GREAT INTERNATIONAL FISHERIES EXHIBITION.
LONDON, 18858.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

D.
Division of Moll
CATALOGUE Sectional Library

OF THE

HOONOMIC MOLLUSCA

AND THE

APPARATUS AND APPLIANCES USED IN THEIR CAPTURE
AND PREPARATION FOR MARKET,

EXHIBITED BY THE

UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.

BY

Lieut. FRANCIS WINSLOW, U.S. Navy.

WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIOE.

1883.

ue GREAT INTERNATIONAL FISHERIES EXHIBITION,
Y LONDON, 1883.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

D.

CATALOG UE

OF THE

BOONOMIC MOLLUSCA

AND THE

APPARATUS AND APPLIANCES USED IN THEIR CAPTURE
AND PREPARATION FOR MARKET,

EXHIBITED BY THE

UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM.

Lieut. FRANCIS WINSLOW, U.S. Navy.

i APR 26 1968
LIBRARIES.
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,
1883.

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INTRODUCTION.

It is proposed to give, in the following pages, a brief account of the
economic mollusea of the United States, together with a description of
the manner of conducting the various fisheries and their dependent
industries. Minute detail of matter, whether of biological or economic
interest, is not attempted; the design is to supplement the molluscan
exhibit by an explanatory pamphlet, which will be illustrated by the ob-
jects exhibited. The information given is obtained chiefly from Profes-
sor Verrill’s papers on the Invertebrates of Vineyard Sound, published
in the Report of the United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries,
and from the advance sheets of the Reports of Mr. Ernest Ingersoll on
the Shell-Fish Industries of the United States, published by the Census
Bureau. Many other authorities, too numerous to mention, have also
been consulted.

The total annual product of the shell-fish industries of the United
States amounts to 24,859,044 bushels, valued at $14,629,187. This total
is divided among the various fisheries according to the following table:

Number
Name. hashols: Value.
OSLER RELIGIA BE Gee He ate SSet Se SSR ORAS ECU DSHS SO COOH SN o> SSee Se ICTeEcoHaeae 22, 195, 370 $13, 438, 852
Olamnfishe nye. ccees esis eeiec wise dees Be ase said eta ea eects a 1, 955, 580 996, 305
WITTSSGISUB DOE yee aeee rise ciec sie serianeeine oe nies nines miata oermaisinieeeie ete nats 600, 000 | 37, 500
SIDING) TSM Aya Gos sake noob a oueS cone GU RSE ROD cone COCUDLE DAS Bat aaen saacence 108, 094 | 28, 425
JN DTUGTHS UGTA nas oosmeonddsonSceed soaonstace onaseseeosonkoesa sss See Ee ome|shodatoonoqast 127, 705

While the oyster industry, on account of its importance, deserves the
most and first attention, yet, as the collection on exhibition is part of
that of the National Museum, it is deemed best to maintain the original
systematic arrangement, and therefore the most highly organized of the
the mollusea, the Cephalopods are first considered.

MOLLUSCA CEPHALOPODA.

The most recent authorities assign thirty species of cephalopods to
the fauna of the eastern coast of North America. While so numerously
represented, however, only a few of the species are found in sufficient
abundance to make them of commercial value. These comprise Ommas-
trephes illecebrosa, Loligo pealii, Loligo brevis, and the gigantic squids
(Architeuthis) of Newfoundland and adjacent coasts; of these, the most
abundant and widely distributed is

[3]

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [4]
Doligo pealii, Lesueur.

This is the common squid of the Atlantic coast of the United States;
it is found from South Carolina to Cape Ann, Massachusetts, but is
most abundant in Long Island and Vineyard Sounds. In depth it ranges
from low-water mark to 50 fathoms; it is one of the Decapods or ten-
armed class, of the Dibranchiata, or free-swimming cephalopods with
but two branchiz. As indicated by its classification, it has ten arms,
two of which are tentacular, club-shaped at the extremities, and longer
than the other eight. In the male the left ventral arm is modified to
subserve the peculiar reproductive process characteristic of the cephal-
opods, and under the head of the female is a horseshoe-shaped tubercle
for the same purpose. In this, as in other species, the integument
of the body is provided with numerous little sacs, containing pigment
granules of different colors, and called cromatophores; by contract-
ing and expanding these, the animal can change its color with great
rapidity. Professor Verrill describes a male specimen of Loligo pealit
as having the upper surface of body, head, and caudal fin covered with
‘ather large, circular cromatophores, but towards the margin of the fin
and on the head the spots are smaller and less numerous, and the bluish-
white body color more perceptible. Over most of the dorsal surface the
cromatophores are arranged in circular groups, the center being a large,
round spot of dark purple; this is surrounded by a circle of ground color,
a circle of cromatophores of lake-red and pink, and a deeper lying circle
of pale canary-yellow ones. When expanded the cromatophores are
light to dark red, varying to purplish-red and pink; when contracted
they become small points of brownish-purple. On the lower side the
cromatophores are thinly scattered, and the dominant color is the blue-
white of the body. The general appearance of the animal is reddish-
brown. The arms are marked similarly to the lower part of the body;
the eye is covered with a transparent membrane, aud the pupils are
brown or deep bluish-black. The body is somewhat elongated in form,
and the caudal fin is long-rhomboidal, the outer angles obtusely rounded,
and, in large specimens, its length is about two-thirds that of the body;
when full grown the animal is from 6 inches to 1 foot long. The sexes
are separated and reproduction is accomplished by means of the hecto-
cotylized arm and horseshoe-shaped sucker. The spawning season lasts
throughout the sammer, but most of the eggs are laid in June and July.
They are contained in long, gelatinous capsules, which are attached in
clusters, often 6 and 8 inches in diameter, to seaweed, stones, and shells,
or other common support. Tach capsule is from 2 to 5 inches long, and
contains from 20 to 200 eggs. Like the other species, this is nocturnal
and gregarious in its habits. The schools are usally composed of indi-
viduals of the same size and age; when this is not the case the larger
and older squids have been observed actively engaged in destroying
and devouring their smaller companions. ‘They also prey upon many

[5] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

of the smaller fishes and crustaceans, and in turn are sought and eaten
by the blue-fish, tautog, sea bass, striped bass, king-fish, and many other
large market fishes, of whose food supply this squid forms an important
item. It is also secured, when possible, by the fishermen along the
coast and used for bait; but in this particular it is not so important as
Ommastrephes illecebrosa ; its range, not much north of Cape Cod, being
more remote from the scene of the cod-fisheries. There are two varie-
ties of the Loligo pealii; viz., borealis and pallida. In the former the
only difference of much importance is the relatively smaller suckers.
In the latter (var. pallida), the distinguishing characteristics are a shorter
and stouter body, broader and larger caudal fin, and larger size of suck-
ers. It feeds, probably, upon the menhaden principally, and is, when
adult, like Loligo pealii, food for large fishes, and when young is like-
wise devoured by numerous animals. The typical variety, Loligo pealit,
is the only one exhibited.

Ommastrephes illecebrosa, Verrill.

This is the most common squid north of Cape Cod. It is abundant
in Massachusetts Bay, the Bay of Fundy, and northward to Newfound-
land. Itis also found along the coast as far to the southward and west-
ward as Newport, and in deep water as far south as Cape Hatteras. Its
range in depth is probably as great if not greater than that of Loligo
pealit it having been taken in 372 fathoms. It is known as the “short-
finned squid,” the “sea arrow” and the “ flying calamary ” and, like the
Loligo pealii, is one of the Decapods of the class Dibranchiata. The ex-
treme length of the adults, from tail to tip of teutacular arms, is from 12
to 17 inches, and the length of the body from 7 to 10 inches. The body
measures from 4 to 64 inches in circumference. The caudal fin is trans-
versely rhomboidal, or broad. spear-shaped and is one-third wider than
long. The anterior margins are convexly rounded, and the fin is gener-
ally shorter and broader than in Loligo. The general appearance is long
and slender. In the male, either the right or left ventral arm is modified,
or heetocotylized, for purposes of reproduction. The ground color is of
bluish-white, with green, blue and yellow irridescence on the sides and
lower surface. The whole body, head, outer surface of arms and fins are
more or less covered with small, unequal, circular, orange-brown and
dark-brown spots, which are continually contracting and expanding,
the contraction darkening and the expansion lightening the colors. On
the lower surfaces the spots, or cromatophores, are less crowded than on
the upper surfaces, where they are frequently in different and partially
overlaying planes. The suckers on the arms are pure white. The eyes
are dark, blue-black, and are provided with lids. The changing tints are
described by Professor Verrill as passing over the bo‘ly like a series of
blushes. They usually appear in the water of a reddish-brown color or
a pale, translucent bluish-white.

The reproductive process of this species has not yet been studied, nor

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [6]

as yet have we any definite information regarding the time, place, or
manner of spawning. It is probable that they spawn in the open sea
and that the eggs will be found floating at the surface. Neither has
any information as to the length of time required to reach maturity been
obtained, but it probably lives several years. This squid is an exceed-
ingly active creature, moving in any direction, with great velocity, by
means of the reaction of the ejected jet of water from the siphon or fun-
nel. When darting rapidly, the lobes of the caudal fin are wrapped
about the body and the arms are held closely, in an acute bundle, in
front, the animal thus being sharp at both ends and passing through
the water with the least resistance. They are predatory, gregarious, and
nocturnal in habits, swimming mainly at night, in schools, and attack-
ing and devouring small fishes and crustraceans, especially shrimp, her-
ring, and young mackerel. They change their color and appear trans-
lucent and pale when in pursuit of prey; and when that pursuit is so
active that the young fish disappear, the squid will sink to the bottom,
assume the color of the sand, and thus ambusecaded will await the re-
turn of its victim. They frequently, in their search for food, ground on
the flats, and, as they pump out water from the funnel with great force
under such circumstances, thus throwing themselves higher on the beach
or shoal, they perish in great numbers. At such times they also dis-
charge their ink in great quantities. This squid, like Loligo pealii, is
eagerly-pursued by the cod and other voracious fishes, and while young
an especial enemy is the full-grown mackerel. Also like the Loligo, it
devours its own young.

The Ommastrephes is a very important item in the bait supply of the
codfishery, fully half the bank fishermen using squids or cuttles as
bait. Mr. Ingersoll states over 500 sail are engaged in capturing them
for that purpose. They are taken, generally accidentally, in the pounds
and wiers, and more frequently by seeking them on flats and beaches
where they have been left stranded by gales or receding tides. They
are also captured by using *‘jigs” or groups of hooks which are moved
up and down in the water and to which the squids cling. Their noec-
turnal habits and tendency to gaze at a bright light are also taken
advantage of, and the fishermen go out on dark nights with torches
in their boats, and, as the squids swim backward, they are gradually
driven ashore. On account of its availability for bait for the cod-fisher-
ies, its abundance and the proximity of its range to the fishing banks,
this is the most valuable of the Cephalopods of the American coast.

Loligo brevis, Blainville.

This is the common squid or calamary of the southern coast of the
United States. It ranges northward to Delaware Bay, is common from
South Carolina to Florida and is found also along the Gulf coast. It
is a smaller, shorter-bodied species than Loligo pealii, has short rounded
caudal fins, very short upper arms, and large chromatophoric spots.

[7] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

The body is short, thick, well rounded, and rather blunt posteriorly.
The fins are broad and short, with posterior end very obtuse. The arms
are all short, the two upper pairs being much shorter than the two
lower. The tentacular arms have the “club” well developed. In the
female there is no tubercle on the buccal membrane for attachment of
spermatophores. The male has not been described, and consequently
nothing is known of the methods, periods, or times of spawning. The
adults are about 6 inches in total length, and sometimes larger. The
chromatophores are large, of a dark purple color, and are regularly
scattered on a pale ground-color. Above the eyes they are so closely
crowded as to form dark blotches. The under side of the caudal fin is
white. Though extensively distributed, this species is not very abund-
ant, nor of much importance economically. It is used as bait, and is
also sold as food in New Orleans markets.

Architeuthis.
GIANT SQUIDS.

These Squids frequent the waters of Newfoundland and the New-
foundland Banks, but apparently do not exist in great numbers, as
Professor Verrill in his paper on the ‘‘Cephalopods of the Northeastern
coast of America” mentions but twenty-six specimens of which he could
obtain any definite knowledge. It is not unusual for them to be cast
up on the Newfoundland beaches after gales, and occasionally they are
found dead or dying on the surface of the water in the neighborhood of
the Banks. Verrill expresses the opinion that they inhabit the colder
fidrds of Newfoundland, and are rarely seen at the surface unless dis-
abled or incapacitated by disease from pursuing their customary life.
So few specimens have been obtained for study and so seldom have
these gigantic Squids been observed, that very little is known of their
anatomy, or biography and still less of their sexual characteristics. All
that is certain is that in many points they resemble the smaller species ;
that they swim by means of the jet of water from the funnel; that they
have the ability to discharge large quantities of “sepia” or “ink,” and
that they are probably carnivorous. Whenever found they are used for
bait, for dog-food and as manure.

The model exhibited is of a specimen of Architeuthis princeps, Verrill,
cast ashore on the coast of Newfoundland in 1877. It is not the
largest specimen that has been seen, but was the one most perfectly
preserved when it reached the hands of scientific observers.

Octopus punctatus, Gabb.

OcTOPUS, or DEVIL FISH.

This species exists on the northwest coast of the United States, and
attains a large size, being probably the largest species of Octopus in

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [8]

existence. Very little is known of it, though as a bait it is of consid-
erable importance in the cod-fishery at the Shumagin Islands. The
flesh is also eaten by the Indians.

In addition to this species there are several species of squids on the
west coast that are occasionally eaten by the Chinese, especially one
allied to Ommastrephes. The flesh is dried and exported to China, but
the industry is not of sufficient importance to justify particular mention.

Mollusca encephaia.
GASTEROPODA.

Like the Cephalopoda, the Gasteropoda of the American coast, while
very numerously represented, are not of much importance economically.
The abundance of more palatable, bivalve shell-fish, such as the oysters
and clams, has prevented the univalves, even when edible, from receiving
much attention. Doubtless many species, especially those of large size,
like the Fulgur carica and Buecinum undatum, have been eaten in the past
by the Indians and, indeed, the shell-heaps along the coast contain
evidence of such having been the case; but in recent times the appro-
priation of this class of mollusks to the uses of man, with the exception
of the genus Haliotis, has been so slight that it is impossible to obtain
any statistics bearing upon the subject. A number of the Gasteropods
have been catalogued as used for food or bait; but, with the excep-
tion above noted, they form a possible rather than.a real food supply.
Even their consumption as bait is inconsiderable, and nowhere is their
pursuit reduced to any systematic or organized method. As, however,
many of the Gasteropods are carnivorous and predatory, doing, at times,
much damage to oyster beds and destroying numbers of other valuable
mollusks, they become of consequence in any consideration of shell-fish-
eries and in their destructive relation they will be noticed im detail.

Buccinum undatum, Linné.

This animal is known, generally, as one of the “sea-snails,” and
sometimes as the “ whelk.” It has not a very wide distribution on the
American coast, being uncommon south of Cape Cod, except in deep
water. It is common in Massachusetts Bay and abundant further
north, to the coast of Greenland. As a fossil it iscommon in the Post-
Pliocene deposits of Maine, Canada, and Labrador. Though the ordi-
nary American specimens, from shallow water, differ considerably from
the European types, yet, as it is not difficult to form connecting series,
and as the deep-water specimens differ very little from the European
form, Professor Verrill decides that the two species are identical. This
Gasteropod is available for food; but, though probably eaten by the
Indians, is not at present sought, except occasionally as bait. It
usually inhabits rocky bottoms, but is occasionally found elsewhere.

[9] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES,
Littorina littorea (Linné), Menké.
PENNYWINKLE.

This species is not an indigenous one, having been introduced from
Europe, probably with ballast, during the last fifteen or twenty years.
It first appeared on the coast of Maine in 1868, and since then has
spread gradually to more southern waters. In 1872 it was seen in the
vicinity of Provincetown, Mass. In 1875 it was seen at Wood’s Holl,
but was abundant at Provincetown; and in 1880 had become abundant
at Wood’s Holl. It is now found as far west as Stonington, Conn.
Though not used as food it is available for that purpose.

Ilyanassa obsoleta, Stimpson.

This small univalve has no distinctive common name, and goes by
the general term of “sea-snail.” It is found on the entire eastern and
southern coasts of the United States, though not abundant south of
Cape Cod, and is local in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It is found
fossil in the Post-Pliocene of Massachusetts, Nantucket Island, Vir-
ginia, and South Carolina. The Ilyanassa obsoleta is, probably, the
most abundant Gasteropod of the American coast. While it is naturally
an inhabitant of muddy bottoms and flats, yet it lives and flourishes on
sandy shores, among eel-grass, and on the piles and timbers of wharves
equally well. It is found alike, far up estuaries and on the open coast
and its crooked trail and burrows can be observed on every beach and
shore. As the tide leaves the mud flats the animals are seen in im-
mense numbers, especially in and about the pools. They perform the
useful duty of scavengers, and are also sought and used for bait; but
are not considered edible.

-HALIOTIDA.
Genus EXaliotis.—EAR-SHELLS, SEA-EARS, OR ABALONES.

There are four species of Haliotis that are of commercial importance:
The “ White Sea-Ear,” or Haliotis cracherodii; the ‘Splendid Sea-Ear,”
or Haliotis splendens; the “Rough Sea-Ear,” or Haliotis corrugata; and
the “Red Sea-Ear,” or Haliotis rufescens. One other species, Haliotis
kamchatkana, is found on the coast of Alaska, but is rare. These Gas-
teropods are distributed along the whole North Pacific coast from San
Francisco to the southward, including the peninsula of Lower California,
though they decrease in abundance in the region of Cape Saint Lucas.
They are also found in the Gulf of California, and along the Mexican
coast. The “ White Sea-Ear” (Haliotis cracherodii) is the most abundant,
and is the one generally known in commerce. The “Splendid” and
“Rough” species (Haliotis splendens and Haliotis corrugata) are most
abundant in the neighborhood of San Diego. The shell of Haliotis

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [10]

rufescens was the one principally used by the Indians in making their
shell money, but is now rare and is usually found to the northward
of San Diego. All the species are known on the coast as ‘‘Abalones,”
a name originated by the Spanish-Americans.

The Abalones dwell upon weed-grown rocks, and feed upon marine
alge. They have a broad, flat, muscular foot, adapted rather for hold-
ing than for locomotion, by which they cling to the rocks with great
tenacity. Through the small, circular holes, near the margin of the
shell, the animal, when clinging to its support, receives its supply of
oxygen and, by means of the small tentacles which protrude through
them, is warned of the approach of danger. No species of the genus
Haliotis are found on the eastern coast of the United States, but on the
western coast the trade in both shells and flesh is of considerable value.

The fishery is carried on mainly by the Chinese inhabitants, who
preserve and eat the flesh, which is said to be nutritious but indigest-
ible. The method of preserving is the simple one of drying and salt-
ing, after which the major portion of the crop is exported to China. It
is estimated that about six tons of living animals must be gathered to
obtain one ton of flesh, and as there were some 388 tons of meats gath- ,
ered in 1879-80, that amount indicates that nearly 2,400 tons of living
Abalones were taken during the season. The fishery has of late years
become so severe that the coast of California has been swept and the
fishermen are compelled to resort to the islands lying off the peninsula.
The usual method is for Amer‘cans to supply the necessary capital and
transportation to the islands and the Chinese fishermen to do the work,
the former taking the shells and the latter the flesh obtained from the
season’s fishery. The tenacity with which the animal clings to the rocks
by means of its muscular foot is so great that it is not always easy to
remove it. Several methods are used ; a trowel or spade is employed,
usually, to slip under the animal and so dislodge it; and another method,
not so generally used, is to pour hot water over them and then push
them suddenly adrift with the foot.

The fishery is, however, not very laborious and in no way hazardous.
The animals live but a little below low-water mark, and the islands
and coasts on which they are at present found are remarkable for
equability of climate. The growing scarcity of the animals alone pre-
vents the fishery from assuming greater importance. The shells are
exported in large numbers to Europe, and are there used in various
ways. A smaller number are retained and used in ornamental manu-
factures in this country.

The value of the fishery for the year 1879 was:

Value.
Meats, 777,600 pounds.--. 22. --.0..2., Bio eee ee eee $38, 800
Shells, 3,833,500 pounds...... Bona God UE Se cis ivravayeioratete on 88, 825

Wo talents. arotarneas du eee cad dela hae eee 127, 625

[11] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.
Fulgur cariea, Conrad.

This species is found along the eastern coast of the United States
from Florida to Cape Cod. It is abundant in Vineyard and Long
Island Sounds, in from 1 to 10 fathoms. It occurs in the Miocene for-
mation of Maryland, and in the Post-Pliocene of Virginia, North and
South Carolina, and Florida,

Sycotypus canaliculatus, Gill.

This is found on the eastern coast of the United States from Florida
to Cape Cod, also on the west coast of Florida and the northern shores
of the Gulf of Mexico. It is abundant in Vineyard and Long Island
Sounds, in from 1 to 8 fathoms of water. It occurs in the Post-Pliocene
of Virginia, North and South Carolina and Northern Florida, and in the
Miocene of Maryland and Virginia.

As these species generally exist in company, and in habits have a close
relationship, they are considered together, though the former is found
in greater abundance in more southern waters than the latter, and has
structural and other distinguishing peculiarities. Both species are oc-
easionally found on sandy flats and in tide pools, especially during the
spawning season, but they generally live in deeper water and off shore.
They are found, also, on rocky shores but usually are met with on
gravelly and shelly bottoms, where they find a larger amount of suste-
nance. These large shells are readily recognized by the fishermen and
inhabitants of the coast, who have assigned them various designations.
On the borders of Long Island Sound and Long Island they are called
indiscriminately *“‘ Periwinkles”; while on the coast of New Jersey this
is abbreviated to “ Winkle,” or corrupted into “ Wrinkle.” The Sycoty-
pus canaliculatus is also called the “ Hairy Whelk,” a designation due to
its hairy epidermis. This species varies in color very much, and may be
found of a light orange or livid brown. The Fulgur carica also varies
with advancing age or with the climate.

The eggs of both species are deposited in capsules, which are strung
together in strings frequently a foot or more in length. Hach capsule con-
tains some twenty or more eggs, and from fifty to one hundred capsules
are found in a string. There are marked differences in the character of
the capsules of each species by which they may be distinguished; that
of F. carica being smaller, thicker, and having truncate edges; while S.
canaliculatus has larger, thinner capsules, with a thin, sharp, outer edge
and radiating ribs on the sides; but both are peculiar and will be
readily recognized after inspection of the specimens exhibited. As
both the Fulgur and Sycotypus are predatory and carnivorous, destroying
by means of the teeth on the lingual ribbon any unfortunate bivalve they
may meet; as they are especially enemies of the oyster and clam; and as
they are in the present day of little or no use to man, both they and their
curious egg-cases had best be destroyed whenever met.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [12]
Urosalping cinerea, Stimpson.

This is the “ Drill” or “ Rough Whelk,” and is abundant along the
whole eastern coasts of the United States from Massachusetts Bay to
Florida. It is also found on the west coast of Florida and in the Gulf
of Mexico. It is more rare and local north of Massachusetts Bay, but
extends to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It occurs in the Post-Pliocene
deposits of Massachusetts, Nantucket, Virginia, North and South Caro-
lina, in the Pliocene of South Carolina, and Miocene of Maryland.

Purpura lapillus, Lamarck.

The shell of this animal resembles somewhat that of the preceding
species, and the animal itself has similar carnivorous habits, but is a
more arctic type, living in the colder waters north of Cape Cod and in-
habiting exposed rocky headlands, while the U. cinerea is found at all
points. The Purpura lapillus is extremely abundant on the coasts of
Maine and Nova Scotia, and extends to Long Island Sound. It has
been found in the Post Pliocene of Maine, but is not a common fossil.

The Urosalpiny cinerea is more abundant in brackish water and on
shelly bottoms than elsewhere, but is found indiscriminately wherever
there is suitable food. The Purpura lapillus, though like the “ Drill,”
a borer, confines itself to the barnacles growing on the rocks; but the
Urosalpinx is much more harmful and is an inveterate enemy of the oys-
ter, boring, by means of the sharp, flinty teeth that cover its tongue,
round holes through the oyster-shell and sucking out the contents. It
is particularly destructive to young oysters in Chesapeake Bay, and a
shell has been observed having fifty-four young attached to it, of which
fifty had been destroyed by the “ Drill.” On some of the beds fully 50
per cent. of the young perish from this cause. It is probable that the
Purpura ta pillus only lacks opportunity to effect similar results, and both
the animals and their curious vase-shaped egg-capsules, attached to
stones and rocks by a short stalk, should be destroyed whenever met.

Lunatia heros, Adams.

Is found from Georgia to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It is abund-
ant on the coast of New Jersey and southern coast of Long Island from
low water to10 fathoms. Occurs in the Miocene formation of Maryland,
Virginia, and South Carolina, in the Pliocene of South Carolina, and in
the Post Pliocene of Canada and South Carolina.

Neverita duplicata, Stimpson.

Exists on the eastern coast of the United States from Florida to Mas-
sachusetts Bay, and on the northern and western shores of the Gulf of
Mexico. It is abundant from Long Island Sound southward, and is
found as a fossil in the Miocene and Post Pliocene deposits of Virginia,
North and South Carolina, in the Miocene of Maryland, and in the Plio-

[13] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

cene of South Carolina. Like the F&. carica and S. canaliculatus, Lunatia
heros and Neverita duplicata are generally found in company; having
the same habits and appearance, to the casual observer, they are fre-
quently confounded one with the other, and are usually known to the
fishermen and long-shoremen as ‘‘Sea-Snails,” and sometimes as “ Wipnk-
les” or * Periwinkles.” On acvount of their similarity in distribution
and close relationship in habits, they are considered together.

The Lunatia heros is found on, nearly all sandy shores, in pure water,
and apparently prefers the open coast and heavy surf, growing under
those conditions to a larger size than elsewhere. It is by no means
as large as the Fulgur or Sycotypus, but has been known to reach
five inches in length by nearly four in breadth. When in motion the foot
and soft parts of the body are protruded to a remarkable extent, and
spread out so broadly as to almost conceal the shell. The foot is large,
concave below when expanded, and when extended beneath the sand
affords the animal a secure anchor or hold; it is the organ by which
the animal burrows for protection or prey. Both the Lunatia heros and
the Neverita duplicata are destructive, boring round holes through bi-
valve shells by means of small teeth on the lingual ribbon, and then
sucking out the contents of the shells. Nor do they confine their oper-
ations to the bivalves, but attack univalves, not excepting their own
young, as well. Neverita duplicata differs from its usual associate in
being found less frequently on the outer beaches and growing more
abundantly, though not to so large a size, elsewhere. It is a more
southern species than the Lunatia heros, and is not common north of
Cape Cod. The egg cases of both species are often met on mud and
sand flats at low water, and are very curious. They consist of a broad,
thin ribbon of sand, coiled in a circle. The ribbon is composed of in-
numerable little cells, each containing eggs, and surrounded by fine
sand cemented together by mucus. The cells can easily be seen by
holding the ribbon to the light, and for the same reason given for de-
stroying the egg-capsules of the Fulgur and Sycotypus, these egg-cases
should meet a similar fate when encountered.

While both L. heros and N. duplicata are found on sandy and gravelly
shores, their natural ground, where they exist in greatest abundance, is
the shelly bottoms of oyster beds and similar areas.

Crepidula plana, Say.
Crepidula fornicata, Lamarck.

These two species are neither directly useful nor harmful, but when
present in large numbers they form one of the indications of the health
of an oyster-bed and are therefore exhibited. The former is known as
the “‘ Slipper-Shell” and the latter as the “ Boat-Shell.” Both are found
from Massachusetts to Florida, and on the northern shores of the Gulf
of Mexico.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [14]
Ostrea virginica, Gmelin.

This, the most important mollusk of American waters, is known also
as Ostrea virginiana, Lister, Ostrea borealis, Lamarck, and Ostrea canaden-
sis, Bruguiére. It is the common American oyster, and the many various
forms of shell met along the coast are due to local and peculiar condi-
tions, and are by no means constant either in the locality or shell itself;
nor is there any structural difference in shell or body in any of the va-
rieties which have received specific names. This is shown by the series
illustrating the variations of Ostrea borealis and Ostrea virginica. The
specimens in this series are from all parts of the coast, and in some of
them the change from one form to the other and back is very marked.
The series of specimens illustrating the peculiarities of the different
species, Ostrea virginica, O. borealis, O. lurida, and O. edulis, will afford
the observer a means of comparing the dissimilarities which exist
between well-defined species, such as the virginica, lurida, and edulis,
with those existing between O. virginica and O. borealis, which are only
nominal varieties.

Oysters are found along the entire east and west coasts of the United
States with the exception of the lower part of the peninsula of Florida
and the coast of Maine. Their absence from the southern waters of
Florida is due probably to the absence of fresh-water streams; and
their disappearance trom the coast of Maine, where the shell-heaps tes-
tify to their existence in large numbers in the past, is the result of cli-
matic changes, coupled, most likely, with the inordinate fishery of the
aborigines. The shells are found, fossil, in the Post-Pliocene deposits
of Massachusetts, Nantucket, and Gardiner’s Island, in the Pliocene of
South Carolina, and in the Miocene of Virginia and South Carolina.
The distribution of this species will be best understood and appreciated
by viewing the charts, showing the areas and positions of the beds.
The most noticeable feature about them is the contrast between the cul-
tivated areas of the Northern and Southern States.

BIOLOGY.

It was long supposed that the American oyster resembled the Euro-
pean species (Ostrea edulis and other varieties) in its method of repro-
duction and sexual characters; and on that account no attempts were
made to adapt to the oyster the methods of artificial impregnation.
In 1879, however, Dr. W. K. Brooks made the initial experiments and
proved the possibility of impregnating the eggs and maintaining the
embryos alive for some time, without the aid of the parents. The ex-
periments were so interesting and important, that Dr. Brooks’ descrip-
tion of the manner of conducting them is here reproduced:

‘““BREEDING HABITS OF THE AMERICAN OYSTER.

“Our knowledge of the development of the oyster is derived from the
fragmentary observations of various German, French, English, and Rus-

[15] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES,

sian embryologists, whose work will be noticed at length farther on.
While the subject has received the attention of a number of observers,
no one has been able to get anything like a complete series of the early
stages of development, and I approached my work without hope of ac-
complishing much of purely scientific value, although I did expect to
obtain some information as to the time and conditions of spawning, and
‘other questions of economic interest. My uncertainty of success was
increased by the total failure of an attempt which I had made the sum-
mer before.

“All the published papers upon the subject state that the eggs are
fertilized inside the body of the parent, and that the young are carried
inside the parent shell until they are quite well advanced in develop-
ment, and provided with shells of their own; that they swim about after
they are discharged from the parent until they find a place to attach
themselves, but that they undergo no change of structure between the
time when they leave the parent and the time when they become fixed.
Misled by these statements, which are not true with our species, I
opened numbers of oysters during the summer of 1878, and carefully
examined the contents of the gills and mantle chambers, but found no
young oysters. IJ concluded that the time during which the young are
carried by the parent must be so short that I had missed it, and I en-
tered upon the work this season with the determination to examine
adult oysters every day through the breeding season in search of young,
and at the same time try to raise the young for wyself by artificially fer-
tilizing the eggs after I had removed them from the body of the parent.

‘“T met with complete success withthe second method from the begin-
ing, and succeeded in raising countless millions of young oysters, and
in tracing them through all their stages of developmeut until they had
acquired all the characteristics which the European embryologists have
described and figured in the young of the European oyster at the time
it leaves its parent to become fixed for life.

‘‘T reached Crisfield on the 19th of May, and established myself about
three miles from the town and about half a mile from Pokamoke Sound,
and on Monday, the 21st, I opened a dozen fresh oysters, and found
three females with their ovaries filled with ripe ova, and one male with
ripe spermatozoa.

‘““T mixed the contents of the reproductive organs of these four oys-
ters, and within two hours after the commencement of my first experi-
ment, I learned by the microscope that the attempt at artificial fertili-
zation was successful, and that nearly all of my eggs had started. on
their long path towards the adult form.

‘“T made careful microscopic examination of the gills and mantles of
all these oysters, but neither at this time nor afterwards did I find any
fertilized eggs or young inside the parent shell, although I examined
more than a thousand adults during the season. During the summer
I found females with the ovaries so distended with ripe eggs that they

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [16]

were oozing from the openings of the oviducts; others where the ovaries
were half emptied, and others which had discharged almost all their
eggs, and others at all the intermediate stages, but in no case did I find
a single developing egg inside the shell of the parent.

“ARTIFICIAL IMPREGNATION OF THE OYSTER EGGS.

“Tf a number of oysters are opened during the breeding season, a
few will be found with the reproductive organ greatly distended and of
an uniform pure opaque white color. These are oysters which are
spawning or nearly ready to spawn.

“Tf the point of a knife be pushed into the reproductive organ a milk-
like fluid will ooze out of the cut, and a little of it may be taken up on
a knife blade and transferred to a glass slide for examination. The drop
of fluid should be thoroughly mixed with a drop of sea water and placed
on the slide, and gently covered with a cover-glass, and examined with
a magnifying power of about one hundred diameters. If the specimen
is a female, this power will show that the white fluid is almost entirely
made up of irregular pear-shaped ovarian eggs (Fig. 49), each of which
contains a large circular transparent germinative vesicle surrounded
by a layer of granular slightly opaque yolk. It is almost impossible
to describe the slight differences which distinguish the perfectly ripe
egg from those which are nearly ripe but not capable of fertilization,
although a very little experience will enable one to tell whether it is
worth while to attempt the fertilization of the eggs of any given female.

‘When the drop of fluid is thoroughly mixed with the sea water,
the eggs should appear clean, sharply defined, separate from each other,
and pretty uniformly distributed through the drop, as shown in the
figure. If they adhere to each other, or if their outlines are indistinct,
or if their is much finer granular matter scattered between the eggs, it
is probable that the attempt at artificial fertilization will at best be
only partially successful.

‘‘When a perfectly ripe female is found, it should be set aside and
the search continued for a male. The question of the sex of the oyster
has long been a matter of dispute, and the subject will be fully dis-
cussed in another place. All that concerns us now is to know that for
all practical purposes the sexes are separate in the European as well
as the American oyster. At the breeding season each individual is
either exclusively a male or exclusively a female. Out of several thou-
sand which I examined, I have not found one which contained both eggs
and male cells, and all the best authorities upon the European oyster
make the same statement, although there is some reason for the belief
that an oyster may give rise to eggs one season and to male cells another
year. When a drop of the milky fluid from a ripe male is mixed with
a little sea water and examined with a magnifying power of one hun-
dred diameters, it is seen at a glance to be quite different from the fluid
of afemale. There are no large bodies like the eggs, but the fluid is

=

[17] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

filled with innumerable numbers of minute granules (Fig. 48), which
are so small that they are barely visible when magnified one hundred
diameters. They are not uniformly distributed, but are much more
numerous at some points than at others, and for this reason the fluid
has a cloudy or curdled appearance. By selecting a place where the
granules are few and pretty well scattered, very careful watching will
show that each of them has a lively dancing motion, and examination
with a power of five hundred diameters will show that each of them is
tadpole shaped (Fig. 50), and consists of a small, oval, sharply de-
fined ‘head’ and a long, delicate ‘tail,’ by the lashing of which the
dancing is produced.

“Tt is more difficult to decide whether the male cells are perfectly
ripe than it is to decide in the case of the eggs. With a magnifying
power of five hundred diameters, each ‘head’ should have a clear, well-
inarked outline, ane they should be very uniform in size, and separated
from each other, as in Fig. 50. Under very favorable circumstances
this power should also show the ‘tails’ as very faint undulating lines.

‘Tf the ‘heads’ vary much in size, or if they are aggregated into
bunches, with the ‘tails’ radiating from the bunches in all directions,
or if there is much granular matter so small that the outlines of the
particles are not visible when magnified five hundred diameters, the
fluid is not perfectly ripe, and fertilization with it will not in all proba-
bility be very successful.

“NUMBER OF EGGS.

“As the male cells are infinitely more numerous than the eggs, the
cipe fluid from even one small male is enough to fertilize all the eggs
of five or six large females.

‘The number of male cells which a single male will yield is great
beyond all power of expression, but the number of eggs which an aver-
age female will furnish may be estimated with sufficient exactness. A
single ripe egg measures about one five-hundredth of an inch in diam-
eter, or five hundred laid in a row, touching each other, would make
one inch; and a square inch would contain five hundred such rows, or
500 x 500=250,000 eggs. Nearly all the eggs of a perfectly ripe female
may be washed out of the ovary into a beaker of sea water, and as they
are heavier than the sea water, they soon sink to the bottom, and the
eggs of a medium sized female will cover the bottom of a beaker two
inches in diameter with a layer of eggs one-twentieth of an inch deep.
The area of the bottom of a beaker two inches in diameter is a little more
than three square inches, and a layer of eggs one-twentieth of an inch
deep, covering three square inches, is equal to one three-twentieths of
an inch deep and two square, and as a single layer of eggs is one five-
hundredth of an inch thick, a layer three-twentieths of an inch thick
will contain seventy-five layers of eggs, with 250,000 eggs in each layer,
or 18,750,000 eggs. It is difficult to get the eggs, perfectly pure, and if

228A. 2

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [18]

we allow one-half for foreign matter and errors of measurement, and
for imperfect contact between the eggs, we shall have more than nine
millions as the number of eggs laid by an oyster of average size, a num-
ber which is probably less than the true number.

‘¢ Mébius estimates the number of eggs laid by an average European
oyster at 1,012,925, or only one-ninth the number laid by an ordinary
American oyster, but the American oyster is very much larger than the
European, while its eggs are less than one-third as large, so the want
of agreement between these estimates does not indicate that either of
them is incorrect.* Another estimate of the number of eggs laid by
the European oyster is given by Eyton (History of the Oyster and
Oyster Fisheries, by T. C. Eyton. London, 1858). He says, p. 24, that
there are about 1,800,000, and therefore agrees pretty closely with
Mobius.

“An unusually large American oyster will yield nearly a cubie inch
of eggs, and if these were all in absolute contact with each other, and
there were no portions of the ovaries or other organs mixed with them,
the cubic inch would contain 500%, or 125,000,000. Dividing this, as
before, by two, to allow for foreign matter, interspaces, and errors of
measurement, we have about 60,000,000 as the possible number of eggs
trom a single oyster.

‘¢ Although each male contains enough fluid to fertilize the eggs of
several females, there does not seem to be much difference in the num-
ber of individuals of the two sexes. When a dozen oysters are opened
and examined there may be five or six ripe females and no males, but
in another case a dozen oysters may furnish several ripe males but no
females, and in the long run the sexes seem to be about equally numer-
ous. Oystermen believe that the male may be distinguished from the
female by certain characteristics, such as the presence of black pigment
in the mantle, but microscopic examination shows that these marks
have no such meaning, and that there are no differences between the
sexes except the microscopic ones. It is not necessary to use the micro-
scope in every case, however, for a little experience will enable a sharp
observer to recognize a ripe female without the microscope. If a little
of the milky fluid from the ovary of a female with ripe or nearly ripe
eggs, to be taken upon the point of a clean, bright knife-blade, and
allowed to flow over it in a thin film, a sharp eye can barely detect the
eggs as white dots, while the male fluid appears perfectly homogeneous
under the same circumstances, as do the contents of the ovary of an
immature female, or one which has finished spawning. When the eggs
are mixed with a drop of water, they can be diffused through it without
difficulty, while the male fluid is more adhesive and difficult to mix

* Mobius’ measurement, from 15 to 18 millimeters, is given (Austern und Austern-
wirtschaft, 1877), as the diameter, not of the egg, but of the embryo, but his figures
show that the European oyster, like the American, does not grow much during the

early stages of development, but remains of about the same size as the egg.”

[19] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

with the water. By these indications, I was able in nearly every case
to judge of the sex of the oyster before I had made use of the micro-
scope.

‘In order to fertilize the eggs, all that is necessary is the mixture of
the ripe eggs with a little of the ripe male fluid in a drop of water. If
the point of a knife-blade be dipped in the fluid from a female and
touched to a glass slide, and then dipped into the fluid of a male, and
touched to the same part of the slide, and a drop of sea water be added,
to cause the two to meet, most of the eggs will be fertilized, and their
early stages of development can be studied in a single drop of water,
but to secure the fertilization and healthy development of large num-
bers of eggs, several precautions are necessary, as well as a few instru-
ments and pieces of apparatus.

‘“The following is a list of the things needed for procuring, fertiliz-
ing, and hatching the eggs: A pair of sharp-pointed scissors; a pair of
small forceps; half a dozen watch crystals; a set of about half a dozen
glass beakers, or tumblers, of different sizes, from half a pint up to
half a gallon; two or three dipping tubes, or glass tubes six or eight
inches long, open at both ends, but with one end drawn out to a fine
point; a small glass or rubber siphon for drawing the water out of the
beakers. For tracing the development of the eggs, a microscope, mag-
nifying at least one hundred diameters, and half a dozen glass slides
and thin glass covers are wanted.

“After the oysters have been opened, and of least one ripe male and
one ripe female found, cut off the mantle lobes and gills of the male
with the scissors, close to the visceral mass, and tear them out with the
forceps and throw them away. Cut around the adductor muscle with
the scissors, so that the visceral mass may be lifted out of the shell and
transferred to a small saucer or to a watch crystal. Holding the vis-
ceral mass with the forceps, cut out with the scissors as much as pos-
sible of the digestive organs and liver and throw them away, and then
chop up the reproductive organs with the scissors, picking out and
throwing away any fragments of the liver, digestive organs, mantle or
gills which may present themselves. In order to have the young oyster
thrive, the water must be kept free from fragments of the various organs
of the adult, as these would soon decay and destroy the embryos, and
it 1s therefore important to remove them as completely as possible,
After the mass has been chopped up as fine as possible, fill up the watch
crystal with fresh sea water, stir it up, and then allow it to run into one
of the smallest beakers, which has been nearly filled with sea water.
As the water runs out of the watch erystal, be careful to allow as few
of the fragments as possible to run with it.”

‘¢ Now fill up the watch crystal with water again, and stir and pour
off as before, and repeat the process until nearly all of the male fluid
has been washed out of the fragments and poured into the beaker. Stir
the contents of the beaker for a short time, and then allow it to stand

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [20]

about five minutes, to allow any fragments to settle to the bottom, then
pour the fluid, which should be quite milky, into another small beaker,
leaving behind, to be thrown away, any particles which may have set-
tled to the bottom. The male cells retain their full vitality for several
hours after they have been mixed with sea water, so the beaker may be
set aside to wait until the eggs areready. The eggs swell up and break
to pieces within a very few minutes after they are mixed with water,
unless they are fertilized at once, so it is much better to add the eggs
to a previously prepared mixture of male cells and water than it is to
put the eggs into the water to wait until the male fluid is got ready.

“Taking now one of the females, remove and chop up the ovary in
the same way in another watch crystal, observing the same precautions
in removing all portions of the body. Till the watch glass with water,
and stir and pour off into the beaker as before, giving the contents of
the beaker a good stirring after each, lot of eggs is added, in order to
diffuse them through the water at once, and thus insure the speedy
contact of each of them with some of the male cells.

‘Will the erystal with water again, and stir and pour off, and repeat
until all the eggs have been washed out of the fragments of the ovary.”

‘Another female may now be cut up, and the eggs may be added to
the contents of the same beaker; but if the females are large, and yield
many eggs, it is not best to use more than one, for although there are
enough male cells to fertilize a very great number of eggs, the eggs are
heavier than water and soon sink to the bo!tom, and if they form a
very thick layer, only those which lie near the surface have room to
develop.

_ ‘The beaker should now be allowed to stand for about ten minutes,
and in the mean time some of the eggs may be picked out with a dip-
ping-tube, for examination under the microscope. In using the dipping-
tube, cover the large end with the tip of the finger, and run the small
end down close to the bottom of the beaker, and then take the finger
off the top, and as the water runs in at the bottom it will carry some of
the eggs with it. When the tube is filled, place the finger on the top
again, and draw it out of the water, and, holding it perpendicularly
on the center of a glass slide, and taking the finger off the top, allow a
good-sized drop to ran out into the slide.

“Tf things are working properly, each egg should now have a number
of male cells attached by their heads to its outer surface, with their
tails radiating from it in all directions, as shown in Fig. 51.

‘It is not necessary that more than one male cell should fasten on to
each egg, but they usually cover them in such numbers that the lash-
ing of their tails causes the eggs to rotate and move through the water.

‘As soon as all the eggs have male cells attached to them, it is neces-
sary to get rid of the superfluous male fluid, for it would soon decay
and pollute the water if it were allowed to remain, and if it is not drawn
off from the eggs while they are at the bottom, it is almost impossible

[21] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

to remove it after the embryos have begun to swim, without loosing
them as well.

“After a final stirring, the beaker should be allowed to stand for about
five minutes, to allow the eggs to settle to the bottom, and the fluid above
them should then be drawn off through a siphon, reaching nearly but
not quite down to the eggs. <A fresh supply of sea-water should then
be added, and the eggs stirred and allowed to settle, and the water
drawn off as before; and this should be repeated until the water, after
the eggs have settled to the bottom, remains clear.

“The beaker may now be set aside where it will not be exposed to
sudden changes of temperature, and the eggs will require no further
attention until the embryos begin to swim, which will be in from two
to six hours, according to the temperature. The little oysters must of
course be supplied with fresh sea-water from time to time during their
development, and as they are so small that the water cannot be drawn
off after they begin to swim, they must be supplied with fresh water
by transferring them from time to time to larger and larger beakers.
In two hours or so after the eggs are fertilized the embryos begin to
swim, and crowd to the surface of the water in great numbers, and form
a thin stratum close to the surface. This layer of embryos may be
carefully siphoned off into a very small- beaker, and a little fresh sea-
water added. In an hour or so there will be a new layer of embryos
at the surface of beaker No. 1, and these should also be siphoned into
No. 2, and this should be repeated as long as the embryos continue to
rise to the surface of the first beaker. Every five or six hours a little
fresh sea-water should be poured from a height of a foot or more into
beaker No. 2, until it is filled. The contents should then be poured into
a larger beaker, and sea-water added four or five times a day as before.
In this way the embryos may be kept alive for a week, although they
have by this time got into such a large vessel that it is almost impos-
sible to find any of them for microscopic examination.

“THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGGS.

“T will now attempt a brief, popular account of the changes through
which the fertilized egg is gradually converted into the complex body
of the adult oyster.

“The body of the oyster, like that of all animals, except the very
simplest, is made up of organs, such as the heart, digestive organs,
gills, and reproductive organs; and these organs are, at some period in
the life of the oyster, made up of microscopic cells. The eggs shown
in Figs. 49 and 53 will answer to illustrate the character of the cells
which compose the body; each of these consists of a Jayer of protoplasm
around a central nucleus, which, in the egg, is a large, circular, trans-
parent body known as the germinative vesicie. Hach cell of the body
is able to absorb food, to grow and to multiply by division, and thus
to contribute to the growth of the organ of which it forms a part. The

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [22]

ovarian eggs are simply the cells of an organ of the body, the ovary,
and they differ from the ordinary cells only in being much larger and
more distinct from each other; and they have the power, when detached
from the body, of growing and dividing up into cells, which shall shape
themselves into a new organism like that from whose body the egg came.
Most of the steps in this wonderful process may be watched under the
microscope, and, owing to the ease with which the eggs of the oyster
may be obtained, this a very good egg to study.

‘About fifteen minutes after the eggs are fertilized they will be
found to be covered with male cells, as shown in Fig. 51. In about an
hour the egg will be found to have changed its shape and appearance.
It is now nearly spherical, as shown in Fig. 1, and the germinative vesicle
is no longer visible. The male cells may or may not still be visible upon

the outer surface. In a short time a little transparent point makes its °

appearance on the surface of the egg, and increases in size, and soon
forms a little projecting transparent knob—the polar globule—which is
shown in Fig. 3 and in succeeding figures.

‘Recent investigations tend to show that while these changes are
taking place one of the male cells penetrates the protoplasm of the
egg and unites with the germinative vesicle, which does not disappear,
but divides into two parts, one of which is pushed out of the egg and
becomes the polar globule, while the other remains behind and becomes
the nucleus of the developing egg, but changes its appearance so that it
is no longer conspicuous. The egg now becomes pear-shaped, with the
polar globule at the broad end of the pear, and this end soon divides
junto two parts, so that the egg (Fig. 6) is now made of one large mass
and two slightly smaller ones, with the polar globule between them.

‘The later history of the egg shows that at this early stage the egg
is not perfectly homogeneous, but that the protoplasm which is to give
rise to certain organs of the body has separated from that which is to
give rise to others.

“If the egg at the stage shown in Fig. 6 were split in the plane of
the paper, we should have what is to become one-half of the body in one
one part and the other half in the other. The single spherule at the
small end of the pear is to give rise to the cells of the digestive tract of
the adult, and to those organs which are to be derived from it, while
the spherules at the small end are to form the cells of the outer wall of
the body and the organs which are derived from it, such as the gills,
the lips,and the mantle, and they are also to give rise to the shell.
The upper portion of the egg in this and succeeding figures is to be-
come the ventral surface of the adult oyster, and the surface which is
on the right side in Fig. 6 is to become the anterior end of the body
of the adult. The figure, therefore, shows the half of the egg which is
to become the left half of the body. The upper portion of the egg soon
divides up into smaller and smaller spherules, until at the stage shown
in Figs. 24, 25, and 26 we have a layer of small cells wrapped around

[23] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

the greater part of the surface of a single large spherule, and the series
of figures shows that the latter is the spherule which is below in Fig.
6. This spherule now divides up into a layer of cells, and at the same
time the egg, or rather the embryo, becomes flattened from above down-
ward, and assunes the shape of aflat ovaldisk. Figs. 29 and 30 are views
of the upper and lower surface of the embryo at about this time. Ina
sectional view, Fig. 31, it is seen to be made up of two layers of cells;
an upper layer of small transparent cells, ec, which are to form the outer

yall of the body, and which have been formed by the division of the
spherules which occupy the upper end of the egg in Fig. 25,and a
lower layer of much larger, more opaque cells, g, which are to become the
walls of the stomach, and which have been formed by the division of the
large spherule a of Fig. 25.

‘“‘This layer is seen in the section to be pushed in a little towards the
upper layer, so that the lower surface of the disk-shaped embryo is not
flat, but very slightly coneave. This concavity is destined to grow
deeper until its edges almost meet, and it is the rudimentary digestive
cavity. A very short time after this stage has been reached, and usu-
ally within from two to four hours after the eggs were fertilized, the
embryo undergoes a great change of shape, and assumes the form which
is shown in three different views in Figs. 32, 33, 34, and 35.

“A circular tuft of long hairs or cilia has now made its appearance
at what is thus marked as the anterior end of the body, and as soon as
these hairs are formed they begin to swing backwards and forwards in
such a way as to constitute a swimming organ, which rows the little
animal up from the bottom to the surface of the water, where it swims
around very actively by the aid of its cilia. This stage of development,
Fig. 32, which is of short duration, is of great importance in raising
the young oysters, for it is the time when they can best be siphoned off
into a separate vessel and freed from the danger of being killed by the
decay of any eggs which may fail to develop. On one surface of the
body at this stage, the dorsal surface, there is a well marked groove,
and when a specimen is found in a proper position for examination, the
opening into the digestive tract is found at the bottom of this groove.
Fig. 33 is a sectional view of such anembryo. It is seen to consist of a
central cavity, the digestive cavity, which opens externally on the dor-
sal surface of the body by a small orifice, the primitive mouth, and which
is surrounded at all points, except at the mouth, by a wall which is dis-
tinct from the outer wall of the body. Around the primitive mouth these
two layers are continuous with each other.

‘The way in which this cavity, with its wall and external opening,
has been formed will be understood by a comparison of Fig. 33 with
Fig. 28. The layer which is below in Fig. 28 has been pushed upwards
in such a way as to convert it into a long tube, and at the same time
the outer layer has grown downwards and inwards around it, and
has thus constricted the opening. The layer of cells which is below in

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [24]

Fig. 28 thus becomes converted into the walls of the digestive tract,
and the space which is outside and below the embryo in Fig. 28 becomes
converted into an inclosed digestive cavity, which opens externally by
the primitive mouth.

“This stage of development, in which the embryo consists of two
layers, an inner layer surrounding a cavity which opens externally by
a mouth-like opening, and an outer layer, which is continuous with the
inner around the margins of the opening, is of very frequent occurrence,
and it bas been found, with modifications, in the most widely separated
groups of animals, such as the star-fish, the oyster, and the frog, and
some representatives of all the larger groups of animals, except the
Protozoa, appear to pass during their development through a form
which may be regarded as a more or less considerable modification of
that presented by our oyster embryo. This stage of development is
known as the gastrula stage.

‘Certain full-grown animals, such as the fresh-water hydra and some
sponges, are little more than modified gastrulas. The body is a simple
vase with an opening at one end communicating with a digestive cav-
ity, the wall of which is formed by a layer of cells which is continuous
around the opening with a second layer which forms the outer wall of
the body. This fact, together with the fact that animals of the most
widely separated groups pass through a gastrula stage of development,
has led certain naturalists to a generalization, which is known as the
‘oastrula theory. This theory or hypothesis is that all animals, ex-
cept the Protozoa, are more or less direct descendants of one common
but very remote ancestral form, whose body consisted of a simple two-
walled vase, with a central digestive cavity opening externally at one
end of the body.

‘‘Heeckel, who is the originator and leading advocate of this hypothe-
sis, has proposed to call this ancestral form a ‘ Gastraea;’ and the gas-
trula stage of development he regards as a trace or indication of this
distant ancestry, which is still retained and passed through during the
early stages of the development of animals which are now very widely
separated,

“The gastrula theory cannot be regarded as one of the established
generalizations of science, and the evidence which has so far been ac-
cumulated by embryologists is not by any means straightforward or
satisfactory. The theory is one of the most interesting embryological
problems under discussion, however, and any new information which
bears upon it is of value.

“The fact that the oyster goes through a very well marked and very
slightly modified gastrula stage is therefore of great theoretical inter-
est, and more so since Salensky, a distinguished Russian embryologist,
has proposed in place of the gastrula theory another theory, which is
based, in part, upon erroneous observations upon the development of
the oyster, which Salensky says does not pass through the gastrula

[25 ] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

stage of development at all, but forms a digestive cavity in another
way.

“The edges of the primitive mouth of the oyster continue to ap-
proach each other, and finally meet and unite, thus closing up the
opening, as shown in Fig. 36, and leaving the digestive tract without
any communication with the outside of the body, and entirely sur-
rounded by the outer layer. The embryo shown in Figs. 32 and 36
are represented with the dorsal surface below, in order to facilitate
comparison with the adult, but in Fig. 37 and most of the following
figures the dorsal surface is uppermost, for more ready comparison with
the adult. The furrow in which the primitive mouth was placed still
persists, and soon a small irregular plate makes its appearance at each
end of it. These little plates are the two valves of the shell, and in the
oyster they are separated from each other from the first, and make
their appearance independently.

“Soon after they make their appearance the embryos cease to
crowd the surface of the water and sink to various depths, although
they continue to swim actively in all directions and may still be found
occasionally close to the surface. The region of the body which carries
the cilia now becomes sharply defined, as a circular projecting pad, the
velum, and this is present and is the organ of locomotion at a much
later stage of development. It is shown at the right side of the figure
in Fig. 37, and in Fig. 45 it is seen in surface view, drawn in between
the shells, and with its cilia folded down and at rest, as they are seen
when the little oyster lies upon the bottom.

‘The two shells grow rapidly, and soon become quite regular in out-
line, as shown in Figs. 37 and 44, but for some time they are much
smaller than the body, which projects from between their edges around
their whole circumference, except along a short area, the area of the
hinge, upon the dorsal surface, where the two valves are in contact.

“The two shells continue to grow at their edges, and socn become
large ‘enough to cover up and project a little beyond the surface of the
body, as shown in Fig. 44, and at the same time muscular fibers make
their appearance and are so arranged that they can draw the edge of

§ the body and the velum in between the edges of the shell, in the man-
ner shown in Fig. 45. In this way that surface of the body which
lines the shell becomes converted into the two lobes of the mantle, and
between them a mantle cavity is formed, into which the velum can be
drawn when the animal is at rest. While these changes have been
going on over the outer surface of the body other important internal
modifieations have taken place. We left the digestive tract at the
stage shown in Fig. 36, without any communication with the exterior.

‘‘Soon the outer wall of the body becomes pushed inwards, to form
the true moxth, at a point (Fig. 37) which is upon the ventral surface,
and almost directly opposite the point where the primitive mouth was
situated at an earlier stage. The digestive cavity now becomes greatly

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [26]

enlarged, and cilia make their appearance upon its walls, the mouth
becomes connected with the chamber which is thus formed, and which
becomes the stomach, and minute particles of food are drawn in by the
cilia, and can now be seen inside the stomach, where the vibration of
the cilia keep them in constant motion. Up to this time the animal
has developed without growing, and at the stage shown in Fig. 36 it
is scarcely larger than the unfertilized egg, but it now begins to in-
crease in size. The stages shown in Figs. 44 and 45 agree pretty closely
with the figures which European embryologists give of the oyster em-
bryo at the time when it escapes from the mantle chamber of its parent.
The American oyster reaches this stage in from twenty-four hours to
six days after the egg is fertitized, the rate of development being de-
termined mainly by the temperature of the water.

“Soon after the mantle has become connected with the stomach this
becomes united to the body-wall at another point a little behind the
mantle, and a second opening, the anus, is formed. The tract which
connects the anus with the stomach lengthens and forms the intestine,
and, soon after, the sides of the stomach become folded off to form the
two halves of the liver, as shown in Fig. 44.

‘Various muscular fibers now make their appearance within the body,
and the animal assumes the form shown in Figs, 44 and 45.

‘‘ All my attempts to get later stages than these failed through my
inability to find any way to change the water without losing the young
oyster, and I am therefore unable to describe the manner in which the
swimming embryo becomes converted into the adult, but I hope that
this gap will be filled, either by future observations of my own or by
those of some other embryologist.

“In myattempt to raise the oyster embryo from the egg, I found that
continuous warm weather was essential to success. As my observations
upon the developing eggs occupied all my time, I was not able to make
any record of the temperature of the water of the ocean, but during
June there were a number of cold, windy days and nights, and two hail-
storms, and on each of the cold days all the embryo which I had in the
house died.”

Since 1879, though several persons have been employed upon the,
work, and Dr. Brooks has also continued his investigations, no material
advance in artificial oyster culture has been made, and beyond the ad-
ditional knowledge of the reproductive process of the oyster, Brooks’s
experiments have been without practical result.

Concerning the influences to which the eggs, spermatozoa, and spat
are exposed, and the conditions necessary to their survival, Dr. Brooks
says:

“The most critical time in the life of the American oyster is undoubt-
edly the time when the egg is discharged into the water to be fertilized,
for the chance that each egg which floats out into the ocean to shift for
itself will immediately meet with a male cell is very slight, and it is

[27] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

essential that the egg should be fertilized very quickly, for the unfertil-
ized egg is destroyed by the sea-water in a very short time. The next
period of great danger is the short time during which the embryos swarm
to the surface of the water. They are so perfectly defenseless, and so
crowded together close to the surface, that a small fish, swimming along
with open mouth, might easily swallow ina few mouthfuls a number equal
to the human population of Baltimore. They are also exposed to sud-
den changes of temperature, and as my experiments have shown that a
sudden fallin temperature is fatal to them at this time, the number which
are destroyed by cold rains and winds must be very great indeed.

‘“As soon as they are safely past this stage, and scatter and swim at
various depths, their danger from accidents and enemies is greatly
diminished, and their chance of reaching maturity increases hundreds,
and probably thousands, of times.

‘Although the mortality at these early stages is so excessive, the
number of young which pass through them safely without help is very
great, and if there were no other dangers and uncertainties there would
be no need of measures for their protection. As they swim to and fro
in the water, they are carried to great distances by the tides and ecur-
rents and reach all parts of the region of water in which the parent bed
is Situated. Ina favorable year a floating plank or bush, or pieve of
drift wood, will be found to become covered with small oysters which
have fastened to it, although it may not be within miles of any natural
oyster-bank. The fact that the young may be collected in this way in
any part of the Chesapeake Bay shows that the young oysters must set-
tle down upon the bottom in nearly all parts of the bay, and we should
expect the adults to have an equally general distribution. This is far
from the case, and nothing could be farther from the truth than the
idea that the bottom of the waters of the oyster regions is uniform y
covered with oysters, and that it is only necessary to throw a dredge
overboard and drag it along the bottom for a short distance in order to
bring it up full. Nothing could be a greater mistake, for both in this
country and in Europe the oysters are restricted to particular spots,
‘beds’ or ‘banks,’ which are as well defined and almost as sharply lim-
ited as the tracts of wood-land in a farming country. These beds are
so well marked that they can be laid down on a chart or staked out with
buoys; and even in the best oyster regions they occupy such an incon-
siderable part of the bottom that any one ignorant of their position
would have very little chance of finding oysters by promiscuous dredg-
ing. Although the young are distributed every year by the tides and
currents to all parts of the bottom, the dredge very seldom brings up
even a single oyster outside the limits of the beds.

“The restriction of the oysters to certain points does not appear to
depend upon the supply of food, or upon the character of the water,
but almost entirely upon the nature of the bottom. The full-grown
oyster is able to live and flourish in soft mud, as long as it is not buried

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [28]

too deeply for the open edge of the shell to reach above the mud and
draw a constant supply of water and food onto the gills. The placing
of adult oysters upon such bottoms at convenient points to ‘fatten’ for
the market is a well-known practice. The oyster embryo would be in-
gulfed and smothered at once if it should settle down on such a bottom,
and in order to have the least chance of survival and long life the young
oyster must find some solid substance to fasten itself to, in order to
preserve it from sinking in the soft mud or from being covered by shift-
ing sand or gravel. As soon as the young oyster finds such a solid body,
rough and clean, it fastens one valve of its shell to it by secreting a
cement of shelly matter around the growing edge.

“The living and dead shells of the adult oysters furnish the best sur-
faces for the attachment of the young, and for this reason the points
where oyster beds are already established are those where the young
have the most favorable surroundings and the best chance for life, and
the beds thus tend to remain permanent and of substantially the same
size and shape.

“The great mortality of the young, after they have fastened them-
selves to the shells of the adults, is due in part to want of room, in part
to the attacks of enemies, in part to accidents, such as the shifting of
the bottom, and in part, no doubt, to lack of food. While the supply
of organic matter which is carried to them by the water is very great,
it is not unlimited, and the amount which each oyster can obtain
at any one time is quite small, and if the oysters covered the bottom in
sufficient abundance, some of them might fail to obtain a sufficient sup-
ply. Ido not believe, however, that this ever occurs, for long before
the oysters are sufficiently abundant to exhaust the supply of organic
matter, their numbers are limited by other conditions. The growth of
an animal does not depend upon the supply of food in general, but
upon the supply of the least abundant of the necessary ingredients of
the food. It is well known that a field that is very fertile will fail to
produce a satisfactory crop of a plant which needs some particular food-
ingredient which the soil contains in too small quantity. Although food
in general is very abundant, the growth of this particular crop depends
upon the amount of this ingredient, and while the seed which has been
planted yields an abundant crop of young plants, only a few are able to
grow up, and these can grow no faster than they can extract this partie-
ular ingredient from the soil.

‘In addition to organic food, the oyster needs a supply of carbonate
of lime to make its shell, and this is supplied to it, in solution, in sea-
water. If the shell is thin, or if it is formed very slowly, the danger
from enemies and accidents is greatly increased ; and those oysters which
are able to construct their shells with the greatest rapidity are the ones
which survive and grow up. The amount of dissolved carbonate of
lime which the ocean contains is unlimited, but the amount which can
reach each oyster is not very great; and if all the oysters which attach

[29] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

themselves were to survive there can be no doubt that they would
exhaust the available supply of lime before they failed to obtain enough
organic food.

* It is well known that shell-fish of all kinds thrive best when the sup-
ply of lime is greatest. The fresh-water mussels which live in streams
and ponds where the supply of lime is scanty, grow slowly, and their
shells are so thin that they are very subject to accidents, and their num-
bers are limited; but in limestone regions the shells are large and
heavy, and the bottoms of the streams are almost paved with mussels,
and it is well known to conchologists that coral reefs and islands are
the most favorable regions for the abundant growth of all kinds of
shelled molluses.”

The investigations of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, in
the neighborhood of Crisfield, Maryland, which were coincident with
those of Dr. Brooks, led to the conclusion that there is little or no
regularity in the recurrence of successful ‘ spatting” seasons, and that
all irregularities are due, probably, to variations from the normal tem-
perature and density of the water; the higher the temperature during
the spring months the earlier will be the advent of the spawning sea-
son, and an increased temperature will also hasten the development of
the spat, and of the young oysters after they have become attached.
Sudden and extensive changes of density will likewise affect the ad-
vent, duration, and success of the spawning, though to a less extent.

Subsequent to the attachment of the animal, changes of the con-
ditions surrounding it are not of so much importance, though naturally
such changes will more severely affect the delicate organism of the
young oyster than that of the older and more hardened adult.

It is during the first six months of its existence that the oyster i is ex-
posed to the greatest danger from its numerous enemies. The thin,
delicate shells, from one-sixteenth of an inch to one inch in diameter,
are readily bored by the drills, whelks, and other gastropods, or torn
off by the crabs, and the immense number of all leaves no room to
doubt their destructive effects. As an instance, the inspection of the
spat collectors placed in the Big Annemessex River by the United
States Coast Survey, shows that during the early months of their ex-
istence about 50 per cent. of the young oysters were destroyed.* Nat-
urally, as the animal progresses, it becomes more hardy and better able
to resist the attacks of enemies and changes of environment, and on
unworked beds, where the oysters are practically in a natural state,
the decrease in passing from young growth to mature oysters is about
30 per cent., or about one-third of a given number perish in passing
from the first to the fourth year of their existence.

The only essential for securing the attachment of the spat is that the
object exposed should be clean. The specimens illustrating attach-
ment show how many and various these objects are; and the formation

* Photographs of this collector are exhibited.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [30]

and extension of an oyster-bed are due largely to this ability of the
young fry to hold on to anything and everything. The beginning of a
bed is probably in most cases accidental. There is an exposure of some
object suitable for attachment, to which the drifting embryos cling, and
succeeding seasons add to the colony and slowly increase both its pop-
ulation and area; the natural limits are defined by the amount of food
and constituents of shell available, the amount of room for develop-
ment, and the character of surrounding, contiguous bottoms. Oysters
cannot live on bottoms not sufficiently consistent to support them;
they are unprovided with siphons, or means of locomotion, and if sunk
in mud or sand will perish. Neither can they live for long periods out
of water unless especially educated for that contingency.

Natural oyster-beds on the American coast are of two classes; worked
and unworked beds, each presenting marked features.

The following extracts from the reports of Mr. Winslow to the Super-
intendent of the United States Coast Survey, describing areas in Ches-
apeake Bay, indicate the salient features of each class. The beds con-
trasted are located in Chesapeake Bay and Tangier Sound, an adjacent
estuary of the bay.

‘Generally speaking, here as in the Sounds, the original beds were
formed on the side of the shoals, and wherever there was a sudden
change of bottom.

‘“Whenever the solid beds or ‘Rocks’ were encountered, they were
found to be long and narrow ridges, extending generally in a northerly
and southerly direction, except when near Kedge’s Strait, where they
ran more to the eastward and westward; and we could, in standing
across the beds, but rarely obtain more than one or two hauls of the
dredge before we were off the ‘ Rock.’ The major axis appears here, as
elsewhere, to lie in the direction of the current, and probably all natural
extension and growth of any bed are in that direction, the spat being
earried backward and forward by the ebb and flow of the tides. The
large number of beds near and off Kedge’s Strait is probably due to the
large number of spat brought out from the Sounds through the Strait.

‘The bottom is generally of hard sand covered with sponge and grass.
Near Kedge’s Strait some mud sloughs were found, and in some cases
the substratum of the beds was of clay; but in most of them the stratum
of oysters and shells was too thick and hard to be penetrated.

‘“The beds outside the Sounds have been comparatively free from
dredging, and thus present marked differences from those inside.

‘¢ They are comparatively longer and narrower, and much more sharply
defined. Very few scattered oysters are found near them, and the beds
are much more solid, unbroken, and much harder, requiring heavier
dredges than those used in the Sounds. The most remarkable difference
is, however, in the shape and growth of the oysters.

“On the undredged beds they are long and narrow, with the lower
shells very deep and bills very thin and sharp. In no case did we find

[31 | FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

any single oysters of any class, but all grew in clusters of from three and
four to twelve and fifteen. The shells were clean and white, and free
from mud and sand. Generally there was found a tuft of red or white
sponge attached to the clusters, and the mature first and second class
oysters were covered and the interstices between them filled with those
of the third and fourth classes; numbers of barnacles were also found,
and some crepidula, but tubicola were present only in small numbers.

“The oysters found upon beds that have been much worked differ
materially, being single and broader in comparison to their len eth, round
and with blunt bills. They are usually dark in color, and have a con-
siderable amount of mud and sand on the shells. The sponges do not
appear to be as abundant, and the amount of dredging on any bed may
always be known by the appearance of the oysters brought up. Upon
an overdredged and almost exhausted bed the oysters will be large and
single, blunt-billed, with dirty shells,and with an almost entire absence
of sponges, barnacles, and crépidula; but the shells will be covered with
tubicola and bored in many places by the bering pholad.”*

Aside from the effect of the dredge the growth of the oysters on a bed
is influenced by many other circumstances. First, the position and
character of the object to which the spat fixes itself have a large influ-
ence in shaping the form of the shell.

The growth of the “bills” is always toward the surface of the water,
and by examining the series of specimens ‘of peculiar growth, due to
attachment of spat,” many instances of the curious effect of this effort
of the animal will be noticed. During the early stages the shell grows
directly out from the beaks; later, the tendency of the lower valve to
assume a convex form becomes more marked, and, should the animal be
so attached as to be in a horizontal position, this convexity of the lower
valve becomes very prominent. If the attachment is such that the lips
of the valves are below the beaks, the shell will begin to take a lateral
twist, which will sometimes change the direction of shell-growth as much
as 90 degrees. Again, should the spat attach in large numbers to any
object and become much crowded, having no room for growth or devel-
opment, except vertically, then each individual shell will become long,
thin. narrow, and with very little convexity of the lower valve. Of
such description are the oysters growing on natural, undeveloped banks,
where they are found in enormous clusters, of from ten to fifty individ-
uals. Such oysters, more common onthe Southern coast than the North-
ern, are called “ cat-tongues” and ‘ knife-blades ” by the oystermen.
The * raccoon” oyster is also of somewhat similar growth and charac-
ter.

After having developed to some extent in one locality or position,
if the oyster be removed to some other point, where the conditions in-
fluencing its growth are changed, corresponding changes in the charac-
ter and growth of the shell may be expected. These changes are il-

* Photographs of specimens are exhibited illustrating these differences.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [32]

lustrated by the series showing “ peculiarities of growth due to abnor-
mal influences or change of position subsequent to time of attachment.”
As shown by some of the specimens, owing to change of position, and
the effort of the animal to keep the tips of the valves uppermost, the
shell has two and three distinct changes in direction of growth, and
these changes are sometimes lateral. as though the shell had always
fallen on one side or the other ; sometimes dorsal and ventral, as though
it had always fallen on one edge or the other; and sometimes the irreg-
ular growth is a combination of both. This peculiarity is more fre-
quent in oysters from cultivated than in those from natural beds ; but
it is more marked when it does occur with the natural oysters than with
the cultivated ones. As the cultivated beds are more continuously and
systematically raked, probably each oyster is turned over once or twice
a year, and seldom has an opportunity for any peculiarity of growth to
become decided. The natural oyster, however, is rarely handled much
before being conveyed to market, and consequently any unusual growth
forced upon it is apt to be very remarkable.

The character of the bottom has not only a very decided influence
upon the growth of the beds, but also affects the growth of each indi-
vidual oyster. The shells from impure, muddy waters, are usually dull
colored and soft or friable, and when the bottom is very soft, the long
flat growth is the only form that has any chance of survival. Types of
this form, the ‘‘ pinched” oyster of the fishermen, are exhibited. <A large
amount of soft mud, either in the water or on the bottom, likewise affects
the interior shell-layers. Particles of the muddy soil get between the
valves and under the mantle, and the animal builds a thin layer of shell
over them, causing thus the dark blue and black spots about the edges
of the sheils and over the interior surface, so noticeable in specimens
from muddy localities. These peculiarities are shown in the series
illustrating the effects of soft bottoms. Shells from hard bottoms and
pure waters are much cleaner and harder in character; the shell layers
are thinner and less friable, and the boreal form more prominent and
frequent. :

The rate of growth of the American oyster varies with the locality.
Generally speaking, it is slower in Long Island Sound than in the Chesa-
peake, the northern oysters not being considered fit for market until
three or more years old, while in Maryland and Virginia waters they
attain a marketable size in a year and a half or two years. They are,
however, at that age, quite small and are used for steaming or inferior
grades of ‘‘packed” stock. The size of the animal at different ages also
varies with the locality, as does the quality and flavor; but these last
two characteristics are by no means constant, even in the same locality.
For instance, oysters from the Blue Point district, or Long Island Sound,
may be the best in the market during one winter and the worst during
the next. Only actual inspection, each season, can decide the compara-
tive merits of the crop from the various localities.

[33] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

The beds along the entire coast are subject to nearly the same
vicissitudes of climate and other natural conditions, influencing thé life
of the oysters, and as those viscissitudes are not peculiar to the Ameti-
can beds, nor to the molluscan life alone, they do not require special
allusion. The number and character of the enemies and the extent of
their ravages depends upon the locality. The manner in which the
work of such as belong to the mollusea is accomplished, has already been
described; but, in addition to the destructive effects of the various gas-
teropods and bivalves, the oysters, in common with several other shell-
tish, have to contend with other foes, belonging to other sub kingdoms.
Chief among these are the star-fishes, and the most prominent of that
destructive family is the Asterias forbesti, or ‘‘ green” star-fish. They
are described and exhibited in the section of economic echinoderms, &c.,
and specimens of oysters and star-fish, illustrating the method of attack
of the latter, are aiso exhibited in the mollusean collection. The man-
ner in which the oyster is eaten is described by Professor Verrill, as
follows:

“After bending their five flexible rays around the shell so as to partly
inclose it, they protrude the lobes and folds of their enormous saccular
stomach from the distended mouth, and surrounding the oyster shell
more or less completely with the everted stomach they proceed to digest
the contents at leisure, and when the meal is finished they quietly with-
draw the stomach and stow it away in its proper place.”

The star-fishes are very destructive in Long Island Sound, but further
to the southward, and in Chesapeake Bay, do less damage.

The several varieties of crabs, especially the Cancer irroratus and Car-
cinus menas, destroy many oysters; usually the young are selected, as
they are more vulnerable than the mature animals; the damage by
crabs, however, is not nearly so great as that done by the star-fish, and
thongh the Chesapeake region suffers more from this enemy than the
northern shores, yet on account of the value of the crabs no steps can
or will be taken to lessen their numbers. Two species of fishes, the
“«Sheepshead” (Archosargus probatocephalus) and the “ Drum” (Pogonias
chromis) are destructive to oysters, the latter being especially so. Both
fishes are provided with teeth with which they crush the young animals,
and both usually swallow them, shells and all. The Drum is the chief
depredator, but does not often trouble the beds north of New York.
On the New Jersey coast, however, it abounds, and moving in schools,
will frequently devastate thousands of dollars’ worth of property.

The minor enemies may be described as comprising all forms of. ani-
mal life, such as the sponges, barnacles, annelids, and various shell-fish,
that by their presence on a bed deprive the oysters of food or room for
development, or, like the mussels, attract other more directly injurious
animals.

The boring-sponge (Cliona sulphurca), and the red branching sponge
(Microciona prolifera) are the principal representatives of the Spongia.

228A 3

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [34]

The former does direct damage occasionally, by its attack on the shells,
but usually it rather prepares the way for other enemies than accom-
plishes anything itself. The latter.is not directly harmful, but growing
sometimes in great masses, it not only prevents the food supply of the
oyster from readily reaching the animal, but interferes with the at-
tachment of the young brood. Hence cultivated beds should be kept
clear of this as well as the boring-sponge.

OYSTER INDUSTRY.
THE FISHERY.

The fishery is regulated by the laws of the various States, the Fed-
eral Government exercising no control, and consequently the conditions
under which the pursuit is followed are many and various. At the
present time the laws relating to the oyster fishery may be said to be
based upon one of two general principles. The first, the basis for the
regulations of most of the States, considers the oyster beds to be in-
alienable, common property. Laws based upon this principle are gen-
erally of a protective nature, and are in reality regulations of the State,
made by it in its capacity of guardian of the common property. The
second principle assumes the right of the State to dispose of the area at
the bottom of its rivers, harbors, and estuaries, and having disposed of
it, to consider the lessee or owner, as alone responsible for the success
or failure of his enterprises, and the State in no way called upon to
afford him other assistance than protection in legitimate rights. In
general terms, under the first principle, the beds are held in common;
under the second, in severalty. But one State permits the preemption
of an unlimited tract of bottom, and the holding of it in fee: the State
of Connecticut. Rhode Island leases her ground for a term of years, at
$10 per acre; but the person holding an area has no legal power of dis-
posing of it beyond the limits of the lease. Massachusetts, New York,
New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia, all permit pre-emption of small
tracts by individuals for indefinite periods, and on the coast of Long
Island the various towns along the shore lease tracts of considerable
extent to private cultivators.

Various restrictions are also placed upon the time and manner of
conducting the fisheries. Some of the States, noticeably Virginia, pro-
hibit entirely the use of the dredge or scrape; others, noticeably New
Jersey, prohibit such use in some localities and permit it in others. All
the States, with one exception, prohibit the use of steam vessels or ma-
chinery, or fishing by other than their own inhabitants. Connecticut
again forms the exception, and quite a large fleet of steam dredging
vessels are employed on her beds.

The laws of the various States have several common features. All
general fishing is suspended during the summer months. No night
fishing is permitted. No steamers are allowed to be used. No pro-

[3%] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

prietary rights to particular areas are given beyond the right to
‘ plant” a limited number of oysters on bottoms adjoining land owned
by the planter and peace officers and local authorities are charged
with execution of laws relating to the fishery. In a few States or
localities, licenses are required to be obtained for each fishing vessel; and
in one State, Maryland, a regular police force and fleet of vessels is main-
tained to support the law. These regulations are easily evaded, except
those relating to the steamers and pre-emption of ground. Naturally,
no one will put down oysters without being able to protect them; and
steamers are too readily detected to make their illegal employment
possible. In Connecticut and Rhode Island, the beds being virtually
private property, there is no restriction of the fishery, except that it shall
not be condueted at night.

The character of the vessel or boat used, depends in a measure upon
the means of the fisherman and the constancy of hisemployment. When
the beds are small and worked only at intervals, or where the oysterman
is poor, a small boat of any description is used. Dories have the prefer-
ence on the New England coast, and canoes in the Chesapeake Bay.
Sharpies are also used in Long Island Sound. If the beds are extensive,
furnishing constant employment, or the oysterman is well-to-do, the size
and appointments of the fishing craft are much improved. The charae-
ter of the oyster ground, its location, and the laws governing the fishing,
also influence the type of vessel or boat used. Shoal-water beds, in shel-
tered localities, where dredging is not permitted, are usually fished from
small, open boats; as, for instance, the beds of Rhode Island, south shore
of Long Island, sea-coast of New Jersey, and Virginia waters. On the
other hand, beds lying in deep water, in exposed positions, and where
dredging is allowed, are worked by larger craft of 10 to 40 tons, or
steamers; as is the case in Long Island Sound, Delaware and Chesa-
peake Bays. One of the foregoing conditions also decides the imple-
ment to be used; when permitted, it is the dredge—either the enormous
one employed by the steamers, the smaller toothed rake-dredge, or
smooth-scrape. When dredging is prohibited, the tongs, or nippers,
with two handles, sometimes 30 feet long, are used.

The dredges are usually worked by an apparatus termed a ‘ winder.”
Many forms of “winders” (a winch especially adapted for this purpose)
are employed, but the one exhibited is the best and has the latest im-
provements. It is so designed that if,.while reeling in, the dredge should
“hang,” that is, become immovably fixed by some obstruction on the bot-
tom, the drum is at once automatically thrown out of gearing, and the
dredge-rope allowed to run out; the sudden and rapid reverse revolution
of the brakes, which has caused many serious accidents and considerable
loss of life, is thereby prevented. Small craft use a more simple and less
expensive description of winch, and frequently haul in by hand, while
the steam dredgers have powerful machinery adapted for this special
purpose. The number of men employed varies with the size of the craft;

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [36]

two, three, and four men are sufficient on board the smaller dredgers,
while the larger carry ten and twelve. The average sized “pungy” in
the Chesapeake has a crew of seven or eight, and the majority of the
‘“tonging” canoes employ one man and a boy.

In the Chesapeake each haul of the dredge is “culled”, that is, the oys-
ters are separated from the shells and refuse, as soon as the dredge is on
deck, and everything except the oysters is immediately thrown over-
board. In Long Island Sound, however, and on all private beds, the cull-
ing does not take place until the end of the day, when all shells, or other
matters suitable for “stools” or ‘“‘cultch,” are put on the shell-heaps on
shore for subsequent use, and no refuse matter is thrown back on the
beds. In each locality the policy is unchanged when the fishing is con-
dueted by means of the tongs, and the difference illustrates the degree
of care exercised on private and public beds.

The fishermen, as a rule, are of the lower class and generally very
ignorant. The masters of the larger vessels employed in the Delaware
and Chesapeake are more intelligent, and the oysterman of the North-
ern and Eastern States is superior in circumstances and education to
those of the Southern States. The “tongers” in both sections are bet-
ter to do in the world, generally owning their boats or canoes and work-
ing for their own profit, than the men engaged on the larger dredging
vessels who are not above the ordinary day-laborer in condition.

The packing trade is common to the whole seaboard, but the steaming
and canning industries are confined mainly to localities south of the Dela-
ware. <A general description of each will give a sufficiently exact idea
of the methods employed, there being but little local variation.

While a great many oysters are transported in the shell to markets
distant from the seaboard, the largest part of the inland consumption
is of “opened” or ‘“‘shucked” oysters, and nearly every oyster dealer
along the coast employs a larger or smaller number of persons to open
the oysters and pack and ship the meats. Some of these establish-
ments are small, having as few as half a dozen people engaged; others
are large buildings or sheds, and employ hundreds of “shuckers.” At
some points—for instance, Fair Haven, Conn., and Crisfield, Md.—the
shores of the rivers are lined with long whitewashed sheds extending
back from the wharves; and it is within these sheds that the “shuck-
ing” takes place.

The usual arrangement is as follows: The building is divided off in
long alleys; on each side of each alley are numerous stalls, each fitted
with a ‘shucking trough,” or box-like receptacle for the oysters in the
shell. In the trough are two buckets, one to contain the oysters of or-
dinary size, the other the large ‘“extras;” a block of wood with a flat
piece of iron set in it, with its edge up, on which to break the bills of the
oyster; a hammer for the same purpose, and an oyster knife. A work-
man or woman is supplied to each stall and stands in front of, and fac-
ing it, the feet and legs being protected and kept clear of the increas-

[37] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

ing pile of shells by a wooden shield. Menand women, white and black,
are employed, but in well-arranged houses the sexes are assigned dif-
ferent alleys, and in many the same distinction is observed with regard
to the races. The buildings are roughly put together and are neces-
sarily dirty, sloppy, and uncomfortable, usually being but imperfectly
heated by large stoves. The shucking troughs are supplied with oys-
ters from the lots received during the previous day and night, each
shucker informing the foreman when his trough is emptied. The same
men and barrows that carry the oysters from the vessels or piles to the
shuckers, remove the shells that collect on the floor. In shucking, the
workman takes an oyster from the heap in the trough, and holding it
in the palm of his left hand, the bills projecting and towards him, and
with the knife and hammer in the right hand, he lays the lips on the
beveled edge of the iron projecting from the block of wood, and with a
blow of the hammer breaks off the bills; the knife is then entered, the
valves separated, and the oyster removed and thrown into one of the
buckets. In Rhode Island and some parts of New England the ham-
mer and block are not used, but the oyster is ‘‘ stabbed”; that is, in-
stead of breaking the lips of the valves, the knife is entered at the side
and the abductor muscle cut. When his bucket is full the shucker
carries it to the end of the alley and pours its contents into a trough
leading through a hole in the partition dividing the shueckers from the
receivers. ‘The oysters are thus run into a sheet-iron or zine receptacle
called the “ skimmer,” which is perforated with holes to allow the liquor
to run off, and are there cleaned of shell fragments and measured.
Each shucker has a number, which he gives as he empties his bucket ;
at the same time he receives a tally-check and his gallon is scored up
to his credit on a huge blackboard. At the end of the day the amount
of each score is entered in a book, and the employés are paid at the
end of the week. Shuckers make from 75 cents to $1 per day in the
Maryland houses, and about 50 cents more in the New England estab-
lishments. The men usually make more than the women.

From the “skimmer” the oysters are put into enormous tubs, and
from thence are taken, a few gallons at a time, to the ‘cullender,” a
sheet iron or zine basin, perforated with small holes, where they are
thoroughly washed. From the cullender they are transferred either to
small cans, holding a quart of oysters, or to barrels, kegs, or tubs; when
packed in tubs, kegs, or barrels, they go in bulk, with a large piece of
ice; when packed in the tin cans, the cans are arranged in two rows in-
side of a long box, a vacant space being left in the center, between the
rows, in which is placed a large block of ice. The cans are carefully
soldered up before packing, and together with the ice are laid in saw-
dust. Oysters packed in this way can, in cool weather, be kept a week
or more, and sent across the continent, or to the remote western towns.

The steaming process is that by which the ‘‘cove” oysters are pre-
pared. The term “ cove” is applied to oysters put up in cans, hermet-

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [38]

ically sealed, and intended to be preserved an indefinite time. The
trade in “coves” is confined principally to the Chesapeake region, and
the process of preparing them is as follows: The oysters, usually the
smaller sizes, are taken from the vessels and placed in cars of iron frame-
work, 6 or 8 feet long. These cars run on a light iron track, which is
laid from the wharf through the ‘“‘steam-chest” or ‘“‘steam-box” to the
shucking shed. As soon as a car is filled with oysters (in the shell) it
is run into the steam-chest, a rectangular oak box, 15 to 20 feet long,
lined with sheet iron and fitted with appliances for turning in steam;
the doors, which work vertically and shut closely, are then let down,
the steam admitted, and the oysters left for ten or fifteen minutes. The
chest is then opened and the cars run into the shucking shed, their
places in the chest being immediately occupied by other cars. In the
shed the ears are surrounded by the shuckers, each provided with a
knife and a can arranged so as to hook to upper bar of the iron frame-
work of the car. The steaming having caused the oyster shells to open
more or less widely, there is no difficulty in getting out the meats, and
the cars are very rapidly emptied. As soon as each shucker fills his
can he turns in the contents and receives his tally-check. The oysters,
as they are received, are washed in iced water and then transferred to
the ‘fillers’” table, where they ein great heaps. The “fillers,” usually
girls, are employed in filling and weighing the round tin cans, which are
such familiar objects in every grocery. The cans, having been filled,
are removed to another part of the room and packed in a eylindrical,
iron crate or basket, which will hold six dozen or more of them. When
the crate is full it is lifted by means of a derrick and lowered into a
large cylindrical kettle, called the “process kettle” or “tub.” The lid of
the ‘process kettle” is then closed and screwed down, and the oysters
again steamed. After this second steaming they are placed, crate and
all, in the “cooling tub,” a rectangular tub containing cold water, and
when sufficiently cool to be handled, the cans are taken to the “‘ cappers,”
or soldering table, and there “capped ;” that is, are hermetically closed.
From the “ cappers” they are transported to another department, labeled
and packed in boxes for shipment. The whole steaming process will
not occupy an hour from the time the oysters leave the vessel until they
are ready for shipment.

The only other branch of the industry not yet alluded to, is ‘“plant-
ing,” and as this varies with the different States, it is considered in de-
tail. For the capital invested, number of bushels produced, and persons
employed, see the “statistical” table at the end of the pages devoted to
the oyster. ;

Maine.—This State is noteworthy on account of her past rather than
her present resources. At Damariscotta, and theSheepscot River, great
shell-heaps exist, composed mainly of oyster shells of gigantic size; but
there is, at the present day, but one small natural bed, situated some
few miles west of Damariscotta. In Portland Harbor, or Casco Bay, a
few hundred bushels of oysters, that are brought from the Chesapeake,

[39] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

or Long Island Sound, are laid down on the flats in the summer to fat-
ten. They will not live through the winter, and usually are not allowed
an opportunity to attempt the experiment.

New Hampshire.—There was, until lately, a large natural bed in this
State, in the Piscataqua River, but over-fishing has caused its practical
extinction. Oysters are supplied the market by importation from other
localities, either directly, in kegs or tubs, or in the shell by the cargo.
In the latter case, the animals are “ laid down” for the summer months
in thesPiscataqua.

Massachusetts.—N orth of Cape Cod, no natural oyster-beds of any im-
portance occur; though at the mouths of the various rivers and at
Wellficet, on Cape Cod, they have existed in the past. The extinction
is supposed to be due to climatic changes and over-fishing. A few oys-
ters from other, localities are ‘‘bedded” or “laid down” in the spring
and summer months, but most of the market supply is derived from
direct importations, either in the shell or opened. Quite an important
trade in the latter class is carried on between Boston and Norfolk, Va.,
amounting in 1880 to 250,000 gal‘ons. South of Cape Cod, in Buzzard’s
Bay, are many natural beds, and quite a flourishing business is carried
on in their vicinity; but this is owing in a large degree to the system
of cultivation of private beds. The general practice is to take the
oysters from the natural banks and deposit them on the private ones,
to grow and fatten; shells are also deposited to catch the drifting spat,
but the success of the latter method has not been so great as elsewhere.
Oysters are also imported trom other localities for ** bedding” or “lay-
ing down,” but unless from adjacent States, they do not do well or out-
live the winter. The laws regulating oyster planting and farming, per-
mit town and city authorities to grant licenses to work tracts of bottom
for twenty years. The extent of tracts is not limited, except that they
shall not include any natural bed. Night fishing is not permitted, and
infringement of the rights of the person holding the license is punished
by a fine of not more than $100 and imprisonment of from thirty days
to six months.

Rhode Island.—The natural beds of this State are neither extensive
nor exceedingly prolific. They he principally in the Seekonk River, a
branch of the Providence River, and in Cole’s and Kickamuit Rivers.
The “natural growth” are rarely used in the markets, but are taken in
great numbers when young and placed on the private artificial beds,
located, for the most part, in the Providence River. The Seekonk far-
nishes between five and ten thousand bushels of “seed” annually, and
two years’ growth on an artificial bed makes them marketable. A large
number of oysters are also imported from Long Island Sound and the
south shore of Long Island for the purpose of ‘‘seeding” beds. This
process is simply to purchase young oysters, about a year old, and spread
the cargo as evenly as possible over the area to be “seeded.” This is
frequently supplemented by spreading shells of oysters or scallops over
and about the area during the early summer months, and with them a

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [40]

number of ‘‘mothers,” or large oysters about to spawn. Usually 100
bushels of ‘¢*mothers” to 4,000 bushels of shells are put down. Great
suecess has frequently followed the adoption of this system; but many
failures have also occurred, the causes for which are obscure.

The “ bedding” or fattening of *‘ Virginias,” or Southern oysters, is the
most profitable part of the business in this State, and about 500,000
bushels are laid down annually. They do not live through the winter,
nor can they stand the voyage north during the summer; consequently,
the laying down is done in the spring, and the oysters are sold. during
the autumn.

The laws governing the private oyster-beds permit the leasing, by
any inhabitant of the State, ground below tidewater mark, and outside
of harbor lines, for five to ten years, at an annual rent of $10 per acre;
prohibit fishing at night, and punish infringements of the rights of
leesees by fing andimprisonment. About 1,000 acres are at present un-
der cultivation under the above regulations.

Connecticut.—Like Rhode Island this State has no natural oyster-beds
that are of important size or productiveness, when compared with her
artificial, private beds. Such as exist are larger and more numerous in
the western waters than in the eastern. Like the Rhode Island beds
they are fished principally fer “seed” for the private areas. The sys-
tem of cultivation in this State is similar, in all essential points, to that
described in Rhode Island, but is much more extensively adopted, the
area under cultivation being enormous. More attention is given to
“planting” shells and other suitable cultch than in Rhode Island, and
the farms differ from those of the other State in lying, generally, in much
deeper water. The Rhode Island planters seldom work in water of
more than three fathoms depth, while the Connecticut men are throw-
ing shells and oysters over in five and six, and even deeper water.
Another feature is the selection by the latter class of hard bottoms in
preference to any other. The use of steamers and the constant raking
and cleansing of the beds is another distinguishing characteristic of
Connecticut oyster growers. Large importations are made from Vir-
ginia and other waters, for fattening and bedding, and the business in
this particular is entirely similar in methods to that of Rhode Island,
and about the same quantity of oysters are imported. The native oys-
ter business, however, greatly exceeds the other, both in value and vol-
ume, and its large increase and success are due entirely to the system of
cultivation adopted and the laws protecting it. In this region, in
planting a new area, about 1,000 bushels of “ spawners ” (mother oysters)
are put down, to 7,000 or 8,000 bushels of shells. The spawners are
put over in May, about 40 bushels to an acre, and the shells or ‘‘eultch”
in July; young seed oysters are sometimes added. The expense is not
great, averaging about $40 per acre, and the yield per annum is usu-
ally double that amount.

The laws governing oyster planting and farming permit the purchase,
at $1 per acre, of unlimited areas, by residents of the State, provided no

[41] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

natural oyster bed is included. The ground is taxed as is also the crop.
At the present time some 20,000 acres have been disposed of.

New York.—Throughout the waters of this State are numbers of nat-
ural oyster-beds, but all are in a more or less impaired condition and
would by no means supply the demand if their efforts were not sup-
plemented by cultivation and importation from New Jersey and Dela-
ware and Chesapeake Bays. These importations are made directly, the
oysters coming in the shell, or opened, or are brought in cargoes and
‘*bedded” or “laid down” to fatten. A very prevalent method in this
region and to the southward, is to put oysters in fresh or slightly brack-
ish water before selling them. They are thus swollen and appear
fatter and plumper. The methods of cultivation are similar to those of
Connecticut and Rhode Island, though on the south shore of Long
Island not much dependence is placed upon foreign stock, while in the
East River there is considerable importation from other localities of
“seed” and “ spawners.” The cultivation of private beds is regulated
to a great extent by the authorities of the towns. The State law per-
mits the pre-emption of tracts for an indefinite period, the length de-
pending upon the continuity of the cultivation, and prohibits the use of
steam vessels. Along the north shore of Long Island these tracts are
beld on such uncertain tenure that no very extensive or remunerative
business can be done; but on the south shore of the island a better
system is in operation, and especially in Great South Bay, (Blue Point.
district) the oyster farms flourish. The practice there is to lease the
ground at a rent of $1 per annum for each acre. Taxes are also laid
ou the floating property and stock on the beds. The town of Brook-
haven, in whose jurisdiction these beds lie, received an income of about
$1,500 from the cultivators in 1880, and 371 acres were occupied. No
dredging is allowed, and natural beds are common to all residents of
the town. These beds are, however, being fast depleted of their stock,
and the supply is gradually failing.

The laws of the towns to the westward, on the south shore, generally
permit planting, but only by residents ; a rent of from $1 to $5 per acre
is required, and no dredging permitted.

New Jersey.—This State has many extensive, natural oyster beds,
both along the seaboard and in Delaware and Newark Bays; but the
natural-bed oysters rarely go directly to market. The usual custom is
to transplant them for a season to water and bottom differing from that
of their original locality. The Shrewsbury oysters are instances of the
good effects of this system. ‘Natural growth” is exceedingly rare in
those waters, and the celebrated stock comes originally from Newark
Bay and the south shore of Long Island. There is considerable plant-
ing of “Barnegat seed” (small oysters, indigenous to Barnegat Inlet)
all along the seacoast; but “shelling” arcas in hope of attracting spat 1s
seldom attempted, such areas being regarded as public property. Most
ot the inhabitants of the shores have, however, areas of more or less
extent under cultivation, and the practice of ‘freshening ” the oysters

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [42]

by exposing them to fresh water for a short period is prevalent. The
planting of Southern (Chesapeake or Virginia) stock is mostly confined
to the Cape May district and Delaware Bay, and most of the plants
come from the seacoast, about Chincoteague. The regulations govern-
ing the fishery are made by the towns or counties, and generally permit
the leasing, for iimited periods, of small areas to residents only. The
State law prohibits the use of the dredge and pre-emption of natural
beds.

In the Delaware Bay the law permits the leasing of larger areas and
the use of the dredge. Dredging vessels are licensed at $1 per ton. A
“collector” and “special officer”, who execute the laws and collect dues
and fines, are elected by the persons leasing oyster lots. One-half the
money from licenses, property sold, and fines goes to the “oyster fund,”
which is devoted to paying the expenses of guarding the leased beds.
The “seed” for these tracts comes usually from the natural beds, but
some is also imported from the Chesapeake and Virginia seacoast.

Delaware.—The natural oyster beds of this State lie on the western
side of Delaware Bay, and, though formerly very productive, do not now
yield a large crop. Probably 500 acres comprises the total productive
area. The State law permits the pre-emption of tracts of 15 acres of ‘‘ free
bottom” for $25. Natural beds are exempted, and citizens of the State
alone are permitted to “plant” oysters. An oyster guard-boat is pro-
vided, with officers and crew, and regulations governing the close-time,
night-fishing, &c., are enforced. The natural beds are worked contin-
uously for ‘“‘seed,” but the major portion of the “planted” oysters come
from the Chesapeake. The oysters are culled as dredged, but the “seed”
and small oysters are transferred to the ‘‘idle-ground,” a tract where
‘seed ” is growing, instead of being thrown back on the planted bed.
The plantations are located off Little Creek Landing, and no natural
beds legally exist, south of a line drawn eastward from Mahon Liver,
except in less than 3 feet of water.

Maryland.—The oyster business of this State is practically confined
to dredging the natural beds that exist to an enormous extent in Chesa-
peake Bay and its tributaries. There is little or no planting or cultiva-
tion, the natural areas having in the past supplied all the demands; but
of late those areas are becoming much exhausted, and the diminished
quantity and quality of the oysters is causing great complaint.

The laws which govern the fishery are, briefly, as follows: Dredging
is allowed from October 1 to May 1. Taking of oysters in other ways
from September 1 to May 1. Dredging is not allowed in the rivers or
creeks, or in their mouths. No steam dredges are allowed. <All dredgers
and *“ tongers” must be licensed. Violations of the law are punished by
not more than two years imprisonment nor $200 fine. For the enforce-
nent of these regulations there is established a State fishery force, con-
sisting of one steamer and several small sloops. The officers of this fish-
ery force and the sheriffs and constables of the different counties are em-
powered to make arrests and enforce the law.

[43] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

“Tonging,” that is, taking oysters by tongs, is permitted at any
point, and small tracts of bottom, contiguous to the land of the person
desiring to plant or cultivate oysters, may be secured for that purpose ;
very little in that line is, however, attempted.

Virginia.—This State has also extensive natural oyster beds, and,
consequently, but little attention is given to planting and cultivation.
Dredging is no longer allowed, but the law on that point is frequently
disregarded by the lawless dredging vessels of the bay. A certain
amount of arude species of cultivation is carried on, consisting merely in
transplanting oysters from one locality to another, but the yield is incon-
siderable when compared with that of the natural beds. These, like the
Maryland areas, are fast being exhausted by the excessive fishery. No
‘‘fishery force” is maintained, and the law is enforced by local peace
officers, occasionally assisted by the militia of the State.

None of the remaining Southern States are important oyster centers.
The fishery is confined to supplying the local demands, and no packing
or canning is attempted. As a general thing the natural beds afford
as many oysters, and those of as goed a quality, as is desired. In the
neighborhood of Charleston, South Carolina, Mobile, Alabama, New
Orleans, Louisiana, and Galveston, Texas, a rude system of cultivation,
similar to that of Virginia, is carried on to a limited extent.

On the Pacific coast, cultivators have made many attempts to intro-
duce the Eastern oyster or that from Mexican waters, but without ma-
terial success. The Eastern variety will live and increase in size, but
does not breed, and unless the supply is continually augmented by
fresh importations from the East the planted beds gradually die out.

The following statistical summary from the United States Census
Report shows the volume of the oyster industry of the whole country.

Table showing, by States, the persons employed, capital invested, and value of products in the
oyster industry.

Persons em- .
Grand total. ployed. Apparatus and capital.
nD D D 1 :
z a | ao a

F S yaa | ae z EA

States. aio Se | 3 ae 2 3

ee “3 2. a a g

Sa| SE o3 Buy) eae i eve rel ke :

Ba | 22 ae BAN AE 8 cee | 8 %

25 ce So) 5 ° aRe 2 ©

a a = a 5 Sos a =

3 a a 2 a SPA 5 a

A a) > A a) a A >
Motaleceeeees:. | 52, 805 | 22,195,370 $13, 438, 852 | 38,249 | 14,556 | $10, 583,295 | 4,155 | $3, 528, 700
Migs! Sige ener ear ae | @37, 500 Sil pa d0 res be | 3, 000
New Hampshire. -- 9 1, 000 6, 050 | 6 | 3 2;400) eos s52- 228 eo
Massachusetts. ..-- 896 36, 000 | 405, 550 | 409 | 487 303, 175 | 56 | 227, 000

Rhode Island ....-- 650 | 163, 200 | 356, 925 300 | 350 TTONOCO epee eae eae
Connecticut -.--.--| 1,006 336, 450 672, 875 | 672 | 33 361,200 | 100 | 69, 000
ING Who OF... 2... < 2,724 |} 1,043, 800 1,577,050 | 1,958 766 1,012,060 | 426 397, 000
New Jersey....---- 2,917 | 1,975,000 | 2,080,625 | 2, 605 312 | 1,057,000 | 575 530, 000
Pennsylvania os--|eea. 2. eSeesceenes 1) Sa 187s 500) eee see escavonchal Mioeeeee te cemetnes CES eE | Sane ee eee

a This quantity represents only the enhancement, the first cost being included in the Maryland and
Virginia statistics.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [44]

Table showing, by States, the persons employed, capital invested, §:c.—Continued.

Grand total. Be Hie Apparatus and capital.
zg z 2 ag |
ee 3 z 2 2 oi
es. me 4 n Cond
tg | oy 3 3° : z
: : i
= = %S ee i : A ys % $
S ad GH = o 8 Coos! A Ce
ce Lng S FI =| oF a 5 3
ites pert ba E g Z sae | a E
5 Z c Cress See 5 2
A Q > ry 7a) - Z
Delaware J-s2-<. 1 065" | 300, 000 $687, 725 £20 245 $145, 500 65 $50, 000
Maryland.......-.. | 23,402 | 10,600,000 | 4,730,476 | 13,748 | b9,654 | 6.034, 350 | 1,450 | 1,750, 000
AWingnitnttty spell spon. | 16,315 | 6,837,320 | 2,218,376 | 14,236 | ¢2,079 | 1,351, 100 | 1,317 460, 950
North Carolina ....} 1, 620 170, 000 60, 000 1, 000 20 68, 500 90 22, 500
South Carolina .-.-. 185 50, 000 20, 000 175 10 12, 250 10 2, 500
Geormiaes seco e ease 350 | 70, 000 35, 000 300 50 187500 isc2e eo) eee eee
Blonidatesseeeeuceee 166 78, 600 159, 50 140 26 28000 eeeee re enn
*Allaibam ais. cece nee 300 1°4, 500 44, 950 250 50 16, 000 20 6, C00
Mississippi .--...-- 60 25, 000 10, 000 50 10 3000 1) ayo scle stl ene ts tees
Wouisiana sees see 1, 400 295, 000 200,000 ' 1, 300 100 | 36,750 | 45 | 10, 750
WROSASW een ace eee 240 95, 000 47, 300 200 40 1 a a leer weebe eee
Washington Ter..- 85 15, 000 45, 000 75 10 GROOU S| Gee sere ete eeretatete
| Enpeues me of
. ya > O y 5
Apparatus and capital. Products. rae ue oe ee ai
| ration for market.d
Zz : wi S a cs)
é 3 E ii 3 2
States. = a a a 2. © & I
= 3 a g oe Be zZ ae
STi iN sss te ie S oa
° 55, ws D be os Ga ° S Lv
3 3 S68 oe 2s Rae 3 58
2 Co) 0) © of om 2 iI
See as = iS z :
5 Es EI a I eI 5 S|
A e > & a) be A q
Motaleeess. eee 11, $30 $708, 330 $712, 515 $5, 633,750 22,195,370 $9, 034, 861 |13, 047,922 $1, 368, 991
IMINO Ae sees seme 3 60 | 150 TO00RIK eee asec fee ek ead 75, 000 | 37. 000
New Hampshire. -- 5 | 300 | 100 2,000 | 1, 000 800 | 7, 000 | 5, 250
Massachusetts... .-. WL | 9,485 | 10, 690 56, 000 36, 000 41,800 | 514, 000 | 863,750
Rhode Island ...... } 100 | 14, 500 5, 500 90,000 | 163,200! 225,500] 274,300 Weg eileen
Connecticut .......| 563 | 33,165 | 19,385 239,650 | 336,450 | 386,625 | 515,0C0 |} 286, 250
New York: 2.2.:--- } 1,714 | 121,700 42, 460 451,900 | 1,043,309 | 1,453,300 | 1,065,000 | 533, 750
New Jersey...-----| 1,400 | 110,500 | 91,500 | 325,000 | 1,975,000 | 1,970,000 | 287,500 | 110, 625
Pennsylvania ....-- Pasa Teoe ea of tee ets bee ek ies ate en ls ec apt ae es | ERP re g 250,000 | 137, 500
Delawareecacase soe 300 | 12,000 | 10,000 €73, 500 300,000 | 825,00 | 834.500 | 74362, 725
Maryland 222. .0.22! 1, 825 | 130,520 | 161,480 |f3, 992, 350 |10, 600, 020 | 2,650, 000 | 7,623,492 | 2, 080, 476
Virginia .........- | 4,481 | 224,050 | 329,250 | 3336, 850 | 6, 837, 320 | 1,948, 686 | 1,622,130 | 269, 740
Noth Carolina ..-. 800 | 16,000 | 15, 000 15, 000 170, 000 60; 0008) ee soso eileen
South Carolina .... 100} 2,500) 2,250 5, 000 50, 000 20 1000 noe as.ac eietel meses ete
Geornia leno 100 | 10,000 | 3,500 5, 000 70, 000 355: QUO) Be die ce Nees
Hlornidateccc cesses | 110 | 8, 000 | 2, 000 WY, 000 78, 600 ODO eerie |paeterteterrat
Adabamasese cee sees 42 4, 000 3, 000 3, 000 104, 500 EEC lEoaooscseso|looous meer
Mississippi ....--.. 40 | 1, 000 | 500 1, 500 25, 000 TOMOOOTSSeieeeecs eee aeons 3
omisianar coe eens <2 120 | 3,000 | 18, 000 10, 000 295, 000 200, 000 | Sesorencoodilboocussas
erase eee eens 70 | 6,750} 2,000 9, 000 95, 000 ATES OOM Sete nese ee eee.
Washington Ter... 40) | 800 | 750 5, 000 15, 000 TSUN) | Sones can oG Ilocos sao:

a Of these, 2!5 are emploved in the canneries at Seaford.

b OF these, 8,864 are cployed in the various canneries.

e Of these, 1.578 are employed in the canneries.

d This includes planting, bedding, fattening, and transportation to distant markets in oyster-
S
e

vessels.
Of this, $28,500 is invested in the cannery interests at Seaford.
f Of this amount, $2,492,850 represents the cash capital invested in the cannery industry.

g Brought in winter by vessels registered in other States, the men engaged and the value of the
vessels being accounted for elsewhere.

h Of these, 184,500 bushels were packed at Seaford, and 650,000 bushcls were planted in Delaware
Bay.

i Of this, $22,225 represents the enhancement on those canned.

j) OF this, $119,350 represents the cash capital in the cannery interests, and $167,500 the value of
buildings and fixtures for canuing.

[45] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.
Mya arenaria, Linne.

This is the “clam” of the Massachusetts coast. The “long,” or “soft
clam,” of Long Island Sound and the Middle States, and the “ Mana-
nose” of the Southern States. Its range is from the Arctic Ocean to
South Carolina, but it is rare south of Cape Hatteras. It is particu-
larly large and abundant in Long Island Sound, and is also found on
the coasts of Alaska and California. It is fossil in the Post-Pliocene
formations of New England and the Southern States, and also in the
Miocene of Maryland. This species, though found on sandy shores in
the littoral zone, prefers a bottom where there is a mixture of mud or
gravel, or both, with the sand. It lives on outer beaches, but not in
loose sands, and generally is most abundant in the sheltered bays and
estuaries. Its burrows are permanent, and it is usually buried a foot or
more below the surface, its long siphons enabling it to reach the neces-
sary food and oxygen at that distance. The specimens of this shell
taken from outer sandy beaches are thinner, whiter, and more regular in
form than those found in the estuaries; they are also covered with a thin,
yellow epidermis. The specimens from the estuaries are rough, mud-col-
ored, and homely, and might easily be mistaken for another species. The
spawning season is during the spring or early summer months; the pro-
cess of reproduction has not yet been studied, and no definite informa-
tion is available regarding the embryonic or early life of the animal.
After they become perceptible, however, they are found anchored to the
bottom by aslender byssus, and at a very early stage of growth the foot is
developed, and with it the animal’s power of burrowing. They usually
exist in communities, or beds, on the flats, sinking themselves deep in the
sand and mud during the winter, and coming nearer the surface as the
warm weather approaches. ‘The clam” is eaten extensively in the
neighborhood of the Bay of Fundy, and the shell-heaps bear evidence
that this consumption is not of recent date, but that the Mya arenaria
furnished the Indians with food centuries ago. Extensive beds occur at
intervals along the coast of Maine, and the mouths of all the rivers and
estuaries contain this clam to more or less extent. It is indeed the most
jmportant shell-fish of the State, and the annual yield is estimated at
nearly 316,000 bushels, valued at about $88,472.

The Massachusetts fishery is the one of most consequence, and the
whole coast of that State was at one time saturated with clams, the
young sometimes being so abundant as to whiten the beaches and flats;
of late years, however, this abundance has not been so marked, and the
clams are disappearing through overfishing. They are ordinarily taken
by digging, but on the flats north of Boston, and in the neighborhood
of Plymouth and Duxbury, at one time they were so plentiful that plows
were used in turning them up to the surface.

Though the Mya arenaria is taken to a small extent in Buzzard’s Bay,
the next point of importance is Narragansett Bay and the Rhode Island

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [46]

shores. While in Massachusetts Bay the profitable season is during the
summer months, in Rhode Island the winter’s fishing brings in the largest
return; a large number of the inhabitants of the shores being engaged
during that season in securing soft clams. The whole coast of Long
Island Sound is prolific, and one or two points are especially noted for
the abundance, or superior size and quality, of the clams usually found.
Guilford, on the Connecticut coast, is especially prominent, the clams
from that vicinity sometimes being 6 and 8 inches long, a pound or more
in weight, and retailing in New Haven markets for $1.25 per dozen.
These clams are, however, only obtained at extremely low tides and
are comparatively scarce. About 10,000 of the ordinary size are taken
per annum, and are sold at from 40 to 60 cents per dozen. All along
the southern shore of the sound are prolific clamming grounds, the prin-
cipal product of the fishery being shipped to New York. The south
shore of the island, especially Rockaway Bay, also sends its quota to
supply the New York market. New York and Newark Bays formerly
supplied large numbers of soft clams, but of late years those areas
have ceased to yield anything of consequence. Along the Jersey coast
the annual yield is about 70,000 bushels, valued at about $29,500.
Southward of New Jersey the Mya arenaria ceases to be of commercial
importance, being eaten only by the negroes and a few of the inhabit-
ants of the shores.

During the last few years this mollusk was earried out from the East
to San Francisco Bay, apparently by accident, with a cargo of oysters
intended for transplanting. Those taken out, however, were sufficient
to abundantly stock the bay, and the soft clam is now found there in
large numbers.

There is very little in the methods of taking this species that calls for
peculiar apparatus or appliances. A spade and bucket are the usual
implements at the present day, the use of the plow having been but
local, and abandoned when the abundance of the crop decreased. At
Bridgeport, Conn., it is still used by Mr. Hawley, but only in cultivating;
he having instituted a system of cultivation on a scale of considerable
magnitude. His method is, briefly, to plow long furrows in the flats,
and lay his clams in them, some 6 or 12 inches apart. Some five years
or more are necessary before the crop is realized, but it then pays exceed-
ingly well.

The soft clam is very seldom eaten raw, but is cooked in a variety of
ways, usually as soup or chowder, and frequently fried. Some dealers
pickle them, and a small number are salted. They are to be bought in
the markets of any of the Middle or New England States, raw, and are
usually sold in strings of a dozen connected by a cotton cord.

While extensively eaten, the larger portion of the annual crop is util-
ized as bait by the cod and mackerel fishermen. Unless the prospective
fishing voyage is short, the clams used for this purpose are removed from
the shell, salted, and packed in barrels; but when only a short trip is

[47] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

undertaken, they are carried fresh in the wells or packed inice. The salt-
jngs are of two kinds: “full salting” and ‘slack salting,” or “covering.”
In the former method one bushel of salt is allowed to each barrel; in the
latter, only from half a peck to halfa bushel. About 12 bushels of clams
will make a barrel of salted bait, which is valued at $4. The practice of
taking mackerel in seines, and the use of the trawls in the cod fishing,
which are not baited with clams, is interfering with this branch of the
soft clam industry; but it is still of considerable importance.

The following is a summary of the annual product of the fishery, and
its value:

Total number of clams (Mya arenaria).-..... Ps Sal Mele ek 164, 195, 200
MEA TON OGL OF (OMSTCUS <i cio = = eee <2 oo 2 jane m apein iain aim 835, 974
Mee OUSH ED (AMeL GO). 6s Boos a oe ahs 3 wig ik wai s = el urarees $0. 395
sete te AIOU A TOME cnc aim a acd ain en aa ele a Adin n= $330, 523. 24

Mactra solidissima, Chemnitz.

This bivalve is the Mactra gigantea of Lamarck, the Mactra similis
of Say, and the Spisulu solidissima of Gray and other writers. It is
known commonly as the “sea,” “surf,” or “hen” clam, the various des-
ignations being applied indiscriminately. It exists from Florida and
the Gulf of Mexico to Labrador, and is abundant along the entire
coast. It is found fossil in the Post-Pliocene of Massachusetts, and ap-
parently in the Miocene of the Carolinas. The Mactra solidissimna prop-
erly belongs to sandy shores, and is not often found elsewhere, the
only other locality it seems to favor being the gravelly and shelly bottoms
of bays and sounds, where it is common and of great size. It exists in
sheltered waters and on open beaches, and generally from low-water
mark to 5 and 6 fathoms. It is very abundant and large on the outer
beaches of New Jersey and south side of Long Island. The shells vary
greatly both in size and form; they may be oval, elliptical, triangular,
compressed, or swollen, and are sometimes more than 6 inches long and
5 broad. As the siphon-tubes are very short, it does not burrow very
deeply, though its large and muscular foot enables it to do so quickly.
Large numbers are thrown up on the beaches by every storm, to be util-
ized as food by the birds, and as manure by man.

The *sea-clam” is not of commercial importance south of New Jersey,
and probably is more extensively sought in the Cape Cod region than
elsewhere. There they are worth $3 per barrel, but sellin the Boston
market, when fresh, at $4; in New York markets they are rare. Their
consumption as food is confined to the coasts principally, owing to the
ease with which the superior “long clam” and “round clam” can be ob-
tained, and on account of the toughness of the flesh of the large animals.
The young of this species are, however, quite equal in flavor and quality
to any clam of the coast.

While not holding a high place as an edible mollusk, the sea-clam

FISHERIES OF TIIE UNITED STATES. [48]

occupies an important position in the bait-supply of the ‘‘ Banks” fish-
ermen, and is sought mainly for that purpose. The clams are secured
by means of heavy, variously shaped, iron rakes, having from 15 to 25
large teeth, and fitted with wooden poles or handles from 20 to 30 feet
long. The fishing is carried on at low water in depths of about 8 feet,
and the catch is worth from 25 to 28 cents a bushel. The clams are
salted, packed in barrels, and dispatched to the various fishing ports,
such as the towns on Cape Cod, Boston, and Gloucester. About three-
fourths of the annual crop goes to Boston. In the fall 16 bushels of
clams are required to fill ohe barrel with ‘‘meats”; but in the spring
only 12 bushels are necessary. The actual cost of a barrel of clams,
salted and packed, in Boston, is about $5.75. The shells are also sold
at do cents a wagon-load, and used for road-making. The capital invested
in the business was, in 1880, $10,000, and between 250 and 300 boats
were employed.
Cyprina islandica, Lamarck.

_ This clam is the ‘“sea-clam” or “false quahaug.” It is found in
deep water, from Block Island to the Arctic. In depth it varies from
6 to 100 fathoms. It has not been found yet as a fossil in North
America,

The Cyprina islandica is rarely eaten, indeed rarely found, but is
available for food or bait. It is easily distinguished from the true
quahaug (Venus mercenaria) by its brown epidermis.

Ensatella americana, Verrill.

This is one of the species of the genus Solen, and has been variously
designated as Solen ensis and Solen americanus, by Gould, DeKay,
Adams, Linné, and others. It is the ‘“razor-clam” or “razor-fish” of
commerce; and is also called the “razor” and “knife-handle.” Its
distribution is extensive, the animal being found from Florida to Lab-
rador, and it iscommon along the whole coast, especially in Long Island
Sound, and at Great Egg Harbor, New Jersey. It is fossil in the Post-
Pliocene deposits of Maine, Massachusetts, Virginia, and South Carolina,
in the Pliocene of South Carolina, and in the Miocene of Maryland,
and North and South Carolina.

The Lnsatella americana is an inhabitant of sand flats and bars,
where the water is pure; it is found also, though not so commonly, on
the outer sand-beaches of the coast, but generally prefers more sheltered
localities. It usually exists at or just below low-water mark, and its
large elliptical-shaped burrows, extending 2 or 3 feet into the sand, are
easily recognized when the tide is out. If the holes are approached
with care at such times, an inch or two of the shell can be seen project-
ing above the surface; but the slightest jar of the sand is sufficient to
send the whole colony to the bottoms of the burrows; and the alarm
once given it is useless to attempt to dig them out, for the animals can

y
—

p>)

[49] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

penetrate the sand much faster than the spade can follow them. Even
when partially uncovered they often hold themselves so firmly in the
holes by means of their muscular foot, that the body can be entirely
withdrawn from the shell before the hold is relaxed. As their siphons are
very short, they are obliged to come to or near the surface in order to
obtain the necessary supplies of oxygen and food. Therefore, though
the animal may be out of sight, yet it is probably only sunk a short
distance in the sand, and a sudden thrust of a spade obliquely across
the direction of the burrow will frequently unearth the clam. The dis-
advantages of the short siphons are, however, made up by the great
activity of the animal and the wonderful power of its foot, which is its
excavating implement and organ of locomotion.

The razor-clam is eaten to some extent along the coasts of Long Island,
Long Island Sound, Massachusetts Bay, and coasts of New Jersey. It
is to be found in the New York markets, but the trade is not extensive,
the sweetish flavor of the flesh being unpalatable to the majority of
people. It is used as bait, also, especially about Cape Cod and on the
south shore of Long Island, and is devoured by several fishes, such as
the skates and tautog, that seem to have the power of rooting it out of
the sand. The New Jersey longshoremen also claim that the “ winkle”
(Fulgur carica) has the power of pulling the “razor” from its burrow
and devouring it.

Venus mercenaria, Linné.

This is the *“quahaug,” or “‘round clam,” sometimes known as the
“hardclam.” It is found from Florida to Massachusetts Bay, and thence
northward, though rare and local, to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It is
very common from Vineyard Sound southward, and is found fossil in the
Post-Pliocene formations of Massachusetts, Gardiner’s and Nantucket
Islands, Virginia and South Carolina, and in the Miocere of Maryland,
Virginia, and North and South Carolina. This species lives chiefly on
muddy and sandy flats, just below low-water mark ; but it is often found
above that line, and between tides is frequently left bare. It is more
abundant in estuaries than elsewhere. It can burrow but a short dis-
tance, having short siphon-tubes, and it is often seen crawling about on
the surface by means of the broad, muscular foot with which it excavates
its burrow. The shells are variable in color and form, and early writers
have made many varieties of this species on that account. Some forms,
especially those growing in estuaries, have dull, thick, rough shells,
sometimes white, sometimes stained, while shells from outer, sandy
beaches are thinner and more delicate, have raised, concentric ridges
or ribs, and are marked with streaks of brown or red. Other shells
have marked dark blue or purple discolorations outside the pallial line;
others are of dead white. All these have been described as distinct
species, but there is no structural difference; and intermediate forms
are to be found in every locality. As these clams grow old, the valves

228A: 4

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [50]

become rounded, and are then known to the fishermen as “snub-nosed”
or ‘bull-nosed” clams, and are sometimes a pound or more in weight.
Their flesh is then a dirty yellow, having lost its clean, white appear-
ance. Little is known, except by analogy, of the embryology of the
‘“quahaug” or of its rate of growth. Ingersoll states that the medium
sized sent to market are five years old, while Messrs. Foote & Co., of
New Haven, state that the medium-sized clams are but two years old.
Their rate of growth no doubt depends upon the locality; where there
is an abundant supply of food and lime, and the animal is protected, the
growth will be rapid; when otherwise, the growth will be slow. The
rate of growth is also said to influence the shape of the shell, the slower
the progress the greater being the convexity of the valves. During
the winter the “quahaugs” retire into the mud, disappearing from the
surface, and in the spring reappear in time for the principal fishery,
which begins then and extends throughout the summer, thus alternating
with the oyster season.

The “ quahaug” fishery is very extensive, this bivalve being, next to
the oyster, the most important on the coast; but the implements and
methods are simple in the extreme. Many clams are gathered by hand
as they crawl on the flats; many more are taken with straight rakes,
curved drag-rakes, and dredges. Oyster-tongs are also occasionally
used, but not frequently, as the clams do not live in sufficiently close
communities to make tonging profitable. The rakes are more generally
employed than any other implement, and in form and character they
vary with the locality. Some are merely slight modifications of the gar-
den rake; others are more elaborate, having curved teeth or long poles,
fitting them for dragging or dredging rather than shallow-water raking.
Specimens of the different varieties are exhibited, but, like the other
clam fisheries, that of the “‘quahaug” utilizes many implements designed
originally for other purposes, such as the sea-moss rakes, spades, shov-
els, &c.

“Count” clams, the largest size, bring the best prices, and in the
neighborhood of New York sell for $3 per barrel, wholesale. It takes
800 “counts” to make a barrel; and as 3 to 4 barrels, or 2,400 to 3,200
clams, is a good day’s catch, some idea of the productiveness of the New
Jersey flats and coast is gained from the foregoing. Smaller sizes are
sold at 60 cents or $1 per bushel, depending on the size, and some are
taken so small that 2,000 are required to fill a barrel; these, when about
one inch in diameter, are called “ tea-clams.” Another name is “ Little
Neck,” derived originally from a neck of land on the north shore of Long
Island, known as Little Neck, whose clams had a superior flavor; but
the demand for a young, small, and tender clam which has sprung up
of late years, and was supplied from the Little Neck stock, has caused
dealers generally to apply the term “ Little Neck” to all small clams.
They are used principally for pickling.

The fishery is not an expensive one, the whole outfit of the “ clammer”

—~4

[51] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

not requiring an expenditure of over $150, including boat, rake, and
baskets, and the pursuit is naturally followed by the poorer class of
people—men who are employed by the oyster-dealers in winter and are
out of work during the summer. The principal depots are New York
and Philadelphia, but a large number of clams are consumed through-
out the interior of the New England and Middle States, and every sea-
board town sends its quota to supply the demand. ‘To the southward
of the Delaware and Chesapeake this consumption diminishes very fast,
that of all the Southern States being estimated by Ingersoll at not more
than 50,000 bushels, valued at $20,000.

The summary of the annual product and value of the “‘ Quahaug” fish-
fishery for the whole coast is:

Number of clams taken, 326,245,800.

Number of bushels, 1,087,486,

Value, $657,747.

Mytilus edulis, Linné.

This is the ordinary “ black” or “‘edible” mussel. It is found from the
Arctic Ocean south to North Carolina, on the east coast, and south to
Monterey on the west coast of the United States. It is very abundant
from New Jersey northward and is found fossil in the Post-Pliocene
formations of most of the localities north of Rhode Island. It is iden-
tical with the common mussel of Europe in all respects.

The Mytilus edulis is most abundant in the shallow and brackish waters
of bays and estuaries, but flourishes well in any situation where there is
a little mud and some solid object to which it can attach itself. The
coasts of New Jersey and Long Island are especially adapted to it, and
it is found in those regions in immense numbers. It has also increased of
late years in Chesapeake Bay and tributaries. It grows very rapidly,
reaching maturity, under favorable circumstances, in one season. It is
not confined to shallow waters, but exists in the deep as well, having been
taken off the coast of Maine in 40 and 50 fathoms. The shells of those
living in sheltered localities and on sandy bottoms are, however, much
more delicate in texture and brilliant in color than those inhabiting ex-
posed situations. The former are often beautifully marked with alter-
nating bands of different colors or are pale yellow or translucent horn
color. The latter are thicker, of a dull brown or bluish-black color, and
often much distorted.

The breeding season begins early in the spring, and Verrill states that
he has found immense numbers of the size of a pin’s head as early as
the middle of April. The mussel attaches itself to its support by means
of a “ byssus” or silk-like thread, spun from the foot, and as it has the
power of relinquishing its hold on the ends of the threads at any time, it
can change its location at will, and by means of the delicate byssus, can
even climb the perpendicular sides of piles and rocks. On the muddy
bottoms of bays and sounds these mussels frequently exist in large

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [52]

patches or beds, and such local ities are the favorite resorts of the preda-
tory fishes, mollusks, crustaceans, and radiates. The star-fishes espe-
cially frequent these areas and destroy immense numbers of mussels.
All the injurious Gasteropods prey upon them more or less, wherever
found, and the tautog, drum, and other fishes devour the adults, while
the scup andslike smaller fish feed upon the young.

Though used as food to a limited extent on both coasts of the United
States, there is no organized fishery devoted to the capture of the mussel.
In common with many other shell-fish not known in the markets, they
are eaten occasionally by the inhabitants of the coast, and of late years
some trade is springing up on the coasts of Connecticut and Long Island.
Most of the mussels sold for food go to New York and are there disposed
of in the natural state, but more frequently are boiled and pickled. In-
habiting the interior of the shell of the mussel is a small messmate—the
Pinnotheres maculatus, or mussel-crab—whicbh, like the little oyster-crab,
is a delicious morsel. While not as yet extensively utilized as food, the
mussels, like many other shell-fish, are frequently used for fertilizing the
ground, the farmers of Long Island and New Jersey securing them by the
wagon-load for that purpose. In time, however, they will probably oe-
cupy as prominent a place in the food supply of the American seaboard
as they do on the coasts of Europe. The value of the mussel fishery in
1879-80 is estimated by Ingersoll at $37,000, which represents a yield
of 600,000 bushels.

Modiola plicatula, Lamarck.

This species, known as the Ribbed-mussel, is found from Georgia to
Casco Bay, Maine, and exists, though more rare and local, further north.
It is very abundant from Vineyard Sound to the southward, especially
along the coast of New Jersey, and has been reported of late as increas-
ing in Chesapeake Bay. It is more abundant in the neighborhood of
estuaries and salt marshes, or on muddy shores, and is usually found
about high-water mark, where it is left uncovered for a greater part of
the time by the tide. Along the edges of marshes they are sometimes
crowded so thickly as to form a stratum 6 inches or more in thickness.
Like the Modiola modiolus, this species is not of commercial import-
ance. It is very seldom eaten by man, though it is devoured by many
fishes, especially the ‘“‘drums,” and by star-fish and the carnivorous
Gasteropods. In company with an allied species, the Modiola hamatus,
and the Mytilus edulis, it is used quite extensively on the New Jersey
coast for fertilizing ground. The presence, which is by no means in-
frequent, of this mussel on an oyster-bed, is undesirable, the bunches
and masses held together by the byssus, attracting the various enemies,
that, though they came for the mussels, remain to devour the more
valuable oysters.

[53] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.
Modiola modiolus, Turton.

This, the great “horse-mussel,” is found from Greenland southward to
New Jersey on the Atlantic, and from the Arctic south to Monterey on
the Pacific coast. It is more abundant north of Cape Cod than to the
southward, and is found from low-water mark to 80 fathoms. It is fossil
in the Post-Pliocene formations of Massachusetts and Canada. The
horse-mussel is usually located in crevices between rocks, or bedded in
the gravel; and along the coasts is almost entirely confined to rocky bot-
toms. Its large size and brown, hairy epidermis, sufficiently distin-
guish it from other species. Though occasionally used for bait, and
available for food, it is at present of no commercial importance.

Pecten irradians, Lamarck.

This is the common “scallop” of the eastern coast. It extends from
Texas and the Gulf of Mexico to Cape Cod, and is occasionally found
north of that point. It is fossil in the Post-Pliocene of North Carolina
and Florida, in the Pliocene of South Carolina, and in the Miocene of
Maryland.

The “seallop” is found on sandy and shelly bottoms, in sheltered lo-
calites, but usually prefers those points where the eel-grass abounds and
where there is more or less mud onthe bottom. During the summer the
young shells may be seen clinging to the eel-grass or sea-weed in large
numbers, and inthe autumn the mature animals are found in the shallow
waters along the shores in great abundance. Also after storms great
quantities are thrown upon the beaches. But the scallop is nomadic;
no one locality can be sure of its crop, no matter how abundant the
animals may have been during the previous seasons. Indeed, some of
the harbors of Long Island are visited by scallops in numbers but once
in four and five years, and at other points the appearance and disappear-
ance is irregular. Unlike many other bivalve mollusks, the Pecten irra-
dians is not fixed immovably to some foreign object; is not anchored by
a network of threads or “byssus,” nor is it compelled to creep slowly
along the surface of the mud or sand by means of a “foot” however
muscular and strong. Onthecontrary, itisa very activeswimmer, and by
opening and energetically closing its valves, it forces the water from the
gill-eavity, the reaction driving the animal backward through the water.
It is very watchful, quickly perceiving an enemy, and when alarmed,
deserts the matted leaves of eel-grass, its usual habitation, and takes
to the bottom. In moving from place to place, the animals make a suc-
cession of leaps to the surface, each time advancing some yards on their
journey, and great schools of those curions shells are sometimes seen
thus darting about in the water. The spawning takes place during the
summer, and continues as late as September. The size of the shells at
that time is shown in the series illustrating the rate of growth. The
growth during the autumn months is quite rapid, but it is claimed that

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. a Paes

further advancement is stopped as soon as the winter sets in. About the
middle of July or first of August following, when the scallops are one
year old, the growth begins again, and is very great during the succeed-
ing autumn months. At this age they are marketable. The increase
in size after the first year is not very great, and scallops two and three
years old are not only difficult to find, but are worthless for market pur-
poses. It is the general impression among the fishermen that the ani-
mals see but one spawning season, and die during the succeeding winter.
Nodoubt the excessive fishery has had itsinfluence in producing this opin-
ion, and probably the scarcity of scallops two and three years old, is due,
to some extent, to the persistent search for those of a marketable age, or
those fifteen and eighteen months old.

The method of conducting the fishery varies somewhat with the
locality, but is essentially as follows: The fishing boats, especially in
Narragansett and Peconic Bays, which are the principal centers of the
industry, are usually cat-boats, small sloops, or sharpies, and are pro-
vided with six, eight, ten, and twelve dredges or scrapes of the pat-
terns exhibited. These are put over from the sides and stern of the
boat, and towed after her as she sails backward and forward over the
dredging-ground. As soon as a dredge is full it is hauled in and
emptied on the “culling” board, which extends across the boat, and
then put over again. The scallops are then separated from the other
matter brought up by the dredge. In calm weather smaller boats or do-
ries are employed, one man pulling and another tending the dredges, and
occasionally, in shoal and clear water, a dip-net with along handle is
used. The best grounds for dredging are those where there is only a
thin layer of mud over the sand. The only part of the scallop that is
used is the great white abductor muscle, known to the fishermen as the
eye” or “heart.” This is extracted from the shell, the process being
termed “cutting out”, by a dextrous motion, or rather combination of three
motions of the short knife of the opener. Itis wonderful to witness the
extraordinary rapidity with which the “cutting out” is done; but though
the process appears less fatiguing than oyster-opening, it is not so rapid,
the latter process requiring but two motions instead of three. In the
early part of the season a bushel of scallops will yield one-half gallon
of meats, but in December the animals have increased so much in
size, that a full gallonis produced from the same quantity. The ‘‘meats”
are packed in wooden boxes or tubs, and transported, if possible, without
ice, as contact with that article impairs the flavor. The trade is confined
principally to to the New England States and New York markets. The
meat has a fresh, sweetish, and somewhat insipid flavor, not usually ap-
preciated by the uneducated palate. Itis seldom eaten raw, but is usu-
ally cooked, being fried or boiled; some also are pickled. In addition
toits commercial importance, the Pecten irradians furnishes food to
many important edible fishes, such as the cod and others; it is also preyed
upop by all the carnivorous Gasteropods, and by the star-fish and crabs,

"

[55] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

The principal fishing localities on the east coast of the United States
are Buzzard’s Bay, Massachusetts, Greenwich, Rhode Island, Peconic
Bay, Long Island, and Morehead City, North Carolina. On the west
coast, Wilmington and San Diego; but there is no regular trade in
scallops in those localities.

In 1880 the product and value of the industry was:

Number of gallons, 72,063,

Value, $28,825.20.

Pecten tenwicostatus, Mighels.

This is the “Great” or “ Giant” scallop, and is found from New Jersey
to Labrador, but is rare and local south of Cape Cod. It is generally
found in comparatively deep water, existing in the Bay of Fundy in
over 100 fathoms, but may be taken in as little as 2 and 3 fathoms.
This species is not abundant nor of commercial importance. It is avail-
able for food, however, and is occasionally used as such. It is distin-
guished from the common scallop by its size, smooth surface, and pecu-
liar, reddish-brown epidermis.

a

This is the Arca pexata of Say and the “Bloody Clam” of the fisher-
men. It is found from Florida and northern shores of the Gulf of Mex-
ico to Cape Cod, and is local but rare, north of that point. The proper
home of this animal is in off-shore shallow bottoms. It is sometimes
found in other places, attached by a byssus, but not generally. It is
occasionally used for bait, but otherwise is not of importance. The
term “bloody,” applied to them, and the Scarpharca transversa, a sim-
ilar shell, is due to their discharge of a sanguineous liquor when opened.
They are thus, and by their rough, dark, hairy epidermis, readily dis-
tinguished.

The various species of star-fishes are supposed to prefer the “ bloody”
clams to all other food, and the presence of the Argina pexata on or
about an oyster-bed is therefore a welcome sight to the planter.

Argina pexata, Gray.

Glycimeris generosa, Gould.

This is a Pacific coast species, known as the ‘‘Geoduck” or “ Giant
Clam”, having an extensive range, but not existing in very large num-
bers. It is found in sheltered localities on the coast, from Puget Sound
to San Diego; it lives in rather deep water, rarely being found except
below extreme low-water mark. Its long siphons permit great depth
of the burrows, which usually penetrate the sandy-mud bottoms in
which the animal lives, some two or three feet. The northern animals
are the largest and most abundant.

The Geoduck is said to be of very fine flavor, but too rich to be used
constantly as food. One animal is sufficient for an entire meal. Owing
to its scarcity, it is not at present eaten extensively.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [56]
Siliqua patula, Dixon.

This species, the “Flat Razor Clam”, is found from Alaska to Cali-
fornia, and is especially abundant along the northern coast. It grows
to a length of four or five inches, and is covered with a glossy, rich
brown epidermis. It does not burrow very deep, and is esteemed de-
licious food, but is not extensively used.

Platyodon cancellatus, Conrad.

This is the “Date Fish”, a species closely resembling Mya arenaria,
found along the coast of California from San Francisco southward.
It exists in great abundance in Baulinas Bay and at Santa Barbara. lis
habits are essentially those of the “soft clam”, and it forms one of the
staple food shell-fish of the Pacific coast.

Zirphea crispata, Morch.

This mollusk, though widely distributed along the Atlantic coast of
the United States, is not of commercial importance, while on the Pacific
codSt, where it is known as the “Date Fish,” it is found in the markets
and eaten by numbers of people. The Pacific variety is, however, con-
siderably larger than that ordinarily found on the eastern coast. It
is a northern species, not occurring south of Eastern Connecticut, and
extending to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, in the Atlantic, and on the west
coast being rarely found south of San Francisco, It is fossil in the
Post-Pliocene of Maine. All the Pholadide are borers, and Z. crispata is
no exception, but it is not very destructive, usually preferriug mud and

clay to wood.
Macoma nasuta, Conrad.

This species, called the “ Tellen”, is very common on the Pacific coast,
and has a wide range, extending from Kamschatka to Mexico, but is
rare south of San Diego. It is abundant in San Francisco Bay, and it
was evidently eaten largely by the aborigines, as the shell-mounds in
the vicinity of the bay are largely composed of shells of this species.
It inhabits muddy flats, burrowing quite deeply, and reaches the water
by its two small, red siphons. The usual length is two inches. It is
eaten on the Pacific coast by all classes.

Tapes staminea, Conrad.

This species, known as the ‘Carpet-Shell”, “‘ Little-Neck Clam,” and
«‘Hard-Shelled Clam”, is abundant on the whole Californian coast, and
is found in all the markets. Tomales Bay furnishes a large number, 1s
do other points where the animal is to some extent protected, as at
Baulinas. It is usually found between tide-marks, buried one or two
feet in the bottom, which may be either muddy or stony. This and
other species designated as ‘ Little-Neck Clams” occupy a similar place

£

[57] FISHER'ES OF THE UNITED STATES.

in San Francisco markets to that of the small-sized Venus mercenaria,
used so extensively in the Eastern States.

Tapes laciniata, Cpr., is a closely allied species, and has about the
same distribution as 7. staminea. No distinction is made in the markets
between them, both being sold as “ Little-Neck” or “‘ Hard-Shell” clams.
They are the most abundant and extensively used of all the clams in-
digenous to the coast; but of late, since the introduction of the Ilya
arenaria, they have been supplanted in the markets to a great extent
extent by that animal.

Chione suceincta, Val., and Chione simillima, Sby., are also known in
the markets as ‘Little-Neck” clams, but are not so abundant as Tapes.
They live on sandy beaches on the California coast, and especially in
Monterey Bay and other sheltered localities, but are not found in suffi-
cient numbers to be of much importance as a food supply.

Saxidomus aratus, Gould.

This is the “ Round Clam” of the Pacific coast. It is found from San
Francisco to the southward. to San Diego, but is not abundant. Mon-
terey and San Diego produce it in largest numbers. It is probably only
a southern variety of the northern shells of this genus.

Teredo.

There are four species of the genus Teredo found on the coast of the
United States, and also an allied species, the Xylotrya jimbriata, of Jeft-
reys, having similar habits. The Teredo navalis, Linné, is the most
abundant, and extends from Vineyard Sound to Florida. The Teredo
megotara, Hanley, is found from Massachusetts Bay to South Carolina.
The Teredo Thomsonii, Tryon, is indigenous, but its distribution has not
yet been thoroughly determined; the Teredo dilatata, Stimpson, occurs
from Massachusetts to Florida, and the X. fimbriata has the same range.
These creatures are usually known as ship-worms and inhabit submerged
wood-work, floating or stationary, and frequently do great damage.
An instance is recorded of the piles of a wharf at Cape Henry having
been destroyed in nine days by their ravages. Though they burrow
into all submerged wood-work, it is for protection and not for food, and
the excavations once made are neatly lined by the animal with shelly
material. While at the surface the holes are very small, having beer
made by the young Teredos; as they go deeper, they gradually grow
larger, and are sometimes 10 inches in length and one-quarter inch in
diameter. The tubes, however they may enter the wood, u-ually turn,
at a short distance from the surface, in a direction parallel with the
grain. The burrow of one animal never interferes with, or crosses that
of another, and a thin partition of wood is always left between the tubes.
The tendency to follow the grain is not due to necessity, for the Teredo
can bore through the hardest knots; nor is it necessary that the tubes
should be straight, for they are often very crooked aud tortuous.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [58]

The animals grow very rapidly, attaining maturity in one season.
The young are produced in May:and in the summer months, and during
the early stages of development are free-swimming. While embryonic,
they have organs both of sight and hearing, and are also provided with
a “foot”; but as they develop, their powers of sight and swimming
are lost. When they finally locate themselves they are about the size
of the head of a pin, but this size rapidly increases. The destructive
powers of the “ship-worm” are well known, and probably there is no
effective remedy except that in use for protecting the bottom of vessels,
viz., copper sheathing. The various poisonous substances applied to
timber are of no use, as the animal does not live on the wood, but uses
it as a location only. The only remedies likely to succeed are those
which will prevent an entrance. The United States Engineer Corps
has experimented, at the Delaware Breakwater, for some years, with

wood that had been treated with creosote, and the experiments appear

to have been successful; but whether the success is accidental or not
has not yet been determined.

Martesia cuneiformis, Gray.

This is another species of the genus Pholas, and is known as the “ Bor-
ing Pholad,” of the oyster-beds, It is very common and abundant in
Chesapeake Bay, and is found in any waters to which Chesapeake oys-
ters have been transported. It lives in small chambers, which it exca-
vates in the shells of oysters or other bivalves, but rarely does any
serious damage, the efforts of both oyster and pholad being directed to
the prevention of complete penetration of the valve. The pholad ap-
pears to flourish best in brackish water, and in Chesapeake Bay was most

abundant on oyster-beds that had evidently deteriorated. Their pres-—

ence, therefore, in large numbers is considered to be one of the indica-
tions of deterioration.

CATALOGUE.

MOLLUSCA CEPHALOPODA,
SQUIDS AND CUTTLES.

Ommastrephes illecebrosa, Verrill. Squid, Flying Calamary, Sea-arrow.
Northeast coast of North America.
33655. New England coast. United States Fish Commission.
33060, Hastport, Maine. United States Fish Commission.

Loligo pealii, Lesueur. Common Squid. South Carolina to Massa-
chusetts Bay.
33056. New England coast. United States Fish Commission.

Loligo brevis, Blainville. Calamary or Ink-fish. Southern and south-
eastern coasts of the United States.

33661. Coast of Louisiana. United States Fish Commission.

Architeuthis princeps, Verrill. Giant Squid. Coast of Newfoundland
and adjacent waters. Model made by Mr. J. H. Emerton, from
measurements and descriptions of a Squid thrown ashore at Cat-
alina, Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, September 24,1877. Princi-
pal dimensions: Length of body, 8 feet; Length of head,
1$ feet; length of tentacles, 30 feet; length of Ist pair of arms,
84 feet; length of 2d pair of arms, 95 feet; length of 3d and 4th
pair of arms, 11 feet; greatest diameter of body, 24 feet.

Octopus punctatus, Gabb. Octopus, or Devil Fish. Northwest coast of
the United States. Model made by Messrs. J. H. Emerton
and Wm. Palmer, from inspection of small specimens, and pub-
lished measurements and descriptions. Length of longest
arms, 16 feet; length of shortest arms, 13 feet; diameter of
circle swept by arms, 18 feet.

MOLLUSCA GASTEROPODA.
SEA SNAILS.

Useful for food or bait.

Buccinum undatum, Linné. Whelk. Long Island Sound to Greenland.
Not common south of Cape Cod, except in deep water. Very
abundant on coast of Maine.

33637. Vineyard Sound. United States Fish Commission.
[59]

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [60]

Fulgur carica, Conrad, Periwinkle, Winkle, and Wrinkle; also Ribbon
Whelk.
(See *‘ Injurious Gasteropods.”)

Sycotypus canaliculatus, Gill. Periwinkle, Winkle, and Wrinkle; also
Hairy Whelk.
(See “‘Injurious Gasteropods.”)

Littorina littorea (Linné), Menké. Pennywinkle, or Sea Snail. North-
eastern coast, from Connecticut to Nova Scotia.
33654. Wood’s Holl, Mass. United States Fish Commission.

Purpura lapillus, Lamarck. Sea Snail.
(See “Injurious Gasteropods.”)

Ilyanassa obsoleta, Stimpson. Sea Snail. Whole southern and eastern
coast of the United States, but rare and local north of Cape
Cod.

33633. Vineyard Sound. United States Fish Commission.

Lunatia heros, Adams.

(See “Injurious Gasteropods.”)
Neverita duplicata, Stimpson.

(See “ Injurious Gasteropods.”)
Haliotis (several species). See below.

4 Useful by producing Pearl] shell.

Trochiscus norrissii, Sowerby. Turban Shell.
32830. Coast of California. H. Hemphill.

Pomaulax undosum, Chemnitz.
32832. Coast of California. Natural state. H. Hemphill.
32831. Coast of California. Prepared to show pearly layers. H. Hemp-
hill.

Haliotis (various species). Abalones or Sea-Ears. Pacific coast of the
United States from San Francisco southward. Coast of Lower
California and Mexico. Not common south of Magdalena Bay,
Lower California.

Haliotis kamchatkana.

32838. Coast of Alaska. J. G. Swan.

Haliotis corrugata, Gray. Rough Sea-Kar.

32890. Coast of Southern California. W.H. Dall.

Haliotis rufescens, Sowerby. Abalone or Red Sea-Ear.
32900. Monterey, California. H. Hemphill.

Haliotis cracherodii, Leach. White Abalone.

32223. Coast of California. Paul Schumacher.
32899. Monterey, California. H. Hemphill.

[61] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES,

Haliotis splendens, Roe. Splendid Sea-Har.

32821. Coast of California. Paul Schumacher.
32898. Coast of Southern California. H. Hemphill.

Manufactured state of Haliotis shell.

29302. Furnished by A. B. de Frece & Co., 428 Broadway, New York.
29248. Furnished by Harvey & Ford, Philadelphia, Pa.

Manufactured state of various American Pearl shells derived from Gas-
teropods.

29301. Variety furnished by A. B. de Frece & Co., 428 Broadway, New
York.

Affording dye, as well as ornamental.

Phyllonotus brassica, Lamarek. Purple-shell.
2911. Coast of Lower California. W. H. Dall.

Phyllonotus bicolor, Valenciennes. Purple-shell.
02912. West coast of America. W.H. Dall.

Affording cameo and porcelain stock.

6968. Cameo-shell (Cassis rufa), used for cameo cutting. Florida. Dr.
Wm. Stimpson.

Injurious, by destroying food-producing mollusks.

Fulgur carica, Conrad. Periwinkle, Winkle, and Ribbon-Whelk. East-
ern coast of the United States from Florida to Cape Cod; abun-
dant in Vineyard and Long Island Sounds.

33635. Vineyard Sound. United States Fish Commission.
33498, Oyster Bay, Long Island. H. A. Townsend.

33453. East Greenwich, RI. <A. A. Wilson.

33613. Egg capsules. East Greenwich, R. I. A. A. Wilson.

Sycotypus canaliculatus, Gill. Periwinkle, Winkle, Wrinkle, and Hairy
Whelk. Whole eastern and southern coasts of the United States
as far as Cape Cod; abundant in Vineyard and Long Island
Sounds.

33401. Oyster Bay, Long Island. H. A. Townsend.

30454, East Greenwich, RTI. <A. A. Wilson.

33611, Great South Bay. Blue Point, Long Island. F.C. Dayton.
33636. Vineyard Sound. United States Fish Commission.

33612. Egg capsules. Great South Bay. F.C. Dayton.

Urosalpinx cinerea, Stimpson. Drill or Rough Whelk. Eastern coast
of the United States to Massachusetts Bay; local farther north
to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence; west coast of Florida; abundant
from Virginia to Cape Cod, especially on oyster-beds.

33632. Vineyard Sound. United States Fish Commission.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [62]

Purpura lapillus, Lamarck. Drill or Whelk. Long Island Sound to
Arctic Ocean ; rare and local south of Cape Cod; abundant on
northern coasts of New England and Nova Scotia.

33652. Wood’s Holl, Mass. United States Fish Commission.

Tunatia heros, Adams. Sea Snail. Georgia to Gulf of Saint Lawrence
and Labrador; abundant and large on coasts of New Jersey and
Long Island.

33653. Vineyard Sound. United States Fish Commission.

Neverita duplicata, Stimpson. Sea Snail. Massachusetts Bay to North-
ern Florida; Northwestern Florida to Yucatan; local and un-
common north of Cape Cod; abundant fromNantucket south-
ward.

33455. East Greenwich, R. I. <A. A. Wilson.
33610. Great South Bay, Blue Point, Long Island. F. C. Dayton.
33657. Vineyard Sound. United States Fish Commission.

Crepidula plana, Say. Sea Snail or Slipper Shell. Massachusetts Bay
to Florida; northern shores of Gulf of Mexico; local northward
of Massachusetts to Gulf of Saint Lawrence; common in Vine-
yard and Long Island Sounds.

33658. Vineyard Sound. United States Fish Commission.

Crepidula fornicata, Lamarck. Sea Snail or Boat Shell. Casco Bay,
Maine, to Florida; northern shores of Gulf of Mexico; local
north of Massachusetts; abundant from Vineyard Sound south-
ward.

33659. Vineyard Sound. United States Fish Commission.

While the above species of Crepidula are neither directly injurious nor
beneficial, they are often associated with destructive Gasteropods. In
addition, their absence from an oyster-bed is one of the many indica-
tions of its deterioration.

MOLLUSCA LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.
BIVALVE SHELL-FISH.

Affording food or bait.

Ostrea virginica, Gmelin. American Oyster.
— Map showing general distribution along the eastern coast of
North America.

— Map showing location of oyster-beds along the coast of Prince
Edward’s Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and shores of
the Gulf of Maine and Massachusetts Bay.

— Series of maps showing the distribution of oysters, and approxi-
mate areas and positions of natural and artificial oyster-beds,
along the coast of the United States, from Cape Cod to the Rio
Grande.

[63] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

On these maps, red indicates natural oyster-ground; blue, artificial
or “ planted” beds; purple, interspersed natural and artificial beds ; and
pink, “‘scattered” oysters. Thestrength of the tinting indicates, roughly,
the quality, and the variations in color the character, of the several areas.

Catalogue of maps of oyster beds.

Shell-Fish Commission of Rhode Island
and Lieut. Francis Winslow, U.S. N.
Shell-Pish Commission of Connecticut
and Lieut. Francis Winslow, U.S. N.
Shell-Fish Commission of Connecticut
and Lieut. Francis Winslow, U.S. N.
Shell-Fish Commission of Connecticut
and Lieut. Francis Winslow, U.S. N.

Locality. Scale. Compiler.
Cane CodtBay (extinct beds))/-----------+++~ <2 soe 1-80, 000 | Mr. Edward P. Cook.
South coast, Massachusetts, ‘‘ Nantucket Shoals to | 1-80,000 | Mr. Vinal N. Edwards.
Muskeget Channel.”
South coast, Massachusetts, Buzzard’s Bay, ‘‘Mus- | 1-80, 000 Do.
keget Channel to Buzzard s Bay.”
Narragansett Bay, ‘‘Cuttyhunk to Block Island” ..| 1-80, 000
Long Island Sound, ‘‘ Point Judith to Plum Island ”’.| 1-80, 000
Long Island Sound, “Plum Island to Welch’s | 1-80, 006
Point.”
Long Island Sound, ‘‘ Welch’s Point to New York”’.| 1-80, 000
South coast of Long Island, ‘‘Block Island and | 1-80,000 | Lieut. Francis Winslow, U.S. N.
Montauk Point.”
South coast of Long Island, ‘Great South Bay and | 1-80, 000 Do.
Tire Island.”
SNewiork Bay andEarbor ii 24.42 2266 2 cei c2 1-80, 000 Do.
Coast of New Jersey, ‘‘Sandy Hook to Barnegat In- | 1-80, 000 Do.
let.”
Const of New Jersey, ‘‘Barnegat Inlet to Absecom | 1-80, 000 Midshipman J. B. Blish, U.S. N.
Inlet.”
re of New Jersey, ‘‘Absecom Inlet to Cape | 1-80, 000 Do.
fa aati
ile ine Bay, “Delaware Entrance” -...-...--....-- 1-80, 000 | Do.
Welhiware Ravan River pe sta alec see aes Se 1-80, 000 Do.
Sea-coast of Maryland, ‘Cape May to Tsleof Wight’’-| 1-80, 000 | Lieut. Francis Winslow, U.S. N.
Sea-coast of Maryland, “Isle of Wight to Chinco- | 1-80, 000 Do.
teague Inlet.’
Sea-coast of Virginia, ‘‘Chincoteague Inlet to Hog | 1-80, 000 Do.
“Island.”
Sea-const of Virginia, ‘‘ Hog Island to Cape Henry”’.| 1-80, 000 Do.
- Entrance to Chesapeake Bay, Hampton Roads, | 1-80, 000 | Do.
&e,"
Chesapeake Bay, ‘‘ York River to Pocomoke Sound”’.| 1-80, 000 Do.
Chesapeake Bay, ‘ Pocomoke Sound and Entrance | 1-80, 000 Do.
to Potomac River.’
Chesapeake Bay, ‘‘ Potomac River to Choptank | 1-80, 000 Do.
River.”’
Chesapez ake Bay, ‘“‘Choptank River to Magothy | 1-80, 000 Do.
liver.
Chesapeake Bay, ‘‘ Magothy River to Head of Bay ’’.| 1-80, 000 Do.
Potomac River, ‘‘Entrance to Piney Point” ..-."--. | 1-60, 000 | Do.
Potomac River, “Piney Point to Lower Cedar | 1-60, 000 Do.
Point.”
Rappahannock River, ‘‘ Entrance to Deep Creek” --| 1-60, 000 Do.
Rappebaunocs River, “Deep Creek to Occupacia | 1-60, 000 Do.
Creek.’
York River, ‘‘ Entrance to King’s Creek” .......-.- 1-60, 000 | Do.
York River, “King’s Creek to West Point” ....-.. 1-60, 000 Do.
James River, ‘Newport News to Point of Shoals | 1-40, 000 Do.
Strait.”
James River, ‘‘Point of Shoals Strait to Sloop | 1-40, 000 Do.
Point.”
South Carolina, ‘ Winyah Bay” 2:--..-.s.22----. _..-| 1-40,000 | Mr. G.S. Hobbs.
SOMtCATOlMa BOLUS HBAY y= cecemmbe acetal see 1-60, 000 Do.
South Carolina, ‘‘Long Island to Hunting Island” -.| 1-80, 000 Do.
Scuth Carolina and Georgia, ‘‘ Hunting Island to | 1-80, 000 Do.
Ossabaw Island.”
Georgia, ‘‘ Savannah to Sapelo Island” .....-...-.--- 1-80, 000 Do.
Geo cia, Sapelo Isl: ind to Amelia Island” 1-80, 000 Do.
Georgia ‘and Flor ida, ‘Cumberland Sound and St. 1-80, 000 Do.
Johu’s River.’
Florida, '‘St. Augustine Inlet to Halifax River”. .-.| 1-80, 000 Do.
Florida, ‘‘ Halifax River to Mosquito Lagoon”’...... | 1-80, 000 Do.
Meron Soothe oho i eee c Se sass 5 yeee ..-.| 1-80, 000 iyo:
MionidaseMampa Bayo ase, kone cen tisae eee et moe 1-80, 000 | Mr. Silas Stearns.
Vlorida, ‘‘ Appal: ieiivols Bay to Cape San Blas” 1-80, 000 Do.
Coast of Alabama and Mississippi BE Oca mate Sor Pee aoacna Do.
Coast of MISSISSID ID OTIS LAN Aly oso ota winisiotetataperaietliatnic) alee inte | Do. ;
Texas, “ Galveston Bay to Oyster Bay” ....-..----- 1-80,000 | Master C. McR. Winslow, U.S. N.
Texas, ‘Oyster Bay to Matavorda Bay”’..........-. 1-80, 000 Do.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [64]
Ostrea Virginica, Gmelin. American Oyster.
BIOLOGY.

SERIES OF ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE EMBRYOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN
OYSTER, PREPARED FOR THE MARYLAND FISH COMMISSION BY DR. W.
K. BROOKS, PH. D., OF JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, BALTIMORE.

Explanation of the figures.

Unless the contrary is stated, the figures are drawn with a magnifying
power of 250 diameters; Zeiss. F. 2, but it was necessary to amplify the
sketches considerably in order to reproduce, by the process of photo-
engraving, the features which this magnifying power rendered visible, and
the figures as they are produced are of about twice the .diameter of cam-
era sketches made with the same magnifying power.

The first thirty-two figures show the process of segmentation. Figure
1 is an egg at the end of the first period of rest; Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and
7, the changes during the first period of activity; Figures 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,
and 13, the changes during the second period of rest; Figures 14, 15, and
16. those which take place during the second period of activity; 17, 18, and
19, those which take place during the third period of rest; 20 and 21, dur-
ing the third period of activity; 22, during the fourth period of activity;
23, during the fifth period of activity, and the remaining figures show more
widely separated stages. In all the figures of segmentation, except 29, 30,
and 31, the formative pole is above and the nutritive pole below.

Figure 1.—Eggs two hours and seven minutes after fertilization. It is
now perfectly spherical, with an external membrane, and the germinative
vesicle is not visible.

Figure 2.—The same egg two minutes later. It is now elongated; one
end is wider than the other, and a transparent area at the broad end marks
the point where the polar globules are about to appear. At the opposite
end the external membrane is wrinkled by waves which run from the nu-
tritive towards the formative pole in rapid succession for about fifteen sec-
onds.

Figure 3.—The same egg two minutes later.

Figure 4.—The same egg two minutes later. The yolk has become pear-
shaped. The polar globule has appeared at the formative pole, in the mid-
dle of the broad eud of the pear, and the nutritive end of the egg is now
less granular than the formative end.

Figure 5.—The same egg two minutes later. Three equidistant furrows
have made their appearance, separating it into a single mass at the nutri-
tive pole, and two at the formative pole. At this stage the three masses
are about equal in size.

Figure 6.—The same egg two minutes later. The first micromere, ¢, is
now perfectly separated, and smaller than the second, b, and each is smaller
than the macromere, a.

Figure 7. —The same egg one minute later. Both micromeres are sepa-
rated and are spherical, as is also the macromere. This stage ends the
first period of activity.

Figure 8.—The same egg forty-five seconds later. The two micromeres
have begun to fuse with each other, and the second micromere, b, is also
partially fused with the macromere, a.

Figure 9.—The same egg one minute later. The first micromere, c, has

oo
also begun to unite with the macromere.

[65] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

Ostrea Virginica, Gmelin. American Oyster—Continued.

Figure 10.—The same egg one minute later. The line between the sec-
ond micromere and macromere has disappeared, and the first micromere, ¢,
now projects from one end of the elongated mass formed by the union of
the spherules a and b,

Figure 11.—The same egg three minutes later. The fusion of a and 6 is
now complete, and a large transparent vesicle is now visible in the first
micromere, c, and another in the compound mass, ab.

Figure 12.—The same egg two minutes and thirty seconds later.

Figure 13.—Another egg, about two minutes later. This is the true rest-
ing stage, at the end of the second period of rest. The two vesicles have
become irregular. The remains of an external membrane adhere to one
side of the egg.

Figure 14.—The same egg seven minutes later than Figure 13. The com-
pound mass, a and 3, is elongated, the first micromere, c, is well defined,
and waves travel from the nutritive towards the formative ends of the two
masses. Twosegmentation nuclei occupy the positions of the large vesicles
of earlier stages. This stage is the beginning of thesecond period of ac-
tivity.

Figure 15.—The same egg one minute later. The second micromere, }, is
now well defined, as well as the first.

Figure 16.—The same egg one minute later. This stage marks the end
of the second period of activity. The formative end of the egg is now oc-
cupied by four micromeres, two of which seem to be the products of the
division of the first micromere, ¢, and two of them the products of the sec-
ond, 6.

Figure 17.—The same egg two minutes later, at the commencement of the
third period of rest. The second micromere, b, has again begun to fuse
with the macromere, a.

Figure 18.—The same egg three minutes and thirty seconds later. The
second micromere is no longer separated from the macromere, and mass, a
and 6b, formed by their union is nearly spherical.

Figure 19.—The same egg two minutes and a half later, at the end of the
third period of rest, viewed at right angles to Figure 18.

Figure 20.—The same egg thirteen minutes later, and in the same posi-
tion as Figure18. The spherule, c, of figure 19 has divided into two, and the
second micromere, b, has become prominent, so that there are five micro-
meres at the formative pole.

Figure 21.—The same egg one minute later, and in the same position as
figure 19.

Figure 22.—The same egg in the position of Figure 20, fifteen minutes
later than Figure 21, and in the fourth period of activity. There are now
seven micromeres at the formative pole, six on one side of the polar globules
and one, the second micromere, b, on the other.

Figure 23.—The same egg twenty-one minutes later, viewed from the
side opposite the second micromere. The cells which have been formed by
the division of the micromeres of the stage 19 now form a layer, the ecto-
derm, which rests, like a cap, on the macromere, a.

Figure 24.—The same egg five hours and fifteen minutes later, in the same
position as Figure 22, but not quite so much magnified. On one side the
polar globule is still separated from the macromere, a, by a single spherule—
the second micromere, b. Opposite this the growing edge, g, of the ecto-
derm is spreading still farther down over the macromere. At the point 9,
and at four other points, are pairs of small cells, which have evidently been
formed by the division of the large spherules.

Figure 25.—Another egg at about the same stage.

228A 9)

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [66]

Ostrea Virginica, Gmelin. American Oyster—Continued.

Figure 26.—The egg shown in Figure 24, fifty-five minutes later. The
macromere, a, is almost covered by the ectoderm, and the second micromere,
b, has divided into a number of spherules. At the growing edge, g, an ec-
toderm spherule is seen separating from the macromere.

Figure 27. —A similar view of an egg twenty-seven hours after impregna-
tion. The macromere is almost covered by the ectoderm, ec, and is not
visible in a side surface view. At g is an ectoderm spherule, which is sep-
arating from the macromere.

Figure 28.—Optical section of the same egg; ec, ectoderm; en, macro-
mere, divided into two spherules. No segmentation cavity can be seen in
a normal egg at this or any of the preceding stages.

Figure 29.—View of the nutritive pole of an egg a few hours older.

Figure 30.—View of the formative pole of a still older egg.

Figure 31.—Optical vertical section of a somewhat older egg, figured with
the polar globule above and the ectoderm to the right. The egg is now flat-
tened from above downwards, and is disk-shaped in a surface view. The
macromere has given rise to a layer of larger granular cells, which are
pushed in so as to form a large cup-shaped depression. The more trans-
parent ectoderm, ec, now carries a few short cilia scattered irregularly, and
the two layers are separated from each other by a segmentation cavity. This
figure is in Plate III.

Figure 32.—Surface view, and

Figure 33.—Optical section of the embryo at the first swimming stage.
The ectoderm has folded upon the endoderm, so as to form a primitive diges-
tive cavity, with anexternal opening, g. Theciliaof the velum have now
made their appearance around the area occupied by the polar globule. This
was not present in the egg from which the figure was drawn, but it was seen
in other eggs, and is shown in a later stage of another embryo, Figure 6.

Figure 34 and Figure 35.—Two surface views of the embryo shown in
Figure 32.

Figure 36.—An older embryo, in the same position as Figures 32 and 33.
The external opening of the primitive digestive tract has closed up, and the
two valves of the shell have appeared in the place which it had occupied.
The endoderm has no connection with the exterior, and no central cavity
could be seen.

Figure 37.—A somewhat older embryo, figured with its dorsal surface above.
There is a large, central, ciliated digestive cavity which opens externally
by the mouth m, which is almost directly opposite the primitive opening,
the position of which is shown by the shell, s.

Figure 38.—A similar view of a still older embryo. The shell, s, has in-
creased in size, and the digestive tract has two openings, the mouth, m,
and the anus, an, which are very near each other on the ventral surface.

Figure 39.—The opposite side of a still older embryo, in which the body
wall begins to fold under the shell, to form the mantle m.

Figure 40.—Dorsal view of an embryo at about the same stage.

Figure 41.—Dorsal view of an embryo at the stage shown in Figure 38,
with its valves extended; rs, right valve of shell; Js, left valve of shell; an,
anus; a, anal papilla; ma, mantle; v, velum; b, body cavity; st, stomach,

Figure 42.—View of left side of a still older embryo; 4, intestine. Other
letters as in Figure 41,

Figure 43.—Dorsal view of an embryo six days old, swimming by the
cilia of its velum.

Figure 44.—View of right side of another embryo at the same stage; mu,
muscles; J, liver. Other letters as in Figure 41.

[67]

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

Ostrea Virginica, Gmelin. American Oyster—Continued.

Figure 48.—The seminal fluid of a ripe male oyster, mixed with water,
and seen with a power of 80 diameters. Zeiss. a. 2.

Figure 49.—Fluid from the ovary of a ripe female oyster, seen with the
same magnifying power.

Figure 50.—Seminal fluid of a ripe male oyster, magnified 500 diameters.

Figure 51.—Egg a few minutes after mixture with the male fluid magni-
fied 500 diameters.

Figure 52.—Egg about thirty minutes after fertilization magnified 500
diameters.

Figure 67.—Section of a portion of the visceral mass of a male oyster mag-
nified 250 diameters. The surface epithelium of the body is shown at the
lower end of the figure. Above this isa loose, thick layer of wrinkled cells,
which have the appearance of adipose cells from which all the fat has been
removed. Above this layer is a large duct, lined with epithelial cells, and
filled with ripe spermatozoa, which have been poured into it from two
follicles which communicate with it on each side. Above this are sections
of a number of the follicles of the testis, in three of which the contents are
figured.

Figure 53.—Section of a portion of the visceral mass of a female oyster
magnified 250 diameters; a. epithelium of the surface of the body; }, layer
of connective tissue; c, layer of wrinkled cells, which are probably fat cells,
from which all the fat has been removed; f, sections of ten ovarian fol-
licles; e, the ovarian eggs.

Figures 54-66.—Abnormal or direct form of segmentation.

SERIES OF PHOTOGRAPHS ILLUSTRATING ATTACHMENT AND GROWTH OF
“SPAT” AND OYSTERS. INVESTIGATIONS OF FRANCIS WINSLOW, U. 8. N.,
ASSISTANT U. S. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, 1879.

SERIES OF SPECIMENS ILLUSTRATING ATTACHMENT OF SPAT.

33391. Jamaica Bay, L. I. C. E. Vreeland.

33519. Saunders’ Point, Povidence River. Soft bttom. Jason S. Pierce.

32802. Bayou Cook, Louisiana. Alex. Gordon.

32796. Blne Point, Long Island. “Seed” on leather shoe. B. J. M. Carley.

33618. Oyster Bay, Long Island. Growth on stone. H. A. Townsend.

32973. Long Island Sound. Growth on part of stone jug. Hoyt Bros.

32792. Blue Point, Long Island. Growth on Mactra shell. B.J.M. Carley.

32958. Long Island Sound. Growth on various “stools.” Hoyt Bros.

32958. Long Island Sound. Growth on “King crab.” Hoyt Bros.

32958. Long Island Sound. Growth on stone. Hoyt Bros.

33390. Huntington Harbor, Long Island. Growth on stone. Wilson
Beardsley.

32793. Blue Point, Long Island. Growth on stone. B. J. M. Carley.

32970. Long Island Sound. Growth on bottle. Hoyt Bros.

32971. Long Island Sound. Growth on stone. Hoyt Bros.

32894. Blue Point, Long Island. Growth on bone. B. J. M. Carley.

3151. Long Island Sound. Growth on stone. Hoyt Bros.

33619. Patchogue, Long Island. Growth on clay pipe. F. C. Dayton.

32932. Blue Point, Long Island. Growth on boot-leg. B. J. M. Carley.

33572, Potomac River oyster transplanted June, 1882, to Delaware Bay.
Peculiar growth. Thos. J. Love.

33573. Delaware Bay. ‘‘Set” five months old. Thos. J. Love.

33620. Providence River. Growth on crab. Monsell & Dewing.

$2794. Blue Point, Long Island. Growth on rubber boot. B. J. M. Carley.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [68]

Ostrea Virginica, Gmelin. American Oyster—Continued.

32974.
33621.
32789.
32895.
33102.
33622.

33459.
32969.
33648.

Blue Point, Long Island. Growthon rubber shoe. B.J.M. Carley.

Maurice Cove, Delaware Bay. Growth on twig. Thos. J. Love.

Blue Point, Long Island. Rosette of oysters. B. J. M. Carley.

Blue Point, Long Island. Growth onrubber shoe. B. J. M. Carley,

Presby’s Creek, Va. G. W. Harvey.

Maurice Cove, Delaware Bay. Growth on bottle neck. Thos. J.
Love.

Delaware Bay. Cluster of young oysters. 8. I. Middleton.

Long Island Sound. Growth on crab. Hoyt Bros.

Great South Bay, Long Island. ‘‘Set” two months old. Monsell
& Dewing.

SERIES OF SPECIMENS ATTACHED TO SLATE COLLECTORS USED BY MR. J.
A. RYDER, DURING HIS INVESTIGATIONS AT ST. JEROME’S CREEK, MD.,

1880.

33623.
33624,
33625.
33626.
33627,
33628.

Placed August 3, taken in September 16, 1880, 44 days.
Placed July 31, taken in October 21, 1880, 82 days.
Placed August 3, taken in October 21, 1880, 79 days.
Placed August 3, taken in October 21, 1880, 79 days.
Placed August 3, taken in October 21, 1880, 79 days.
Placed September 10, taken in October 21, 1880, 41 days.

SERIES ILLUSTRATING CHARACTERISTICS OF SEVERAL SPECIES OF OYSTERS.

Ostrea edulis Linné. European oyster.

32811.

North Sea.

Ostrea borealis, Lamarck. Canadian oyster.

32810.

Buzzard’s Bay, Mass. Dr. Wm. Stimpson.

Ostrea lurida, Cpr. California oyster.

32879.

Crescent City, Cal. W. H. Dall.

Ostrea Virginica, Gmelin. American or Virginia oyster.

33096.

SERIES

33098.
33381.

32808.
32961.
33382.

32960.
32805.
33387.

32965.
33102.
33407.
30379.

Saint Gerome Creek, Md. G. W. Harvey.

ILLUSTRATING VARIATIONS FROM O. borealis to O. virginica and vice
versa.

Tangier Sound, Md. G. W. Harvey.

Oyster Bay, Long Island. Eighteen months old. Planted one year
on hard bottom. H. A. Townsend.

Coast of Florida. Raccoon oysters. Lieut. Kossuth Niles, U.S. N.

Long Island Sound. Two to three years old. Hoyt Bros.

Huntington Harbor, Long Island. From hard bottom. Wilson
Beardsley.

Long Island Sound. One to two years old. Hoyt Bro’s.

Appalachicola Bay, Fla. Lieut. Kossuth Niles, U. 8S. N.

Huntington Harbor, Long Island. From soft bottom. Wilson
Beardsley.

Long Island Sound. Three to four years old. Hoyt Bros.

Presby’s Creek, Va. G. W. Harvey.

Oyster Bay, Long Island. From hard bottom. H. A. Townsend.

Oyster Bay, Long Island. From muddy bottom, H. A. Townsend.

[69]

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

Ostrea Virginica, Gmelin. American or Virginia oyster—Continued.

SERIES SHOWING PECULIARITIES OF GROWTH DUE TO ATTACHMENT OF

33103.
33102.
33101.
32974,
32797.
33492.
33386.

33383.

33588.
33393.
33390.
33104.
33417,
33590.
33095,
33565.
33406.
33092.
33569.
33100.
33080.
33396.
33418.
33098.
33380.
33598.
33377,

SPAT.

York River, Virginia. G. W. Harvey.

Presby’s Creek, Virginia. G. W. Harvey.

Nasawaddox Creek, Virginia. G. W. Harvey.

Long Island Sound. Hoyt Bros.

Blue Point, Long Island. B. J. M. Carley.

Bridgeport, Conn. Point No Point ‘‘seed.” Wheeler Hawley.

Huntington Harbor, Long Island. From soft bottom. Wilson
Beardsley.

Huntington Harbor, Long Island. From hard bottom. Wilson
Beardsley.

Indian River, Florida. G.S. Hobbs.

Shrewsbury River, New Jersey. E. G. Blackford.

Huntington Harbor, Long Island. Wilson Beardsley.

Cherrystone Creek, Virginia. G. W. Harvey.

Seaville, New Jersey. J. W. Gandy.

Vicinity of Savannah, Ga. G.S. Hobbs.

Rappahannock River, Virginia. G. W. Harvey.

Poquonock River, Connecticut. J. P. Bogart.

Freeport, Long Island. E. G. Blackford.

Vicinity of Charleston, 8. C. G. 8. Hobbs.

Maurice River Cove, Delaware Bay. Thos. J. Love.

Little River, Maryland. G. W. Harvey.

Oyster Bay, Long Island. H. A. Townsend.

Bridgeport, Conn. Guilford River ‘‘seed.” Wheeler Hawley.

East Greenwich, R.I. A. A. Wilson.

Tangier Sound, Chesapeake Bay, Maryland. G. W. Harvey.

Oyster Bay, Long Island. H. A. Townsend.

Corpus Christi, Texas. C. McR. Winslow, U.S. N.

Oyster Bay, Long Island. H. A. Townsend.

SERIES SHOWING PECULIARITIES OF GROWTH DUE TO ABNORMAL INFLU-
ENCES OR CHANGES OF POSITION SUBSEQUENT TO TIME OF ATTACH-

MENT.

32791. Glenwood, Long Island. B. J. M. Carley.

32795. New York Bay. B. J. M. Carley.

33406. Freeport, Long Island. E. G. Blackford.

33331. Oyster Bay, Long Island. Planted one year on hard bottom. H.
A. Townsend.

33382. Huntington Harbor, Long Island. From hard bottom. Wilson
Beardsley.

32786. New York Bay. Growth in still water. B. J. M. Carley.

33392. Patchogue, Great South Bay, Long Island. E. G. Blackford.

33569. Maurice River Cove, Delaware Bay. Thos. J. Love.

33427. East Greenwich, R.I. A. A. Wilson.

33403. Bridgeport, Conn. ‘‘ Planted oysters.” Wheeler Hawley.

33394. Great Sound, sea-coast of New Jersey. J. W. Gandy.

33589. Vicinity of Savannah, Ga. G. S. Hobbs,

33393. Shrewsbury River, New Jersey. E. G. Blackford.

33412. Jamaica Bay, Long Island. E. G. Blackford.

33410. Rockaway Inlet, Long Island. E. G. Blackford.

32787. Blue Point, Long Island. From a tide-way. B. J. M. Carley.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [70]

Ostrea Virginica, Gmelin. American or Virginia oyster—Continued.
33102. Presby’s Creek, Virginia. G. W. Harvey.
33386. Huntington Harbor, Long Island. Wilson Beardsley.
32808. Coast of Florida. Raccoon oyster. Lieut. Kossuth Niles, U. 8. N.
33599. Blue Point, Long Island. F.C. Dayton.
33651. Cobb’s Island, sea-coast of Virginia. Nathan Cobb.
32813. Nova Scotia. From a tide-way. J. R. Willis.

SERIES ILLUSTRATING GROWTH ON SOFT BOTTOM.

33379, Oyster Bay, Long Island. H. A. Townsend.
32959. Long Island Sound. Hoyt Bros.

32920. City Island, Long Island Sound. B. J. M. Carley.
33095. Rappahannock River, Virginia. G. W. Harvey.
33599. Blue Point, Long Island. F. C. Dayton.

SERIES ILLUSTRATING EFFECT OF SOFT MUDDY BOTTOM UPON INTERIOR OF
SHELL AND DEPOSIT OF NACRE.

32807. Coast of Florida. Lieut. Kossuth Niles, U.S. N.

33101. Nasawaddox Creek, Virginia. G.W. Harvey.

33102. Presby’s Creek, Virginia. G.W. Harvey.

33100, Little River, Maryland. G. W. Harvey.

33590. Vicinity of Savannah, Ga. G.S. Hobbs.

32103. York River, Virginia. G.W. Harvey.

33392. Patchogue, Long Island (Blue Point). E.G. Blackford.

32806. Cat Point, Appalachicola Bay, Florida. Lieut. Kossuth Niles,
U.S.N.

33651. Cobb’s Island, sea-coast of Virginia. Nathan Cobb.

SERIES ILLUSTRATING VARIATIONS IN COLOR OF EXTERIOR OF SHELL.

33379. Oyster Bay, Long Island. H. A. Townsend.

33071. Potomac River natives, transplanted to Delaware Bay in June,
1882. Thos. J. Love.

33528. New Haven, Conn., natives transplanted to Narragansett Bay in
spring of 1882. Jason S. Pierce.

33393. Shrewsbury River, New Jersey. E. G. Blackford.

33588. Indian River, Florida. G.S. Hobbs.

32919. Cow Bay, Long Island. B. J.M. Carley.

32784. Prince Edward’s Island (var. borealis). Mr. Dawson.

32933. Chesapeake Bay. T. B. Ferguson.

32799. San Diego, Cal. ( Ostrea lurida). H. Hemphill.

33407. Oyster Bay, Long Island. Froni hard bottom. H.A. Townsend.

32960. Long Island Sound. Hoyt Bros.

323814. Rhode Island. Col. Totten.

33408. Oyster Bay, Long Island. From hard bottom. H.A. Townsend.

33406. Freeport, Long Island. E.G. Blackford.

32782. New York Bay. B.J.M. Carley.

33380. Oyster Bay, Long Island. H.A. Townsend.

33640. Coast of California (Ostrea lurida). R.E.C.Stearns.

SERIES ILLUSTRATING GEOGRAPHICAL VARIETIES,
Coasts OF NEW BRUNSWICK, MAINE, MASSACHUSETTS, AND RHODE ISLAND.

32783. Miramichi River, New Brunswick. W.H. Dall.
32785. Shediak, New Brunswick. W.H. Dall.

[71]

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

Ostrea Virginica, Gmelin. American or Virginia oyster—Continued:

33092.
33093.
32978.
33555.
32810.
33448,

33518.
33523.

33024,
33530,

Coast

32790.
33028.

33492,
33483,
33496,
33396.
33403.
33391.

32957.
32962.
32966.
32972.

33382.
33386.
33390.

33377.
33376.
33381.

33408.
33407.
33378.
33379.

Shediak, New Brunswick. G. F. Mathew.

Buctouche, New Brunswick. G. F. Mathew.

Sheepscot River, Maine. From extinct beds. R. Dixon.
Sheepscot River, Maine. Fromextinct beds. Dr.C.A. White.
Buzzard’s Bay, Massachusetts (var. borealis). Dr. Wm. Stimpson.
East Greenwich, R.I. A.A. Wilson.

Providence River, Rhode Island.

Natives, transplanted in 1881 to soft bottoms. Jason S. Pierce.

Natives, three years old, transplanted when two years old to soft
bottoms. Jason 8. Pierce.

Natives; old. Jason 8S. Pierce.

Natives from Jolly Banks bed, hard bottom. Jason S. Pierce.

OF CONNECTICUT AND NORTH SHORE OF LONG ISLAND.

Greenwich, Conn. B.J. M. Carley.
New Haven, Conn., three years old, transplanted to Providence
River in spring of 1882. Jason §. Pierce.

Bridgeport, Conn.

Point No Point. ‘‘Seed.” Wheeler Hawley.

Housatonic River. ‘‘Seed.” Wheeler Hawley.

Point No Point. ‘‘Seed.” Wheeler Hawley.

Guilford River. ‘‘Seed.” Wheeler Hawley.

Cultivated oyster twelve to fifteen years old. Wheeler Hawley.

Two years old; transplanted to Jamacia Bay, Long Island, when
six months old. Cornelius Vreeland.

South Norwatk, Conn.

One year old. Hoyt Bros.

Three years after transplanting. Hoyt Bros.
Five to twenty years old. Hoyt Bros.

Hoyt Bros.

NortTH Coast OF LONG ISLAND.
Huntington Harbor.

From hard bottom. Wilson Beardsley.
From soft bottom. Wilson Beardsley.
Natural growth. Wilson Beardsley.

Oyster Bay.

Planted on hard bottom. H. A. Townsend.

Planted on hard bottom. H. A. Townsend.

Planted on hard bottom one year. Eighteen months old. 4. A.
Townsend.

Natural growth on hard bottom. One year old. H. A. Townsend.

Natural growth on hard bottom. H. A. Townsend.

Planted on soft bottom. H. A. Townsend.

Natural growth on soft bottom. H. A. Townsend.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [72]

Ostrea Virginica, Gmelin. American or Virginia oyster—Continued.

32781.
32812.
32919.
32779.
32791.

32914.
32777.
33392,

33411.

33406.

33410.
33412.

Cow Bay.
B. J. M. Carley.
““Cove.” B. J. M. Carley.
“Mill pond.” B. J. M. Carley.
Loyd’s Harbor. B. J. M. Carley.
Glenwood. B. J. M. Carley.

SouTH COAST OF LONG ISLAND.

Great South Bay, Patchogue and Blue Point Distriots.

Seed.” B. J. M. Carley.
B. J. M. Carley.
E. G. Blackford.

Oakdale.
E. G. Blackford.

Freeport.
E. G. Blackford.

Jamaica Bay and Rockaway Inlet.

“Rockaway.” E. G. Blackford.
“Jamaica Bay.” E.G. Blackford.

VICINITY OF NEW YORK AND COAST OF NEW JERSEY.

32782.
32780.

32778.

33393.

. 33558.

33509.

33417.
$3465.
33467.

33480.

33499.

33471.

New York Bay.

Shrewsbury River.
B. J. M. Carley.
E. G. Blackford.
Barnegat Inlet.

Illustrating growth of spat and barnacles. Allan Neill.
Very old. Allan Neill.

Seaville.
J. W. Gandy.

Natives, three years after transplanting. Peter Watkins.
Natives, one, two, three, five and six years after transplanting.
Peter Watkins.

Somers’ Point.
Natives, one, two, and three years old. H. H. Vansant.
Lake's Bay.
Five years old. Alex. Fish.

Ocean View.

One to three years old. J.C. Sharp.

[73]

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES,

Ostrea Virginica, Gmelin.. American or Virginia oyster—Continued.

33452.

32915.
32568.
33569,

Cape May.
Cape May seed. J. W. Gandy.

DELAWARE Bay.
Maurice River Cove.

Three years old. B. J. M. Carley.
“‘Extras,” five years old. Thomas J. Love.
Peculiar growth. Thomas J. Love,

Arnolds Point.

33577. After transplantation for six months to Maurice River Cove. Thomas

33075.

J. Love.
“Culls,” after transplantation for six months to Maurice River Cove.
Thomas J. Love.

CHESAPEAKE BAY AND SEACOASTS OF MARYLAND AND VIRGINIA.

32933.
32954.
33100.
33096.
33099,
33097.
33095.
33102.
33104,
33101.
33103.
33506.

33481.

33561.

33516.

Chesapeake Bay.

State of Maryland.

Herring Bay, Maryland. E. G. Blackford.

Little River, Maryland. G. W. Harvey.

Saint Gerome Creek, Maryland. G. W. Harvey.

Point Lookout Creek, Maryland. G. W. Harvey.

Deep Creek, Virginia. G. W. Harvey.

Rappahannock River, Virginia. G. W. Harvey.

Presby’s Creek, Virginia. G. W. Harvey.

Cherrystone Creek, Virginia. G. W. Harvey.

Nasawaddox Creek, Virginia. G. W. Harvey.

York River, Virginia. G. W. Harvey.

Chesapeake oysters, four years old, transplanted in 1881 to Lake’s
Bay, New Jersey. Alex. Fish.

Chesapeake oysters, transplanted for one and two years to Somers’
Point, New Jersey. H. H. Vansandt.

Chesapeake oysters, transplanted to Barnegat, New Jersey. Allan
Neill.

Potomac River.

Transplanted to hard bottom, Providence River, Rhode Island, in
the spring of 1882; will not live through the winter. Jason 8.
Pierce.

Transplanted in June, 1882, to Delaware Bay. Thomas J. Love.

Tangier and Pocomoke Sounds.

Pocomoke Sound. E. G. Blackford.

Tangier Sound. E. G, Blackford.

Tangier Sound. G. W. Harvey.

Transplanted to hard bottom, Providence River, Rhode Island, in
the spring of 1882. Will not live through the winter. Jason S.
Pierce.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [74]

Ostrea Virginica, Gmelin. American or Virginia oyster—Continued.

Sea Coast.

33505. Hog Island oysters, four years old, transplanted in 1881 to T.ake’s
Bay, New Jersey. Alex. Fish.
33470. Hog Island oysters, three years after planting. Peter Watkins.

Coast OF SOUTH CAROLINA, GEORGIA, AND FLORIDA.
Vicinity of Charleston, S. C.

33591. Bored by Cliona. Two and a half years old. C. C. Leslie.

33592. Two and a half years old. C. C. Leslie.

33593. From Wadmelaw River. Cultivated. Four yearsold. C.C. Leslie.
33594. From Togodo River. C.C. Leslie.

Vicinity of Savannah, Ga.

33539. Two and a half years old. G.S. Hobbs.
33590. Four years old. G.S. Hobbs.

East coast of Florida.
33588. Indian River. Natives. G. S. Hobbs.

West coast of Florida.

32806. Cat Point. Lieut. Kossuth Niles, U.S. N.

32807. Lieut. Kossuth Niles, U.S.N.

32805. Appalachicola Bay. Lieut. Kossuth Niles, U.S. N.
32808. Raccoon oysters. Lieut. Kossuth Niles, U.S.N.

COAST OF LOUISIANA AND TEXAS.

32800. Timbalier Bay, Louisiana. W. Alex. Gordon.

32801. Southwest Pass, Louisiana. W. Alex. Gordon.

32802. Bayou Cook, Louisiana. W. Alex. Gordon.

32803. Four Bayous, Louisiana. W. Alex. Gordon.

32804. Grand Lake, Louisiana. W. Alex. Gordon.

33597. Galveston Harbor, Texas. Master C. McR. Winslow, U.S.N.
33098. Corpus Christi, Tex. Master C. McR. Winslow, U.S. N.

PaciFic COAST OF THE UNITED STATES.

Ostrea lurida, Cpr.

32879. Crescent City, Cal. W.H. Dall.

32809. Shoalwater Bay, Washington Territory. H. Hemphill.
32799. San Diego, Cal. H. Hemphill.

33640. R. E. C. Stearns.

Ostrea Virginica, Gmelin.
32798. San Francisco Bay, transplanted from Newark Bay, New Jersey.
H. Hemphill.

SERIES ILLUSTRATING TRADE CLASSIFICATIONS.
“ Cullers.”’

32916. Cow Bay, Long Island. Three years old. B.J.M. Carley.
32965. Long Island Sound. Three to four years old. Hoyt Bros,

[75]

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES,

Ostrea Virginica. Gmelin—Continued.

32917.
32964.

32918.

32776.

33568.

33591.
33377.
33403.
32820.
32966.

CC Baas

Cow Bay, Long Island. Three years old. B.J.M. Carley.
Long Island Sound. Four to six years old. Hoyt Bros.

Single extra.

Cow Bay, Long Island. Four years old. B.J.M. Carley.

Double extra.

Cow Bay, Long Island. B.J.M. Carley,

Extra.

Maurice River Cove. Five years old. Thos. J. Love.

SERIES ILLUSTRATING RAVAGES OF ENEMIES.

Long Island Sound. Killed by star-fish (Asterias forbesii). Jas.
Richardson.

Long Island Sound. Killed by “hairy-whelk” (Sycotypus canalicula-
tus). Jas. Richardson.

Long Island Sound. Destroyed by a whelk (Lulgur carica or Sycoty-
pus canaliculatus). Jas. Richardson.

Long Island Sound. Illustrates method of destruction by star-fish
(Asterias forbesii. )

Long Island Sound. Destroyed by ‘‘drill” (Urosalpinx cinerea).
Jas. Richardson.

Crisfield, Md. Shell covered with worm tubes. E.G. Blackford.

Vicinity of New York. Shell covered with worm tubes and polyzoa.
EK. G. Blackford.

Ravages of boring sponge. (Cliona sulphurea, Verrill.)

Vicinity of South Carolina. C.C. Leslie,
Oyster Bay, Long Island. H. A. Townsend.
Bridgeport, Conn. Wheeler Hawley.

New York Bay. B.J.M. Carley.

Long Island Sound. Hoyt Bros.

Ravages of boring pholad. (Martesia cuneiformis, Gray.)

32917.
33095.
33006.
33579.

33581.
33582.

Cow Bay, Long Island. B.J.M. Carley.

Rappahannock River, Virginia. G. W. Harvey.

Tangier Sound. Split shells. T. W. B. Clark.

Tangier Sound. Split shellsin alcohol, showing pholad in situ. T.
W.B. Clark.

Tangier Sound. Split shells showing pholad in situ. T. W. B. Clark.

Tangier Sound. Exterior of shellsshowing borings. T. W. B. Clark.

MODEL CF AN OYSTER-BED.

Illustrating the manner in which a natural oyster-bed is formed, the change in its
condition after a period of extensive fishing, and the methods of attack of
the various enemies, inhabitants of shelly areas. The vertical scale is
necessarily exaggerated. Prepared by Lieut. Francis Winslow and J. Palmer.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [76]
USEFUL BIVALVES OTHER THAN OYSTERS.

Mya arenaria, Linné. Long Clam, Soft-shelled Clam, or Mananose.
East coast of North America from South Carolina to Arctic
Ocean. Abundant from New Jersey northward; scarce south
of Cape Hatteras; abundant in San Francisco Bay, California.
32829. Canarsie Bay, Long Island. E.G. Blackford.
32955. Cape Cod, Massachusetts. E. G. Blackford.
33094. Bay of Fundy. G. F. Mathew.
33464. Ocean View, N. J. T. C. Sharp.
33474. Guilford, Conn. A. A. Foote.
* 32833 (Mya Hemphillii), San Francisco Bay, California. H. Hemphill.
Macetra solidissima, Chemnitz. Hen Clam, Surf Clam, or Sea Clam.
Florida and Gulf of Mexico to Labrador. Abundant from Del-
aware Bay to Cape Cod; in Casco Bay and Bay of Fundy. Low-
water mark to 10 fathoms.
32869. Massachusetts Bay. W. H. Dall.

Callista gigantea, Chemnitz. Painted Clam. Southern coast of the
United States.

32867. South Carolina. Dr. Wm. Stimpson.
Macoma (sp.) Salmon Tellen.
32874. Coast of Florida. Mr. Conrad.

Cyprina islandica, Lamarck. SeaClam. Long Island to Arctic Ocean,
in soft sand or mud, at from 10 to 100 fathoms.
33607. Vicinity of Long Island. E. G. Blackford.

Gnathodon cuneatus, Gray. Cuneate Clam. Gulf coast, vicinity of New
Orleans.

32839. Lake Pontchartrain, Louisiana. Gustav Kohn.

Ensatella Americana, Verrill. Razor Fish or Razor Clam. Florida to
Labrador. Common from New Jersey to Gulf of Saint Law-
rence, from low-water mark to 20 fathoms.

33585. Long Island Sound. A. A. Foote.

Venus mercenaria, Linné. Quahaug or Round Clam. Abundant from
Florida to Massachusetts Bay. Rare and local further north
on coast of Maine, Nova Scotia, and southern shore of Gulf of
Saint Lawrence. Not found on coast of Maine east of Kennebec
River, nor in Bay of Fundy. The shells of Venus mercenaria
vary so much in color and character that a number of dis-
tinct species have been described. The variations, however,
are, like those of the oyster, by no means constant, and are due,
principally, to the character of bottom and water. In the fol-
lowing series, four varieties are shown, with the intermediate
types connecting them.

2 Transplanted from the east by accident, with young oysters.

[77] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

Purple-shelled variety: Exterior of shell smooth and discolored; inte-
rior more or less purple tinted about margin.

32817. Rockaway, Long Island. B. J. M. Carley.

32862. Dr. Wm. Stimpson.

32877. Dr. Wm. Stimpson.

33404, Oyster Bay, Long Island. Soft bottom. H. A. Townsend.
33419. Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. A. A. Wilson.

33428. Ocean View, N. J. Two to three years old. T. C. Sharp.
33509. Lake’s Bay, N. J. Muddy bottom. Five years old. Alex. Fish.
33560. Barnegat, N. J. Allan Neill.

White-shelled variety: Exterior, rough, with high, thin concentric ribs;
interior, white.

32862. Dr. Wm. Stimpson.

32838. Barataria Bay, Louisiana. Gustav Kohn.

283404. Oyster Bay, Long Island. Soft bottom. H.A. Townsend.
33405. Seaville, N.Y. J. W. Gandy.

32818. New York. B.J.M.Carley.

33446. East Greenwich, R.I. A.A. Wilson.

33478. Somers Point, N. J. H.H. Vansant.

33560. Barnegat, N.J. Allan Neill.

Intermediate: Exterior, rough; interior, purple tinted.

32862. Dr. Wm. Stimpson.

33478. Somers’ Point, N.J. H.H. Vansant.

32877. Dr.Wm. Stimpson.

33428, Ocean View, N.J. Two to three years old. T.C. Sharp.
33472. New Rochelle, N.Y. A.A. Foote.

33404. Oyster Bay, Long Island. Soft bottom,

33560. Barnegat, N. J. Allan Neill.

Intermediate: Exterior, smooth; interior, white.
33472. New Rochelle, N.Y. One to four years old. A. A. Foote.
32877. Dr. Wim. Stimpson.
33560. Barnegat, N.J. Allan Neill.
33478. Somers Point N.J. H. H. Vansant.
33404. Oyster Bay, Long Island. Soft bottom. H. A. Townsend.
33421. East Greenwich, R. I. A.A. Wilson.
33446. East Greenwich, R.I. A. A. Wilson.

Elongated variety:
33405. Seaville, N. J. J. W. Gandy.
32817. Rockaway, N. J. B. J. M. Carley.

Snub-nosed variety:

32862. Dr. Wm. Stimpson.
33419. Narragansett Bay. A. A. Wilson.
32819. Fire Island, Long Island. B. J. M. Carley.

Mytilus edulis, Linné. Edible mussel. Arctic Ocean south to North
Carolina on the eastern coast, and to Monterey on the Pacific
coast of the United States. Abundant from New Jersey north-
ward.

33349. East Greenwich, R. I. A. A. Wilson.
33583. Stony Creek, Long Island Sound. A. A. Foote,
33629, Vineyard Sound. U.S. Fish Commission.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [78]

Modiola plicatula, Lamarck. Grooved mussel. Georgia to Casco Bay,
Maine; more rare and local further north. Abundant from New
Jersey to Massachusetts.
33596. Coast of New Jersey. U.S. Fish Commission.

33486. Ocean View, N. J. 1. C. Sharp.
33457. East Greenwich, R. I. <A. A. Wilson.

Modiola modiolus, Turton. Horse Mussel. Greenland south to New
Jersey on the eastern coast and south to Monterey on the Paci-
fic coast of the United States. Abundant north of Cape Cod,
and about Long Island and Staten Island.

33662. Georges Bank. R. H. Hurlburt.

33608. Vicinity of New York. E. G. Blackford.
34643. Stones, shells, &c., attached by byssus. E.G. Blackford.

Pecten irradians, Lamarck. Seallop. Florida and northern shores of
the Gulfof Mexico to Cape Cod. Rareand local further north.
Abundant from Long Island Sound southward.

33608. Great South Bay, Long Island. F.C. Dayton.

East Greenwich, R. I.
33567. Series illustrating color variations. A. A. Wilson.
SERIES ILLUSTRATING GROWTH.

33431. Size during first week in September.

33432. Size during second week in September.
33433. Size during third week in September.
33434, Size during fourth week in September.
33435. Size during first week in October.

33436. Size during second week in October.

33437. Size during third week in October.

33438. Size during fourth week in October.

33439, Size during first week in November.

33440, Size during second week in November.
33441. Size during third week in November.
33442. Size during fourth week in November.
33443, Size when about one year old—marketable.
33444, Size when fifteen months old.

33445. Size when twenty-seven months old (very rare),

Pecten tenuicostatus, Mighels. Great or Giant Scallop. New Jersey to
Labrador. Rare and local south of Cape Cod. Abundant in
Frenchman’s Bay, Mount Desert. Common in Massachusetts
and Casco Bays and Bay of Fundy.

33631. Cape Cod, Massachusetts. U.S. Fish Commission.

32979. Castine, Me. Showing ravages of boring sponge (Cliona sulphurea).
A. R. Crittenden.

32930. Castine, Me. Showing ravages of boring sponge (Cliona sulphurea).

L. J. Heath.
Argina pexata, Gray. Bloody Clam. Florida and northern shores of
the Gulf of Mexico to Cape Cod. Rare and local further north.
Abundant from New Jersey to Massachusetts.

33570. Maurice River Cove, Delaware Bay. Thos. J. Love.
33460. East Greenwich, R. I. A. A. Wilson.

[79] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

Glycimeris generosa, Gould. Geoduck or Giant Clam. Pacific coast, in
rivers and estuaries, from Puget Sound to San Diego. Not
common as southern limit is approached, nor very abundant at
any point.

33614. California coast. R. E. C. Stearns.
33615. California coast. R. E. C. Stearns.

Siliqua patula, Dixon. Razor Clam. From Vancouver's Island to San
Diego. Coast of California. Abundant in Oregon and Wash-
ington Territory and adjacent islands.

32881. W. H. Dall.

Semele decisa, Cpr. Flat Clam. San Diego and California coast.
32847. San Diego, Cal. H. Hemphill.

Platyodon cancellatus, Conrad. Date Fish. San Diego, Santa Barbara,
and San Francisco, Cal. Coast of California.
32850. Baulinas Bay. H. Hemphill.

Zirphea crispata, Morch. Date Fish. Northwest coast of America to
California, Puget Sound, Vancouver Island, San Diego, and
San Pedro.

32856. Baulinas Bay. H. Hemphill.
33641. R. E. C. Stearns.

Macoma nasuta, Conrad. Tellen. Kamschatka to San Diego, Cal. Lit-
toral, 3 feet in mud.
32848. San Francisco market. H. Hemphill.

Saxidomus aratus, Gould. Round Clam. San Francisco Bay and San
Diego, Cal.
32843. San Diego, Cal. H. Hemphill.

Chione succincta, Valenciennes. Little Neck Clam. Coast of California.
32841. San Diego, Cal. H. Hemphill.

Chione simillima, Sowerby. Little Neck Clam. San Francisco to San
Diego, Cal.
32842. San Diego, Cal. H. Hemphill.

Tapes staminea, Conrad. Little Neck Clam. Coast of California. Lit-
toral, 2 feet in mud.

$2854, Baulinas Bay, California. H. Hemphill.
323844. Tomales Bay, California. H. Hemphill.

Tapes laciniata, Cpr. Little Neck Clam. Monterey and San Diego,
Cal.
32846. San Diego, Cal. H. Hemphill.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [80]

USE OF ORNAMENTAL BIVALVES OTHER THAN THOSE
AFFORDING FOOD.

Pearl-producing.
Unionide.

Unio (various sp.). River Mussels. Fresh water streams of the United
States. Abundant in the rivers of the Western States.

25986 to 26010. Series having both valves polished. From Dr. C. A. Miller,
Cincinnati, Ohio. Comprises the following species :
Unio metanevrus, Rafinesque.
alatus, Say.
ornatus, Lea.
verrucosus, Barnes.
gibbosus, Barnes.
rectus, Lam.
cylindricus, Sav.
pyramidatus, Lea.
tuberculatus, Barnes.
luteolus, Lamarck.
circulus, Lea.
anodontoides, Lea.
pustulosus, Lea.
crassidens, Lamarck, &c.
26092a. River mussel affording pearl-shell, illustrating application of raw
material. Cincinnati, Ohio. D. Shaffer.
26092. Carvings, from pearl-shell afforded by river mussels, for use as studs,
buttons, pins, brooches, &c. Cincinnati, Ohio. D. H. Shaffer. |
260920. Pearlsderived fromriver mussels. Cincinnati, Ohio. D.H. Shaffer.

Aviculide.

‘Margaritiphora fimbriata, Dkr. Pearl Oyster. Head of Gulf of Califor-
nia to Panama. Common in the region of La Paz, Lower Cali-
fornia, and in vicinity of Panama.

3507. Colonel Jewett.
3624. Illustrating formation of pearls. Panama. Colonel Jewett.
32836. Gulf of California. J. Xantus.
-. Polished shell. Chicopee, Mass. Jas. T. Ames.
32921. Made into artificial fish-bait. Boston, Mass. Bradford & Anthony.
32922. Made into artificial minnow. Boston, Mass. Bradford & Anthony.
——-. Series of buttons, studs, stopper-caps, &c. Manufactured from, and
showing application of, American pearl-oyster shell. Furnished
by A. B. De Frece & Co., 428 Broadway, New York.

Otherwise useful and ornamental.

Composition shell-work for box-covers and frames, made by gluing
shells in mosaic.

29527. Basket. Made from Florida shells. E. F. Gilbert, Jacksonville,
Fla.

22210. Basket. Made from Florida shells. Mrs. Mott, Jacksonville, Fla.

22209. Frame. Made from Florida sea-shells. Mrs. C. E. Mott, Jackson-
ville, Fla.

22211. Easter Cross. Made from Florida shells. Mrs. Mott, Jacksonville.

j
| [81] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.
i

29526. Shell flowers. Made from Florida shells. E. F. Gilbert, Jackson-
ville, Fla.
32869. “Hen Clam” (Mactra solidissima Chem). Painted inside and used
for catch-alls.
32840. Cuneate clam (Gnathodon cuneatus), Semi-fossil (in shell heaps);
used for macadamizing roads. Lake Salvador, Louisiana. Gus-
; tay Kohn.

Injurious bivalves.

Teredo. SHrp-WormM.

T. navalis, Linné. Florida to Vineyard Sound. T. megotara, Hanley.
Massachusetts to South Carolina. JT. Thomsonii, Tryon. Mas-
sachusetts and Buzzard’s Bay. T. dilatata, Tryon. Massa-
chusetts to South Carolina. Xylotrya jimbriata, Jeffreys.
Long Island to Florida.

Specimens of wood showing ravages.

32982. Bangor, Me. (Brig H. B. Emory.) C.H. Parker.

32908. In lignum-vite wood. Gloucester, Mass. Samuel Elwell, jr.

33106. (Teredo chlorotica, Gld.) Wood’s Holl, Mass. Vinal N. Edwards.

33105. (Xylotrya fimbriata, Jeffr.) Wood’s Holl, Mass. Vinal N. Edwards.

32984. (eredo navalis? L.) New Haven, Conn. A. E. Verrill.

32902. (Teredo sp.) Showing damage effected in white-pine wood in one
year. Pier 44, North River, N. Y. W. T. Pelton.

: 32901. Showing damage to hard-pine wood effected in one year. Charles-
‘ ton, S.C. W. T. Pelton.

32983. Schooner Carrie Melvin; done in six weeks. Charleston, S. C.
A. G. Hunt.

32815. (Teredo sp.). Gulf coast. Dewey.

32816. Showing lining of tubes. Texas. Dr. Schott.

19405. (Xylotrya sp.) Coast of Oregon. J. G. Swan.

33616. (Zeredo sp.) ‘Showing ravages in six weeks. Indian River, Fla.
G. 8. Hobbs.

33617. (Teredo sp.) Showing ravagesin threemonths. Indian River, Fla.
G. S. Hobbs.

33638. (Teredo sp.) Wood showing ravages. U.S. Fish Commission.

33630. Teredo megotara. Hanley. Off Martha’s Vineyard. (Specimens in
alcohol.) U.S. Fish Commission.

Martesia cuneiformis, Gray. Boring pholad. Southern coast of the
United States to New Jersey. Rare and local further north,
and in Long Island Sound. Abundant on oyster-beds of Ches-
apeake Bay.

33580. Tangier Sound, Maryland. T. W. B. Clark.
(For illustration of ravages, see oyster section, ‘‘ Ravages of enemies.” )

Enemies other than mollusca, inhabiting oyster-beds and destructive to shell-

Jish.

Panopeus Sayt, Smith. Mud Crab.

3628. Off Martha’s Vineyard. U.S. Fish Commission,
(See Section, Crustaeea, Echinoderms, Jc.)

228A 6

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [82]

Cancer irroratus, Say. Rock Crab.
3630. Vineyard Sound. U. 8. Fish Commission.
(See Section, Crustacea, Echinoderms, §c.)
Carcinas Menas, Gould. (Carecinus granulatus, Say.) Green Crab.
3627. Vineyard Sound. U. 8. Fish Commission.
(See Section, Crustacea, Echinoderms, Sc.)
For other crabs see Section, Crustacea, echinoderms, €e.

Asterias Forbesii, Verrill. (Asterias arenicola, Stimpson.) Green Star-
fish.
5559. Vineyard Sound. U.S. Fish Commission.
(See Section, Crustacea, Echinoderms, §c.)
Microciona prolifera, Verrill. Red, Branching Sponge.
531. Wood’s Holl, Mass. U.S. Fish Commission. (Not directly injuri-
ous. )

(See Section, Crustacea, Echinoderms, gc.)

Cliona sulphurea, Verrill. Boring Sponge.
1010. Vineyard Sound. U. 8S. Fish Commission.
(See Section, Crustacea, Echinoderms, fc. For ravages,see oyster section,
“‘Ravages of enemies.’’)
Archosargus probatocephalus (Walb.) Gill. Sbeepshead.
See “Fishes.” Family Sparide.

Pogonias chromis, Lacep. Drum.
See “Fishes.” Family Scienide.

COMMENSAL.

Pinnotheres ostreum, Say. Oyster Crab. Commensal with southern oys-
ters and with northern in rivers where southern oysters have
been long planted.

4991. New York market. E.G. Blackford.

Pinnotheres maculatus, Say. Commensal with edible mussel (Mytilus
edulis) and Great Scallop (Pecten tenuicostatus).
For specimen see Section, Crustacea, Echinoderms, &e.

SHELL-FISH FISHERY.
VESSELS AND BOATS.

55804. Model of an oyster schooner. Chesapeake and Delaware Bay type.
Used in dredging oysters. U.S. Fish Commission.

26536. Model of an oyster schooner. (Scale, 1 inch to the foot.) Chesa-
peake and Delaware Bay type. Used in dredging oysters. T.
B. Ferguson.

25002. Model of a Chesapeake canoe-pungy. (Scale, linch to the foot.)

: Used in dredging oysters. T. B. Ferguson.
55807. Model of an oyster pinkie. U.S. Fish Commission.
42758. Model of a Chesapeake oyster-pungy. ‘T. B. Ferguson.

{

[83]

25003.

22217.

22213.

29537.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. °

Model of a Chesapeake oyster-canoe. (Scale, 1 inch to a foot.)
Made from two logs and used in “ tonging” oysters in Chesa-
peake Bay. T. B. Ferguson.

Model of a fishing boat used by Chinese fishermen on the Pacific
coast in shell-fishery. Livingstone Stone.

Model of a fishing boat used on the Pacific coast in the shell-fishery.
Livingstone Stone. 2

Model of a Nantucket dory. (Scale, 1 inch to the foot.) Used in
gathering clams for bait. W. H. Chase.

Model of a New England dory. (Scale, 1 inch to the foot.) Used
in gathering and transplanting clams. Starling & Stevens,
Ferryville, Me.

Model of a Connecticut sharpie. (Scale, 1 inch to the foot.) Used
in the oyster and scallop fisheries of Long Island and Long Island
Sound. H. C. Chester.

Model of Providence River cat-boat. Used in scallop fishery. J. M.
K. Southwick.

— Crayon showing clamming dories on the beach. U.S. Fish Commis-

sion.

— Crayon showing Connecticut steam oyster-dredger ‘‘W. H. Lock-

wood,” at work off New Haven. U.S. Fish Commission.

The types, such as cat-boats, dories, sloops, and small schooners, used
along the New England coast in the seine and line fishing, are also em-
ployed indiscriminately im the shell-fish fisheries, especially those of the
oyster and scallop. In Long Island Sound, of late years, these craft
have been superseded, however, to a great extent, by the steam dredg-
ing vessels. For other models see Industrial Exhibit.

57570.

57089.

57090.

31792.

57092.

57693.

57694.

26110.

26109.

25205.

29111.

IMPLEMENTS.

Oyster dredge used by Connecticut steam oyster dredgers. When
of this size but two are used, one on each side of the vessel. With
smaller sizes, four are operated at the same time. C. D. Hall.

Oyster dredge with teeth. Style in general use in Chesapeake and
Delaware Bays. U.S. Fish Commission.

Oyster scrape without teeth. Style in general use in Chesapeake
and Delaware Bays, in shallow water and on soft bottom.
U.S. Fish Commission.

Model of an oyster dredge, and patent ‘‘winder.” Showing method
of operating the dredging apparatrs. C.S8. Belbin.

Improved ‘ winder” or windlass for hauling in oyster dredges. U.
S. Fish Commission.

Oyster tongs, 10-foot handles and 10 teeth. Galvanized iron frame.
U.S. Fish Commission.

Oyster tongs, 10-foot handles and 10 teeth. Galvanized iron frame.
U. S. Fish Commission.

Oyster tongs, 8-foot handles and 12 teeth. Head of wood, frame of
small brass rods. 8S. Salisbury.

Oyster-tongs. 8-fvot handle and 8 teeth. Head of wood, frame of
small brass rods. S. Salisbury.

Oyster-tongs. 8-foot handle and 10 teeth. Frame, head, and teeth
of galvanized iron. Wilcox & Crittenden.

Oyster-nippers. 8-foot handle and 3 teeth, 24 inches long. S. Sal-
isbury.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [84]!

57806. Model of oyster-tongs. W. P. Haywood.

57557. Scallop-dredge, Narragansett Bay. For use on hard bottoms. A.
A. Wilson.

57558. Scallop-dredge, Narragansett Bay. ‘‘Slider” style; for use on
grassy bottoms. A. A. Wilson.

57559. Scallop-dredge, Narragansett Bay. ‘‘Kettle-bail” style; for use on
muddy bottoms. A. A. Wilson.

57087. Scallop-dredge, New Bedford. Old style with twine net. J. T.
Brown.

57088. Scallop-dredge, New Bedford. New style, with iron-mesh net. J.
T. Brown.

7091. Clamrake. Provincetown, Mass., style. Used in taking sea-clams.
(Mactra solidissima.) J.T. Brown.

57695. Clamrake. Nantucket style. 13-foot pole, 23 teeth, twine net.
Used in taking sea-clams. (Mactra solidissima.) U.S. Fish Com-
mission.

29466. Clam hoe. Provincetown, Mass. Wm. H. Hesbolt.

29437. Hand-claw. Used for gathering ‘‘hen” clams and scallops. Well-
fleet, Cape Cod, and coast of Maine. M. W. Grant.

36043. Clam rake. 23-foot pole, 16 teeth 6 inches long. Used in taking
“quahaugs” (Venus mercenaria) and “hen” clams. (Mactra soli-
dissima.) U.S. Fish Commission.

36040. Clam rake. 18-foot pole, 16 teeth 6 inches long. Used in taking
‘“‘quahaugs” (Venus mercenaria) and ‘‘hen” clams. (Mactra soli-
dissima.) U.S. Fish Commission,

36045. Clam rake. Wellfleet style. U.S. Fish Commission.

36046. Clam rake. Wellfleet style. 5-foot handle, 13 teeth, 5 inches long.
Used in taking “quahaugs” (Venus mercenaria.) U.S. Fish Com-
mission.

36047. Clam rake. Wellfleet style. 5 foot handle, 17 teeth 6 inches long.
Used in taking ‘‘quahaugs” (Venus mercenaria.) U. 8. Fish
Commission.

— Clam rake (model) used in-collecting sea-clams. (See model of Nan-
tucket dory. ) ;

—— Oyster shovel (model). (See model of Chesapeake oyster canoe. )

The moss rakes, large and small, and various agricultural implements

such as spades, shovels, hoes, &c., are used in taking clams and other
shell-fish; but they are not exhibited in this section.

OYSTER CULTIVATION.

Tracing of the official map of the Shell-Fish Commissioners of the
State of Rhode Island, showing location of oyster-farms in the Provi-
dence River and Narragansett Bay, and illustrating the methods em-
ployed in assigning portions of the bottom for oyster cultivation, and in
maintaining the buoys and marks in proper position. Scalezogos. In-
dex plan of the above. Scale g5tos-

Copy of the official map of the Shell-Fish Commissioners of the State
of Connecticut, showing the natural beds, the area under cultivation, and
the area designated or applied for but not yet improved; and illustrating
the system adopted by the State of Connecticut for the purpose of en-
couraging the oyster industry.

[85] FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.

Copy of the the triangulation sheet of the Connecticut commission.
Contributed by the shell-fish commission of the State of Connecticut.

Copy of the map of the town commissioners of Patchogue, Long Island,
showing the oyster-farms and areas belonging to the various oyster
companies and oyster associations of Great South Bay, Long Island.

For laws and regulations governing oyster-farming in the foregoing localities, see
“Introduction” and reports of commissioners in the collection of publications.

METHODS OF PRESERVING AND TRANSPORTING SHELL-
FISH.

Models of the apparatus used in “ steaming” oysters, including the follow-
ing articles :

Tram-car of iron, on iron wheels, for holding oysters while in steam-
chest, and transporting them thence to the opening room.
Steam-chest of oak, lined with iron and fitted with appliances for
admitting steam when doors are closed. Doors movable ver-

tically and close fitting.

Iron tracks for car.

Turn-table for car.

Tin pot fitted to hook to side of car and into which the oysters
are put as soon as opened.

Sieve in which the oysters are put for washing after reception from
openers.

Table upon which the oysters are placed after washing and where
the cans are filled and weighed.

Crate or basket, circular in form and of iron, into which the cans
are piled, regularly, after being filled. Models of cans shown in
position.

Dray for transporting cans.

Derrick for raising crates in transporting them from process-kettle
to cooling-tub.

Process-kettle, circular, of iron, lid closing hermetically, and fitted
with steam-pipes and thermometer. In the course of prepara-
tion the crates containing the cans of oysters are placed in the
kettle, the lid closed, and the steam turned on.

Cooling-tub, of wood, containing cold water. The crates with con-
tents are transferred to this tub, after steaming, in order to
cool them.

Capping-table. The cans are transferred to this table, from the
cooling-tub, and there have the caps soldered on.

Capping-iron (natural size). Thisis an arrangement of an ordinary
soldering iron, so as to facilitate the soldering of the cans.

FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES. [36 |

Models of the apparatus used in opening and packing oysters.

Shucking trough, with stand for workman, hammer, knife, block,
two buckets; one to receive small oysters, the other for ‘‘se-
lects.”

Skimmer and gallon pot for receiving oysters from the shuckers.

Three tubs, one to receive small oysters, one for “selects,” and one
holding water.

Cullender in which the oysters are washed.

Shake-bucket for transferring oysters to and from tubs.

Table holding the cans to be filled.

Dipper for holding water.

Cup for holding oysters.

Cup for holding water.

Funnel for filling cans.

Case in which cans are packed for shipment.

Implements used—natural size.

Set of measuring cups.

‘‘ Dipper.”

Set of funnels.

Shake-bucket.

Gallon pot.

Hammer.

Knife.

Shucker’s buckets.

Block.

Case containing cans. <A. Booth & Co., Baltimore, Maryland.

Oyster tubs and buckets used in transporting shell-fish. W. S.
Robinson & Co., New Haven, Connecticut.

Oyster-tubs used i the Western States in ae Ne oysters.
Mann Bros., Chicago, Ulinois.

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