 237 Grouse, Black, the, 482 — Pinnated, the, 438 — Red, the, 434 Guan, the, 392 Guillemot, Common, the, 593 — Black, the, 595 Guinea Fowl, the, 404 Gull, Black-backed, the, 538 — Black- headed, the, 538 — Common, the, 536 Harrier, Hen, the, 117 — Marsh, the, )16 Hawk, Sparrow, the, 104 Hawking, a Day's, 98 Heron, Great AVhite, the, 498 — Scopolaceous, the, 497 Hobby, the, 100 Honey Guide, the, 308 Hooper, the, 549 Hoopoe, the, 301 Hornbill, Abyssinian, the, 279 — Concave, the, 277 — Crescent, the, 278 — Crowned, the, 276 — Red-billed, the, 280 — Rhinoceros, the, 277 — I'nicorn, the, 278 — Violaceous, the, 279 Humming-bird, Ruby -throated, the, 29 4 — Supercilious, the, 296 — Topaz- throated, the, 293 j — Tufted-necked, the, 295 Ibis, Glossy, the, 495 — Sacred, the, 492 — Scarlet, the, 494 Insessores, 129 Jabiru, the, 491 Jscamar, the, 303 Jacana, Chinese, the, 523 Jackdaw, the, 256 Jay, Blue, the, 259 — Common, the, 260 Jungle-Fowl, the, 420 Kestrel, the, 105 Kingfisher, Common, the, 146 Kite, Common or Fork-Tailed, 106 — Swallow-Tailed, the, 108 Kittiwake, the, 539 LaniadiP, 150 Lanius Sulphuratus, 156 — ■ Forficatus, 160 Lapwing, Gray, the, 503 — Crested, the, 502 (j;i-2 Lark, t 'rested, the, 2lo — Meadow, the, 215 — Shore, the, 2U — Sky, the, 216 Linnet, Mountain, the, 220 Lorikeet, Orange- Winged, the, 301 — Swainson's, ooO Lory, Australian, the, 349 — Papuan, the, 348 — Purple-Capped, the, 349 Loxia Bengalensis, the, 236 Lyre-Bird, the, 189 Maccaw, Blue and Yellow, the, 353 — Brazilian Green, the, 353 — Great Scarlet, the, 352 Malcoha, Red-Headed, the, 315 Manakins, the, 192 Manakin, Fork-Tailed, the, 193 — Rock, the, 192 Martin, the, 141 — Sand, the, 142 Merlin, the, 102 Meropida;, 149 Merulida;, 176 Mocking-Bird, American, the, 180 Muscicapa AlbicoUis, the, 161 — Coronata, the, 161 Nandu, the, 452 Nightingale, the, 170 Night-Jar, the, 130 Notornis, the, 529 Nuthatch, the, 300 Nyctibius, Grandis, the, 133 Oriole, Baltimore, the, 247 _ Golden, the, 18(i — Orchard, the, 248 Oriolus Phumiceus, 259 Osprey, the, 81 Ostrich, the, 448 Ouzel, Water, the, 183 — Ring, the, 184 Owl, Barn, the, 125 — Burrowing, >he, 126 — Fagle. the, 123 _ Horned, the, 128 — Snowy, the, 120 Oyeter-Catcher, the, 508 Paradise, Greater Bird of, the, 269 King Bird of, the, 275 Magnificent Bird of, the, 275 Parrakeet, Blue bellied, the, 344 — Carolina, the, 315 Crimson-fronted, the, 348 — Small, the, 348 Parrot, Ash-coloured, the, 340 — Gray, the, 340 — Blue Mountain, the, 343 — Indian, the, 356 — Phillip Island, the, 354 — Swindern's, the, 356 Partridge, the, 440 — Red-legged, the, 441 Pauxi, Galeated, the, 393 Peacock, the, 405 _ White, the, 408 Pelican, the, 616 Penguin, the, 613 — Crested, the, 614 Petrel, Fulmar, the, 544 Stormy, the, 545 Pheasant, Argus, the, 416 — Common, the, 410 INDEX. Pheasant, Golden, the, 413 — Horned, the, 413 — Impeyan, the, 414 — Reeves's, the, 414 — Silver, the, 412 _ Pigeon, Carrier, the, 370 — Carunculdted Ground, the, 372 — Crowned Goura, the, 369 — Hackled, the, 379 _ — Magnificent, the, 370 — Nicobar, the, 379_ — Passenger, the, 376 — Parabolic, the, 379 Pintado, 404 Piprida?, the, 192 Plantain-Eaters, the, 366 Ploceus, Cristatus, the, 239 Plover, Golden, the, 504 — Stilt, the, 503 Podargus, the, 153 Ptarmigan, the, 436 Puffin, the, 01)0 Qu^il, the, 442 — Californian, the, 445 Raven, the, 251 Redbreast, the, 166 Redpole, Greater, the, 228 — Lesser, the, 228 — Mealy, the, 229 Rhea, Patagonian, the, 454 Ring-dove, the, 380 Rook, the, 249 Ruff, the, 517 Sanderling, the, 531 Sand-piper, Common, the, 507 — Spotted, the, 507 Scansores, 303 Scoter, Surf, the, 555 Screamer, Horned, the, 525 Scythrops, the, 360 Secretary Bird, the, 84 Sheerwater, the, 533 Shelldrakc, Common, the, ooS Shrikes, the, 150 Shrike, Collared, the, 154 — Great, the, 150 — Great American, the, 153 — Loggerhead, the, 153 — Red-backed, the, 1S4 Siskin, the, 252 Skua, the, 537 Snipe, Common, the, 516 — Great, the, 515 • — Jack, the, 515 Sparrow. Bottle-nested, the, 235 — House, the, 222 - Tree, the, 223 Spoonbills, the, 480 Starling, Common, the, 245 — Red-winged, the, 242 Stonechat, the, 164 Stork, Marabou, the, 484 — White, the, ISO Sun-bird, the, 285 Swallow, Chimney, 138 — Esculent, the, 143 Swan, Bewick's, 550 — Black-necked, 549 - Mute, the, 547 Swift, the, 136 Swimming Birds, .532 Syma Torotoro, the, 148 Tamatia, Spotted-bellied, 317 Tanager, Scarlet, the, 240 Tanagra, Cayana, the, 240 Teal, the, 564 — Chinese, the, 556 Tenuirostres, 281 Thrush, the, 176 — Ferruginous, the, 179 — Wood, the, 177 Tit, Blue, the, 195 — Cole, the, 198 — Crested, the, 196 — Great, the, 195 — Long-tailed, the, 197 Todies, the, 145 Todus Regius, the, 161 Toucan, the, 3G1 — Saffron-coloured Hill, 364 Tragopan Hastingsii, 415 — Satyrus, 415 — Temminckii, 415 Trochilus Gouldii, 295 Trogon, African, the, 314 — Asiatic, the, 314 — Golden, the, 313 — Mexicanus, 313 Tropic Bird, the, 627 Turkey, Brush, the, 402 — Domestic, the, 400 — Honduras, the, 401 — Wild, the, 390 Turtle, Cape, the, 384 — Collared, the, 385 Turtle Dove, the, 386 Umbrella-Bird, 200 Vanga Destructor, 155 "Vulture, American, the, 55 — Auriculated, the, 54 — Bearded, the, 57 — Black, the, 59 — Egvptian, the, 56 — Griffon, the, 60 — King, the. 53 Vulturida;, 46 Wading-Birds, the, 464 Wag-Tail, Grav, the, 213 — Pied, the, 213 — Yellow, the, 213 Warbler, Fan-tail, the, 208 — lUed, the, 174 — Sedge, the, 200 Weaver, Crimson-Crowned, 239 — Yellow-Bodied, the, 239 — Yellow-Crowned, the, 239 Whidah, Broad-Shafted, the, 233 — Red-Billed, the, 234 — Yellow-Backed, the, 234 Whinchat, the, 162 Whip-Poor-Will, the, 134 Wigeon, American, the, 558 Woodcock, the, 512 Woodpecker, Golden .Winged, 322 — Greater- Spotted, the, 328 — Green, the, 321 — Larger Red-Crested, the, 330 — Lesser-Spotted, the, 329 Wren, the, 201 _ Golden- Crested, the, 205 _ Wood, the, 200 Wry-neck, the, 330 Yellow-Hammcr, the, 220 Zygodactyli, 301 C II A P T E R I . THK STRUCTURE OF BIRDS. The birds, attired in all their beauty, or in their humblest guise, unobtrusive in their humility, or assumino- the proud bearing of conscious power, are plenteously scattered over the surface (jf the earth. The lark delights us with its notes as we cross the verdant or the ploughed field ; the partridge flies from the intruder verging on its nest amidst the standing corn ; the coo of the pigeon salutes us in the woods, and many a delightful song- is heard in the groves. We meet with the feathered tribes auKjng the busy haunts of men ; and even on the dismal sand, where the fragments of vessels are bleaching, and over which flow the waters that engulfed their crews, the sight of a penguin or the scream of a curlew may recall the mind to animated nature, and sui^ply it ^^'itll subjects of pleasure and admiration. Favourites of man, as many of the feathered tribes have been, from the symmetry of B 2 THE fe.\tht;red TKim:s. tliclr form, tlio exquisite softness, bcaiitj^ or sploudoiir of tlieir pliunage, their clasticity aiid \-igour on the wing, the thrilling melody of theu- songs, and the various economical purposes to which they are adapted, there is still but little known by people generally respecting them. Arid yet there is not one of the myriads of birds, whether hndhig a domicile iimncdiatcly aroimd our dwellings, covering the branches of forest trees, wading the morass — so treacherous and even fatal to man, — scouring the sandy and arid desert, sportmg on the billows of the ocean, or gaining thcu" subsistence by diving in its waters, — no, there is not one of them but is worth}' of careful and repeated attention, in the light of all the intelligence that can now be obtauied as the rcsidt of extensive and long- continued observation. It is, therefore, our piu-pose to present to the eye of the reader a scries of representa- tions of a large niuuber of the feathered tiibes, accompanied by popular, yet scientifically accm-ate, accounts of their ajipearance, locaHties, and instmcts ; and briefly to point out, by way of prelude, some remarkable circumstances relating to their structure and habits, and also as to the principles adopted in their classification by naturalists. Eeginning with their structm-e, it maybe remarked that the skeleton of birds (tig. 1) has the same constituent parts as that of other vertebrated classes ; the bones of the anterior extremity, though destined exclusively to support the wing, retain the same divisions, and are composed of the usual elements. As birds swallow their food entire, there is no necessity for any part of the bidky apparatus, or hard and solid teeth, large muscles, and hea^y jaws, which are required by quadrupeds, and hence the head admits of being greatly reduced in its dimensions. The ribs and the viscera are placed as far back along the spinal column as possible, and , a Ions flexible neck extends from the trunk to the head, which is thus carried considei'ablv forwards. In order, too, that the bird may be exactlj' balanced while it is flying, its centre of gravity must be brought precisely under the line connecting the articidation of the wings with the trunk, for it is at these points that the resistance of the air causes it to be supported by the wings. "When the bird is resting on its legs, the centre of gra\-ity must, in like manner, be brought immediately over the base of support formed by the toes ; it becomes necessary, therefore, to provide means for shifting the centre of gra^-ity from one place to another, according to circumstances, and to adjust its position with considerable nicety ; otherwise there would be danger of the equilibrium being destroyed, and the body oversetting. The principal means of eflbcting these adjustments consist in Ihe motions of the head and neck, which last is, for that iJurpose, rendered exceedingly long and flexible. Tlie number of cervical vertebnc (a) is generally verv considerable ; in the mannnalia there arc seven, but in many birds there are twice that luunber, and m the swan there are twenty- three. As the fii^inal marrow passes down along the canal foi'med by the arches of the vcrtebrsc, and any pi'cssure applied to its tender substance woidd instantly pai'alyse the whole body, and speedily put an end to life, an extraordinary i)rovision was ri'quired to guard against the possibility of such an accident difring the many violent contortions into which the colunni is liable to be thrown. This is acconq)lished in the sinq)lest and most effective manner, by enlarging the diameter of the canal at the xqiper and lower part of each vertebra, while at the middle it remains of tlic usual size, so that the shape resembles that of a hour-glass. Tims a wide space is left at the junction of each suci'cs- sive vertebra, allowing of verj' consideral)le flexion, witiiout reducing the diameter of tlu> channel beyond that of the narrow portion, and therefore without compressing the spinal marrow. A totally difl\rcnt plan is pursued in tlic vertebra; of tlic back and loins. To ensure the proper action of the wings, the great object here is to prevent motion, and to give all STRUCTUUK OV lUllDS. d possible strengtli and security; and accordingly, the wliolo of tliis portion of tlic spiiio, tog-etlier with tlie sacnnit — llio lionc which forms the basis of the vertebral coluiiui — is consolidated into one piece. All the processes are lai-gelj- developcil, and pass obliquely from one vertebra to the next, mutually locking them together; and in order most effect ually to preclude the possibility of any flexion, the spinous processes, and sometimes even the bodies of tlie dorsal vertebrie, are immovably soldered together by osseous matter so as to form one continuous bono. The sacrum consists of the imion of a great niunber of vertebra?, as many as twenty being miited for the same purpose, so that they form a bone of great length. The coccijgeal verfehne — those connected with the lower part of the sacrum — are also numerous, but are compressed into a small space, and enjoy great latitude of motion, being sub- servient to the movements of the tail. The ribs are numerous, and of considerable strength ; they send out processes, FIG. 1. — SKELETOX OF A BIRn. FIG. 2.— STERXU.M OF BIRDS. which are directed backwards, passing over the next rib before they temilnate, and giving very effectual sujiport to the walls of the chest. The ribs are continued along the abdomen, and afford protection to the viscera in that cavity ; and some arise even from the breast-bone, or sternum, and the iliac bones. Those which are in front are united to the sternmn by osseous appendices, and appear as the continuation of the ribs, or as if the ribs were joined in the middle. The sternum is of enormous size, extending oyer a considerable part of the abdomen, and ha\Tug a large perpendicular crest descending, like the keel of a slup, from its lower sm-face. This is designed to pro\'Ide extensive attachment to the large pectoral muscles employed to move the mngs, and which, taken together, are generally heavier than the rest of the body, and they are also of enormous strength. The flap of a swan's wing is said to be capable of breaking a man's leg, and a similar blow from an eagle has been known to prove instantly fatal. 3 2 4 THK IKATHKUKD TUl liES. The wi'll-kiuAvii l);iiu' called tlie meiTV-tliouolit, counteracts the tentleiU'V to approach which the action of th(> wings produces iu flight. There are also clavicles, or collar- bones, which are long and narrow, uniting at one end -with the srapi'/if, and at their point oi' junction assist to form the cavity in which the head of the huinerus is r(>ceived. The inferior limbs consist of the following parts : — The thigh-bone, ov fcniiir (c), which is short, lies close to the body, enveloped in muscles, covered ^^•ith tlie skin, and concealed beneath the feathers. The next part is the tibia (d), and to this succeeds the farnna (e), con.sisting of a single elongated bone, covered only with scaly skin, having the toes articulated to its extremity. In most birds the toes (f) are three before and one behind, but here great variety prevails. The nimiber of bones which compose each respective toe appears, iiidred, to be regulated by a imiform law. The innermost toe, which may be compared to a thumb, consi-sts invariably of two bones ; that \\hich is next to it in the order of sequence has always tlnci' ; that which follows has four; and the outermost toe has five bones: the claws being in every case affixed to the last juints, which have, therefore, been termed the ungual bones. The perching birds have the two middle toes parallel to each other, and the inner and outer toes turned back, so as to be opposed to them in action. They are thus enabled to FIG 3. lIAUM'.Oe. SKA-MF.W. PAuiiOQi rr. grasp objects with the greatest facilily, having, in fact, two fluunbs, whicii are opposable to the two fingers. ^^^len the bird is perched, it embraces the branch with its claws, and, by a \\'onderful mechanism, it holds it the more .strongly the longer it is placed there. The flexible muscles of the claws pass over the joints of the knee and the talons, and when those, fatigued by the weight of the body, begin to bend, they draw over the tendons of the muscles in (jiiestion ; then the claw bent by them seizes with greater force the branch which sustains the bird. As to the birds with long claws, which generally keep on the earth, they have been spared the fatigue of long standing, by pi'eventing the thigh from liending over the leg ; when the member is extended, the lower part of the femur, which j)resciits a IkjIIow, is rested on a projection of the tibia, like the bowl of a bilbocpiet on its axis, and the animal, not wanting to contract its mu.sdes, experiences no weariness. When we proceed to the history of families, it will be seen that th(> disposition of the claws is in harmony with the habits of the bird; thus walking birds, as the ostrich, have long and strong claws and a small foot ; birds of prey, like the eagle, have the claws short and vigorous, the nails crooked and .sharp; the birds which Hnc on tho liaiiks of streams, and seek there for prey, have slender daws, but (excessively long, and seem to be mounted on stilts ; ainong the birds which inhabit deep waters, the claws are palinatcd, that is to say, between the parts a membrane is extended which does not STKUCTUUK Of lUKDS. 5 liiudtM- tlu'in from expaiuliug or contracliiig' it, and i-('ud<'r.s tla' foot n true fin. Luf^tlv, anidHL;- tlu' liirds wliit'li need a vortical position to clinili, the outer elaw is bi'liind, lie.sidi; the tliund), whence il appears that they have two ting'er.s only in troiil : the panoipict and the jrrci'n woodpecker are instances. The impression made upon the mind l)y an I'xamination of a l)ird's external structure, is deepened if its .skeleton be examined, combining, as it dots, great lightncs.s with strength, and that on true mechanical principles. 80 remarkably light is it, that the one of tile white pelican, a bird live feet in length, was fonnd by the Academicians of Paris to weigh only twenty-tlirce omiccs, while the entire bird weighed nearly twenty-five pounds. Had the shoulder bone been one solid piece, its weight ^^oidd have been objectionable, and iniecpial to the strain which it would have to endure, it would soon have snapped asunder; but constructed as a hollow cylinder, it is light, and at the same FIG. — 1. Tnt: apti;ryx. time strong. Nor is Lightness the only end gained by this hollowness, tor as the bones ot a bird have no marrow, so they are reservoirs for air, and thus peculiarly adapted to the creatures' ordinary mode of life. How precisely one bone is adapted to all the rest will be apparent from an interesting fact in the work of an eminent modern writer : — * " The incident," he says, " which I am about to mention, exhibits the resiJt of an immense induction of particulars in this noble science, and bears no faint analogy to the magnificent astronomical calcidation, or prediction, whichever one may call it, jiresently to be laid before you. Let it be premised, that Cuvier, the late illustrious French, physiologist and comparative anatomist, had said, that in order to deduce from a single fragment of its structure the entire animal, it was necessary to have a tooth, or an entire * " Intolk'ctual and Moral Development of the Present Age." By S. AV'arren. 6 THK FE.\THi:HF,D TRUiKS. arficnlatcrl extremity. In liis time, the comparison was limited to the external config-uration of bone. The study of the internal structure had not proceeded so far. " In the year 1830, Professor Owen was sitting alone in his study, when a shaliV)ily- dressed man made his appearance, announcing that he had got a great curiosity, wliich he had brought from Now Zealand, and wished to dispose of it to him. Any one in London can now see the article in question, for it is deposited in the Museum of tho College of Surgeons, in Lincoln's Inn Fields. It has the appearance of an old marrow- bone, about .six inches in length, and rather more than two inches in thickness, with both extremities broken off; and I'rofessor Owen considered, that, to whatever animal it might have belonged, the fragment must have lain in the earth for centuries. At first, ho considered this same marrow-bone to have belonged to an ox — at all events, to a quadi'uped ; for the wall or rim of the bone was six times as thick as the bone of any bird, even the ostrich. He compared it with the bones in the skeleton of an ox, a horse, a camel, a tapir, and every quadruped apparently possessing a bone of that size and configuration ; but it corresponded with none. On this, ho very narrowly examined the surface of tlie bony rim, and at length bcramc satisfied that this monstrous fragment must have belonged to a bird ! to one at least as large as an ostrich, but of a totally different species ; and, consequently, one never before heard of, as an ostrich was by far the biggest bird known. From the difference in the strength of the bone, the ostrich being unablo to fly, so must have been unable this ludvuown bird ; and so oiu- anatomist came to tho conclusion, that this old shapeless bone indicated the former existence, in New Zealand, of some huge bird, at least as great as an ostricli, but of a far hoavier and more sluggish kind. Professor Owen was confident of the validity of his conclusions, but coiJd conomimicato that confidence to no one else ; and notwithstanding attempts to dissuade him from committing his views to the public, he printed his deductions in tlio Transactions of the Zoological Socicfij for the year 1839, where fortunately they remain on record as conclusive evidence of the fact of his having then made this guess, so to speak, in the dark. lie caused the bone, however, to be engraved ; and liaving sent 100 copies of the engraving to New Zealand, in the hopes of their being distributed, and leading to interesting results, he jjatiently Avaited for three years — namely, till the year 1842 — -when he received Intelligence from Dr. Buckland, at Oxford, that a great box, just arrived from New Zealand, consigned to himself, was on its way, unopened, to I'rofcssor Owen ; who found it fiUcd with bones, palpably of a bird, one of which AVas three feet in length, and much more than double the size of any bone in the ostrich ! And out of the contents of this box the professor was j^'sitivel}^ enabled to articulate almost the entire skeleton of a huge Avinglcss bird, between ten and elcA'en feet in height, its bony structure \\\ strict eonfonnity Avith the fragment in question ; and that skeleton may be at any time seen at the Jluseum of the College of Surgeons, towering over, and nearly twice the height of the skeleton of an ostrich; and at its feet is lying the old bone from wliicli alone consimirrmte anatomical science had deduced such an astounding reality : the existence of an enonnous extinct creature of the bird kind, in an island Avhere previously no bird had been known to exist larger than a i)heasant or a common foAvl !" Of a Avingless bird, the apteryx (fig. 4) Avill aflbrd an rxamjjle; Avhile as the far greater number of the feathered tiil)es are designed for progi'cssion in the air, so for this they arc speciallj' adajited. Look, for exiimple, at the swallow, having an osseous framcAVork, like that already described. Its body is not like that of a snake, for then it Avould have Avanf cd the central point of graAnty, Avhich is necessary for the maintenance of an CA'cn and steady course. Nor does it ajiproach the fonn of u glob(<, like one of the tenants of the Avalei's, since in this ca.sc it could not luiAe ])assed like an arroAV through the air. It is, in fact, an aerial boat, of Avhich the head and pointed beak form the jn-oAV, and the tail (he rudder. All its muscles, too, are cii'hi\\e(l a\ itli enormous strength, its lungs are of great extent ; STKVCTURE Ol' JilUDS. aiifl what other covering could equal its beautiful plumage? Scales arc manifestly adaptwl to a very different race ; little less appropriate woidd be a covering of hair ; but eathers, fidl and deep as they are, iucreaso the supeilicies of the body, uud are also of marvellous lightness. Birds, joyous biids of the wnndoiiiin; wing! Whence is it yc come with the flowers of Spring ? " AVc come fiom the shore of the green ohl Xile, From the hind where the roses of Sharon smile, From the pahiis that wave through the Indian sky ; From the myrrli-trccs of glowing Araby. " AVc have swept o'er the cities, in song renown'd, — Silent they lie, with the deserts round ! AVc have crossed proud rivers, whose tide hath roll'd All dark with the warrior blood of old ; And each worn wing hath regained its home, Under the peasant's roof-tree, or monarch's dome." And what have yo found in the monarch's dome. Since last ye traversed the blue sea's foam ? " AVe have found a change, we have found a iiall, And a gloom o'ershadov.'iiig the banquet's hall, And a mark on the floor, as of life-di'ops spilt, — Nought looks the same, save the nest we built !" Sad is yom- tale of the beautiful earth, Bii-ds that o'ersweep it in power and mii'th ! Yet, through the wastes of the trackless air, Ye have a guide, and shall we despair ? Yc over desert and deep have pass'd — So shall ive reach oiu- bright homo at last .' Mrs. Hemans. CHAPTEE II. THE PLUMAGE AND FLIGHT OF BIRDS. The power of flight is enjoyed, not only by the bii-ds that migrate to distant latitudes, but by those which subsist on the seeds and insects sought on the ground, and weave their nests among the branches of trees, as well as by the multitudes dwelling on the surface of the ocean, and gaining there appropriate sustenance. Yet, while it is a conunon endow- ment to leave the earth, the trees, the marsh or the sea, it is not alilie in all ; for some birds are untiring on the wing, while the flight of others proves speedily exhausting. Equally varying is the character of their flight ; so that an experienced natimiUst will point out a bird -v^-ith which he has become acquainted in its natural state from its flight alone, dependent as it is on pinions exquisitely adapted to its actual condition. Every variation we can discover has its specific object and use. Tlic wag-tail, pursuing on the ground what the swallow docs in the air, seems incapable of keeping itself at rest ; — ever in motion, because it is not so easy to begin to move from a state of inaction ; and thence, probably, the length of its apparent siqicilluity of tail. To the sea-birds, which neither d'wc nor swim, long flights and great duration are necessary, because their food is often rare, wide apart, and far, also, from their homes. Hence the great and untirmg powers of the gull and the gannet, and especially of the alb;itross, the velocity of which is said to amount to a himcbed miles in an hour. Audubon states that pigeons have been killed, in tlu' neighboui'hood of New York, with tlieir crojjs full of rice, which they must have collected in the fields of Georgia or Carolina, these districts being the nearest in which tliey could have procured a supply of this land of food. As their power of digestion is great, and (hey wiU decompose food entirely in twelve hours, ih(-y must have travelled, in this instaiue, between three and four hundred miles in six hours, which shows their speed to lie, at ;in average, of about one mile in a minute. A velocity such as tliis would enable one of these birds to visit the continent of Murope in less than three days. The plumage, in all cases, is cxcpiisitely suited to the (•ircumstanccs of the creature which it covers and perhaps adorns. There, for instance, is a wing rather adapted to aid the bird in running than flying, as it scours along in the desert, and leaves its foe far behind. See ! how soft and loose it is, utterly di'stitute of compactness and vigour. Observe another : it is fuU, loose, and delicately soft, iiresenting no sharp or rigid edges to the air, and therefore no resistance, but yielding prom])tly to every breath ; it is that of tli(> owl, one of the. birds of night, which pounces stealthily and noiselessly on its pny. And to turn only to another bird : its feathers are close and rigid, anil have a surface like that of burnished metal ; tlu? wings are long and pointed, and the tail is forked, and as elastir as it is iirni : it is the humming-bird, darting hither and thither, and that with a rajjidity whicli alnvist elurh's (he eve. TIIK ri.l'MAGK AM) FLIGHT OV MUDS. 9 From these general iiiiuirks it is desirable to descend to some particulars; for while the plumage of a bird demands admiration, it is also duo to the parts of which it is com- posed. If a feather be carefully examined, it >> ill be foiuid composed of three primary- parts : the quill, the shaft, and the vane. These, with the subordinate parts, are exhibited in the adjouiinj;- figure. In (s) is exhibited the posterior surface of the solid stem, divided into two jiarts by a longitudimxl grove, and from either side of which proceed a series of laminir, composing Arith their fibrils what is tenued the vane (v). The lines, from which the laminse arise, approach one another at the lower part of the stem, till they meet at a point. Here the groove terminates, and there is a small orifice (o) leading to the interior of the quill. From this part the transparent tubular portion of the quill (t) commences ; and at its lower extremity (l) there exists a second or lower oriticc. The separate pieces, or lamina-, of which the vane is composed, are called filaments, or thi-eads. It will readily be remembered how mui'li stronger the vane shows itself to be when pressed in a direction perpendicular to the plane, than when I'ubbed cither up or down in the line of the stem. The reason of this is, that the lamincc, of which the vane FIG. J.— THE FEATHER. FIG. 0.— fibFlIls of a FEATHEK. FIG. ".— LAJIIX.E I.NTERLACED. is composed, are flat, and placed ^\-ith their flat sides towards each other, hence they easily bend for the approaching of each other, as may bo perceived by drawing the fingers ever so lightly upwards. But they are much harder to bend out of their plane, as that is the direction in which they have to encounter the impulse and pressure of air, and in which their strength is wanted and daily tasked. This one pecidiarity in the structure of a feather is worthy attention, but a second is still more remarkable. For if a feather be examined, it will be observed that the laminae, or tlu-eads, in their natural state unite ; that their union is something more than the mere ojjposition of loose sm-faces ; that, though there is -no glutinous cohesion between them, they are not parted without some degree of force ; that, therefore, by some mechanical means or other, they catch or clasp among themselves, thereby giving to the vane its closeness and compactness of texture. .Still further : when two lamina; which have been separated by accident or force arc brought together again, they immediately re-clasp ; the connexion, whatever it is, is perfectly recovered, and the vane of the feather becomes as smooth and firm as if nothing had occurred. Let the finger be drawn down the feather, which is against the grain, and probably the junction of some of the 10 TirE FEATHERED THIBES. contiguous tlircads is broken ; wliile if the finger be clrawn up the featlier, tlie threads are restored to their former state. Now these effects may be traced to a very beautiful contrivance. The himinoD arc interlaced -n-ith one another, and the interlacing is effected by means of a vast number of fibres or teeth, -which shoot forth from each side of the lamince, and which hook or grapple too-etlicr. These fibres are crooked, but curved after a different mamier. Those whicli proceed from the thread on the side towards the extremity of the feather are longer and more flexible, and bent downwards there, as those which proceed from the side towards the beginning, or quill-end, of the feather are shorter, firmer, and turned upwards. '^Ylien two lamintc are pressed together, so that these long fibres are forced far enough over the short ones, their crooked parts fall into the cavity made b_v the crooked parts of the others — as a latch fastened to a door enters into the cavity of the catch fixed to the door- post, and there hooking itself, fastens the door ; for it is in this manner that one thread of a feather is fastened to another. All this the accompanying illustrations will render, wc trust, perfectly clear. The fibrils of a feather from the y,-vag of a goose (fig. 6) are represented magnified at a a, b h, as they arise from the two sides of the edges of each lamina. They arc exceedingly nume- rous, above a thousand being contained in the space of an inch. They are, as is manifest from the engraving, of two kinds, each one having a diSerent form and curvatm-c. Those marked a a, which arise from the side next to the extremity of the feather, are branched or tufted, and bend downwards. Those marked h h, proceeding from the other side of the lamina, or that nearest the root of the feather, are shorter and firmer, and do not divide into branches, but are hooked at the extremities, and are directed upwards. The appearance they present will bo seen in fig. 7. It shows distinctly the form, direction, and relative position of each set of fibrils, and the manner in which thej' lay hold of one another. This mechanism is repeated over eveiy part of the feather, and constitutes a closely reticidated sm-face of great extent, admirably adapted to prevent the passage of the air through it, and to create by its motion that degree of resistance which it is intended the -u-iug shoiJd encounter. In feathers not intended for flight, as in those of the ostrich, the fibrils are altogether wanting : in t]u)se of the peacock's tail, the fibrils, though large, have not the construction that fits them for clasping those of the contiguous lamiui-c ; and in other instances they do so very imperfectly. Li addition to these parts of a feather, there is what is called the accessory pliuue. It is a small down)' tuft, which not only assmnes a very different cliaracter in tlie feathers of different species, but is even very dissimilar in the feathers of difl;crent parts of the body of the same bird. The accessory plume is situated at the end of the quill fiirthest from the body. In the strong feathers peculiar to the wings and fail it remains a small tuft of down ; but in the feathers of the body, as the hawks, grouse, ducks, gulls, and some others, it is found to be of all sizes. In the ostrich, the feathers have no accessory plume ; hi the rhea there is a tuft of down; in tlie emu the accessory plume is angiuenfed to the full size of the priiieii)al shaft, and the web and the feather of this bird is constantly and correctly represented as haAing two plumes on one quill. In Iho cassowary, besides the double shafts and webs from a single quill, as in the emu, there is still an accessoiy plume, thus fonning throe distinct parts. Tlic orn-ans by which the bird rises from the groiuid, and maintains and dii'ccts its aerial pnigression, are, however, the wings and llie tail, and Ihey re(piire of us, tlicreforc, a particidar examination. In the wings there is an osseous franu-work, acted upon by nniseles, the tendons of which ure respectively inserted into the several bones composing it, the whole being THE I'U'MAOK AM) ri.lCHl <)!•• lilKDS. 11 covered with tskin, nnd jifTonUng n solid basis on ^vlli^■ll the feathers rest. Tlic wing, ■which is, in fact, the arm of tlie bird, consists, as in man, of the true-arm, the fore-anu, and the hand. The true-ann consists of the /noiicriis (a), a cyliwh'ieal and hollow bone, the head of FIG. 8,— BOSKS OF THE WING. which is received into a shallow ca\ Ity of the xrnpuki, or'shonlder-blado («), at the angle made by the sndden turn and descent of the large conifoirl process, -which is attached at its posterior extremity to the anterior margin of the breast-bone. The fore-arm consists of FIG. 9. — FEATHERS OF A BIRD. an ulna (is) and a radius (c), which is very slender. The ulna has often a row of tubercles on the upper surface, denoting the situation of the barrels of the secondary quill feathers, to -n-hich it j-ields support. The hand is dix-ided, as usual, into carjms (d), mcfacarpus (e), o.uA phalanges ; but, so far from being flexible, as the name suggests, it is a firm, inflexible 12 THE FEATHERED TRIBES. basis for a series of stiff clastic feathers eontinuous witli those proceeding from the idna. Ou the anterior edge, and at the base of the metucarpns, is seated the thumb bone, a single jointed piece (f). The fingers (g) are two ; the first consists of two phalaixjcs, a broad basal bone, as if several were compacted into one, and a small pointed bone. The second finger consists merely of a small portion in close contact with the iirst ]>/iahiiu of the first p» FIG. 10. — WING or X BIRD. finger. The hand, thus formftl, has no such power as we ascribe to that organ ; it is a firm, inflexible support for a scries of stiff elastic feathers continuous with thos? proceed- ing from the u/iui. The feathers arisuig from the hand and ulna are termed quill-feathers. They are didded into two sots. One set arises from the hand, consisting of the most important of FIG. 11.— ACUTE WI.VO OF A FALCON FIG. 12.— OBTUSK WING OF A BUZZARD. the series, and chiefly instrumental, by their length and shape, their flexibility or stiflhess, in determining the eharacler or j)owei- of tlie fliglif. These are the primari/ iiiiill-thithcrs (fig. 9, No. 1) ; they are ten in number, but diti'er in finin as well as in relative length. The other .set arise ox iusively from the uliui, and are tlie siroii'/uri/ qiii/f-fhif/it'i:^ (No. 2) ; they are usually short r, broader, and less rigid than the former, and their number varies. THE riXMAGE AMJ FLIGHT OF lilKDS. 13 rinm the small bone which represents the thumb arise certain short stiff feathers, lyuig close on the quills of the primaries, and constituting the icinglef, or spurious muff (No. -i). Flo. Hi.— SUB-ACUTE WIXC OF TUE GOAT-SUCKER. There is also a group of feathers tenued tcrtiariis, arising from the humeral joint of the fore-arm, and which, in many birds, — as the curlew, plovers, lapwings, &c., — are very FIG. \o. — SUB-OBTOSE ViTNC OF A CUCKOO. FIG. ](i.— SUR-OEIUSE WIXO OF A JAT. FIG. 14. — SCR-ACUTE WI.NG OF THE SE.V-SWA LLOW. FIG. 17. — FF.ATHEKS OF THE T-UL. long, and form a pointed appendage very apparent during flight. In most birds, however, thev are not to be distinguished from the rest of the greater eoveri-s (No. 4), of which 14 THE FEATHERED TRIBES. tlicy are, in fact, a continuation. Other feathers, attached to the iijipcr part of tlie humerus, lie along the sides of the back, and in many liirds are of great length ; they are called scapularics (No. 5). A series of feathers, termed the lesser corerts(No. 6), are disposed in scale-like order, vow after row, ou the fore-arm and carpal joint ; they cover the barrels of the cpiill-feathcrs. Below them extends a series of larger feathers, which sweep across the whig, encroaching far on the primaries, and when the -wing is closed usually hiding the secondaries ; these are the greater eocerts, of which the tertiaries arc a continuation. The mider surface of the wing is lined with softer feathers, termed ^tmler coccrtSi The quills of the tail-feathers are hidden beneath what are termed ilte upper fail-coi'crfs (No. 7), which, in some birds, as the peacock, form long, flowing, and exquisitely beautifid plmncs. Beneath the quills of the tail-feathers are covered by wider tail-coverts (No. 8), consisting of lax fcathci's, which in some birds, as the marabou, form extremely soft and deHcate plumes. On the cheek maybe seen a tuft of feathers covering the ears (No. 10), and therefore called ear coverts, and there is onl}' to be added the tail (No. 9) to com- plete a general view of the plumage of birds. The ■n"ing is set in motion by powerfid muscles, and becomes au organ fitted for swim- ing, that is to say, for energeticallj^ repelling a fluid much more resisting than the air. Birds whoso wings are changed into fins are called iinpenui (no wings) ; those whose wings, although furnished with feathers, is reduced to a stump, arc called rudipeiiiii (rudimen- tary wing) ; all others organized for flight are called aJipeiiiii. This engranng (fig. 10) exhibits to view the following parts : — T, wing coverts ; p B, spurious wing or winglet, composed of the feathers of the thmnb ; R V, quill feathers ; R S, secondaries ; p s, scapularies. In birds designed for flight the wings vary in length according to the species ; and besides the differences in the absolute length of the wing, there are others in the relati\'e length of the feathers of the wing. When the longest feathers occupy the edge side of the wing, and then go on decreasing from this edge, the wing is acute, and the bird is called aeufipeniius. When, on the contrary, the longest feathers correspond with the middle of the hand, the wing is obtuse, and the bird is called ohfusiprnnus. Each of these types inaj' oft'er three cases ; when the second feather of tlie ^\■i^g, begin- ning from the edge, is the longest, the mng is simply acute ; when the first feather is as long or longer than the others, the wing is sur-acufe ; when the third feather is equal to the second, the wing is sub-acute. In the same way three degrees have been established iu the obtuse wing ; if it is the fourth feather, which is the longest, it is simply obtuse; if it is the third it is sub-obtuse; if it is the fifth, or following, it is sur-obtuse. These characteristics arc of great importance, since they cxpi'ess the degree of the power of flight. The bird with acute wings moves with greater agility than the one whose wings arc obtuse ; the obtuse wing is notliing else tlian an acute wing, the extre- mity of which has undergone an oblique section. And the further the wing, which is the arm of the lever of the power, has its extremity distant from the point of siq3port or centre of movement, the more energetic it is in I'cpclliug tlie air whicli pivsents the resistance. Thus the man(eu\res of tlio bird with acute wings arc more rapid and more varied than ihose of other birds; it can move in all directions, like a boat with oars, and easily seize a prey which is trying to escape with obtuse wings, and which, like a ship with sail, can only tack about. Hence the names saitinij birds, and roaiiKj birds, according as their wings are obtuse or acute. As the direction in which a bird <'an fly dcjiends greatly on the form of its wings, (Sir Everard Home justly infers that a motion directly upwards can only be pcrloruied TirE PLUMAGE AND FLTOm' OF BIRDS. 15 liv I'irds wliosc wiugs arc nearly horizontal, as tlio lark and the quail. " In general," he says, " the wings arc iilaecd ohiiquely ; this is principally owing to the length of then- feathers, the fixed point of whic^h is at the root. AMumbranes, which (>uveloped the whole body. Folding differently, they formed many considerable pouches, particularly between the thighs and the belly, between the wings and tbe ribs, and under the craw. Some were so ■wide as to admit the two fingers ; and these great pouches divided into many little ducts, which perpetual subdivision ran into an endless multitude of ramifications, whicb were perceptible only by the bubbles of air which inflated them ; so that, on pressing the body of this bird, a little noise was heard like that prodticed by pressing the membra- nous parts of an animal that has been inflated. By the assistance of the probe and blowing, the comminiication of these membranes with the lungs was discovered. The structure so admirabh' adapted to render birds light and buoyant is thus happUy described by Sir Charles Bell : — - " First, it is necessary that birds, as they are buoyed in the air, be specifically lighter; secondly, the circumference of their thorax must be extended, and the motion of the ribs limited, that the muscles of the Avings may have sufficient space and firnuiess for their attachment. Both these objects are attained by a modification of the apparatus of breathing. The lungs are hij^hly vasciilar and spongy, but they ai'e not distended with air. The air is dra^^^^ through their substance into the large canity common to the chest and abdomen ; whilst the great office of decarbonization of the blood is securely performed, advantage is taken to let the air into all the cavities, even into those of the bones. " The weight of the body being a necessary concomitant of muscidar strength, we see why birds, by reason of their lightness, as well as by the conformation of their skeleton, walk badly. And, on the other hand, in observdng how this Hghtness is adapted for flight, it is remarkable how .small an addition to their body will prevent them rising on the wing. If the griffon-\Talture be frightened after his repast, he must disgorge before he flies ; and the condor, in the same circumstances, is taken by the Indians, like a quadruped, by throwing the lasso over it. It is interesting to notice the relations of great fimctions ia the animal economy : birds are oviparous, because they never coidd have risen on the wrag had they been viAaparous ; if the full stomach of a carnivorous bird retard its flight, we perceive that it could not have carried its young. The light body, the quill-feathers, the bill, and the laying of eggs, are all necessarily connected. " As every one must have observed, the breast-bone of bu'ds extends the whole length of the body ; and owing to this extension, a lesser degree of motion suffices to respiration ; so that a greater surface, necessary for the lodgment and attachment of the muscles of the wings, is obtained, whilst that surface is less disturbed by the action of breathing, and is more steady. Another peculiarity of the skeleton of the bird, is the consolidation of the vertebrne of the back ; a proof, if any were now necessary,- "that the Avhole system of bones conforms to that of the extremities, the firmer texture of the bones of the trunk c 18 THE FEATUKUED TRIBES. being a part of tlie pro\isiou for the attacliincnl of tlio muscles of the wings. The ostrich unci cassowarj', which arc rather ruuncrs than fliers, liave the spine loose. " The vcrtebrcB of the back being fixed in birds, and the pslvis reaching high, there is no motion in the body ; indeed, if there -were, it woidd be interrupted by the sternum. We cannot but admire, therefore, the composition of the neck and head, and how the extension of the vertebra), and the length and pliability of the neck, whilst they give to the bill the oificc of a hand, become a substitution for the loss of motion in the body, b}' balancing the whole, as in standing, rminiug, or flying. Is it not curious to observe how the whole skeleton is adajjted to this one object, the power of the wings Y " "Whilst the ostrich has no keel in its breast-bone, birds of passage are, on dissection, recognisable by the depth of this ridge of the sternum. The reason is, that the angle formed by this process, and the body of the bone, affords lodgment for the pectoral muscle, the powerful muscle of the wing. In this sketch of the dissection of the swallow, there is a curious resemblance to the human arm ; and we cannot fail to obser\e, that the pectoral muscle constitutes the greater part of the bulk of the body. BorelH makes the pectoral muscles of a bird exceed in weight aU the other muscles taken together, whilst the pectoral- muscles of man ai'e but a seventieth part of the whole mass oi' the muscles. , And here yve sec the correspondence between the strength of this muscle and the rate of flying of the swallow, which is a mile in a minute, for ten hours every day, or 600 miles n day. 3fr. White says truly, that the swift lives on the wing; it eats, drinks, and collects materials for its nest in flymg and never rests but during darkness. If it be true that birds, when migrating, require a wind that blows against them, it implies an extraordinarj' power as v.e[l as continuance of muscular exertion. " We see ho^^' nature comjjletes her A\ork, when the intention is that the animal shall rise baoj'aut and jiowerful in the air : the whole texture of the frame is altered and made light, in a manner consistent ^^■ith strength. We .see also how the mechanism of the anterior extremit}' is changed, and the muscles of the triuik difl'erently directed." The muscles, as might be supposed, are jjrecisely adapted to the service they have to pcrfonn. The efforts of men to fly in the air are not likely to be more successfid than those of the philosopher described iTi " Rasselas," v.]\o Ibnnd that the \ ing-muscles of birds. If, therefore, wings of sufficient ])()wer could be contrived, the ai-nvs would be too feeble to wield them. While it need .scarcely be added that there are no air-cells distributed through tlic human body to diminish its specific gra^■ity by inflation. "If each nnisde of flight," says ^I. Cliabriei', ^\ll(l lias paid great attention tspects ; as, for example, in the depres- sion of the wings dining flight, the resistance or the contraction of tlie middle pectorals and their congeners is absolutely necessary, since, without it, flie ^^•ings would lull by their own weight, and the action of the great jx-ctorals would be useless. IJesides, in the di])ression of the wings, the fixed point of tlu' middle pectoials where tlie n\spective tendons attach themselves to the humerus beiii;^- rcmnved, the sudden contiactidii of these jiectnials must nece.ssarilv facilitate the ascension of the trunk, until th(> hunieiu-; is stopped by the cessa- tion of action in the great pectorals. It may easily lie concc-ived why the jirojecting muscles of the trunk and the depressors of tlie wings are stronger than the elevators; it is because the fonner eause the trunk to start, and by this mi-ans depress tlie wings, not- withstanding the resistance of tlie latter ; these, beint; unable to prevent tlie hiimeius I'mni descending, become fixed there, and draw up the trunk, I luis as.si.sting the action nf the great pectorals, and also jiaiticipating in juojecting llic trunk both forwards and above. AlK-VrsSEKS OF HIKBS. 19 " Thus, that the bird may niisc and direct itself in the air, all the muscles nmst con- tract themselves in the followiug manner : the clavicle and the omoplate being fixed by tlie trapezium, the rhombtiid, the upper pari of the great dorsal, the eosto-seapular and the short chnieular, and the -whig being purth' imfolded, brought forward and raised by the action of the middle pectoral of the internal subclavian, the elevators of the hmnerus, of tlie eoraco-braehial, and of the extensors of the anterior membrane of the wing, the bird spi'ings into the air, completely expanding his wings. At the same time the gri'at pectorals, the primary agents of the wings, of which the point is fixed in the humerus by the insertion of their respecti^•e tendon, conti-act suddenly ; and, in conseqxience of the resistance ^\'hich the air opposes to the movement of the M-ings, carry all their po\\-er to the stermun ; by this intervention they cause the trimk to rise, and the wings, whose immediate depression is resisted by the atmospheric air, as we have just said, are never- theless depressed by these indirect means. ""\ATiile all this is performed -with extreme quiclaiess, several muscles of the wing, besides, among others, the extensors of the tail, stri^-e to extend the wing ; but as the resistance of the air on the extremities of the pluuiage is very great, and this fluid opj)os- ing all rapid movement on their part, these muscles tlicn direct their power against the sides of the trimk. Taking then their position on the bone of the wing, on the external side of the ^\-ing, and acting by their upper extremity, they extend the main wing-bone over the fore ^ving-bone ; and as this action and that of the great pectorals occm- at the same instant and in concert on each side of the tnmk, the latter is forced up in a middle direction. "Thus the combination of these various eftbrts impart to the trunk a force of projecting forward and ascending, by ^\-hich it is propelled ^^-ith the wings. This projection is evidently similar to the leap of other animals. The great pectorals then relax, and the wings immediately reascend, partly by the reaction of the air on their lower surface, and the descent of trunk, and partly by the action of the middle pectorals and their congeners, whose contraetion, so to sjjeak, continues dmiug the fiight. " After having darted forwards, the bird remains for an instant imsupported by the air ; this fluid then, by its reaction, rei)els and tends to raise it still higher than the leap alone could ha\e done ; and afterwards pre\-ents it again falling as low as the point of dei^arture. •' The asc(>nsion of the trunk is doubtless favoured by the internal air, which insinuates itself into every part of the animal, and A\-hich the latter has the factilty of retaining. " This air, which is perhaps a light gas, being dilated and rarefied by great heat, not only is its specific gra^'ity proliably diminished, btit it must also contribute to diminish that of the bird, by inflatmg it and supplyuig all vacancies during the flight. " If the bird which descends precipitately fears to hurt itself on approaching the earth, it opens its wings and its tail, and takes several little leaps, which, diminishing the rapidity of the descent, permit it to alight gently on the earth. " It is by the assistance of the tail that certain bii'ds are enabled to descend with precipi- tation from a great height : by spreading the tail and closing the ^^•ings, they cause the action of the air to predominate on the hind-part of the body, which directs the fore-part downwards, and leaves it entirely to the influence of gravitation. The tail may strengthen the action of the wing by mo^•ing towards the same side." To give some idea of the diu-ation and continuity of motion in birds, and likewise of the proportion of time and space which their courses occupy, their swiftness has been often compared with that of quadrupeds' in their greatest progressions, whether natural or forced. The stag, the rein-deer, and the elk can traverse forty leagues in a single day. The rein-deer, harnessed to a sledge, can mixke a journey of. thirty, and continue this during manv davs in succession. The camel can travel 300 leagues in eight days. Thg 20 THE FEATHEUF.D TltlKES. horse, trained for the race, nnd chosen from among the lightest and most ^-igorous, can perform a league in six or seven minutes ; but his sjoced soon relaxes, and he would be incapable of supporting a longer career, -with the spirit and celerity with which he set out. An Englishman went seventy-two leagues in eleven hours and thirty-two minutes, haA-ing changed horses one-and-twenty times ; thus the best horse can make no more than four leagues an hour, nor more than thirty leagues a day. But the swiftness of birds is considerably greater than that of such animals. In less than three minutes we lose sight of a largo bird ; of a kite for example, which proceeds horizontally, or an eagle, which flies vertically, and the diameter of whose extent on the •wing is more than four feet. From this we may infer, that the bird traverses more than a space of 4,500 feet in a minute, and that he can fly twenty leagues in an hour. He may then easily proceed at the rate of 200 leagues a day, continuing on the wing for only ten hours. This supposes many intervals in the day, and the entire night for repose. Swallows, and other birds of passage, may thus proceed from our climate to the Line in less than seven or eight days. M. Adanson has seen and caught swallows on the coast of Senegal, which arrived there eight or nine days after their departure from Europe. Pietro della Valle saj's, that in Persia, the carrier-pigeon makes greater way in one daj^ than a man on foot can in six. The story of the falcon of Henry II. is well kuo^vn, which, pursuing with eagerness a smaller bustard at Fontainbleau, was taken the follow- ing day at Malta, and recognised bj' the ring which she bore. A falcon from the Canary Islands, sent to the Duke of Lerma, returned from Andalusia to the Isle of Tcnerilie in sixteen hours, which is a passage of 250 leagues. It was stated by Sir Hans Sloane that, at Barbadoes, the sea-gulls proceed in flocks to a distance of more than 200 miles, and return again the same day. A coiu'se like this, of more than 130 leagues, suffi- ciently indicates the possibility of a voyage of 200 ; and it has been concluded, from the combination of such fiicts, that a bird of elevated flight can traverse every day four or five times as nmch space as the most agile quadruped. The constant habit of living in the air, imparts to birds a knowledge of all the meteoric changes which take place in the atmosphere, of winds, of seasons, and of bad weather. "The kite," says the prophet Jeremiah, " liiiows his time in the sky." The turtlo-dove, the stork, and the swallow, are equally acquainted with the period of their returns. All animated brings, indeed, not distracted by other cares, can presage the changes of temperature. This is even the case with man, and especially with those M'hose nerves, from nature or indisposition, have received any peculiar sensibility. It is well known to sailoi's that birds may be observed with advantage. For when the divers and tlie sea-gulls retire to tlie rocks on rapid wing, and make the shores re-echo with their clamours, as if to warn their companions; when water-fowl parade the strand with apparent anxiousness ; when the cranes, quitting their marshes, soar above the clouds, and the swallows fly in circles over the surface of the water ; the prudent navi- gator should lower his sails, and anticipate the impending storm. In like manner, black legions of ravens beat the air with their wings, and the rooks clamoiir in tlie fields at the ajjproacli of rain.