A CATSKILL FLORA AND ECONOMIC BOTANY IV (PART 2.) POLYPETALAE SARRACENIACEAE through LEGUMINOSAE Including Pitcher-plant, Sundew, Stonecrop, Foam Flower, Currants, Gooseberries, Saxifrage, Witch-hazel, Sycamore, Avens, Hawthorn, Cinquefoil, Cherries, Apple, Roses, Brambles, and Legumes Karl L. Brooks Bulletin No. 454 New York State Museum The University of the State of New \ork THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Albany, New York 12230 1984 LIBRARY THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN BRONX. NEW YORK 10453 A CATSKILL FLORA AND ECONOMIC BOTANY IV (PART 2). POLYPETAIAE SARRACENIACEAE through LEGUMINOSAE Including Pitcher-plant,. Sundew, Stonecrop, Foam Flower, Currants, Gooseberries, Saxifrage, Witch-hazel, Sycamore, Avens, Hawthorn, Cinquefoil, Cherries, Apple, Roses, Brambles, and Legumes Karl L. Brooks Bulletin No. 454 New York State Museum The State Education Department does not discriminate on the basis of age, color, creed, disability, marital status, veteran status, national origin, race, or sex in the educational programs and activities which it operates. This policy is in compliance with Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972. Inquiries con¬ cerning this policy may be referred to the Department's Affirmative Action Officer, Education Building, Albany, 111 1223^. The University of the State of New York The State Education Department Albany, New York 12230 1984 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Regents of The University (with years when terms expire) 1988 WILLARD A. Genrich, Chancellor , LL. B. , L.H.D.. LL.D., Litt.D., D.C.S., D.C.L., Sc.D. _ Buffalo 1987 MARTIN C. BARELL, Vice Chancellor , B.A., I. A.. LL. B., LL.D. _ Muttontown 1986 Kenneth B. Clark, A.B.. M.S., Ph.D., LL.D., L.H.D., D.Sc. _ Hastings on Hudson ♦ 1989 Emlyn I. Griffith, A.B., J.D. _ Rome 1984 Jorge L. Batista, B.A.. J.D., LL.D. _ Bronx 1986 Laura Bradley Chodos, B.A., M.A. _ Vischer Ferry 1984 Louise P. MaTTEONI. B.A., M.A., Ph.D. _ Bayside 1988 J. Edward Meyer. B.A., LL.B., L.H.D. _ Chappaqua 1987 R. CARLOS CARBALLADA, B.S., L.H.D. _ Rochester 1988 Floyd S. Linton, A.B., M.A., M.P.A., D.C.L. _ Miller Place 1988 Salvatore J. Sclafani, B.S., M.D _ Staten Island 1989 Mimi LlEBER, B.A., M.A. _ Manhattan 1985 Shirley C. Brown, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. _ Albany 1990 ROBERT M. BEST, B.S. _ Binghamton 1990 Norma Gluck, B.A.. M.S.W. _ Manhattan 1990 Thomas R. Frey, A.B., LL.B. _ Rochester President of The University and Commissioner of Education Gordon M. Ambach Executive Deputy Commissioner of Education Robert J. Maurer Deputy Commissioner for Cultural Education Carole F. Huxley Assistant Commissioner for the State Museum Martin E. Sullivan Director, State Science Service Richard H. Monheimer Chief, Biological Survey Norton G. Miller State Botanist Richard S. Mitchell DEDICATION My studies of the Catskill flora are dedicated to my good wife MARGUERITE Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from IMLS LG-70-15-0138-15 https://archive.org/details/catskillfloraeco4219broo EDITOR'S PREFACE This is the work of an amateur botanist whose many years of col¬ lection and study of Catskill plants make him the person most qualified to produce such a treatment in the tradition of the old herbals. We at the Botany Office of the New York State Museum feel that this type of publication is a useful adjunct to our efforts to produce a comprehensive state flora. The author's intimate knowledge of the area and its plants makes this a valuable work for those who are native to the Catskills as well as for the many summer visitors. Medical and food uses of plants, though often only of historical interest, round out the treatment, and make this publication what it is intended to be- -a source book for those interested in reading and learning about the Catskill flora. Indeed, since the vast majority of the plants discussed are widely distributed throughout the northeastern states and adjacent Canada, this work should also be of interest far beyond the narrow confines of the Catskill region IMPORTANT NOTE All economic uses, folklore, medical and phar¬ maceutical notes, uses as foodstuffs, etc., are com¬ piled from the literature and do not represent an en¬ dorsement by the author or the New York State Museum. Some of the uses may, indeed, be dangerous if incor¬ rectly employed. Some are not effective and are pre¬ sented for historical interest only. - v- PREFACE The Catskills have long been known for their unusual beauty, health¬ ful climate, and their natural resources for recreation, not the least of which is their abundant wildlife and in some respects a unique flora. While it is true that a large percentage of the plants growing naturally in the Catskills also occur’ throughout most of the northeastern states and adjacent Canada, many species are rare, only locally abundant, or do not occur elsewhere in the eastern states. Some are northern elements found only on the high peaks, and others appear to have been stranded in isolated areas following the retreat of the last glacier some 10,000 years ago. But whether rare in distribution or more abundantly widespread, no plant is completely devoid of interest, and many have had a long and var¬ ied association with man that goes back over many millennia. A study of the flora of any region can be a richly rewarding ex¬ perience, and that of the Catskills is no exception. Simply getting to know what plants grow in a particular area brings one closer to an under¬ standing of the wonders of nature, but it has long been my contention that just knowing a plant by name is only the beginning. What is its re¬ lationship to other plants, both wild and cultivated? Of what value is it to man and to wildlife? Is it edible, a source of dye, useful as a medicine, or is it just an obnoxious weed? How can it be prepared for the table? For what was it prescribed? How can one get rid of it? An¬ swers to such questions not only lead us down many intriguing paths, but also contribute much to our understanding of the intricacies of the bio¬ sphere . My work on the Catskill flora during the last quarter of a century has therefore a three-fold objective: (l) to determine precisely what species grow in this area, (2) to chart the known distribution of each species in the Catskills, and, (3) for each, to collect as much informa¬ tion as possible concerning its value to man and to wildlife. These ob¬ jectives have led to many hours of work in the field collecting specimens and making observations of the plants seen plus countless others in li¬ braries and herbaria to obtain information on their distribution and use. This work was written primarily for the serious amateur with a de¬ sire to know more about the plants growing in the northeastern states and adjacent Canada, with particular emphasis upon those occurring in the Cats¬ kills. In these times of increasing concern for man’s impact upon the en¬ vironment, the dwindling food supply in relation to increased population pressure throughout the world, inflation, and the rising desire of a large segment of the people to return to fundamentals, as it were, it is hoped that the emphasis given to economic botany, and to the importance of our native flora to wildlife, will fill a basic need. So far as the writer is aware, this is the first time that detailed information on food, drug, and dye plants has been assembled in a compilation that includes the common weeds as well as the more obscure components of our flora such as the grasses and sedges, which most popular field guides ignore completely. vii A work of this nature could not have been completed without the help and encouragement of a number of people. My wife. Marguerite, has borne the brunt of my numerous idiosyncrasies, both as a constant companion in the field and as a demanding editor and critic. The late Stanley J. Smith, Curator of Botany at the New York State Museum, not only spent countless hours checking my specimens and graciously permitted access to the state's records on plant distribution but has also been mentor and companion in the field on many occasions, to say nothing of his continuing advice and encouragement for over a quarter of a century. In addition to supplying moral support and companionship in the field, Paul Huth, who fell heir to the Domville-Dunbar records of the Ulster County flora, was kind enough to check through several thousand cards to extract information pertaining to collections and observations made in the Catskill region of that county. In addition, mention must be made of the work of Robert Dirig and Spider Barbour, who have contributed a number of important records. More than thanks are due to Elizabeth G. Hall, formerly librarian at The New York Botanical Garden, whose vast knowledge of botanical source material seems inexhaustible and whose boundless enthusiasm is infectious. She has been unfailing in digging out elusive books and suggesting sources of information in addition to supplying many details concerning earlier workers in the firld. Special thanks are due to Richard S. Mitchell, State Botanist, for his editorial services and his painstaking work in guiding this series of bulletins through the press, to say nothing of his continued interest and encouragement. Charles J. Sheviak, Curator of Botany at the New York State Museum, has earned the writer's gratitude by making the ser¬ vices of his office readily available. The writer is likewise indebted to J. Kenneth Dean, a staff member of the Botany Office at the New York State Museum, for numerous courtesies, including checking out a number of critical specimens. Librarians at both the Horticultural Society of New York and at the New York Botanical Garden have also been most helpful. Last, but in no way least, thanks are due to Patricia Holmgren, herbarium supervisor and administrator of the phanerogamic herbarium at The New York Botanical Garden, and to George Kalmbacher, curator at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, for permission to check specimens in the herbaria at those institutions. The writer gratefully acknowledges his debt to the following authors and publishers for permission to reproduce illustrations from their works; the source of each illustration is identified in the caption accompanying the illustration: Ribes rotundifolium. p. 31 in the following text, is re¬ produced from Recognizing Native Shrubs by William Carey Grimm, copyright 1966, by permission of The Stackpole Company, Harrisburg, Pa.; seven illus¬ trations are reproduced from Trees of New York State by H. P. Brown, copy¬ right 1975, by permission of Dover Publications, Inc., New York, and one figure is reproduced from All About Weeds by Edwin Rollin Spencer, copyright 1957 5 also by permission of Dover Publications, Inc., New York. To the Cran- brook Institute of Science the writer is indebted for permission to reproduce 19 figures from Shrubs of Michigan by Cecil Billington (Bulletin 20, 2d ed. ), copyright I9U9, and 12 plates from Michigan Wildf lowers by Helen V. Smith, copyright 1979? both publications of the Cranbrook Institute of Science, Bloomfield Hills, Mich. The Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc., New York, has granted permission to reproduce Sedum triphvllum (Sedum tele phium ssp. purpureum on p. 15 of the text that follows) from Weeds . rev. ed. , by W. C. -viii- Muenscher. Copyright 1935s 1955 by Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., renewed 1963 by Walter Conrad Muenscher. The figure of Lotus corniculatus on p. 171 of the following text is also used by permission of Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., from Wildly Successful Plants by Lawrence J. Crockett, copyright 1977 by Lawrence J. Crockett. Last, but by no means least, the writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to The New York Botanical Garden for per¬ mission to use five illustrations from Volume II of The New Britton and Brown Illustrated Flora of the Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada by Henry A. Gleason, copyright 1952. Karl L. Brooks Brooklyn, New York 7 May 1983 - 1X“ CONTENTS SARRACENIALES , 1 SARRACENIACEAE , the Pitcher-plant Family . 1 Sarracenia (Pitcher-plant) ..... . 1 DROSERACEAE, the Sundew Family. . 4 Drosera (Sundew) . 4 PQDOSTEMALES, 8 PODOSTEMACEAE, the Riverweed Family . 8 Podostemum (Riverweed) . . . 8 ROSALES, 9 CRASSULACEAE, the Orpine Family . 10 Sedum (Stonecrop) . 10 SAXIFRAGACEAE , the Saxifrage Family . 17 Chrysosplenium (Golden Saxifrage) . 17 Mitella (Bishop' s-cap) . 19 Penthorum (Ditch Stonecrop) . 20 Philadelphus (Mock Orange) . . . 22 Ribes (Currant, Gooseberry) . 23 Saxifraga (Saxifrage) . 33 Tiarella (Foamflower) . 3& IIAMAMELIDACEAE, the Witch-hazel Family. . . 37 Hamamelis (Witch-hazel) . 38 PLATANACEAE, the Sycamore Family . 4l Platanus (Sycamore) . 44 ROSACEAE, the Rose Family . 46 Agrimonia (Agrimony) . 52 Amelanchier (Shadbush) . 52 Crataegus (Hawthorn) . 59 Dalibarda (False Violet) . 69 Filipendula (Meadow-sweet) . 70 Fragaria (Strawberry) . 72 Geum (Avens) . 77 Potentilla (Cinquefoil) . 84 -xi- Prunus (Cherry, Peach, Plum) . 93 Pyrus (Apple, Pear, Chokeberry, Mountain-ash) . 109 Rosa (Rose) . 122 Rubus (Bramble) . 134 Sorbaria (False Spiraea) . 150 Spiraea (Spiraea) . 150 Waldsteinia (Barren Strawberry) . 153 LEGUMINOSAE , the Pea Family . 154 Amphicarpa (Hog Peanut) . 156 Apios (Ground-nut) . 158 Baptisia (Wild Indigo) . l6l Coronilla (Crown-vetch) . 162 Desmodium (Tick- trefoil) . 163 Lathyrus (Perennial Pea) . l66 Lespedeza (Bush-clover) . l68 Lotus (Deer-vetch) . 170 Lupinus (Lupine) . 172 Medicago (Black Medic, Alfalfa) . 173 Melilotus (Sweet Clover) . 176 Robina (Locust) . 180 Trifolium (Clover) . 185 Vicia (Vetch) . 194 REJECINDAE . 199 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS . 201 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS . 203 REFERENCES . 207 APPENDIX . 215 ADDENDUM . 277 INDEX . 279 -xii- SARRACENIALES This is an order of herbaceous insectivorous plants comprising three families. In addition to our two families, a third, the Nepenthaceae , a unigeneric family of about 60 old-world species, occurs primarily in trop¬ ical Asia and Malaya. They are vines that produce showy pendant pitchers from the ends of alternate leaves, of which a number of species are culti¬ vated in greenhouses and conservatories as novelties. Cronquist (1968) places this order in his subclass Dilleniidae, which also includes such or¬ ders as the Malvales, Violales, Salicales, Capparales, Primulales, and Eri- cales, orders that "evidently hang together as a natural group," even though he admits that the "group cannot be fully characterized morphologic¬ ally." The Sarraceniales "as here defined consists of three well marked small families, scarcely 200 species in all," including Droseraceae and Sar- raceniaceae, both of which are represented in the Catskill flora. He states that while "The mutual affinity of the three families has been affirmed and denied by different authors," he is "more impressed by the similarities than by the admitted differences," and feels that their ancestry "is to be found in the Theales," an order containing 13 families, including the Guttiferae (Hypericaceae ) . Key to Catskill Families of Sarraceniales 1. Style 1, umbrella -shaped; leaves modified into large water- holding pitchers . Sarraceniaceae 1. Styles as many as the carpels, often deeply divided; leaves covered by stalked glands, not pitcher- shaped or tubular... Droseraceae SARRACENIACEAE, the Pitcher-plant Family This is a family of three genera and l4 species of herbaceous new- world bog plants with rosulate tubular leaves forming "pitchers" in which insects become entrapped to drown in the accumulated rainwater at the bot¬ tom. The pitchers secrete an enzyme that mixes with the water and hastens the disintegration of the trapped insects. Nine species belong to Sarra- cenia, a genus of eastern North America. Darlingtonia occurs in California and Oregon, while Heliamnhora is restricted to the higher mountains of Ven¬ ezuela. The family is of special interest because of the insectivorous na¬ ture of its plants but is of no significant value, although some species are sometimes cultivated as novelties. * Sarracenia L. Pitcher-plant. There are about 10 species of pitcher-plants, a North American genus chiefly of swamps and bogs on the coastal plain from North Carolina to Flor¬ ida and Texas. The name of the genus commemorates Dr. Michel Sarrasin de l'Etany, 1659“ 1734, a Canadian physician and naturalist of Quebec who in¬ troduced S. purpurea into Europe some 300 years ago. They are yellowish, green, or purplish bog plants, the radical hollow leaves bearing a wing on one side and a rounded arching hood at the apex. They are curious, yet -1- attractive, insectivorous plants sometimes grown in bog gardens and green¬ houses for their handsome pitcher- like leaves and curious flowers. In some species the stemless pitchers, attached to slender creeping rhizomes, are only 2 inches high, whereas others may stand more than 2 feet high, the color varying from green to yellow, red, crimson, and purple, often streaked or blotched with contrasting colors. The ornamental flowers, produced when the plant is several years old, are borne on slender leafless stalks that rise from the crowns of the plants. The cup-shaped flowers are five-petaled and range in color from greenish-yellow to crimson, gre enish- purple , and purple . Insects alighting on the vividly colored pitchers are enticed to ex¬ plore by minute drops of a honey- like substance secreted by glands on the lids. Intermingled with the honey glands are downward- pointing hairs, which lead the insect to a slippery area. This offers no foothold and it is thus precipitated into the water at the base of the pitcher. Exit is barred by downward- pointing hairs and it soon perishes, as the fluid in the pitcher has a ready wetting power so that the insect quickly becomes submersed and drowns . The U.S . Dispensatory of IS65 states that the rhizomes of two southern species, S. flava and S. variolaris . have long been regarded by the inhabi¬ tants of coastal South Carolina as a domestic remedy believed "to possess ex¬ traordinary powers in dyspepsia,” sick headache, abdominal distension, and other disorders. Invalids chewed the root as they would chew tobacco. From the reports of a physician of that region, the editors of that volume in¬ ferred that "the medicine is a stimulating tonic, with some tendency to act on the brain; and probably well suited to cases of dyspepsia dependent on debility of the stomach." It was thought to stimulate both the stomach and the circulatory system and at the same time to act somewhat as a diuretic as well as being "disposed to operate mildly on the bowels." \ % Sarracenia purpurea L. Pitcher-plant. Meaning of Species Name . Purple . Other Names. Sidesaddle-flower, Huntsman ' s- cup, Indian-cup, Indian- jug, Indian-pitcher , Adam's- cup, Adam's-pitcher , Forefathers '-pitcher , Forefathers '-cup, Whippoorwill' s-boots , Whippoorwill '3- shoes, Skunk Cab¬ bage, Watches, Foxglove, Smallpox-plant, Fly-trap, Meadow- cup, Meadow- pitcher, Fever- cup, Fever-pitcher. Type of Plant . A perennial insectivorous herb. Habitat . Sphagnum bogs and peaty barrens. Range . Lab to Sask and Mack, s to NJ, Del, Md, Pa, 0, Ind, Ill, and Minn . Distr in NTS . Common across the n part of the state, through the c and w counties; less common southw and absent from those secs where no sphagnum bogs are found. Distr in the Torre y Range. Common throughout the area in eaaphical- ly favorable situations except on the unglaciated portion of the Pied¬ mont plateau, there rare or wanting. Time of FI. Late May- Aug; Jun 10- 30 at Cornell. Origin. Native. -2- Sarracenia purpurea- -Pitcher-plant [From Dana (1900), Plate 133? p. 304.] During the last century, and probably before, this plant was regarded by many Indian tribes of Canada and the Great Lakes region as a specific cure for smallpox. They believed that the use of the root not only greatly shortened the run of the disease and checked maturation but prevented deep pitting in convalescence. Millspaugh (1887) reports that when an epidemic of the dreaded disease broke out in Canada during the middle of the last century, the alarm was "greatly diminished on an old squaw going amongst them, and treating the cases with . . . [an] infusion [of the roots of S.. pur¬ purea ] . This treatment, it is said, was so successful as to cure every case." A British surgeon corroborated the Indians' view with regard to the effectiveness of this plant in treating smallpox when in l86l he de¬ livered a paper in London describing his experiences in Canada. -3“ Nevertheless, physicians of that period did not accept this drug hc-cause, as Millspaugh remarks, "in almost all instances,” it proved to be "an ab¬ solute failure in the hands of the ’old school.'" The root was also recom¬ mended for treating kidney ailments and "torpidity of the organs of the ali¬ mentary tract," but it never became an official drug. The editors of the U.S . Dispensatory of 1865 remarked that "subsequent experience has fully de¬ termined its entire want of any curative influence over that disease," but Millspaugh concluded his discussion of this plant with the statement that "This ... again corroborates the aborigine’s use of the drug, and adds one more proof to the many that are tending to reveal the fact that our American native practice was essentially correct." This species is now protected throughout New York State and should not be disturbed in any way. DROSERACEAE, the Sundew Family This is a family of 4 .genera and perhaps 90 or 100 species of annual and perennial glandular herbs or rarely subshrubs of mostly insectiverous bog plants, among which is Dionaea , the Venus Fly-trap, a monotypic genus of North and South Carolina. Pro sera is the largest genus, most abundant in Australia but represented by a few species in most regions of all conti¬ nents. In the United States D. rotundifolia occurs in all but the southwest¬ ern section while D. intermedia is more boreal in distribution. Some authors have placed this family in the Parietales but others included it in the Sax- ifragaceae. In many respects plants of the Droseraceae are similar to those of the Lentibulariaceae , but the similarity results from parallel develop¬ ment rather than phyletic relationship. This family is of little economic significance, although the Venus Fly-trap is sold in the trade as a novelty. The leaves of Drosera yield a purple or violet dye, once of commercial im¬ portance . Drosera L. Sundew. There are about 100 species of sundew, most abundant in Australia and South Africa but occurring also in South America and Eurasia as well as in North America. The name of the genus is derived from the Greek droseros , dewy, referring to the clear glutinous fluid, exuded by the leaf glands, which glitters like dewdrops in the sun. Our species are low perennials or biennials, but the most extraordinary development of this genus is at¬ tained in South Africa and Australia where occur tall plants attaining a height of 3 feet with wiry stems that climb by means of adhesive leaf blades. Our plants form rosettes of leaves, close to the ground, which vary in shape among the different species, some being round while others are long and nar¬ row. The small white, pink, or crimson flowers are borne in loose clusters at the ends of slender staLhs arising from the centers of the leaf rosettes. Reproduction takes place not only by means of seeds but also by leaf buds which normally spring from the bases of the tentacles, particularly on leaves that have become detached. All species are carnivorous. They catch their prey by means of ten¬ tacles that grow in a regular pattern from the upper surface of the leaf blade. As many as 400 have been counted on a single leaf of D. rotundifolia less than 1 cm in diameter. The tentacles stand distinctly separated and -4- -5" , Drosera rotundifolia—Round- leaved Sundew Drosera intennedia-Spatulate-leaved Sundew - [From Creevey (1912), P- 82. J [From Smith (1966), Plate 73, P- ±65. 1 vary in size, those of D. rotundifolia being shorter in the middle and much longer near the leaf margins. Each gland at the tip secretes and supports a droplet of sticky fluid which, in multiple, gives the leaf a dewy appear¬ ance , hence the common name . These tentacles are capable of motion. Darwin was the first to make extensive experimental studies on the matter. When a small insect alights on a leaf, its escape is prevented by the sticky fluid, which smears and smothers it during its struggles to escape. The presence of an insect acts as a stimulus to neighboring tentacles, which bend toward the prey and at¬ tach themselves to it, bringing a larger contact surface to bear. A diges¬ tive enzyme is then secreted by stalkless glands which dissolves the content of the prey. The products of this digestion are then absorbed by the same glands. The movements of the tentacles are complex, but the net result is to bring the body of the insect toward the middle of the leaf, which itself can bend to surround its prey. Some species are sometimes grown as botanical curiosities, either in boggy places out of doors or in the greenhouse. Outside, a sunny position is necessary. Unless the atmosphere can be kept constantly moist when grow¬ ing them inside, it is advisable to cover the plants with a large bell jar. The leaves of the sundews, like rennet, have the power of "setting" milk to make a sort of custard similar to junket. In the words of Manasseh Cutler, "If the juice [of the leaves] be put into a strainer, through which the warm milk from the cow is poured, and the milk set by for a day or two to become acrescent it acquires a consistency and tenacity neither the whey nor the cream will separate. In this state it is used by the inhabitants of the north of Sweden, and called an extremely grateful food." As another writer remarked, "it makes milk solid, but sour like bonyclabber . " Not only are sundews protected by law in New York State, but they are so rare in the Catskills that they should be carefully protected wherever they are found. Key to Local Species of Drosera 1. Leaves orbicular or broader than long; petioles hairy; rosette close . D. rotundifolia 1. Leaves spatulate, tapering into the slender petiole; petioles glabrous; rosette loose . D. intermedia Drosera intermedia Hayne. Spatulate-leaved Sundew. Meaning of Species Name . Intermediate. Other Names . Sundew, Daily- dew. Type of Plant. A low perennial or biennial insectivorous herb. Habitat. Wet acid peat and sand. Range . Nf to Ont, s to SC, Tenn, 0, Ind, Ill, and Minn; on the coastal plain to Fla and Tex. Distr in NTS. Common across the n part of the state; less frequent southw to Dutchess, Chenango, Tompkins, and Erie co; also on LI. Distr in the Torre y Range . Throughout our area in edaphically favor¬ able places except on the unglaciated part of the Piedmont plateau, there -6- rare or wanting. Time of FI. ( Jun) Jul-Aug; Jul 10~Aug 20 at Cornell. Origin . Native. / % Drosera rotundi folia L. Round- leaved Sundew. Meaning of Species Name . Round- leaved . Other Names . Round- leaved Dew-plant, Eyebright, Rosa- soils. Youth- wort, Moor- grass. Red- rot, Lustwort. Type of Plant . A low perennial or biennial insectivorous herb. Habitat . Peaty or moist acid soils of bogs and swamps. Range . G1 and Lab to AN, s to SC, Ga , Fla, Ala, Tenn, 0, Ill, Minn, Mont, and Cal; also in Eurasia. Distr in NYS . Common northw and on LI, but less frequent in the Susquehanna reg and not reported from the Chemung valley; frequent westw in the state . Distr in the Torre?/ Range . Throughout the range in edaphically favorable places. Elevation . Grows to 2500 ft in the Catskills. Time of FI. Jun-Aug(Sep) ; Jul 15~30 at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks. Parts of the flower are sometimes transformed into small green leaves. This species, the only one used in medicine, was supposed during the l6th century to be a curative of consumption, but on that score Gerarde re¬ marks that "it hath . . . been observed that they have sooner perished that used the distilled water hereof, than those that abstained from it and have followed the right and ordinary course of diet." Later authorities con¬ sidered it a valuable pectoral, "useful in pulmonary ulceration and in asth¬ ma," different kinds of coughs, and other diseases of the lungs. One physi¬ cian observed that "Drosera is one of the most powerful medicinal agents in our country. It was formerly used externally, but without success, in cu¬ taneous affections, and it seems to have been taken with greater advantage internally. Modern practitioners who, according to custom, have tried only large doses, have not ventured upon giving it internally, fearing to kill their patients, and have therefore rejected it." Millspaugh (1887), on the other hand, stated that "Drosera asserts altogether a peculiar action upon the lungs and, in fact, the whole respiratory tract, thus leading us to value it deservingly in pertussis, bronchial irritation and even phthisis, where in fact it gives many a patient a restful night and more peaceful day when the disease is too far advanced for still greater benefit." At one time it was used in the treatment of whooping-cough as well as having been advocated as a cure for old age, when an extract was used "together with colloidal silicates in cases of arteriosclerosis." A tincture was prepared by pound¬ ing the fresh leaves to a pulp, pressing out the juice, and adding an equal part by weight of alcohol. This mixture was put away in a well- stoppered bottle and allowed to stand 8 days in a dark, cool place, after which the liquid was filtered out. Boiled with ammonia, sundew leaves have been used to produce a ye3.1ow dye. After straining the dye bath, the wool was boiled in the resulting liquid for half an hour to obtain the desired color. PODOSTEMALES FODOSTEMACEAE, the Riverweed Family Engler treated this taxon as a primitive suborder of the Rosales un¬ til 1936, when he considered it to be even more primitive, making it, accord¬ ing to Lawrence (1951)? "the terminal order of the line containing the Fa- gales and Urticales." Most botanists consider it "a highly reduced aquatic ..., presumably with rosalian affinities," but there are many reasons for placing this family in a separate monotypic order, as does Cronquist (1968). Maheshwari concluded in 1945 that it is "almost certain that the Podostem- aceae are much reduced apetalous derivitives of the Crassulaceae , " while Cronquist observes that "the Podostemales are related to the Crassulaceae and/or the Saxifragaceae , in the Rosales." In any case this is a moderate¬ sized family of between 20 and 40 genera (depending on the authority con¬ sulted) and 140 to 200 species of pantropical distribution (most numerous in South America) but with a few extensions into the temperate regions of all continents in both hemispheres. Members of this family can be identified by their occurrence in streams of running water, where they are attached to rocks, and by their mosslike or lichen-like appearance. These plants are of no economic importance, but their unusual life history provides an in¬ teresting study. Podostemum Michx. Riverweed. This is a genus of about 12 species of aquatic plants growing on stones in running water. Our one species much resembles a lichen. The other species are mostly tropical. The name of the genus is derived from the Greek nous or polos , foot, and stemon. stamen, alluding to the fact that the two stamens are apparently raised on a stalk by the side of the ovary. Podostemum ceratophyllum Michx. Threadfoot. Meaning of Species Name. Horn- leaf, from the rigid or horny ' leaves . Type of Plant. A small fleshy, mostly annual, olive-green aquatic herb of firm texture. Habitat. Firmly attached to loose stones in running water. Range. NB, Que, and Me to Ont, s to NC, Ga, Miss, and Ark; reported from Minn. Distr in NYS. Rare. Distr in the Torre v Range. NY: In 1915 known only from near New¬ burgh, and then "not recently collected." Time of FI. Jul-Sep. Origin. Native . Remarks . Rare, but often locally abundant. -8- Podo sternum c e r a t ophylluirr - Thre a df oo t [From Gleason (1952), Vol. II, p. 25^.] ROSALES This is one of the largest and most important orders of flowering plants, including 17 families and some 23,000 species, cosmopolitan in dis¬ tribution. As might be expected from such a large taxon, it exhibits a wide diversity of plant forms, from dwarf arctic herbs and submersed aquatics to woody vines, desert succulents, and tall trees. This order, characterized by the commonly numerous stamens and often numerous pistils, is generally regarded as a primitive one, not far removed from the Ranales, with which it shows many instances of striking parallelism. Tli is order was considered by Engler and Diels to be composed of 17 families distributed among two suborders, the Catskill families of which were distributed as follows: Saxifragineae Crassulaceae Saxifragaceae Hamamelidaceae Rosineae Platanaceae Rosaceae Leguminosae Cronquist (1968) places the Rosales in his subclass Rosidae ("evident¬ ly derived from the Magnoliidae " ) , which he defines as consisting "of l6 orders, 108 families, and about 60,000 species," comprising more than one- third of all the species of dicots, of which he remarks that "A third of the species in the subclass belong to the single order Rosales." Cronquist places 17 families, including nearly 20,000 species, in this order, about 13,000 of which belong to the Leguminosae, with another 5000 belonging to three other families, the Rosaceae, Crassulaceae, and Saxifragaceae. Other -9~ families placed in this order include Hydrangeaceae and Grossulariaceae . Cronquist's treatment of the Rosales can be considered as "conservative ... in recognizing only one family of legumes instead of three" and "more lib¬ eral in dividing the traditional family Saxifragaceae into three families." "In spite of the diversity of this group," he observes that "it is generally agreed that most of the families here referred to the Rosales are fairly closely related to each other." Adding that the Rosales are "Clearly the most primitive order in their subclass," they have not only "been a pro¬ lific source of diversification within the angiosperms , " but "they are di¬ rectly or indirectly ancestral to some 15 other orders of the Rosidae, and possibly also to the whole subclass Asteridae." From the traditional point of view, the Hamamelidaceae and the Platanaceae are conspicuous by their absence from the Rosales as conceived by Cronquist. These two families he places in his subclass Hamameliaae, along with the Fagales, Myricales, Juglandales, and Urticales (orders which have been discussed in Volume III of the present work). Of the Hamameliaae, he remarks that they constitute "a loosely knit group of dicots with more or less strongly reduced flowers," adding that although "it is clear that neither any one family nor any one order of the Hamamelidae can be regarded as ancestral to all the others," except for one primitive order, "The re¬ maining orders [in this subclass] may all have been derived from the Hama- melidales . " From an economic standpoint the Rosales are among the most important of plant groups both by reason of the many food plants which it contains as well as its numerous ornamentals, to say nothing of numerous weeds. CRASSULACEAE, the Orpine Family This is a family of wide geographical distribution but occurring principally in the drier parts of south- central Asia, the Mexican highlands, South Africa, and the Mediterranean region, being almost entirely absent from Australia, Oceania, and South America. Criteria for the demarcation of genera and species are weak, resulting in the number of genera being es¬ timated from few to 33 and the number of species from 500 to 1500. Cron¬ quist (1968) assigns about lU00 species to this group. They consist pri¬ marily of annual or perennial succulent herbs and shrubs. On the basis of morphological studies it was concluded that the family constitutes a natur¬ al grojip. This family is of economic importance only for its numerous suc¬ culents grown as ornamentals, including Sedum, Kalanchoe, Crassula , and Echeveria . Sedum L. Stonecrop. There are about 500 species of Sedum, chiefly of the north temperate zone, but some extend south beyond the equator, many species favoring rocky or dryish soils. They are mostly smooth, fleshy- leaved perennials with al¬ ternate or imbricated leaves and flowers in broad to one-sided cymes. By some authorities the name of the genus is derived from the Latin sedere , to sit, alluding to the fact that many species of low spreading habit affix themselves to rocks or walls, while others derive its name from the Latin -10- sedare , to quiet, in allusion to the supposed sedative properties of some species. Many species are cultivated as valued ornamentals, particularly in rock gardens, several of which have a tendency to escape. Other species are sometimes used as substitutes for grassy lawns on sunny slopes, and some make excellent house plants . A number of species have been used as food plants. The leaves of £3. album, a native of Europe and northern Asia, have served as a salad, while S_. anacampseros , the Evergreen Orpine of Europe, has been used as a vege¬ table in soup. Gerarde, writing in 1633? mentions the use of S. rune st re , another native of Europe and adjacent Asia, as a salad plant under the name sengreene , which he reported as having "a fine relish." As late as 1831 H. Philips reported that this plant was cultivated in Holland as a salad plant. Key to the Catskill Species of Sedum 1. Flowers dioecious, rarely polygamous, the stamina te yellow, the pistillate yellow to purplish; petals very narrow; follicles closely approximate and erect; rhizome thick and deep-seated, the erect or nearly erect flowering stems annual; a boreal or montane species . S. rosea 1. Flowers perfect, purplish, pink, white, or yellow; follicles divergent or ascending, 2 2. Leaves of flowering stems or branches terete or subterete and linear- cylindric or thick-ovoid and tightly imbricated, 3 3. Leaves tightly imbricated, narrowly ovoid, thickened at base; flowers yellow; depressed and matted plants........ S_ . acre 3. Leaves not tightly imbricated, linear- terete or subterete (perennials with evergreen leafy basal offsets; cymes rather compact, corymbiform, terminating simple stems), 4 4. Petals yellow (leaves opposite or whorled) . . . . . S. carmen to sum 4. Petals white or pink-tinged. . . S. album 2. Leaves flat and dilated, spatulate to oblong or broader, 5 5. Depressed or matted plants with prostrate basal offshoots and slender upcurving flowering stems 0.5“ 2 dm high; leaves of flowering stems 0.5“3-5 cm long (leaves entire; petals white; native woodland plants; lower leaves mostly in whorls of 3; bracts of cymes dilated) . S. ternatum 5. Erect or ascending cespitose plants with coarse flowering stems I.5-8 dm high; larger elliptic, ovate, or obovate leaves 3~10 cm long; introd (petals deep purple to roseate; leaves mostly several-toothed, alternate to whorled) S_. telephium \ / Sedum acre L. Mossy Stonecrop. Meaning of Species Name. Pungent-tasting. Other Names. Wallpepper, Love-entangle (d) , Biting Stonecrop, Bird's-bread, Creeping Jack, Creeping Charlie, Pricket, Golden-moss, Little Houseleek, Gold-chain, Wall-madam, Trea sure -of- love . Type of Plant. A matted, creeping evergreen perennial, reproducing by stems rooting at the nodes, seldom by seeds. -11- (Left) Sedum acre- -Mossy Stonecrop [From Smith (1966), Plate 7^-, p. l66 . ] (Right) Sedum album- -White Stonecrop [From Gleason (1952), Vol. II, p. 258.] Habitat . Stony ledges, rocky fields, walls, dry open places, old cemeteries, pastures, roadsides, and waste places. Range. Q,ue to Wash, s to NC, 0, Ind, Ill, etc. Distr in NYS. Frequent in cult and common in some secs as an esc, especially w of Watertown and in some secs of the Hudson valley. Distr in the Torre y Range. Occasional in most parts of our range except in the pine barrens, there rare or wanting. Time of FI. Jun- Jul(Aug) ; Jun 20-Jul at Cornell. Origin. Natzd from Eu. Remarks . Often cult and commonly esc. This species is the Wall Pepper or Yellow Stonecrop of European cot¬ tage roofs and bears one of the showiest flowers of the genus, a species well worth growing in the rock garden. It was at one time used in medicine; taken internally it induces vomiting and purging, and, on being applied to the skin, it produces inflammation and vesication. The U.S . Dispensatory of 1865 states that "The fresh herb and the expressed juice have been used as an antiscorbutic, emetic, cathartic, and diuretic, and have been applied -12- tS?V^>X4 VV- <7 Uv/' (Left) Sedum rosea--Roseroot (Right) Sedum sarmentosum-- Creeping Stonecrop [From Gleason (1952), Vol. II, pp. 256, 258. J locally to old ulcers, warts, and other excrescences; but the plant is at present little employed." Johnson (1867) remarks that "in some old herbals it is recommended for dropsy, and more modern writers have borne testimony to its good effects in that disease, but it is probably inferior to the more usual remedies of the kind." In areas where this species has become an obnoxious weed, it can simply be plowed or spaded under to destroy the plant. Muenscher (1952) suggests that the creeping stems can be raked from lawns, followed by an application of ammonium sulfate, after which the lawn should be watered well. \ / Sedum album L. White Stonecrop. Meaning of Species Name . White, from the color of the flowers. Type of Plant . A perennial herb with creeping stems forming mats. Range . NY and e Pa to 0. Distr in NYS . Not listed in House (1924). Distr in the Torrev Range . Not listed in Taylor (1915)* Time of FI. Jun-Jul. Origin . Introd from Eurasia. Remarks. Esc from cult. -13- Sedum rosea (L.) Scop. Roseroot. Meaning of Species Name . An old name referring to the fragrant root, the Rosea radix of early apothecaries. Other Names . Rosewort, Scurvy-grass. Type of Plant. A perennial herb. Habitat. Cliffs and ledges. Range . Throughout subarctic Am and Eurasia, s, especially along the coast, to Me; inland and s locally to Vt, NY, and ne Pa; Roan Mt, NC; also in the w to Col and BC. Distr in NYS. In 1924 House stated that this species occurred local¬ ly at Chittenango Falls, Madison co, Seneca L, and the Delaware water gap. Distr in the Torre v Range . In 1915 known only from Pike and Bucks co, Pa, both near the Delaware river. Time of FI. May- Jul(Aug) . Origin . Native. Remarks . A northern and subarctic species. Fernald and Kinsey (1943) report that where abundant this species is an important salad plant in northern regions, owing to the scarcity of green vegetables in those areas. The succulent young leaves and stems are used in salads, and the older plants are cooked as greens up to the time they bear young fruits . % \ Sedum sarmentosum Bunge. Creeping Stonecrop. Meaning of Species Name . Producing lithe runners. Type of Plant . A slender perennial herb. Habitat . Dry or rocky soil of roadsides, waste ground, and open woods . Range . NJ and e Pa to 0. Distr in NYS . Not listed in House (1924). Distr in the Torre v Range . Not listed in Taylor (1915)* Time of FI. Jun . Origin . Introd from e Asia. Remarks. Commonly cult for ornament and often esc near gardens. S g dum telephium L. ssp. purpureum (Link) Schinz & Keller. Live-forever. Meaning of Species Name. For Telephus, son of Hercules; ssp. name, purple . Synonyms . S. purpureum (L.) Link in Fernald (1950); S. telephium L. ssp. fabaria (Koch) Schinz & Keller in Gleason (1952). Other Names . Orpine, Garden- orpine , Frog-plant, Evergreen, Ever¬ lasting, Bog- leaves, Life-of-man, Frog ’ s-mouth, Frog ’ s-bladder , Leeks, Witches ' -moneybags , Live-long, Aaron*s-rod, Midsummer- men. Type of Plant. A coarse erect perennial herb, reproducing by fleshy tuber- like roots, stems rooting at the nodes, and rarely by seeds. Habitat . Fields, old stony meadows, pastures, roadsides, banks, open woods, and waste places. Range . Nf to Ont and Wis, s to Md and Ind. Distr in NYS . Frequent or common in many secs of the state. -14- Sedum telephium ssp. pur pure urn- - Live- forever [From Muenscher (1952), Fig. 5 4 , p. 284.] Distr in the Torrev Range . A not uncommon adv in most parts of our range except in the pine barrens, there wanting. Time of FI. Jul-Sep; Aug-Sep at Cornell. Origin . Introd and natzd from Eu. Remarks . Spread from cult and abundantly (often aggressively) natzd; blooms sparingly but spreads freely by means of its rootstocks. Fernald and Kinsey (1943) report that "it is surprising how few people are familiar with the delicious quality of the tender young leaves and stems as a salad." As a salad plant it should be gathered young; as a potherb of indifferent quality it can be used until July. The crisp, succulent, finger¬ like tuberous roots form "a tasty relish" after being marinated for some -15- Sedum. terna turn- -Wild Stonecrop [From Gleason (1952), Vol. II, p. 256.] days in salted vinegar, poured on the tubers boiling hot. These crisp tu¬ bers, available in spring and again in late autumn, "often occur in enormous masses and then furnish an abundant and easily obtained food." This plant has also been used as a vegetable in the preparation of soups. The U.S . Dispensatory of 1865 states that this plant "was formerly employed externally to cicatrize [promote the growth of fibrous tissue to form a scar] wounds, and internally as an astringent in dysentery and he¬ moptysis [hemorrhage from the lungs], and is still esteemed by the common people of France as a vulnerary [a substance useful in healing wounds]." Of this species Johnson (1867) remarks: "The plant is a common domestic remedy in some parts of the country for diarrhoea and haemorrhoidal dis¬ eases. It is mucilaginous, with a slight astringency, and sometimes acts diuretically. Withering states that 'a decoction of the leaves in milk is a forcible diuretic.1 The leaves are occasionally put in salads." In areas where this species has become an obnoxious weed, Muenscher (1952) suggests that scattered clumps can be dug out, taking care to get all the roots. Larger areas should be cultivated for one or two years. Where cultivation is not practicable, close grazing by sheep will bring this weed under control. % \ Sedum ternatum Michx. Wild Stonecrop. Meaning of Species Name . In three's, from the whorled leaves. Other Fames . Iceland-moss , Three-leaved Stonecrop. Type of Plant. A perennial herb. Habitat. Damp, often calcareous, rocks, mossy banks, cliffs, woods, and brooksides. Range . Ct, w Mass, and NY to Mich and Ill, s to Ga, Tenn, and Ark; spread from cult to cool rocks and damp roadsides farther n. Distr in NYS . Rare and sporadic in se NY and perhaps not native in this state; rare as an esc from cult farther northw in the state. -16- Distr in the Torre v Range . Rare and sporadic in most parts of our area except in the pine barrens, there rare or wanting. Elevation . Grows to 3000 ft in Va. Time of FI. (Apr )May-Jun; May 10-Jun at Cornell. Origin . Native. SAXIFRAGACEAE, the Saxifrage Family This family is composed of about 80 genera and some 1200 species of herbs, shrubs, and small trees. It is nearly cosmopolitan in distribution, but more genera occur in the United States than elsewhere, although species also occur in South America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Oceania, Australasia, and Europe. The family is difficult to separate from related families, particularly from the Rosaceae. Cronquist (1968) divides the family Saxifragaceae as traditionally conceived into three separate fami¬ lies, the Hydrangeaceae , Grossulariaceae , and Saxifragaceae, the last of which, in his conception, contains only 700 species. This family is eco¬ nomically important from the number of ornamentals belonging to it, includ¬ ing Saxifrage, Mock Orange, Coral- bells, Hydrangea, and Astilbe. Currants and gooseberries are fruits of some economic importance. Key to Catskill Genera of the Saxifragaceae 1. Plants woody (shrubs), 2 2. Leaves opposite; stamens 20- U0; leaves pinnately veined; fruit a capsule . . . Phi la delphus 2. Leaves alternate or fascicled; stamens 4 or 5; leaves pal- mately veined and lobed; fruit a berry . Ribes 1. Plants herbaceous, 3 3. Petals none, 4 4. Stems decumbent; flowers 4-merous, solitary at the ends of branches; leaves ovate to rotund, 5“ 15 mm long, entire or obscurely and irregularly toothed . Chrvsosnlenium 4. Stems erect, 2-7 In tall; flowers 5-nerous, borne along a 2- 4- branched cyme; leaves lanceolate to narrowly elliptic, 5“ 10 cm long, sharply serrate, acuminate at both ends.. Penthorum 3- Petals present, 5 5. Petals deeply pinnatifid or fimbriate . Mite 11a 5. Petals entire or nearly so, 6 6. Capsule bilocular, 2-beaked; pistils in each flower and follicles (fruits) equal in size, 2-celled . Saxifraga 6. Capsule unilocular, 2~valved; pistils in each flower and follicles very unequal, 1- celled . Tiarella \ Chrysosplenium L. Golden Saxifrage. This is a genus of about 50 species of the north temperate zone. They are small, low herbs with succulent leaves and small solitary or leafy-cymed, often inconspicuous, flowers. The name of the genus is de¬ rived from the Greek chrusos , gold, and snlen , spleen, of doubtful signif¬ icance but possibly for some reputed medicinal qualities. C. alterni folium, -17- Chrysosplenium americanum- -Golden Saxifrage [From Britton & Brown (1913)> Vol. II, p. 230.] the Golden Saxifrage of Europe and northern Asia, and £. oppositifolinm, also of Europe and northern Asia as well as the East Indies, are eaten as salad plants. The latter is also used in the preparation of soup. Chrysosplenium americanum Schwein. Golden Saxifrage. Meaning of Species Name. American. Other Names . Water-mat, Water-carpet. Type of Plant. A perennial herb. Habitat. Springheads, rills, cold wet places, and muddy soil of swamps . Range . Que and Ont to Sask, s to Md, Va, upland to Ga, 0, Ind, and la. Distr in NYS . Frequent or common across the state northw; less fre quent southw to LI, n of the moraine. Distr in the Torrey Range . NY: Not rare on the s side of LI, not common on the n side and on SI, thence increasing and common northw. Elevation. Sea level- 3970 ft in the Torrey range. Time of FI. Apr-Jun; Apr~May at Cornell. Origin. Native . Since two of the European species are much esteemed as salad plants Fernald and Kinsey (19^-3) suggest that our own species might be equally palatable. It is often abundant in the Catskills and makes rapid growth in early spring, so it is usually easily available and might well be worth trying. One should of course make sure that it is not growing in contam¬ inated water. To be on the safe side a tablet of "chlorazene" should be dissolved in the water it is washed in to serve as a disinfectant; one tablet will purify 2 quarts of water. -18- I (Left) Mitella diphylla- -Two- leaved Bishop' s-cap (Right) Mitella nuda--Naked Bishop's-cap [From Smith (1966), Plate 76, p. 171.J Mitella L. Bishop’s-cap. There are some 12 species of Mitella . perennial plants of North Ameri- ica and eastern Asia. They are low, slender plants with round- cordate , al¬ ternate, slender petioled leaves and naked or few- leaved flowering stems arising from the rhizome or stolons. The small flowers are borne in simple slender racemes or spikes. The name of the genus is derived from the dimin¬ utive of the Latin mitra , cap, in allusion to the shape of the young fruit. -19- Mitella diphylla L. Two-leaved Bishop’s- cap. Meaning of Species Name . Two- leaved. Other. Names . Miterwort, Two- leaved Miterwort, Currant- leaf , False Sanicle, Fringe- cup, Fairy- cup. Type of Plant . A perennial herb. Habitat ♦ Rich loamy and rocky woods. Range . Que and Ont to Minn, s to Va, upland SC, Term, Ala, Miss, and Mo. Distr in NYS . Common northw and westw in the state, less frequent southw to Bronx co, and reported from SI; not known on LI. Distr in the Torre v Range . NY: Reported from but doubtfully on LI, rare on SI and in the Bronx and Westchester co, thence increasing and becoming common northw. Elevation . Grows to 2600 ft in Va; sea level- 4020 ft in the Torrey range . Time of FI. (Late Apr )May-early Jun; May at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks. A third leaf is rarely borne on the scape at the base of the inflorescence. This species is suitable for planting in partially shaded areas of the rock garden. * \ Mitella nuda L. Naked Bishop’s- cap. Meaning of Species Name . Naked, from the usually leafless scapes. Other Names . Stoloniferous Bishop ’ s~cap, Stoloniferous Miterwort, Naked Miterwort. Type of Plant. A perennial herb. Habitat. Cool or mossy woods, bogs, or swamps, most frequent in arbor- vitae, spruce, and balsam swamps. Range . Lab to Mack, s to Pa, 0, Mich, Wis, Minn, ND, and Mont; also in Asia. Distr in NYS . Common in the n part of the state, infrequent in the w counties, and not found s of Greene co in the e; westw frequent in the cold swamps on the higher hills of Otsego, Herkimer, Madison, Cortland, and Tompkins co. Distr in the Torrey Range . In 1915 known only from the higher ele¬ vations of nw Litchfield co, Ct, and in the mts of Wayne and Monroe co, Pa. Time of FI. May-Aug; May 10-Jun 15 at Cornell (-Jul in Ulster co). Elevation . Grows to 3000 ft in the Adirondacks; 1070-4000 ft in the Torrey range . Origin . Native. * Penthorum L. Ditch Stonecrop. There are four known species of Penthorum. ours of eastern North America and three others in eastern Asia. They are upright weedlike pe¬ rennials with scattered leaves and yellowish-green flowers "loosely spiked along the upper side of the naked branches of the cyme." Some authorities segregate this genus into the monogeneric family Penthoraceae . The name of -20- Penthorum sedoides--Ditch Stonecrop [From Stone (1945), Vol. I, p. 685-1 the genus is derived from the Greek pente, five, and horos, a mark, the quinary plan of the flowers . / % Penthorum sedoides L. Ditch Stonecrop. Meaning of Species Name . Like Sedutn. Other Names. Virginia Stonecrop. Typ e of Plant. An upright, weedlike perennial. Habitat . Low wet meadows, ditches, marshes, and muddy soil. Range . Me to Ont, Mich, Minn, and Neb, s to Fla and Tex. from -21- Distr in NYS. Frequent or common throughout most secs of the state except on LI, where it is rare, and absent from the pine barrens; rare or largely absent from the Adirondacks. Distr in the Torrev Range . Throughout the area except the pine bar¬ rens and e and s of them, there rare or wanting. Time of FI. Jul~Sep(Oct ) ; Jul-Aug at Cornell. Origin. Native. Remarks. The fruit turns reddish at maturity. Millspaugh (1887) reports that "it has always held a place in domes¬ tic practice as an astringent in diarrhea and dysentery. Drs . Briggs and Scudder brought it to the notice of practitioners as a remedy, both topic and internal, for irritation of the mucous membranes and various forms of subacute inflammation of the same, as in pharyngitis, vaginitis, tonsil¬ litis, etc. The whole fresh plant was used in the preparation of a tinc¬ ture . " * Philadelphus L. Mock Orange. There are about 60 species of Philadelphus , North American, Asiatic, and southern European shrubs with opposite, often toothed, leaves, no stip¬ ules, and solitary, racemose, or cymose- clustered showy white flowers. The name of the genus is said to commemorate King Ptolemy of Egypt, 283- 247 B.C., whose agnomen was Philadelphus. Some species have been in cultivation in this country for a long period, while others, including several hybrids, are of comparatively recent introduction. Their usually large white, often very fragrant, flowers make an attractive display in early summer. They are also sometimes called Syringa, an unfortunate choice, for that is the scientific name of the Lilac. No. 6187 Brooks l4 Sep 75 > collected in the vicinity of Ashland, Town of Ashland, in Greene County was labeled Phila¬ delphus floridus Beadle by Stanley J. Smith. The writer can find no refer¬ ence to this species in any of the current manuals for the northeastern states . * \ Philadelphus coronarius L. Garden Mock Orange. Meaning of Species Name . Suitable for a wreath. Other Names . Garden Syringa, Orange- flower Tree. Type of Plant . A shrub growing to 12 ft in height. Habitat . Roadside thickets. Range . Often esc from cult in the ne states. Distr in NYS . Common in cult and sparingly esc or long persistent in some localities. Distr in the Torrev Range . Rather a rare esc in most parts of our range . Time of FI. Jun-Jul. Origin . Introd from Eu. Remarks. For more than 300 years this species has been a favorite garden plant, popular both for its fragrance and its abundant flowers; occasionally spread from cult. -22- Fhiladelphus coronarius- -Garden Mock Orange [From Britton & Brown (1913)5 Vol. II, p. 232.] Rlbes L. Currant, Gooseberry. This is a genus of low, often prickly, shrubs of Eurasia and North America, extending also into the Andean region of South America. There are 120 to 140 species, depending upon which authority is followed; Britton and Coville recognized 83 species in North America, most of them native to the western states. By some authorities the gooseberries and currants are seg¬ regated into separate genera. Many species of Rlbes serve as an alternate host of the white pine blister rust and as a consequence have nearly been exterminated in parts of their range by government agencies. The name of the genus is by one authority said to be derived from the old Danish collo¬ quial ribs , the name of the Red Currant. Another authority states that Rlbes takes its name from an Arabic name for Rheum- the generic name of Rhubarb. It is said that our common name for the currant was given to gar¬ den forms of the Red Currant because they resembled in size the southern Eu¬ ropean currants which grow near Corinth. In addition to being cultivated for their familiar fruit, some species make useful ornamental flowering shrubs, including R. sanguineum- a plant of western North America (not hardy where winters are severe), R. aureum, the Golden Currant, and R. odor- atum, the Buffalo Currant, another native of the western states. Fruits of the wild species of both gooseberries and currants are usu¬ ally small and quite sour, but, when available, they make piquant jellies and jams, by many considered superior to those obtained from garden vari¬ eties. In her Book of Useful Plants , Julia E. Rogers remarks that "We who have picked the small, but sprightly, green gooseberries of the woods, both the prickly and the smooth ones, know that no cultivated form, no matter how wild it is, can excel in rich flavor the sauce they make." Improved forms of some of our native wild currants have even found their way into cultivation . -23" Many species of wild gooseberry were gathered by the American Indi¬ ans for eating either fresh, cooked, or dried. To remove the bristly spines which are found on some species, the berries were rolled on hot coals in baskets until the spines had been singed off. Some tribes also boiled the young leaves in early spring and ate them with uncooked animal fat. The American Indians also used some species as medicine. The Chippewas combined the berries of Ribes oxva cant ho ides with other plants for pain in the back and female weakness, while Blackfoot Indians prepared a decoction from the roots of R. americanum for use in treating kidney ailments. During World War II when oranges were in short supply in Great Britain, black currants were grown for their high vitamin C content and used in foods for infants and children. Since both gooseberries and currants have been almost eradicated in many areas by various governmental campaigns, the importance of these plants to wildlife has been considerably reduced. In areas where they are still available, however, they are of considerable value to songbirds, chipmunks, ground squirrels, and other animals. Key to Ribes Based on Flowers and Fruit 1. Stems usually with firm spines at the nodes, at least the young stems usually bristly on the internodes; peduncles 1~5 flowered; pedicels not jointed at summit, the fruits not disarticulating from them; calyx with slender to campanulate tube, the lobes longer than broad (gooseberries), 2 2. Calyx lobes much shorter than the campanulate tube; peduncles and pedicels elongate; ovary and fruit usually covered by glandless prickles (stamens as long as the petals; sepals oblong; native woodland plant) . R. cvnosbati 2. Calyx lobes equaling or longer than tube; ovary and fruit not prickly, either smooth, pubescent, or bristly, 3 3. Stamens much exceeding calyx lobes during anthesis; peduncles or pedicels elongate (nodal spines 2~^ rrn. long; flowers greenish or purplish, 5-6 mm long; filaments 4-7 mm long) . R. rotundifolium 3* Stamens shorter than to barely exceeding calyx lobes; peduncles and pedicels short, 4 4. Calyx glabrous; fruit glabrous or only sparsely se¬ tose; indigenous (petioles bearing long plumose hairs) . R. hirtellum 4. Calyx pilose; ovary closely pilose or glandular; fruit pubescent or glabrate; cultivated plant occasionally escaped . R. grossularia 1. Stems with or without spines and bristles; peduncles bearing several to many-flowered racemes; pedicels jointed at summit, the fruits disarticulating from them (currants), 5 5. New and old canes bristly and prickly; pendulous racemes and black fruits glandular- bristly ; flowers saucer- shaped. . . R. lacustre 5. New and old canes without bristles and prickles; racemes ascending to pendulous, 6 6. Calyx salverform, the long slender tube several times longer than the spreading lobes, golden yellow; fruit yellowish or black; leaves convolute in bud . R. odoratum -24- 6. Calyx saucer- shaped, rotate or campanula te, without elongate tube; leaves plicate in bud, 7 7- Racemes ascending; ovary and fruit glandular-bristly; flowers whitish to roseate . R. glandulosum 7- Racemes spreading to drooping; ovary and fruit glabrous; flowers purplish to green or yellowish, 8 8. Decumbent or straggling native shrub; middle lobe of leaf deltoid, the sides of the leaf nearly parallel; pedicels with capitate glands; flowers purplish . R. triste 8. Erect or ascending cultivated shrub sometimes escaped; middle lobe of leaf ovate, lateral leaf lobes spreading; pedicels without glands; flowers yellowish or greenish. R. rubrurn Key to Ribes Based Chiefly on Vegetative Characteristics 1. Stems and twigs without spines or prickles; fruits in racemes (currants), 2 2. Erect bushy shrubs, 3 3. Branchlets light brown, puberulent; leaves convolute in bud; berry black . R. odoratum 3- Branchlets olive-brown to gray, glabrate; leaves plicate in bud; berry red, smooth . . . R. rubrurn 2. Low, prostrate, sprawling, or creeping shrubs, 4 4. Leaves with 5“ 7 prominent lobes, glabrous beneath; inner bark with fetid odor; buds green or reddish-purple, fusi¬ form; berry glandular- bristly . R. glandulosum 4. Leaves with 3" 5 prominent lobes, hairy; inner bark with¬ out fetid odor; buds grayish- brown, ovate; berries glabrous . R. triste 1. Stems and twigs with spines, or prickles, or both; fruits soli¬ tary or 2“5 in a cluster (gooseberries, except for R. lacustre ) . 5 5. Branches covered with internodal prickles nearly as long as the nodal spines, 6 6. Branchlets red-brown; berries hairy, black, in racemes; leaves nearly glabrous . R. lacustre 6. Branchlets gray or dark brownish; berries spiny, red, in clusters of 1-4; leaves soft-hairy . R. cynosbati 5. Branches without internodal prickles, or, if present, few and shorter than the nodal spines, 7 7* Spines usually more than 10 mm long (berries red or green, fuzzy) . R. yrossularia 7- Spines less than 10 mm long, 8 8. Berries red, spiny or hairy (leaves soft-hairy).. R. cynosbati 8. Berries without spines or hairs, dark purple or black, 9 9. Petiole hairs branched; lobes of leaves acutely pointed . R. hirtellum 9. Petiole hairs simple, glandular, or absent; lobes of leaves obtuse (spines usually solitary)... R. rot un d i f o 1 i um -25- Ribes cynosbati-- Prickly Gooseberry [From Billington (19^9)? Fig. 39j P* 106.] Ribes cynosbati L. Prickly Gooseberry. Meaning of Species Name . Dogberry. Other Names . Dogberry, Wild Gooseberry, Prickly Wild Gooseberry, Dog- bramble, Pasture Gooseberry. Type of Plant. A shrub growing 1 l/2 to 4 ft high. Habitat . Rocky woods, thickets, and clearings. Range . NB and Que tp Minn and Man, s to NC, Ga, Ky, Ala, Ark, Mo, and Okla . Distr in NYS . Frequent across the state northw and westw; southw to the Catskill mts, the Hudson highlands, and Delaware co; locally on the n part of LI, and rare on SI. Distr in the Torre y Range . NY: N of the moraine on LI, on SI, un¬ known in the Bronx, thence increasing and common northw. Elevation . Sea level- 4000 ft in the Torrey range. Time of FI. May-Jun, fr Jul-Sep; fl May at Cornell. Origin . Native. Because of their prickly character, these berries have to be eaten with care, but they have a pleasing flavor and a subacid quality which makes them desirable for quenching thirst in the field. This wild fruit makes excellent jellies, preserves, and pies. Gooseberry pie was partic¬ ularly relished during colonial times. Ribes glandulosum Grauer. Skunk Currant. Meaning of Species Name . Glandular. Other Names . Fetid Currant. Type of Plant. A low, prostrate, sprawling or reclining shrub. -26- Ribes grossularia--European Gooseberry [From Britton & Brown (1913), Vol. II, p. 2Ul.] Ribes glandulosum- -Skunk Currant [From Billington (19^9)5 Fig 47, p. 114.] -27" Habitat. Cold, damp, rocky woods, swamps, and clearings, often in balsam or spruce swamps . Range . Lab and Nf to Mack and BC, s to NE, NY, mts to NC, 0, Mich, Wis, Minn, and Sask. Distr in NYS . Common in the n and c parts of the state, less fre¬ quent southw to Dutchess co, the Catskill mts, Chenango and Chemung co, and westw to L Erie and Chautauqua co. Distr in the Torrev Range . NY: The Catskills. Elevation. Grows to 6000 ft in NC; 100-4020 ft in the Torrey range. Time of FI. May-Jun(Aug) , fr Jun-Sep; fl May 10- 30 at Cornell. Origin . Native. The bruised shrub and berries have the odor of skunk, but the ber¬ ries are juicy and palatable, by some consumed with relish in spite of their bristles and odor. The Chippewas used the root of this species in combination with other plants in the treatment of pains in the back and female weakness. % \ Ribes grossularia L. European Gooseberry. Meaning of Species Name . An old generic name derived from the French groseille . Other Names . Garden Gooseberry. Type of Plant. A shrub. Habitat. Roadsides and thickets. Range . Occasionally esc and considered to be estab in a few places in the ne states and adjacent Can. Distr in NYS. Not listed in House (1924). Distr in the Torrev Range . Not listed in Taylor (1915). Time of Fl . May. Origin . Introd from Eu. This species, the parent of the European gooseberries, long culti¬ vated for their fruit, was brought to this country by the colonists and has spread from cultivation. This native of northern Europe, northern Africa, and the Himalayan region was apparently not known to writers of the classi¬ cal period; it seems to have been first mentioned by Turner in 1573- \ * Ribes hirtellum Michx. Bristly Gooseberry. Meaning of Species Name. Bristly. Other Names . Low Wild Gooseberry. Type of Plant . An erect shrub growing 1“3 ft high. Habitat . Cool, moist, rocky woods, low grounds and clearings, some¬ times on cliffs. Range . Lab and Que to Man, s to MD, WVa, 0, Ind, Ill, Ind, Minn, and SD . Distr in NYS . Common northw across the state, especially in the Adirondacks; rare or local southw to Rockland co, Orange co, and westw to L Erie . -28- Ribes hirte Hum- “Bristly Gooseberry From Billington (1949), Fig. 43, p. 110.] Ribes lacustre- “Bristly Black Currant [From Billington (1949), Fig. 46, p. 112.] -29- Distr In ± lie. lorrey. Range • Nearly throughout the area except in the pine barrens and the area immediately surrounding them, there rare or wanting; not known on LI or SI. Time of FI. (Late Apr )May- Jun( Jul) , fr Jun-Sep; fl May 12-Jun 10 at Cornell. Origin. Native. Remarks . Considered superior to the cultivated species for jams and preserves. It is the parent of garden varieties of American gooseber¬ ries that are cultivated for their fruits. * • . . Ribes lacustre (Pers.) Poir. Bristly Black Currant. Meaning of Species Name . Of lakes. Other Names . Swamp Currant, Swamp Gooseberry, Swamp Black Currant. Type of Plant . An erect shrub growing 1_3 ft high. Habitat . Cold wet woods and swamps. Range . Lab to Ak, s to Mass, Pa, mts to Tenn, 0, Mich, Wis, and Minn, and in the w to Col, Utah, and Cal. Distr in NYS . Common northw across the state; less frequent southw to the Catskill mts, the upland swamps of Chenango, Otsego, and Tomp¬ kins co; not reported from the w counties of the state, nor from the s Susquehanna and Chemung valleys. Distr in the Torre v Range . NY: The summits of the Catskills. Elevation. 735“^020 ft in the Torrey range. Time of Fl. Mid-May- Jun (Aug) , fr Jul-Sep; fl Jun at Cornell. Origin. Native. Remarks . Bruised shrub and berries have a skunklike odor, but the berries are juicy and tart and not offensive when eaten raw. They make a good sauce when cooked. Ribes rotundif olium Michx. Round- leaved Gooseberry. Meaning of Species Name . Round- leaved. Other Names . Wild Gooseberry, Eastern Wild Gooseberry, Smooth Gooseberry, Mountain Gooseberry. Type of Plant. A shrub growing 2-3 ft high. Habitat. Open rocky upland woods and thickets, ascending to the highest crests. Range . Mass and NY, s to mts of NC, WVa, Ky, and Tenn. Distr in NYS . Infrequent or locally abundant in the lower Hudson valley and in the Catskill mts; reported from LI and SI, and northw to the w side of L Champlain, the s Adirondacks, and westw across the state. Distr in the Torrey Range . NY: Formerly on LI, reported from SI, unknown in the Bronx but in Westchester co, increasing northw. Time of Fl. Apr~May(early Jun), fr Jun-Sep; fl May 12-25 at Cornell. Origin . Native. Ribes rub rum L. Garden Currant. Meaning of Species Name. Red. Synonyms . R. sativum Syme in Fernald (1950) and in Gleason (1952). -30- Ribes rotundifolium- — Round- leaved Gooseberry [From Grimm (1960;, p. 117.] Ribes rubrum--Garden Currant [From Billington (1940), Fig. 48, p. 114.] -31- Other Names . Red Currant, Red Garden Currant, Raisin-tree, Garnet- berry, Wine Berry. Tyre of Plant. An erect shrub growing 3-^ ft high. Habitat . Open woods, thickets, and fencerows . Range . Frequently spread from cult in the ne states and adjacent Can . Distr in NYS . Occasionally est as an esc. Distr in the Torre v Range . Not uncommon as an esc in our area. Time of FI. May at Cornell. Origin . Introd and natzd from Eu. This species has long been common in cultivation in North America. In Europe it seems to have been first mentioned as a horticultural plant by Ruellius in 1536, a French author who praised it as a border plant and its fruit as an appetiser. Gerarde scarcely recognized it as being in general culture in England in 1597? hut it soon became popular in that country. \ ' Ribes triste Pall. Wild Red Currant. Meaning of Species Name. Sad, probably from the drooping racemes. Other Names . Red Currant, Wild Currant, American Red Currant, American Wild Red Currant, Swamp Red Currant. Type of Plant. A low sprawling or reclining shrub with stems often rooting. Habitat . Cool wet woods, bogs, swamps, subalpine ravines, and open marshy places. Range . Nf and Lab to Ak, s to NJ, Pa, WVa, Mich, Wis, Minn, SD, and Ore; also in n Asia. Distr in NYS [as var. albinervium (Michx.) Fern.]. Frequent or lo¬ cally common across the n part of the state; less frequent southw and westw to Greene, Otsego, Tompkins, and Genesee co. Distr in the Torrev Range . Known (in 1915) only from Onteora, Greene co, NY, and Bergen co, NJ, in our area. Time of FI. (Late Apr)Jun-Jul, fr Jun-Aug; fl May 10~30 at Cornell. Origin . Native. Racemes are commonly produced at the bases of leafy shoots of the season above leafless branches of the preceding year. The fruit, similar to that of the Garden Currant, has been used for pies and jellies, but it is inclined to drop before maturing. Not only did the Chippewas use the fruit of this plant as food, eaten raw as well as dried for winter use, but they employed it medicinally. Densmore (1928) reports that the root and stalks from four plants were used to make a decoction in 1 quart of water, "boiled quite a while," to treat "gravel." Combined with the roots of Aralia racemosa and A. nudicaulis (the latter sometimes omitted), stalks of R. triste were used in decoction to treat stoppage of menstrual periods. This remedy was used "if the dif¬ ficulty threatened to lead to consumption." "32- 2 3 Ribes triste--Wild Red Currant [From Billington (1949), Fig. 49, p. Il6.] r Saxifraga L. Saxifrage. There are more than 300 species of Saxifraga , chiefly perennial herbs of the north temperate and arctic zones of Eurasia and North America but ex¬ tending also into South America. About 100 species occur in North America, but only two are native in the Catskills. The name of the genus is derived from the Latin saxum, rock, and frangere , to break, according to one author¬ ity, in allusion to the rocky habitat of many species. Fernald (1950), how¬ ever, states that this name was "early applied, through the doctrine of sig¬ natures, to European species bearing granular bulblets, which were supposed to dissolve urinary concretions." A number of species are cultivated for ornament, particularly in rock gardens, both for their fine foliage and their lovely flowers, produced over a long blooming period. S. sarmentosa , the Starry Geranium or Strawberry Begonia, is a popular house plant, only one of several species cultivated for ornament, both indoors and out. Key to Local Species of Saxifraga 1. Calyx lobes ovate to broadly deltoid, ascending or only slightly spreading in fruit; leaves 1.5~8 cm long; petals chiefly white . S.. virginiensis 1. Calyx lobes narrower, promptly reflexed; leaves 5“ 30 cm long, remotely short-dentate; petals greenish, pearly, smoky, or purple . S. nensylvanica "33" Saxifraga pensylvanica-Swamp Saxifrage [•From Stone (1945), Vol. 1, p. 009. J Saxifraga virginiensis--Early Rock Saxifrage [From Mathews (1912), plate facing p. 182.] / / Saxifraga pensylyanica L. Swamp Saxifrage. Meaning of Species Name . Of Pennsylvania. Other Names . Wild. Beet, Pennsylvania Saxifrage. Type of Plant. A perennial herb. Habitat . Low meadows, pastures, swamps, boggy thickets, and seep¬ ing banks . Range . Me and Ont to Minn, s to Va, WVa, Ind, Ill, and Mo. Distr in NYS . Frequent or common across the state outside the higher Adirondacks, and absent from the pine barrens of LI. Distr in the Torrev Range . Throughout the range except in the pine barrens of NJ and LI, there rare or wanting. Time of FI. (Apr )May-Jun; May 15“ 30 at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks . Fernald and Kinsey (1943) state that "The young leaves just unrolling, are tender and not unattractive as a salad." -35" Saxifraga virginiensis Michx. Early Rock Saxifrage. Meaning of Species Name. Of Virginia. Other Names . Early Saxifrage, Spring Saxifrage, May-flower, Sweet Wilson, Everlasting. Type of Plant. A perennial herb. Habitat. Moist or dry open rocky woods, on exposed rock ledges, and gravelly open or shaded slopes. Range . NB to Ont, Minn, and Man, s to Ga, Tenn, Ark, Mo, and Okla. Distr in NYS . Common. Distr in the Torrev Range . Throughout the range except in the pine barrens of LI and NJ, there rare or wanting. Time of FI. Apr-May(Jun) ; Apr-May at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks . Not a common plant in the Catskills. This species can be grown in rock gardens if given sufficient shade, drainage, and moisture. Tiarella L. Foamflower. There are seven known species of Tiarella, six native to temperate North America and one in eastern Asia. All are perennials with white flow¬ ers. The name of the genus is a latinized diminutive of the Greek tiara , a little turban. Gleason (1952) states that this name is "in fanciful al¬ lusion to the fruit,” while Fernald (1950) remarks that it refers to "the form of the pistil." * % Tiarella cordifolia L. Foamflower. Meaning of Species Name . Heart-leaved. Other Names . False Miterwort, Coalwort, Colwort, Coolwort, White Coolwort, Gem- fruit, Allegheny Foamflower, False Bitterwort. Type of Plant . A perennial herb. Habitat. Rich woods, usually in moist soil. Range ♦ NS and NB to Ont and Mich, s to NC, Ga, Tenn, and Ala. Distr in NYS . Common or frequent in most secs of the state n of NYC; rare in the Susquehanna valley. Distr in the Torrev Range . NY: Reported but not definitely known from Westchester co, thence increasing and common northw. Elevation. Grows to 5600 ft in Va; sea level- 38OO ft in the Torrey range . Time of FI. Late Apr~May( Jul) ; May-Jun at Cornell. Origin . Native. Krochmal and Krochmal (1973) state that the entire plant, during the blooming period, and the roots, collected in the fall, have been gathered for medicinal use, observing that "The plant has been used in a tea to in¬ crease urine flow, help pass kidney stones, and for other urinary problems." The root was used not only as a diuretic but was also administered to loosen phlegm in the chest. -36- Tiarella cordifolia--Foamf lower [From Krochmal _et al . (1971), p. 251.] This species makes an attractive plant for cool situations in the rock garden or for planting in shaded areas under shrubs. HAMAMELIDACEAE , the Witch-hazel Family This is a family of 23 genera and about 100 species, best developed in eastern and tropical Asia. They are deciduous or evergreen trees or shrubs, often with stellate hairs, with alternate simple leaves, deciduous stipules, and flowers in heads or spikes. Current data seem to support the -37" vie-w that the Hamamelidaceae, Platanaceae, and Myrothamnaceae should be treated as a separate order, the Hamamelidales , which some botanists con¬ sider as terminating a line of evolutionary ascent derived from stocks an¬ cestral to the Rosales and derived from the Magnoliales. As mentioned above, Cronquist (1968) places this family in his subclass Hamamelidae, along with the Fagales, Myricales, Juglandales, Urticales, and some other orders not represented in the Catskill flora, all of which "may ... have been derived from the Hamamelidales." Economically the family is important domestically for the witch-hazel extract prepared from Hamamelis , as well as for a few species grown for ornament. % Hamamelis L. Witch-hazel. There are five species of Hamamelis . tall shrubs or small trees, one of eastern North America and the others native to eastern Asia. The hard black seeds are discharged explosively from the capsule when they are ripe. The name of the genus is derived from the ancient Greek name of the Medlar (Mespilus), a European tree, although one authority derives it from the Greek hama, at the same time, and melis . a fruit, alluding to the fact that Witch-hazel flowers appear in late fall at the same time as its fruits, from blossoms of the previous year, are ripening. The Asiatic species are con¬ sidered more decorative than our native species for horticultural purposes, H. mollis , the Chinese Witch-hazel, and H. .iaponica . the Japanese Witch- hazel, being the most useful. The flowers of H. mollis are very fragrant. % \ Hamamelis virginiana L. Witch-hazel. Meaning of Species Name. Virginian. Other Names . Spotted-alder, Tobacco-wood, Snapping-hazel, Winter- bloom, Pistachio. Type of Plant. A coarse shrub or small tree, occasionally 20- 30 ft high. Habitat . Dry or low moist woods, thickets, and swamps. Range . NS and Que to se Minn, s to Fla, Tenn, Mo, and Tex. Distr in NYS . Frequent or common throughout most secs of the state, and rare only in some of the n secs and the higher portions of the Adirondacks . Distr in the Torrev Range . Common throughout the range except in the pine barrens, there wanting; rare on the coastal plain of LI. Time of FI. (Sep)Oct-Nov, fr ripe a year later; fl Oct-Nov at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks . Wood hard; wt 43 lb per cu ft. During the summer few people give the Witch-hazel more than a pass¬ ing glance, but in autumn, when the other trees seem to have finished their summer's work, the Witch-hazel appears to be just waking up, for it then bursts into bloom, the bright yellow flowers opening in late fall. Often after the leaves have been shed, the Witch-hazel thicket "is veiled with these gold-mesh flowers, as ethereal as the haunting perfume which they ex¬ hale." About the same time the seed capsules, which have been developing during the summer from flowers of the previous fall, suddenly snap open and shoot their seeds from 25 to 30 feet from the parent shrub. Rogers -38- Hamamelis virginiana — Witch-hazel [From Sargent (l891“1902) , Vol. V, Plate 198, P- 5-] -39“ (1926) feels that this activity is worth going far to see. "Damp weather delays this most interesting little game," she reports, but "Dry frosty weather is ideal for it. Go into a witch hazel thicket on some fine morn¬ ing in [October or] early November and sit down on the drift of dead leaves that carpet the woods floor. The silence is broken now and then by a sharp report like a bullet striking against the bark of a near-by trunk, or skipping among the leaves.... [This] fusillade comes from the ripened pods, which have a remarkable ability to throw their seeds, and thus do for the parent tree what the winged seeds of other trees accomplish. The lining of the two- celled pod is believed to shorten and produce a spring that drives the seeds forth with surprising force when they are loosened from their attachment." If one takes home a fruiting branch in autumn, he can witness this phenomenon at closer range. In Great Britain it was often the custom of "superstitious miners" to employ forked sticks of the English Witch Elm as divining rods to lo¬ cate coal deposits. Somehow this mystical property was early transferred to the Witch-hazel, which in isolated country districts is still often used to locate hidden springs. Sent for before a well is dug, the "water witch" slowly walks over the ground, holding the twig by its two supple forks, one in each hand. When he passes over the spot where a spring is located, the twig goes down of its own volition, thus indicating the location where the well should be dug. Sargent (1891- 1902 ) made short shrift of this practice, stating that "The popular name of this plant is due to the fact that it was early used by impostors to indicate the presence of precious metals in the soil and to discover springs of water." The colonists learned from the Indians of the medicinal properties of this shrub. As early as I'jhb Dr. Cadwallader Colden told Gronovius of Leyden that the Mohawk Indians used a decoction of the bark of this shrub to treat with success "allmost total blindness occasioned by a blow" after "other means had for a considerable time prov'd ineffectual." In 1785 the Rev. Manasseh Cutler reported that "the Indians considered this tree as a valuable article in their materia medica" and listed some of its uses: "They applied the bark, which is sedative and discutient, to painful tumors and external inflammations. A cataplasm of the inner rind of the bark, is found to be very efficacious in removing painful inflammations of the eyes." The Menominee Indians of Wisconsin rubbed a decoction of Witch-hazel on the legs of athletes to keep them limbered up and the twigs were steeped for a decoction to cure lame back. This tribe apparently learned the medicinal uses of this plant from the Stockbridge Indians of Massachusetts when the latter group emigrated to Wisconsin. The Potawatomis also used Witch-hazel in sweat baths to relieve sore muscles. A number of physicians confirmed Indian uses of this shrub during the middle l800's, crediting it with anodyne, sedative, astringent, tonic, and discutient properties and reported its use in the treatment of internal hem¬ orrhage, piles, suppressed menses, pains in the side, and eye inflammation. Hamamelis leaves were official from 1882 through 1955 while the bark and twigs were -official in the U.S . Pharmacopeia , 1906-16, for astringent and hemostatic purposes. The distilled extract has been official since 1888 as an astringent for rubbing on the body to relieve congestions, bruises, hem¬ orrhoids , and the like . -b0- The first settlers thus learned of the manifold uses of Witch-hazel from the Indians, and it soon came to be considered a household necessity, a position it still holds in many areas. But even though it is an official drug, there is far from complete agreement in the medical profession as to its uses and efficacy, some maintaining that none of its present uses can be scientifically justified and that as a botanical drug it is inert and useless. Nevertheless, about a million gallons of distilled Witch-hazel extract is produced and sold every year; on the positive side one can cer¬ tainly say that it is harmless and perfectly safe to use. This extract can easily be made at home by gathering a quantity of freshly cut twigs and leaves and soaking them in water for 24 hour's, using about two parts of water to one of the cut-up plant parts. Strain and reduce this solution by about 25 percent by boiling and to the remainder add 1 part of alcohol to 5 parts of the distillate. Because of its tannin content it is a use¬ ful first-aid treatment for minor burns and scalds. Dabbed on the skin with a cotton pad, it will soothe insect stings and mosquito bites, but in all probability alcohol alone would be as effective a treatment. The Iroquois Indians formerly made a tealike beverage of dried Witch- hazel leaves, which they sweetened with maple sugar. It has a rather aus¬ tere flavor that is toned down considerably by the addition of milk, and it might make an acceptable camp tea when ordinary tea is not available. Un¬ sweetened, this tea makes an efficacious remedy for diarrhea and a good gargle for sore throat. The Indians also poured hot water over fresh Witch- hazel leaves and used them as poultices for sprains, bruises, and swellings. This was said not only to aid in eventual cure but also to relieve immediate pain; it might well make a good first-aid treatment on a camping trip. The dried leaves, crushed into a powder, have also been used as a styptic to stop bleeding from small cuts. Two early writers reported that the seeds were edible, but Asa Gray, writing in 1857 5 had never heard of the seeds being used as food and attrib¬ uted the source of such statements to "the Medical Flora of the eccentric Rafinesque, who says the nuts are called pistachio nuts in the southern states." In any case, since these small seeds are hard and bony, few people are likely to consider the experiment worth while. Although deer browse on the twigs and foliage, and the seeds, avail¬ able from fall into winter, are eaten by ruffed grouse and squirrels, the wildlife value of Witch-hazel is generally considered to be rather low. PLATANACEAE, the Sycamore Family This unigeneric family of monoecious trees, indigenous to the north¬ ern hemisphere exclusive of Africa, is characterized by alternate, palm- ately lobed leaves, sheathing stipules, and exfoliating bark. It was once considered to belong within the Urticales, but Wettstein, Tippo, and others are of the opinion that this family is of closer affinity to the Hamameli- daceae and Rosaceae than to other taxa . Cronquist (1968) places this fam¬ ily in his subclass Hamamelidae, along with Fagales, Myricales, Juglandales, and Urticales. A number of species are cultivated domestically for orna¬ ment. Platanus occidentalis--Sycamore (flowers) [From Sargent ( 1891“ 1902), Vol. VTI, Plate 326, p. 103*] -42- Platanus occidentalis-“Sycamore (fruit) [From Sargent (1891-1902), Vol. VII, Plate 327, p. 103.] -43- Platanus L. Sycamore. There are about 10 species of Platanus, one in the old world from southeastern Europe to India, the others native to eastern North America, the southwestern states, and Mexico. They are large trees with bark ex¬ foliating in thin broad plates. The name of the genus, the ancient Latin name of the Plane-tree, is derived from the Greek platys , broad, referring, probably, to the large leaves. The Plane-tree commonly planted as a street tree in our eastern cities is the London Plane, P. acerifolia, the origin of which is unknown, but Gleason (1952) thought it was "probably a hybrid between our native species and the Old World P. orientalis L." It with¬ stands the dust of cities better than most other trees and it tolerates severe pruning extremely well. Everett (i960) remarks that the name Syca¬ more is traditionally applied to Ficus sycamorus , a species of fig. This genus is unusual because of the way the various species shed their bark. Some bark shedding is constantly taking place, but every few years more than usual is thrown off. Another interesting feature of this genus is the manner in which the tiny flowers are clustered in dense round heads at the ends of slender stalks, later maturing into the familiar "button-balls" that persist through the winter, breaking up in the spring. The seeds are covered with jointed hairs, which, when observed with a hand lens, resemble minute stems of Bamboo. 0 \ Platanus occidentalis L. Sycamore. Meaning of Species Name. Western, i.e., of the western hemisphere. Other Names . Buttonwood, Plane-tree, Buttonball, False Sycamore, Water-beech . Type of Plant . A large tree which often reaches a height of 100-175 ft with a trunk 3” 8 ft in diameter. Habitat. Moist or wet rich alluvial soil along streams, lakes, ponds, and wet woods. Range . Me and Ont to Mich, Minn, and Neb, s to Fla, Ala, Miss, and Tex. Distr in NYS . Common from L Champlain and the L George reg westw to the St Lawrence, outside the higher Adirondacks, to about 1000 ft alti¬ tude; increasingly abundant southw and westw in the state except in the pine barrens of LI and on SI, where it is rare or absent. Distr in the Torrev Range . Throughout the area except in the pine barrens . Time of FI. Late Apr- early Jun; Jun at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks . Wood hard, weak, difficult to split, reddish brown; wt 35 lb per cu ft. This is the largest and most massive (but not the tallest) deciduous hardwood tree of North America, perhaps exceeding all others in the diameter of its trunk. It is characteristically a tree of bottomlands, attaining its maximum development in the lower Ohio and Mississippi valleys, where it was "the outstanding tree of the primeval forest, unsurpassed in picturesque grandeur and in the cooling depth and mighty spread of its shade . It can be recognized as far off as the color of its bark can be seen, for its bark flakes off in irregular plates, giving the upper trunk and branches a -44- mottled appearance of light green, pale tan, and greenish or chaLLy -white. In the words of Peattie (1950), "the impression at a slight distance is that of an exquisitely mottled tree, as if dappled with green shade and pale sun¬ light." Its beauty therefore lies in the body of the tree itself rather than in its flowers or foliage. Rogers (1926) describes this tree as "way¬ ward in its branching habit, its twigs irregular and angular,” and calls it "a distressed-looking object" after the leaves are gone. Its leaves resemble those of the maple in a general way, being as broad as long, with three main lobes. A sheathing stipule, like a small leafy ruffle, grows at the base of each young leaf, but this is shed before midsummer. Its inconspicuous flow¬ ers produce "the curious fruits that have given the tree the name of But- tonwood--hanging balls that persist on the tree over winter," dangling in the wind until the central cob is bare, the fruitlets having been borne away on their hairy parachutes to become widely distributed both by wind and water. Although the wood of this tree is not strong as a beam or column and has little resistance to decay, it is heavy, hard, tough, coarse-grained, and almost impossible to split, qualities much valued by the early settlers. The early French of Illinois are reported to have made large canoes from this tree, one of which was said to be 65 feet long, capable of carrying 9000 pounds. Since trees over 100 years old are likely to be hollow, early settlers often stabled horses, cows, or pigs in the hollow trees. Indeed, sometimes a whole family would take shelter in one until a log cabin could be built. Pioneers also cut trunks of large size into cross-sections for use as primitive solid wheels for ox carts. Hollow trunks, usually not dif¬ ficult to find, were cut into lengths of 3 or 4 feet and bottoms were nailed on to make stout hogsheads in which to store grain. It later served for the manufacture of barber poles, lard pails, tobacco boxes, ox-yokes, wooden washing machines, Saratoga trunks, piano and organ cases, and broad panels for Pullman cars in the days when they were made of wood. Now considered a timber tree of secondary importance, it is used for crates, boxes, some fur¬ niture, interior finish, veneer, piling, brush handles, siding, and musical instruments. But for one use it is unexcelled. Since it can stand endless hacking without splitting, almost all butchers’ blocks are made from this wood. When cut radially, the wood is sometimes called Lacewood because of its attractive marking. At least one Indian tribe prepared syrup and sugar from its sweet sap. While it is sometimes planted as an ornamental tree, it is usually the London Plane-tree that finds a place along city streets. Martin et al. (1961) state that this species seems to be of little appreciable importance to wildlife, for the seeds are .utilized by only a few wildlife species, the purple finch being the only bird to use the seeds to any great extent, although juncos and chickadees also make use of its fruit. Steyermark (1963) remarks that "it is recorded that the now extinct Carolina Paraquet relished the fruit of this tree as its favorite food." Deer some¬ times browse the twigs, fox squirrels eat the seeds, muskrats and beaver consume the bark, and chimney swifts use the hollow trunks as nesting sites. Steyermark also notes that "it is reported that sycamore pollen [in some areas] is exceeded only by oaks in its importance in being a cause of some cases of hay fever." -45- ROSACEAE, the Rose Family This is a large family of perhaps 115 genera and some 3200 species of herbs, shrubs, and trees of diverse form and habit distributed over most of the earth but most abundant in the temperate regions of eastern Asia, North America, and Europe. The largest genera include Potentilla . Rubus , Rosa, Crataegus . Primus . and Spiraea . all of which are represented in the Catskill region. As a unit the Rosaceae constitutes a more natural assemblage of plants than some other large families. It is of considerable economic im¬ portance not only from the numerous species bearing edible fruit but also from the large number of diverse horticultural and ornamental species. Those bearing edible fruit include apples, pears, quince, cherries, plums, prunes, peaches, nectarines, apricots, almonds, blackberries, raspberries, and strawberries. Many ornamental trees and shrubs also occur within this family, including Spirea, Cotoneaster, Firethorn, Hawthorn, Flowering Quince, Mountain Ash, Japanese Cherry, and Rose. In contrast to a number of other large families, the Rosaceae includes comparatively few weeds. Be¬ cause of the extreme diversity of the large number of plants included in this family, a number of recent authors have segregated the genera into three families, but most phylogenists seem to prefer dividing the family into sev¬ eral subfamilies or tribes. Kev to the Cat ski 1 1 Genera of Rosaceae 1. Fruit dehiscent, a follicle or capsule, the superior ovary not inclosed in the calyx tube nor adherent to it, 2 2. Leaves compound, stipulate ( suffruticose ; leaves odd-pinnate, with 13-21 leaflets; flowers in dense panicles) . Sorbaria 2. Leaves simple; stipules absent or caducous (carpels splitting down the ventral suture; seeds slender; leaves pinnately veined, without stipules ) . . Spiraea 1. Fruit or carpels indehiscent; leaves, at least when expanding, stipulate, 3 3. Ovary inferior, the 2- 5 carpels usually connote, borne within and adnate to a cuplike or urnlike depression in the enlarged summit of the receptacle, the whole united to form a fleshy fruit (pome or berry); trees or shrubs, the stipules free from the petioles, 4 4. Mature carpels hard and bony, 1~5 (spiny shrubs or trees with simple leaves; leaves mostly serrate or dentate) . Cra taegus 4. Mature carpels papery or soft- car tilaginous , 5 5. Carpels of the compound ovary as many as the styles, with¬ out false or partial partitions; leaves simple or pinnate; fruit a pome or berry- like . FVrus 5. Carpels of the compound ovary subdivided by partial (false) partitions projecting inward from the back; leaves simple; fruit berry- like . . . Arne lan chier 3. Ovary or ovaries superior (in some species inclosed in the calyx tube ) , 6 6. Ovaries 1-many, becoming achenes covered by the calyx, or drupes, 7 7. Ovary free, solitary, becoming a drupe (plum, cherry, etc.); calyx deciduous, bractless . . . Prunus 7. Ovary or ovaries (carpels) inclosed in the overtopping calyx; leaves compound or lobed, 8 -48- 8. Carpels numerous, lining the base or sides of the ijome; petals large and showy; shrubs, often prickly, the pinnate leaves usu¬ ally with decurrent stipules . . . Rosa 8. Carpels 1-4, completely inclosed in the dry and firm calyx tube, which is constricted or nearly closed at the throat; herbs, 9 9. Calyx beset with hooked bristles, the 5“ cleft limb closed after flowering and persistent; flowers yellow . . . Agrimonia 9. Calyx not bristly, the 4 petaloid lobes white or purple, de¬ ciduous in fruit; petals none . . . Sanguisorba Ovaries several to many, borne on a broad to elongate receptacle, not inclosed by the calyx, 10 10. Carpels ripening into drupelets; ovules 2, pendulous, but seed solitary, 11 11. Carpels mostly numerous, ripening into juicy drupelets (rasp¬ berries, blackberries); flowers mostly perfect and similar; herbaceous or mostly slightly woody; leaves mostly compound or lobed) . Rubus 11. Carpels few at the bottom of the calyx, nearly dry in fruit; showy flowers with white petals, sterile; fertile flowers apetalous, maturing fruit near the ground; leaves roundish, unlobed . Dalibarda 10. Carpels becoming dry achenes (plants herbaceous, or, if woody, having bractlets at the sinuses of the calyx or the styles long and plumose ) , 12 12. Styles persistent and elongating after anthesis, plumose or jointed (herbs with pinnate or lyrate basal leaves and upright leafy flowering stems) . Geum 12. Styles not elongate after anthesis, mostly deciduous, 13 13. Receptacle pulpy and greatly enlarged in fruit (bract- lets of calyx similar to the narrow calyx lobes; petals white . ' . Fragaria 13. Receptacle dry, not greatly enlarged in fruit, l4 14. Carpels 2-ovulate; calyx without bractlets; stipules large, reniform; coarse plants with paniculate- cymose white or pink flowers and large pinnate leaves . . Filipendula 14. Carpels 1-ovulate; calyx bracted, or, if bractless, the flowers on a naked scape; stipules elongate, 15 15. Flowering stem scapose; bractlets small, at base of calyx and deciduous or wanting; petals yellow . Waldsteinia 15. Flowering stem bearing leaves; calyx with per¬ sistent bracts at sinuses; petals yellow, rare¬ ly white or purple . Potentilla The amateur is likely to find some genera of the Catskill Rosaceae rather confusing, but it may be helpful to realize that these genera are almost equally divided between those containing herbaceous plants and those consisting almost entirely of woody plants: -47- Herbaceous Plants Woody Plants Agrimonia Dalibarda Filipendula Fragaria Geurn Potentilla Rubus Sorbaria Walds teinia Amelanchier Crataegus Prunus Pyrus Rosa Rubus Sorbaria Spiraea Most country people are actually already familiar with most of the woody species of this family, starting with the early-blooming juneberries or shad- bushes (Amelanchier) . and few are those who do not know a Haw, Hawthorn, or simply Tiiornapple (Crataegus) at sight. Many orchards contain peaches, plums, and cherries, and the wild species are not markedly different from the domestic varieties, all of which belong to the genus Prunus ♦ It may seem strange to put apples, pears, chokeberries , and mountain-ash in one genus, Pyrus, but all except the chokeberries are probably quite familiar to most farmers. And even people born and bred in urban settings are usually well acquainted with various types of roses (Rosa ) , to say nothing of raspberries and blackberries (Rubus ) ♦ That leaves only Sorbaria and Snirstea among the woody species of the Rosaceae; city gardeners are likely to be familiar with both genera, and who among country folk does not know Hardback and Meadowsweet (Soirara) . sometimes also called Quaker Lady? Sorbaria or False Spiraea, is a cultivated ornamental plant that sometimes escapes in the Catskill region and may not be very well known. Even so, most of the woody genera oiT the Canskili Rosaceae should be reasonably familiar to most laymen and should therefore not present too many problems. The following key may be helpful in de termining unfamiliar genera of woody plants. Key to Woody Plants of the Can skill Rosa ceae, 1. Plants with alternate compound leaves (stems with spines or prickles), 2 2. Leaves palmately compound (stems biennial; fruit aggregate) . Rubus 2. Leaves pinnately compound, 3 3. Spines or thorns present on the stem and often on the midribs of leaves, 4 4. Stipules adnate to the petiole half their length or more; margins of leaflets evenly serrate . Rosa 4. Stipules not adnate to the petiole; margin of leaflets usu¬ ally coarsely toothed or often doubly serrate . Rubus 3. Spines, thorns, and prickles absent, 5 5. Leaves coarsely serrate; terminal bud present; trees or tall shrubs; fruit red, berry- like . Pvrus. 5. Leaves doubly serrate; terminal buds absent; low suffru- tescent shrubs; fruit a capsule . Sorbaria 1. Plants with alternate simple leaves, 6 6. Leaves lobed, 7 7. Leaves distinctly palmately lobed and veined (leaves and twigs glandular- clammy ; fruit aggregate, berry- like) . Rubus odoratus 7. Leaves pinnately lobed, or at least not distinctly palmately lobed, 8 48- 8. Leaves with 3 main veins from near the base, mostly with 1 or a few lateral lobes (lobes pointed; thorns usually present; fruit a pome ) . ................... Pvrus 8. Leaves with one large main vein (midrib), variously lobed, 9 9. Leaves pinnately lobed (leaves 4-10 cm long; buds not clustered at the ends of twigs; fruit a small pome; thorns usually present) . . . . C£§±aegiis 9- Leaves not pinnately lobed (leaves not truncate, irregularly lobed; buds scaly) . . . . Crataegus 6. Leaves not lobed, 10 10. Margin of leaves entire (leaf blades 8-20 cm long, usually cordate or obtuse at base ; fruit a pome ) ... ... ................ . Pvrus 10. Margin of leaves not entire (usually serrate, dentate, etc.), 11 11. Plants with spines or thorns on stems, branches, or twigs, 12 12. Petioles with glands near the upper end; fruit a drupe . Prunus 12. Petioles without glands near the upper end; fruit a pome, 13 13. Thorns on twigs and branches; thorns without lateral buds; carpels stony . Crataegus 13. Thorns on branches only; thorns usually leafy or with lateral buds; carpels not stony............... Pvrus 11. Plants without spines and thorns on stems and branches, 14 14. Leaves coarsely dentate or serrate, never doubly serrate (plant often thorny) . . Crataegus 14. Leaves not coarsely serrate or dentate, mostly finely or doubly serrate, serrulate, denticulate, or crenate (sometimes entire near the base), 15 15. Base of leaf broad, cordate, truncate or nearly so, l6 l6. Petioles with one or more glands near the upper end . . . Prunus 16. Petioles without glands, 17 17. Leaves 5" 8 cm long, waxy on upper surface; fruit a pome . . Pvrus 17. Leaves 1-4 cm long, not waxy on upper sur¬ face; fruit a berry- like pome........ Amelanchier 15. Base of leaf acute or tapering, 18 18. Petioles with one or more glands at the upper end, or the lower surface of leaf waxy and with a dense row of usually rusty hairs along each side of mid¬ rib ; fruit a drupe . Primus 18. Petioles without glands at the upper end; midrib of leaf without rusty hairs as above, 19 19. Midrib of leaf with dark glands on the upper surface; fruit a berry. . . . . . «. . . Pvrus 19. Midrib of leaf without dark glands on the upper surface, 20 20. Twigs stout, mostly 3“ 5 mm in diameter when mature; branches often with stout spurs (trees or tall shrubs; fruit a pome)... Pvrus 20. Twigs slender, less than 3 mm in diameter when mature , 21 -49“ 21. Fruit fleshy (leaves pale green or whitish on the lower surface; fruit a drupe ) . Prunus 21. Fruit dry, a capsule or follicle (leaves serrate or doubly ser¬ rate; fruit follicular, in corymbs or panicles) . Spiraea False Spiraea (Sorbaria ) is sometimes considered as a "subshrub," and one species of trailing blackberry (Rub us ) is very nearly herbaceous; those two genera therefore appear in both lists. Of the herbaceous genera of the Catskill Rosaceae, strawberries (Fragaria) and the cinquefoils ( Potentilla ) are doubtless most familiar, with avens (Geum) perhaps running a close third among country people. That leaves only four genera that may cause difficulty. The illustrations that follow, along with the following key, should enable the amateur to segregate the nine herbaceous genera of the Catskill Rosaceae. Kev to Herbaceous Genera of the Catskill Rosaceae 1. Leaves simple (petals 5)? 2 2. Leaves lobed; flowers terminal; pistils numerous . Rub us 2. Leaves serrate; flowers on naked scapes; pistils 5*10 . Dalibarda 1. Leaves compound, 3 3. Leaves 3~foliate or palmately once- compound, 4 4, Ovaries 2-10, 5 5. Petals white to pink (sepals widely spreading or reflexed, lanceolate, nearly or quite as long as the petals) . Rub us 5. Petals yellow (stamens numerous; leaves with numerous teeth) . Waldsteinia 4. Ovaries more numerous, 6 6. Styles filiform, elongate; lower, middle, and upper leaves conspicuously different in shape . Geum 6. Styles short and inconspicuous; leaves all alike or nearly so, except in size, 7 7. Bractlets none . Rubus 7. Bractlets present, alternating with the sepals (bract- lets entire, or obscurely toothed on the lateral margins only), 8 8. Flowers yellow . Potentilla 8. Flowers white, 9 9. Leaves with numerous teeth . Fragaria 9. Leaves 3~toothed at summit . Potentilla 3. Leaves pinnately compound, ternately compound, or dissected, commonly with several leaflets or segments, 10 10. Petals none, sepals 4 . Sanguisorba 10. Petals 5; sepals 5S 11 11. Hypanthium turbinate, armed with hooked prickles around the summit . Agrimonia 11. Hypanthium flat to saucer- shaped or hemispheric, unarmed, 12 12. Pistils 5*15 > 13 13. Terminal leaflet deeply laciniately toothed to lobed . Filipendula 13. Terminal leaflet lanceolate, serrate . Sorbaria 12. Pistils more numerous, l4 14. Styles short and inconspicuous . Potentilla 14. Styles elongate, jointed or plumose . . . Geum -50- Agrimonia gryposepala-~Tall Agrimony [From Smith (1966), Plate 86, p. 186 . ] * Agrimonia L . Agrimony . There are about 20 species of Agrimonia . mostly perennial herbs with interruptedly pinnate leaves and small spicate-racemose flowers, widely dis¬ tributed in the north temperate zone, although a few species grow in the Andes mountains. The name of the genus is a corruption of Argemone, a plant named by Pliny. Agrimonia eupatoria . a native of Eurasia and North America, not only produces a fine yellow dye but both the herb and the root were once also used medicinally as a mild corroborant and astringent in the treatment of jaundice, chronic afflictions of the mucous membranes, and, in the form of a gargle, in affections of the throat. The Indians of North America also reportedly "employed the root [of species native to the region] with ad¬ vantage in fevers." In some areas country people also steeped the dried leaves to make a sort of tea, probably mostly for its medicinal properties. Agrimonia gryposepala Wallr. Tall Agrimony. Meaning of Species Name . Having hooked sepals. Other Names . Tall Hairy Agrimony, Feverfew, Beggar ' s~ ticks, Cockle- bur, Stickweed, Stickseed. Type of Plant . A perennial herb, reproducing by seeds. Habitat. On dry soil of open woods, thickets, neglected fields, meadows, and hedgerows. Range . PEI, Que, Ont, Mich, and ND, s to NJ, NC, Tenn, Mo, and Kan; also s BC to Cal and NM. Distr in NYS . Frequent or common across the state outside the higher Adirondacks . Distr in the Torrey Range . Common throughout the range except in the pine barrens and the region immediately surrounding them, there want¬ ing; always increasing northw. Time of FI. Jul-Aug; Jul-Aug at Cornell. Origin . Native. In areas where this species has become an obnoxious weed, Muenscher (1952) suggests that scattered plants should be pulled up or hoed out as soon as the blossoms appear. Badly infested fields should be plowed and planted with a cultivated crop for a season. Amelanchier Medic. Shadbush, Juneberry. There are about 20 species of Amelanchier. trees or shrubs of the north temperate zone with simple leaves and racemes of mostly white or pink flowers, some l8 of which occur in North America. It is often difficult to distinguish the various species. The name of the genus was apparently adapted from the Provencal French name of the European species. The fruit of A. canadensis , the Grape-pear or Sweet Pear, was eaten in large quantities, both fresh and dried, by Indians of the northwest. It is said to be the finest fruit available in the Saskatchewan country. -52- Amelanchier alnifolia, the Western Service Berry, bears larger fruit than any of the eastern species and was also much used as food by the Indians of that region. Amelanchier vulgaris . a European species, is cultivated in England more for its flowers than for its fruit, which is "not highly pala¬ table." Although juneberries were among the most esteemed of our native fruits by the Indians and by the early European explorers of North America, they are largely ignored by country people of the northeastern states. The In¬ dians gathered the "berries" in large quantities, crushed them to make a paste, which was then moulded into small cakes and dried in the sun. This dried fruit was then mixed with corn meal, made into pemican, and used in puddings, for which use it was considered "nearly equal [to] Zante currants." Fernald and Kinsey (1943) report that "To the European taste the berries are best when made into puddings or pies, the thoroughly cooked seeds giv¬ ing a flavor suggesting sweet cherry pie." When cooked first, they make ex¬ cellent muffins, imparting a rich almond flavor. Dried in the sun, they can be used as a substitute for currants. Only two species of Shadbush are relatively common in the Catskills. One usually has juicier fruit than the other, but otherwise they are so much alike that only a botanist is likely to be concerned with the dif¬ ferences between the two species. Even in the country this fruit is now largely ignored except by an occasional hiker who may sample a few "berries" out of hand when he comes across them. Not only was this fruit eagerly sought by the Indians, who used it in many ways, but the colonists early learned that the dark red, almost purplish berries made good sauce and pies. To make a delicious Shadberry sauce, simply add 1 cup of sugar to 3 cups of fruit and simmer for 15 to 20 minutes. The most popular use of this fruit, particularly in Appalachia, however, was in the making of "Sarviceberry Pie." A 9~inch pie plate was lined with piecrust then filled generously with washed Juneberries, over which was sprinkled a mixture made up of 3/4 cup of sugar, 1/4 cup of flour, and 1 scant teaspoon of salt. The top was then dotted with butter, a top crust was arranged over all and perforated to per¬ mit air to escape, then baked for 45 minutes in an oven set at 400 F. Juneberries also make excellent muffins, but they should be cooked before adding them to any basic recipe for muffins; simply use the recipe for Shad¬ berry sauce and drain the berries before adding them to the muffin mix. The cooked seeds add a rich almond- like flavor to the finished product. The Indians used to dry great quantities of Juneberries on flat trays in the sun for out-of-season use. For those who may wish to experiment with the dried fruit, it is very good used like currants in puddings and muffins, or the berries can be stewed to make Shadberry sauce. The dried berries taste so different from the fresh fruit, however, that they can almost be considered another kind of food. While not a timber species, the hard, heavy, strong, close-grained wood is occasionally used for tool handles and in the manufacture of fish¬ ing rods. The showy white flowers that appear in dense masses in early spring have ornamental value, but few people in the Catskills make use of its attractive flowers. The fruit is a favorite food of birds. The Chippewa s used the fruit of A. canadensis both fresh and dried for later use. Densmore (1928) states that the dried berries were boiled -53~ ■when used and either sweetened with maple sugar or combined with other foods. This species was also used medicinally. A decoction of the roots combined with those of cherry and young oak was taken internally for dys¬ entery and diseases of women. To pregnant women who had been injured, a decoction of the root alone was given to prevent miscarriage. It was also administered to reduce excessive menstrual flow. A decoction of the inner bark, in combination with Pin Cherry, Choke Cherry, and "wild cherry" was taken internally for female weakness. Key to the Catskill Species of Amelanchier 1. Petioles stout, 2-10 mm long; leaves imbricated in bud; leaf base acute; flowers solitary (l~3 in a cluster) . A. bartramiana 1. Petioles slender, 8-25 mm long; leaves conduplicate in bud; leaves subcordate or rounded at base; flowers in racemes, 2 2. Leaves pubescent, at least along their midribs or on the petioles . A. arborea 2. Leaves glabrous from the beginning . A. laevis Amelanchier arborea (Michx. f.) Fern. Common Juneberry. Meaning of Species Name. Treelike. Other Names. Common Serviceberry , May- cherry, Sand- cherry, Downy Serviceberry . Type of Plant. A tall shrub or small tree, usually only 15“ 25 ft high with a trunk 1 ft in diameter but sometimes 50~60 ft tall with a trunk nearly 2 ft in diameter. Habitat. Rich woods, thickets, pastures, and slopes. Range. Me to Minn and la, s to Fla, La, and Okla. Distr in NYS . Common throughout most secs of the state. Distr in the Torrev Range . Throughout the range except the coastal plain of NJ; commoner inland than near the coast. Time of FI. Apr~May( Jun) , fr Jun-Aug; fl May 1-15 at Cornell. Origin. Native. The common name of Shadbush was given to this tree by early settlers who associated its blooming in early spring with the runs of shad which as¬ cended the New England rivers to spawn. Commonly associated with borders of woods, streambanks, and fencerows, this species is also found scattered through the forest, particularly on hillsides and mountain slopes, as well as in pastures. Its wood is hard, heavy, and strong, but it tends to warp and check badly during drying. Steyermark (1963) states that "it ranks with Persimmon as the heaviest wood among North American trees, and as fifth in hardness." It is sometimes used locally for tool handles and small turned articles but is otherwise of little value owing to the small size of the tree. It is sometimes planted ornamentally because of its attractive flowers. The Cree Indians used its fruit both fresh and dried and made from it a pudding which Emerson considered very little inferior to plum pudding. The fruit can be served fresh, but many people feel that it has a better flavor when cooked in pies or canned for winter use . -54- Amelanchier arborea-- Common Juneberry [From Sargent ( I89I" 1902 ) , Vol. IV, Plate 19^ > Pf* P- 129' "55" Some 40 species of birds, including ruffed grouse, thrushes, and many other songbirds, consume its fruit, together with such animals as skunks, foxes, chipmunks, squirrels, opossum, raccoon, and even bears. It is therefore an important source of food for many types of wildlife dur¬ ing early summer (June and July). Martin et al. (1951) remark that "Be¬ cause of its horticultural merits combined with wildlife utility the downy serviceberry is worthy of extensive planting as an ornamental." Harlow (1957) states that "One of the best features for recognizing the tree is the terminal bud, which is long and tapered like that of beech but with fewer scales. When chewed, the twigs have a faint bitter-almond taste . ” Amelanchier bartramiana (Tausch) Roemer. Mountain Juneberry. Meaning of Species Name. Named for William Bartram, 1739” 1823, who sent seeds to European horticulturists. Other Names . Mountain Shadbush, Oblong- fruited Juneberry. Type of Plant. A slender cespitose-fastigiate shrub 1 l/2 to 8 ft high. Habitat. Peaty or boggy thickets, mountainous swamps, sphagnous bogs, bushy slopes, and mountain summits (ascending to subalpine areas); also in cold wet rocky woods, swamps, and bogs. Range . Lab to James Bay and Man, s to NE, the higher mts of NY, Pa, and WVa, w to Mich, Wis, and Minn. Distr in NYS. Common throughout the Adirondack reg and locally com¬ mon across the n part of the state, southw to Washington, Fulton, Herki¬ mer, and Lewis co. Distr in the Torrey Range . Confined in our area to peaks of the Catskills and in Monroe and Schuylkill co in Pa. Elevation. Above 1500 ft, usually up to 4020 ft, in the Torrey range . Time of FI. May- Jun(Aug) , fr Jul-Sep. Origin . Native. / % Amelanchier la e vis Wieg. Smooth Shadbush. Meaning of Species Name. Smooth. Other Names . Smooth Juneberry, Eastern Serviceberry, Juneberry, Shadbush. Type of Plant. A fastigiate shrub or small tree. Habitat . Dry to moist upland woods, thickets, borders of woods, margins of swamps, and clearings. Range . Nf to Que, Ont, and Minn, s to Md, mts to Ga and Ala, 0, Ind, Ill, la, and e Kan. Distr in NYS • Frequent across the state northw and throughout the c highlands of the state, the Catskills, and the highlands of the Hudson valley, southw on the Appalachian plateau. Distr in the Torrey Range . Not listed in Taylor (1915)* Time of FI. Apr-May, fr Jun-Aug; fl May 1-15 at Cornell. Origin . Native. -56- Amelanchier bartramiana — Mountain Juneberry [From Billington (1949) j Fig 62, p. 132.] This species is often seen in parks and on lawns, for its delicate, purple-brown branches are nearly concealed in April or early May, as the oval leaves are just putting in an appearance, with drooping clusters of attractive white flowers. Rogers (1926) evidently confused this species with A. arborea , for of it she states that "Under each [cluster of flowers] is a pair of red silky bracts and the infant leaves are red and silky, all adding to their warmth of color when the tree is white with bloom." It is this species, and not A. arborea, that has bronzy-red expanding leaves; those of A. arborea are light green and covered with silvery-white hairs, a distinction that makes the two species easy to identify . in early spring. Both of these "charming little trees" light up "the river banks with their delicate blossoms, when all the woods around them ... [are] still asleep." The juicy red berries ripen in June, calling all the birds around to a feast, after which "the little tree quite loses its identity, for the for¬ est is roofed with green, and June-berries are quite overshadowed by more self-assertive species." While the fruit of A. arborea is usually rather dry and insipid, "practically inedible to all but the birds," that of this species is likely to be sweet and juicy; it took a place among the preferred wild fruits of the American Indians, who gathered them in large quantities wherever they were available. Michaux remarked that in his day the berries often appeared in the markets of Philadelphia, but added that "they were bought only by children." It is from the fruit that it received the name "Sarvissberry , " which, according to Peattie (1950), is "a transformation of the sorbus given by the Romans to a related kind of fruit." The wood of this species is one of the heaviest of our northern sylva, ranking as the fifth hardest of all our woods. It takes a beautiful polish and would make a valuable cabinet wood, but the tree seldom exceeds -57- Amelanchier laevis--Smooth-leaved Shadbush [From Brown (1921), p. 302.] 20 or 30 feet in height. Many species of wild birds, including the ruffed grouse, are fond of its fruit. The fruit is also eagerly devoured by such mammals as the black bear, raccoon, opossum, foxes, and white-tailed deer. -58- % Crataegus L. Hawthorn. Hawthorns are most abundant in eastern North America, some 100 spe¬ cies having been described from the northeastern states and adjacent Canada. A few species also occur in the western states, Mexico, and south to the Andean region of South America as well as in temperate parts of Eurasia. The name of the genus is derived from the Greek kratos, strong or powerful. More than 1000 species have been described from North America , but current authorities now regard many of them as hybrids or varieties of variable species. The genus is a most difficult one and most botanists working in the Catskill region have almost completely ignored them, including the pres¬ ent writer. One difficulty is that in order to be able to identify some of the species, it is necessary to collect both flowers and fruit. That re¬ quires tagging the shrub or tree in the spring and returning in the fall to obtain fruit from the same plant. Several Eurasian species bear edible fruit, including C. azarolus , a native of Asia Minor and Persia, much cultivated in the Mediterranean re¬ gion, where it is "sometimes served as dessert, and is much used for pre¬ serves." The fruit of C. orientalis, another Mediterranean species, is considered in the Crimea to be "an agreeable fruit, much improved by graft¬ ing." In Kamchatka the natives make a kind of wine from the fruit of C. oxyacantha by fermenting them with water. This species is also said to be cultivated in India for its fruit. The fruits of several other old world species are also relished as food in some areas, including C. pentagyna , a Eurasian species that grows wild west of Peking, where its large fruits are "collected and an excellent sweetmeat is prepared therefrom." The English Hawthorn, cultivated primarily for its flowers, bears an inferior fruit, so the English colonists early recognized the superior qual¬ ity of some of the native American hawthorns. John Josselyn, writing in 1672, considered the haws "very good to eat, and not so astringent as the Haws in England." W. Wood, probably referring to C. foment os a , in his New England ' s Prospect written in 163^-j stated that "The white thorn affords hawes as big as an English Cherrie, which is esteemed above a Cherrie for his goodnesse and pleasantnesse to the taste." The fruits of several native species have a juicy pulp from which delicious jellies and marmalades can be made, but the different species bear such variable fruit that their useful¬ ness can be determined only by experiment, for all the fruits bear large stones and only a minimum of pulp. Jelly from the better species, however, requires comparatively little sugar. Hawthorns, known locally in the Catskills as thornbrush or thornap- ples, are quite diverse in appearance, coming in a wide variety of sizes from small shrubs no more than a few feet high to good-sized trees over 30 feet high with a trunk up to a foot in diameter, but most people have no difficulty in recognizing this genus once they become acquainted with it. The fruit resembles a small apple, although that of some species may be oval or pear-shaped, usually bright red in color, except that some species bear greenish or yellowish fruit. Few people except for young boys are tempted to sample the fruit and then conclude that even when they are good, they are not very good, and when they are bad, they are horrid. It is not surprising, therefore, that practically no one ever makes use of this fruit. -59" The fruit can be used to make both jelly and marmalade. To make haw jelly, select the best ripe fruit you can find in the neighborhood, crush 3 pounds of the fruit, add 4 cups of water, bring to a boil, simmer covered for 10 minutes, then strain the juice through a jelly bag, discarding the pulp, skins, and seeds. Add 1 package of powdered pectin, the juice of 2 lemons, and 7 cups of sugar to 4 cups of juice, stir well, and bring to a boil. Boil hard for 1 minute, skim off any foam, pour into small glass jars, and seal with paraffin. To make haw marmalade, cook the haws in very little water for about 15 minutes then force them through a ricer or sieve to remove skins and seeds. To 1 l/2 cups of the strained haw pulp add the juice and peels from 1 lemon and 1 orange, and, if desired, 1/2 teaspoon of powdered rosemary. Stir in 1 package of powdered pectin, return it to the fire, bring to a boil, then stir in 5 cups of sugar and bring once again to a boil, stirring con¬ stantly. After this mixture has boiled hard for 1 minute, skim off any foam, pour into sterilized glass jars, and seal with paraffin. To prepare the orange and lemon peels, shave off about half of the white pulp from the inner side of the skins, cut into fine shreds with a pair of kitchen shears, and put them in a saucepan with 2 cups of water and l/8 teaspoon of soda. Boil for 20 minutes, drain, and add them to the other ingredients. Various tribes of Indians used one species or another for medicinal purposes, and all doubtless have similar properties. Vogel (1970) remarks that the Flambeau Ojibwas used both the fruit and bark of one species to prepare a medicine for women, while the Meskwakis used the green fruit of another species for bladder ailments and a decoction of the root bark for general debility. The Potawatomis used the fruit of a native species for stomach complaints, while the Kwakiutls chewed the leaves of a different species to make a poultice for application to swellings. In 1737 John Brickell reported that "the Leaves, Flowers, and Haws, are very binding, therefore good to stop all kinds of Fluxes; the Powder of the Stone drank in Rhenish Wine, is of very great service in Stone, Gravel, and Dropsie." Various species of Crataegus were also used by the whites and some were listed in the U.S . Dispensatory for their astringent and tonic properties, useful in the treatment of heart ailments. The inner bark was used for this purpose. A decoction of the astringent ripe haws was once much used both as a cure for sore throat and as a gentle corrective for diarrhea. This medicine was made by crushing 1 cup of the fruit, adding 1 cup of water, and boiling for 10 minutes. The liquid was then strained, sweetened to taste with honey, and administered a tablespoonful at a time for sore throat and a wineglassful at a time for diarrhea. The Chippewas made use of some species of native hawthorn as food. The fruit was prepared by squeezing it in the hands (presumably to remove the seeds), after which the pulp was made into little cakes without cook¬ ing, dried on birch bark, and stored to be cooked in winter. The long thorns of some species made useful awls, used by the women in their sewing. The dense branching, thorniness, and heavy foliage of these shrubs or small trees make them favorite nesting sites for many birds. Although some 36 kinds of birds sometimes eat the fruit, these small apple-like pomes are not utilized by wildlife to nearly so great an extent as might be expected, fox sparrows and cedar waxwings being the principal songbird -60- users, and several species used in ornamental plantings seem to be no more attractive to wildlife than species growing in the wild. Cattle and deer browse the young growth and several mammals, including field mice, gray fox, raccoons, skunks, squirrels, and black bears, occasionally eat the fruit. Both rabbits and beaver . sometimes gnaw the bark. Thornapples are ubiquitous pasture "weeds" in the Catskills, and a constant battle is necessary to keep them from preempting grazing areas. Scattered small bushes can be grubbed out , but Muenscher (1952) suggests that the only way to get rid of larger shrubs is to pull them out with horses or tractor and chain. Larger trees should be cut in midsummer, piled up to dry, then burned. Crataegus crus -ga Hi , the Cockspur Thorn, usually found growing in the rich soil of wooded hillsides and old pastures, often attains a height of 25 feet. This species is of note as a horticultural plant, for it has been much used both in Europe and in America (even in colonial times) as a hedge plant. It will withstand heavy pruning and its fierce thorns and in¬ tricate twigs form an almost impenetrable barrier. The thorns on the sides of the twigs are 3 to 4 inches long, in age often branching and attaining a length of 6 or 8 inches. Its bright and polished bark shades from reddish- brown to gray. It is an attractive tree, bearing an abundance of flowers in spring. Later, the thick, leathery, lustrous leaves, dark green above and pale beneath, "impart, all summer, an appearance of garden-like for¬ mality; in autumn they turn bright orange or deep garnet red," while its red fruits, ripening in October, decorate each twig all winter until spring. It is not possible to write a key to the Catskill species of Cra¬ taegus that will enable the amateur to identify the species he may come across, not only because the genus is such a difficult one but primarily because, in all probability, less than half the species one might expect to occur in that area have been collected. The following key is therefore of¬ fered, not so much as an aid in identifying the eight species known to grow in the Catskills but to enable the amateur to note some of the characteris¬ tics that serve to separate the various species so that he may more intel¬ ligently observe and collect the several species occurring in that area. Key to Local Species of Crataegus 1. Leaves deeply cut or cleft; introduced species (fruit red, styles and nutlets l) . C. monogyna 1. Leaves not deeply cut; native species, 2 2. Leaves broadest toward the apex (also note 3rd 2 in key) (leaves obovate, narrow, dull gray-green, impressed- veined above, dull; calyx lobes lanceolate-acuminate, usually entire; flesh of fruit hard, thick) . C. punctata 2. Leaves broadest at the middle (also note 3rd 2 in key), 3 3. Leaves not impressed-veined (not acutely lobed; calyx lobes usually lanceolate-acuminate, glandular-margined, reflexed; leaves elliptic ovate; young foliage usually yellow-green) . C. chrysocarpa -61- 3. Leaves impressed-veined, 4 4. Calyx lobes usually deeply cut; nutlets deeply pitted on the ventral faces; corymbs pubescent (leaves rhombic-elliptic; calyx lobes glandular- laciniate , villous; leaves dark green, glabrous and shining above) . C. macrantha 4. Calyx lobes less deeply cut; nutlets with shallow pits on the ventral faces; corymbs and fruit glabrous (leaves elliptic to ovate; calyx lobes remotely glandular ser¬ rate) . C. brainerdii 2. Leaves broadest at the base, 5 5. Leaves l/2 to 2 1/2 in. long; calyx lobes entire (leaves ovate, yellow-green, not conspicuously lobed, often slight¬ ly pubescent; young foliage usually bronze-green; fruit large, glabrous, flesh succulent) . C. macrosperma 5. Leaves ovate, 1-4 in. long and wide; calyx lobes usually glandular-serrate; fruit usually pubescent, flesh thick, soft, edible, 6 6. Leaves oblong-ovate, sharply lobed; calyx lobes reflexed; corymbs nearly glabrous . C. holmesiana 6. Leaves broadly ovate; corymbs and fruit pubescent or tomentose (leaves on vegetative shoots cuneate).... C. pedicellata % e Crataegus brainerdii Sarg. Brainerdts Hawthorn. Meaning of Species Name. Named for its discoverer, Ezra Brainerd, 1844-1924. Type of Plant. A shrub only 6-9 ft high, but sometimes a small tree 18-20 ft tall. Habitat . Thickets, pastures, and roadsides. Range . Que, NE, and NY to Mich, s in the mts to NC. Distr in NYS. Frequent across the state outside the higher Adiron- dacks, but not recorded from the lower Hudson valley nor from the Cats- kill and Susquehanna regs. Distr in the Torrey Range . NY: Near Stamford, Delaware co. Time of FI. May-Jun, fr Sep-Oct. Origin . Native. % * Crataegus chrysocarpa Ashe. Round- leaved Thorn. Meaning of Species Name. Golden fruited. Type of Plant. A stout, intricately branched shrub or rarely a small tree up to 25 ft tall. Habitat . Thickets and rocky ground along streams. Range . Nf and Que to NE and NY, w to Man, Col, and NM. Distr in NYS . Widely distr across the state; common in some secs. Distr in the Torrey Range . NY: Dutchess, Columbia, Delaware, and Greene co. Time of FI. May, fr Sep-Oct. Origin . Native. -62- r Crataegus brainerdii Brainerd ' s Hawthorne [From Britton & Brown ( 1913 ) Crataegus chrysocarpa Round- leaved Thorne , II: 303, 306.] Crataegus holmesiana Crataegus macrantha Thin- leaved Thorn Long- spinel Thorn [From Britton & Brown (1913), II: 315, 301.] -63- 9 Crataegus macrosperma- -Variable Hawthorn [From Billington (1949), Fig. 67, p. 142.] Crataegus holjnesiana Ashe. Thin-leaved Thorn. Meaning of Species Name. Named for Joseph Austin Holnes, 1859-1915. Other Names . Holmes' Thorn. Type of Plant. An arborescent shrub or small tree. Habitat . Thickets, borders of woods, and along streams, usually in moist or fertile ground. Range . Se Can and NE to NY and Pa, w to Wis and ne Minn. Distr in NYS. Frequent from Albany, Herkimer, and St Lawrence co westw and southw. Distr in the Torre y Range . NY, under C. villipes Ashe: Near NYC, increasing northw and common in the Catskills. Time of FI. May, fr Sep-Oct; fl May 10- 30 at Cornell. Origin . Native. % / Crataegus monogyna Jacq. English Hawthorn. Meaning of Species Name . Having one ovary, from the solitary nutlet. Other Names . White Thorn, May Thorn, Hedge-thorn, May Bush, Quickset, Quick, Wick, Wicken, Haw-tree, Quickthorn. Type of Plant . A small tree growing 20- 30 ft high. Habitat . Often cult and spreading to roadsides, open fields, pas¬ tures, and borders of woods. Range . E US . Distr in NYS. Sparingly esc from cult. Distr in the Torrev Range . Not very common as an esc in our area. Elevation. Collected at 2800 ft in Delaware co. Time of Fl. May, fr Oct; fl May 25“Jun 10, fr Sep 20_0ct at Cornell. Origin . Introd from Eurasia and the Mediterr reg. Remarks . Wood hard, yellowish-white; wt 50 lb per cu ft. -64- Crataegus monogyna- -English Hawthorn [From Brown (1921)} P- 292.] Crataegus macrosperma Ashe. Variable Hawthorn. Meaning of Species Name. Large- seeded. Other Names . Large-seeded Thorn. Type of Plant . A small tree or sometimes an arborescent shrub. Habitat . Hillsides, woods, thickets, fields, and along streams, usually in dry or rocky ground. Range . S Can and NE to the mts of NC and Tenn, w to Ill, Ind, and Wis . Distr in NYS . A common species but recorded from only a few local¬ ities in the Adirondack reg. Distr in the Torrey Range . Common throughout the range except on the coastal plain of NJ. Time of FI. May-Jun, fr Aug-Sep; fl May 10-25 5 rarely June 5? fr Sep 10 or later at Cornell. -65- Crataegus pedicellata~-Scarlet Haw [From Brown (1921), p. 290.] Origin . Native. Remarks . This species is so variable that early students of the genus described 70 species from this complex, later reducing them all back to one. \ * Crataegus pedicellata Sarg. Scarlet Haw. Meaning of Species Name . Pedicelled. Type of Plant . A small tree growing 18-24 ft high but sometimes only a stout shrub. Habitat. Hillsides, borders of woods, thickets, and banks of streams. Range . NE, Ont, and NY to Ind and n Ill. -66- Crataegus punctata- -Dotted. Haw [From Sargent (1891-1902), Vol. IV, Plate 184, ff. p. 104‘. J -67- Distr in NYS. Common across the state outside and chiefly s of the Adirondacks . Distr in the Torrev Range . IdY : Greene and Dutchess co. Time of FI. May, fr Sep. Origin . Native. Rogers (1926) states that this species, a native of the northeastern states, is one of the oldest native thorns in cultivation, being a favorite in New England gardens "because of its abundant bloom, deep crimson fruit, and vivid autumn foliage." There are no Catskill records of this species, but it has been col¬ lected in both Greene and Delaware counties just outside the Catskill region and may still turn up in the mountains. For that reason it seems justifiable to retain it in the key to the species and in the text. % % Crataegus -punctata Jacq. Dotted Haw. Meaning of Species Name . Dotted, punctate. Other Names . Large-fruited Thorn, White Thorn, Flat-topped Hawthorn. Type of Plant. A small tree usually growing 18-20 ft high but some¬ times attaining 20-30 ft in height with a trunk 12 in. in diameter. Habitat . Open rocky ground, thickets, borders of woods, and pastures, usually in rich soil chiefly along streams, shores of ponds, lakes, and bottomlands . Range . Que and NE to NC and Ky, w to Minn, la, and Ind. Distr in NYS . Common across the state outside the higher Adirondacks. Distr in the Torre y Range . Throughout the range except in the pine barrens of NJ and LI, there rare or wanting, but locally unrecorded. Time of FI. May-Jun, fr Sep-Oct; fl May 25“Jun 5? fr Sep 20_0ct at Cornell. Origin . Native. This species is late in blooming, for its flowers do not put in an appearance until late May or early June, and its inedible fruits do not ripen until late September. Peattie (1950) remarks of this species that "No tree is more active than this in invading the prairie.... And if no stately giraffes are seen browsing upon them, dairy cows do so abundantly, despite the armory of thorns." It is a picturesque tree, "striking at all times of year but especially so in autumn when the heavy crops of fruit are on the tree and the leaves are turning bronze, gradually becoming clear gold, or sometimes deep claret red." One of its common names, Dotted Haw or Dotted Hawthorn, is derived from the small but conspicuous dark dots on the fruit. Both birds and rodents consume its fruit, including a number of songbirds, fox squirrels, and mice. Several species of birds also nest among its branches. It seems also to be a favorite tree of the apple borer, the Dotted Haw becoming a permanent locus of infection for apples. -68- Dalibarda repens--False Violet [From Mathews (1912) plate facing p. 192.] Dalibarda L. False Violet. This monotypic genus is a low creeping perennial of eastern North America with densely tufted stems and roundish- cordate crenate leaves on slender petioles. It bears two kinds of flowers, a few long-peduncled, usually sterile ones with white petals and numerous fertile apetalous flowers on short, curved peduncles. The name of the genus commemorates Thomas Francois Dalibard, 1703-1779? a French botanist. Some authorities include this species in Rubus, to which it is closely related. Dalibarda repens L. False Violet. Meaning of Species Name . Creeping. Other Names . Robin-runaway, Dalibarda, Dewdrop. Type of Plant. A perennial herb. Habitat . Moist cool woods and swamps. Range. Que and Ont, s to Mass, Ct, NY, mts of NC, 0, and Mich. Distr in NYS . Common across the state northw; infrequent in the w counties and rare in the s tier of counties bordering on Pa; local southw to Columbia co and the Catskill mts of Ulster, Greene, and Delaware co. Distr in the Torrey Range. NY: The mts of Ulster, Sullivan, Greene, and Delaware co. Elevation . Sea level-4050 ft in the Torrey range. -69- Time of FI. Jun-Aug(Sep) ; Jul-Aug at Cornell. Origin. Native. Remarks. A plant somewhat resembling a low violet, hence one of its common names . Filipendula Adans. Meadow-sweet. There are about 10 species of Filipendula , perennial herbs of the north temperate zone with pinnate leaves, panicled cyrnose flowers, and reniform stipules. The name of the genus is derived from the Latin filum, a thread, and pend ulus , hanging, in allusion to the roots of the European F . vulgaris . Key to the Catskill Species of Filipendula 1. Terminal leaflet 1-2 dm broad, 7“9“pa*’ted; petals deep pink; carpels straightish, erect . F. rubra 1. Terminal leaflets 0.5_1.5 dm broad, 3“5“lobed; petals white; carpels spirally imbricated . F. uLmaria Filipendula rubra (Hill) Robins. Queen-of-the-prairie . Meaning of Species Name. Red. Type of Plant . A perennial herb. Habitat . Low woods, wet meadows, and prairies, roadsides, and ne¬ glected grounds. Range . NY to Minn, s to NC and Ky. Distr in NYS. Esc from cult northw to Cleveland, Oswego co, and Aiden Lair, Essex co, and doubtless elsewhere in the state. Distr in the Torre y Range . Reported only from Hancock, Delaware co, NY; Andover, Sussex co, NJ, and locally in Ct, perhaps nowhere as a wild plant . Time of FI. Late Jun_early Aug; Jul at Cornell. Origin . Native from Pa westw and southw; esc from cult in the Cats¬ kills . Remarks . Sometimes esc from cult n and e of its range. Filipendula ulmaria (L.) Maxim. Queen- of- the-meadow . Meaning of Species Name. An old generic name, from a fancied resem¬ blance of the leaflets to the leaves of Elm, Ulmus . Other Names. European Meadow-sweet, Meadow-queen, Honey-sweet, Sweet-hay, Meadow-wort, Herb Christopher, My Lady's-belt, Bridewort. Type of Plant. A perennial herb. Habitat . Roadsides and thickets. Range . Nf and e Que to NJ, NY, WVa , and 0. Distr in NYS . Occasional as an esc. Distr in the Torrey Range . A rare esc in our area, and not est. Time of FI. Jun-Aug; Jul at Cornell. -70- -71- Filipendula rubra--Queen-of-the-prairie Filipendula ulmarie- -Queen- of- the “meadow [From Britton & Brown (1913)? Hi 249-] Origin . Introd from Eu. Remarks . This species seems to be definitely est in several areas of the Catskills. This perennial plant from Eurasia, sometimes grown in American gardens and occasionally escaped into the wild, is one of several similar plants called Meadow-sweet. It was once used to flavor mead and as a cure for malaria, but it is best known as a source of greenish-yellow, blue, and black dyes. To obtain a greenish-yellow color, a peck of the whole plant was cut up and covered with cold water. This was gradually brought to a boil and simmered for 1 hour, after which the liquid was strained and enough water added to make a dye bath of 4 to 4 l/2 gallons. One pound of wetted wool mordanted with alum was then put into the likewarm dye bath, heated gradually to the boiling point, and simmered for 1 hour, after which it was rinsed thoroughly and dried in the shade . A black dye was obtained from the roots collected in July. The roots were washed and boiled, and the liquid strained until it was clear. The wool was then immersed in the liquid and boiled until the required color was obtained, but, according to one authority, this color "does not compare with the beautiful black provided by the bark of the common alder" (Ain us incana ssp. rugosa) . A navy blue color was obtained by boiling the stalks and leaves together for 2 hours, straining the liquid, then boiling the wool in the liquid until the desired color was achieved. The wool was then boiled with roots of Garden Sorrel (Rumex acetosa) to fix the color. No other mordant was mentioned in this recipe. Fragaria L. Strawberry. There are about 15 species of Fragaria . mostly Eurasian and North American perennials, but also extending into the Andean region of South America. They usually develop stolons and have white or pinkish cymose flowers on leafless scapes. The name of the genus is from fraga, the Latin name of the strawberry, so called from the fragrance of the fruit. The Greeks seem to have had no knowledge of strawberries, but Virgil, Ovid, and Pliny all mention F. vesca as a wild plant furnishing a delicacy for the table. The fruit was known in England at the time of Henry VI, but it ap¬ pears not to have been cultivated there until around 1542. There are at least three taxa of wild strawberries growing rather abundantly in the Catskills, but when one finds the lucious red fruit ready for picking in field or pasture, he is not likely to be much concerned about which species he is gathering. Sometimes in an old meadow one finds the long stems topped by four, five, or six large red berries ripe for picking; it is then possible in a short time to gather a large pail full, stems and all, to be taken home and hulled at leisure. More often, however, it is more practical to pick the berries one by one, hulling them as they are picked, taking care to exclude leaves, parts of hulls, stems, and other de¬ bris, for picking over the day's haul at home is a tedious job. It goes without saying that gathering quarts of wild strawberries out in the hot sun can be a time-consuming process, but the rewards are great, for no culti¬ vated strawberry can remotely approach the wild ones for flavor and aroma; -72- a shortcake topped with wild strawberries is ambrosia itself. And speaking of strawberry shortcake, it is traditionally made with sweetened biscuit dough--not sponge cake. So many recipes abound for the use of strawberries that there seems no point in repeating them here except perhaps to say that in the writer's opinion, when making jelly or jam, the color and flavor of the fresh fruit is best preserved by using a commercial pectin, following the recipes given on the package, rather than boiling the fruit for hours in an effort to get it to jell. The American Indians dried quantities of fruit in the sun to store for later use. George W. Carver, the Tuskegee scientist, remarked that "Drying is without doubt the simplest and best method of preserving a num¬ ber of fruits and vegetables. And it is a source of much regret that few know how to appreciate the delicious taste of home-dried fruits and vege¬ tables," in part because concrete directions are generally not available. Spread out the hulled strawberries on a cookie sheet, cover with fine screening or mosquito netting to keep out flies and other insects, and place in the sun to dry for 3 or 4 days, bringing in the trays at night and turning the larger berries over on successive days. When thoroughly dry, pack in tight containers. A "strawberry leather" can be made by mashing thoroughly ripe strawberries to a pulp, then spreading it out on platters to dry in the sum. When it is dry, dust it with powdered sugar and roll it up like jelly rolls into pieces of suitable size and pack in jars. This can be eaten as a confection or soaked overnight in water for use in making shortcake, sauce, or tarts. If desired, the powdered sugar may be omitted, as the dried fruit keeps perfectly well without it. Not only are wild strawberries rich in calories but they contain twice as much vitamin A as canned pineapple and three times as much as grapefruit. In addition, a quarter of a cup of strawberries contains as much vitamin C as one orange. In addition to the usually familiar uses of strawberries, a cooling drink can be made by crushing a handful of berries and adding them to a glass of cold water; half a teaspoon of sugar will serve to enrich the flavor. Few people realize that a refreshing tea can be made from the fresh leaves simply by steeping a handful of leaves for minutes in 2 cups of boiling water. By collecting the leaves in summer and placing them on paper to dry in the sun for a few days, one can have the makings of strawberry tea all through the winter months . Crumbled and stored in an airtight container, the leaves will keep for many months. The fruit was once thought helpful in treating gout and kidney stones, a tea made from the leaves has been used to cure diarrhea, and an infusion of the root was once used in the treatment of gonorrhea in addi¬ tion to being considered an excellent bitter to increase the flow of urine. In the words of Johnson (1867), "Strawberries are considered to promote perspiration; they are, undoubtedly, very cooling. Hoffman thought them particularly beneficial to consumptive people. They are likewise said to have had a good effect in urinary complaints, and gouty people are supposed to have received benefit by eating them freely." On the other side of the coin, Millspaugh (1887) remarks that "it is a patent fact that many people with delicate stomach find it almost impossible to eat strawberries and cream--especially early in the season--without suffering from symptoms of disordered digestion; the symptoms often culminating in quite severe attacks." -73- Upland gamebirds such as ruffed grouse and pheasant feed on the ten¬ der leaves of wild strawberries as well as on the fruit. The varying hare and cottontail rabbit also eat both fruit and leaves, while the cedar wax¬ wing consumes the fruit. Birds, particularly the robin, and other wildlife also eat garden strawberries, as almost everyone who owns a strawberry patch can testify, but if suitable precautions are taken, the extent of loss is probably negligible when the total crop is considered. Key to Local Species of Fragaria 1. Hairs on main flower stem and petioles spreading; topmost tooth of the leaflets usually shorter and smaller than the ones on either side of it; petals mainly 7“ 10 mm long; fully grown in¬ florescence usually shorter than the leaves; inflorescence ap¬ pearing flat and umbel- like, the main branches more or less equal; calyx lobes pressed against the young fruit; achenes set in pits below the surface of the fruit; leaflets dull glaucous green above, with ascending veins and teeth; surface beneath glabrous or nearly so . F. virginiana 1. Hairs on main flower stem and sometimes on petioles mostly ap- pressed; topmost tooth of the leaflets higher than the ones on either side of it; petals mainly 4-7 mm long; fully grown inflor¬ escences often overtopping the leaves; inflorescence appearing raceme-like, the main branches of the few flowers unequal and the leading one elongated as the axis; calyx lobes spreading or reflexed on young fruit; achenes superficial, not set in pits be¬ low surface of fruit; leaves bright green above, with spreading veins and teeth, silky underneath, 2 2. Plants slender, with thin leaves; pubescence sparse and more or less closely appressed . F. vesca ssp. americana 2. Plants not slender, more or less villous with spreading hairs on petioles and peduncles . . . F. vesca ssp. vesca Fragaria vesca L. ssp. americana (Porter) Staudt. American Wood Strawberry. Meaning of Species Name. Weak; ssp. name, American. Synonyms . Fernald (1950) lists this plant as F. vesca L. var. ameri¬ cana Porter; Gleason (1952) calls it F. americana (Porter) Britt. Other Names . American Sow-teat Strawberry. Type of Plant. A perennial herb, reproducing by seeds and "runners." Habitat. Cool wooded slopes and dry rocky banks. Range . Q,ue and Nf to Man and SD, s to Va, 0, Ind, Ill, Mo, Neb, and NM; also in the Rocky Mts. Distr in NYS . Common northw across the state and westw to L Erie; less frequent southw to Westchester co. Distr in the Tor rev Range . NY: From the highlands of the Hudson northw, becoming common in the Catskills; unknown elsewhere. Elevation . Sea level-3365 ft in the Torrey range. Time of FI. May- Jun( Jul) ; May 10-Jun 15 at Cornell. Origin . Native. -74- Fragaria vesca ssp. araericana American Wood Strawberry From Britton & Brown (1913), Fragaria vesca ssp. vesca European Wood Strawberry Vol. II, 260, 261.] Fragaria vesca L. ssp. vesca . European Wood Strawberry. Meaning of Species Name. Weak. Other Names. Sow-teat Strawberry, Hedge Strawberry, Sheep-noses. Type of Plant. A perennial herb, reproducing by seeds and "runners." Habitat. Rocky upland woods, fields, openings, and along roadsides. Range . Q,ue and Nf to Mich, s to Pa, 0, and Ill. Distr in NYS. Locally common as an esc or natzd plant in many parts of the state . Distr in the Torrey Range . Rather a rare esc in most parts of our range . Time of FI. May-Jun( Jul) ; May 10-Jun 15 at Cornell. Origin . Indig in Nf and e Que; introd from Eu elsewhere. Remarks . Formerly frequent in cult. % % Fragaria virginiana Duchesne. Field Strawberry. Meaning of Species Name . Virginian. Other Names. Virginian Strawberry, Scarlet Strawberry. Type of Plant . A perennial herb, reproducing by seeds and "runners." Habitat . Fields, meadows, open slopes, and borders of woods, usual¬ ly in rather dry fertile soil. -75" Fragaria virginiana--Field Strawberry [From Krochmal et al. (1971) p. 123. J Range . Nf and Que to Man, s to Ga, Tenn, and Okla. Distr in NYS . Frequent or common throughout the state except the higher mts and the coastal plain. Distr in the Torre y Range . Common throughout the range except in the pine barrens, there rare and probably introd. Time of FI. Apr- Jun( Jul) ; May 10-Jun 15 at Cornell. Origin . Native. Not only did the Chippewas use the raw fruit of this species as food, but two or three roots of this plant, steeped in 1 quart of boiling water was freely administered to children in the treatment of cholera infantum "until the effect is evident." In western medicine the roots were con¬ sidered to be diuretic. Roger Williams in 1643 reported that "this berry is the wonder of all the fruits growing naturally in these parts.... In -76- some parts where the Indians have planted, I have many times seen as many as would fill a good ship, within few miles compass.” Not only was it much relished by the early settlers, but the Indians "bruised this strawberry with meal in a mortar and made bread." Geum L. Avens . There are about 60 species of Geum, perennial herbs with pinnate or lyrate leaves, chiefly of the north temperate zone but extending also into arctic regions. The name of the genus is an ancient Latin name used by Pliny possibly referring to some plant of this genus. G. urbanum, a native of Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, was once much used in Europe as a tonic and astringent in the treatment of hemorrhages, chronic dysentery, and fevers. The root, according to Lindler (1879)3 was also used as an in¬ gredient in the manufacture of some ales. South American Indians also used a species of Geum as a remedy for intermittent fevers, considering it equal to Peruvian bark. Key to the Catskill Species of Geum 1. Calyx campanulate, the usually purple lobes erect or ascending; petals erect, abruptly contracted to a claw; base and summit of style plumose; flowers nodding, fruits erect . G. rivale 1. Calyx tube saucer-shaped, the lobes soon reflexed; petals spreading, gradually narrowed at base; lower half of style glabrous or merely glandular, upper half not plumose; flowers ascending, 2 2. Key to flowering material, 3 3. Petals white to pale or greenish-yellow, oblong to spatulate, 1-4.5 ran broad; if yellowish, shorter than calyx lobes, 4 4. Peduncles stout and short, copiously hirsute with di¬ vergent or reflexed crowded hairs 1-2 mm long; petals white or pale yellow, 2- 5 ram long, 1-2 mm broad, much smaller than calyx lobes . G. laclniatum 4. Peduncles filiform, minutely pilose or puberulent; long hairs, if present, scattered; petals yellow and short or white and 5*9 ram long by 1-4.5 mm broad, except in late depauperate flowers, 5 5. Cauline leaves not rapidly reduced in size from base to summit of stem, their tips and teeth mostly acute; petals white, 5*9 mm long, 2-4.5 mm broad, about equaling to longer than calyx lobes . G. canadense 5. Cauline leaves rapidly reduced in size toward summit of stem, their tips and teeth blunt; petal's pale or greenish-yellow, 2-4 mm long, 1-2 mm broad, much shorter than calyx lobes . G. virginianum 3. Petals orange or deep yellow, suborbicular or broadly ob- ovate, 3-9 mm broad, equaling or longer than calyx lobes, 6 6. Terminal segment of some or all basal leaves cuneate- obovate to -oblanceolate , incised; calyx lobes lanceolate or lance-ovate, 5*9 mm long; petals 5*10 mm long, 5*9 -77- mm broad; base of style glandless . G. aleppicum 6. Terminal segment of all basal leaves cordate-reniform or -suborbicular, dentate; calyx lobes broadly deltoid, 2.5-5 mm long; petals 3 . 5~5 (7) mm long, 3-5(6) mm broad; base of style minutely glandular . G. macrophvllum 2. Key to fruiting material, 7 7. Denuded receptacle glabrous or only minutely pubescent, the pits and scars evident, 8 8. Peduncles thick, mostly 1-5 cm long, copiously hirsute with divergent or reflexed crowded hairs 1-2 mm long; calyx lobes lanceolate or lance-ovate, 5“H mm long; fruiting head 1.7- 2. 5 cm in diameter, the drab or brown¬ ish styles not glandular . G. laciniatum 8. Peduncles filiform, mostly longer, minutely puberulent; long hairs, if present, scattered; calyx lobes broadly deltoid, 2.5“5 mm long; fruiting heads 1.2-1. 8 cm in diameter, the usually purple styles minutely glandular at base . G. macrophvllum 7. Denuded receptacle copiously hirsute, the pits and scars hidden, 9 9. Basal leaves chiefly interruptedly pinnate, with 5“9 in¬ cised leaflets and interspersed smaller ones; middle and upper leaves similar, incised; peduncles coarse, clavate at tip; fruiting heads finally globose- obovoid; the styles soon tightly reflexed- appressed and imbricated . G. aleppicum 9. Basal leaves chiefly simple or ternately divided, the margins lobed, serrate or dentate; middle and upper leaves simple or 3“ cleft, serrate or dentate; peduncles filiform; fruiting heads spherical; upper styles loosely ascending or spreading, only tardily reflexed, 10 10. Cauline leaves not rapidly reduced in size from base to summit of stem, their tips and teeth mostly acute . G. canadense 10. Cauline leaves rapidly reduced in size from base to summit of stem, their tips and teeth obtuse.... G. virginianum. % 9 Geum aleppicum Jacq. Yellow Avens. Meaning of Species Name. Of Aleppo. Other Names . Herb-bennet, Black- bur, Camp-root. Type of Plant. A perennial herb, reproducing by seeds. Habitat. Open swamps, wet thickets, low meadows, pastures, marshes, and clearings, usually on rich soils. Range . Nf and Que to Mack, s to NJ, Pa, 0, Ind, Ill, Minn, Neb, NM, and Mex. Distr in NYS . Common across the state northw; less frequent southw, and rare on LI and SI. Distr in the Torrev Range . NY: Rare on LI, SI, and in the Bronx, thence increasing and common northw. Elevation . Sea level-2800 ft in the Torrey range. Time of FI. (May) Jun~ Jul(Aug) ; Jun 15"Jul 15 at Cornell. Origin . Native. -78- Geum a leppicuirr -Yellow Avens [From Dana (19OO), Plate Ik } p. 173.] The Ojibwa Indians boiled the roots of this species for a weak de¬ coction taken internally for soreness in the chest and for coughs. In areas where this species may have become an obnoxious weed, Muenscher (1952) suggests that scattered plants should be pulled or hoed out as soon as the blossoms appear. Badly infested fields should be plowed and planted to a cultivated crop for a season. Geum canadense Jacq. White Avens. Meaning of Species Name . Of Canada. Other Names . Red-root, Herb-bennet. Type of Plant . A perennial herb. Habitat. Rich moist thickets and open woods. -79- (Left) Geum canadense-_White Avens; (right) Geum rivale-- Purple Avens [From Smith (1966), Plate 83, p. 182.] Range . NS to Minn and SD, s to SC, Ga, Tenn, Mo, Kan, and Tex. Distr in NYS. Common in most secs of the state except in the pine barrens of LI. Distr in the Torrey Range . Very common throughout the range except in the pine barrens, there rare or -wanting. Time of FI. (May )Jun-Jul( early Aug); Jun 20-Jul at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks . The Chippewas steeped the root of this plant to make a decoction taken internally in the treatment of "female weakness." -80- Geum laciniatum--Bristly White Avens [From Smith (1966), Plate 84, p. 184.] % % Geum laciniatum Murr. Bristly White Avens. Meaning of Species Name . Slashed, referring to the leaves. Other Names . Rough Avens, Bennet, Herb-bennet, White Avens, Throat- root, Chocolate-root. Type of Plant . A perennial herb. Habitat. Damp thickets, meadows, and roadsides. Range . NS to Ont and Mich, s to NJ, Md, Pa, WVa, 0, Ind, and Mo. Distr in NYS . Frequent or common, but rare above 2000 ft in the Adirondacks and largely absent from the coastal plain of LI. Distr in the Torrey Range . Not separated from G. virginianum in Taylor (1915). Time of FI. (May)Jun-Jul; Jun 10-Jul 10 at Cornell. -81- Geum macrophyllum Large-leaved Avens [From Britton & Geum virginianum Rough Avens Brown (1913), II: 270, 271.] Origin . Native Remarks . Blossoms somewhat earlier than G. candense : basal leaves becoming very large, the terminal leaflet sometimes 6 in. wide. % / Geum macrophyllum Willd. Large-leaved Avens. Meaning of Species Name . Large-leaved. Type of Plant . A perennial herb. Habitat . Rich woods, rocky ledges, low grounds, damp thickets, and openings . Range . Nf and Lab to Ak, s to the mts of NE and NY, Mich, Wis, Minn, Mont, Id, and Cal; also in n Eu and e Siberia. Distr in NYS . Rare in the n Adirondacks and not reported elsewhere in the state. Distr in the Torrev Range . Not listed in Taylor (1915)* Time of FI. (May) Jun- Jul(Aug) . Origin . Native. Remarks. The Flambeau Ojibwas used this species in the treatment of female disorders. -82- Geum rlvale L. Purple Avens. Meaning; of Species Name . Of brooksides. Other Names. Water Avens, Chocolate-root, Indian Chocolate, Evan's- root, Drooping Avens, Maidenhair, Throatwort, Throat-root, Cure-all. Type of Plant . A perennial herb. Habitat . Swamps, marshes, low wet meadows, bogs, and peaty slopes. Range . Nf and Que to Alta and BC, s to NJ, Pa, WVa, 0, Ill, Ind, Mich, Minn, NM, and Cal; also in Eurasia. Distr in NYS . Common across the state northw and locally frequent westw to L Erie; less common southw to the Hudson highlands, and rare in the Susquehanna and Chemung valleys. Distr in the Torre y Range . NY: Unknown s of the highlands of the Hudson, thence increasing northw. Elevation . Sea level- 3365 ft in the Torrey range. Time of FI. May- Jul(Aug) ; May 15"Jun at Cornell. Origin . Native. Mrs. H. K. Morrell, writing on the edible plants of Maine, stated that when boiled, the root of this species "makes a drink like chocolate," a beverage "formerly valued as a tasty home remedy" prescribed for dysen¬ tery, colic, dyspepsia, and other ailments of the digestive tract. After the root was "well boiled," sugar and milk were added; even then, however, it was considered rather astringent, "with a slight addition of acid." Fernald and Kinsey (19^3) decided that "in our own experiments we have as yet found no reason to be enthusiastic about this drink." They were more intrigued by Parkinson's remarks to the effect that during the l6th century, "Some use in the Spring time to put the roote to steepe for a time in wine, which giveth unto it a delicate flavour and taste, which they drink fasting every morning, to comfort the heart ..." In this connection, Johnson (1862) remarks that this plant was "often used in olden times to flavor ale and other liquors . " In 1785 the Rev. Manasseh Cutler recommended a root decoction of this plant as a gargle for sore throat and reported that the Canadians used the powdered root in the treatment of tertian agues. The Thompson Indians of British Columbia used the boiled roots of a closely related species to treat smallpox, an epidemic of which occurred among them some time before 1900, stating that every person who drank a strong decoction made .from the boiled roots survived the disease. This same preparation was used for any disease characterized by a rash, such as measles and chickenpox. Other tribes used it for coughs and sore throat. The dried root was official in the U.S . Pha r~ macopeia , 1820-82, for use as an astringent. The U.S . Dispensatory of 1865 called this species a tonic and a powerful astringent that could with ad¬ vantage be used in the treatment of hemorrhages, diarrhea, dyspepsia, and stomach disorders. A tincture prepared from the whole plant, gathered be¬ fore blossoming time in the spring, was also used as a febrifuge. A weak decoction of the root was sometimes used by invalids in New England as a substitute for tea and coffee. -83- Geum virginianum L. Rough Avens. Meaning of Species Name. Virginian. Other Names. Bennet, Herb-bennet, Cream-colored Avens . Type of Plant. A perennial herb. Habitat . Dry woods, thickets, and rocky banks Range . Mass to Ind, s to SC and Tenn. Distr in NYS . Infrequent or rare northw from Washington co to L Ontario and L Erie; more abundant southw in the state. Distr in the Torrey Range . Throughout the range except in the pine barrens and the coastal plain of LI, there wanting, and rare and local in the area immediately surrounded by the pine barrens. Time of FI. Jun-Aug; Jun 10-Jul 10 at Cornell. Origin . Native. Potentilla L. Cinquefoil. There are about 300 species of Potentilla . herbs (sometimes shrubs) with compound leaves and solitary or cymose flowers, widely distributed throughout the north temperate zone. The name of the genus, a diminutive of potens , powerful, originally applied to P. anserina . alluding to its once reputed medicinal powers. The leaves of P. rupestris , Rock Cinquefoil or Prairie Tea, a native of Europe and northern Asia, have been used as a substitute for tea both in Siberia and in Mongolia. J. Lightfoot, writing in 1789s reported that in the Hebrides the roots of P. anserina . Goose Grass or Goose Tansy, "have often supported the inhabitants for months together. Boiled or roasted, they taste like parsnips." The roots of P. tormentilla , Tormentil, also a native of Europe and northern Asia, are also reported to have been eaten in times of scarcity. Long boiling is said to have converted the tannin into gum, thereby making them edible. Potentilla reptans . another European plant, was formerly used in the treatment of diarrhea and other complaints for which astringents were usually prescribed. The Chippewas prepared a decoction of half the root of P. palustris and 1 quart of water for internal use in the treatment of dysentery. Although several species of Potentilla are common to abundant in many areas, Martin et al. (1961) report that their usefulness to wildlife is relatively low, except in the west, where the rose finch, the least chipmunk, and two species of ground squirrels eat both seeds and foliage, but in the east both grouse and woodcock use the seeds and foliage of some species . ✓ -84- Key to Local Species of Potentilla 1. Flowers solitary from naked peduncles from the axils of the foliage leaves or on the stolons, 2 2. First flower from the node above the first well-developed inter¬ node; plants small, creeping; leaflets dull, scarcely veiny, narrowly obovate; pubescence of the stem, petioles, and pedicels spreading . . . . . P. canadensis 2. First flower from the node above the second or third well- developed internode; plants larger, less close to the ground; leaflets brighter green, more veiny, oblanceolate ; pubescence of the stem, petioles, and pedicels appressed . P. simplex 1. Flowers cymose in terminal inflorescences, 3 3. Leaves silvery- tomentose beneath . P. argentea 3- Leaves green beneath, pubescent or smoothish, 4 4. Petals white; leaflets coarsely 3“toothed at apex; plants low, tufted, smooth or essentially so, rather woody at base . P. argentea 4. Petals yellow; plants coarse, hirsute, erect, 20_90 cm high, 5 5. Leaflets 3 (petals about equaling calyx lobes) . P. norvegica 5. Leaflets 5“7, 6 6. Flowers 1.5“2.5 cm broad; stamens 30; petals much ex¬ ceeding calyx lobes . P. recta 6. Flowers 3' 10 mm broad; stamens 5~20; petals about equaling calyx lobes . P. intermedia / / Potentilla argentea L. Silvery Cinquefoil. Meaning of Species Name . Silvery. Other Names. Hoary Cinquefoil. Type of Plant. A perennial herb, reproducing by seeds. Habitat. Dry or sterile open ground of fields, pastures, roadsides, and waste places; sometimes on rocky ledges. Range . Nf to Minn and Mont, s to Md, Va, WVa, 0, Ind, and' Ill. Distr in NYS . Frequent or common northw and westw in the state and southw in the lower Hudson valley, and locally on LI, where perhaps adv. Distr in the Torrey Range . Common as a weed throughout the area.; probably introd into the pine barrens. Time of FI. Jun-Aug(Sep) ; Jun-Jul at Cornell. Origin . Natzd from Eu. In areas where this species has become an obnoxious weed, Muenscher (1952) suggests that badly infested fields should be plowed and the plants turned under to increase the organic matter in the soil, then planted with a cultivated crop or a smother crop for a season. -85- (Left) Potentilla argentea--Silvery Cinquefoil [From Smith (1966), Plate 8l, p. 179*3 (Right) Potentilla intermedia- -Downy Cinquefoil [From Smith (1966), Plate 82, p. l8l.j / * Potentilla canadensis L. Dwarf Cinquefoil. Meaning of Species Name . Of Canada. Other Names. Common Five-finger, Wild Strawberry, Barren Straw¬ berry, Sinkfield, Running Buttercups, Star-flower. Type of Plant . A perennial herb, reproducing by seeds and runners. Habitat . Dry soil of open woods, fields, and old meadows. Range . NS and Me to Ont, s to LI, SC, Ala, and 0; also in Mo. Distr in NYS . Common throughout the state except in densely wooded areas . Distr in the Torrev Range . Throughout the area except in the pine barrens, there rare and local and probably adv, always increasing northw. Elevation . Grows to 63OO ft in NC. Time of FI. (Mar )Apr- Jun; May 20-Jul 1 at Cornell. Origin . Native. This plant is often confused with P. simplex (which, in fact, was once called P. canadensis . so that in older books it is often difficult to -86- know which species is under discussion). Peter Kalin was probably referring to P. simplex when he noted that an infusion of the common cinquefoil was thought to be a good remedy for fevers, stating that "several persons re¬ covered by this means." The best way to determine which species is at hand is to examine the point from which the first flower on the stem originates. In P. canadensis the first flower on the stem springs from the second well- developed internode, while in P. simplex it issues from the third or fourth well-developed internode. It has been suggested that this species makes a good ground cover on rocky, sterile, acid soils, but the author is probably speaking of P. implex, which appears to be a more robust plant and much more widely dis¬ tributed, at least in the Catskill region. In areas where this species has become a troublesome weed, it can be controlled by the same methods as those outlined for P. simplex. Potentilla intermedia L. Downy Cinquefoil. Meaning of Species Name . Intermediate. S.YP,e Plant . A biennial, annual, or short-lived perennial herb. Habitat . Roadsides, meadows, dry stony pastures, and waste places. Range. Que to Mich and Va; to be expected elsewhere. -87" Potentilla norvegica- -Norway Cinquefoil [From USDA Agr. Research Sv. (l97l)9 Fig. 107, p. 219.] Distr in NYS . Rare as an introd or adv plant in this state. Distr in the Torrey Range . Rare as a ballast plant near the larger cities. Time of FI. Late May- Aug. Origin . Adv and natzd from Eu. This species, considered by some botanists to be of hybrid origin (possibly containing elements of P. argentea and P. norvegica) . is in the northeastern states thought of as being "Local but rapidly spreading." It somewhat resembles P. norvegica but differs in its 5" foliate leaves. To this writer, however, it seems more closely to resemble P. argentea . from which it can be distinguished by the long spreading hairs on the stems, petioles, and -88- undersides of the leaves; the pubescence on the undersides of the leaves of P. argentea is densely matted. / / Potent ilia nor vesica L. Norway Cinquefoil. Meaning of Species Name . Norwegian. Other Names. Barren Strawberry, Rough Cinquefoil, Tall Five-finger. Type of Plant . An annual or biennial herb, reproducing by seeds. Habitat . Thickets, meadows, fields, clearings, roadsides, old pas¬ tures, and waste places. Range . G1 and Lab to Ak, s to NC, Tex, and Ariz; widely distr in Eurasia . Distr in NYS . Common or frequent throughout the state except in densely wooded secs, into which it appears to migrate with the clearing of the forests. Distr in the Torrey Range . Throughout the area except in the pine barrens, becoming very common northw. Time of FI. Jun~Aug(Oct ) ; Jul(Aug-Oct) at Cornell. Origin . Native. Gleason (1952) states that this species may possibly have been in¬ troduced from Europe; it often occurs as a weed in cultivated ground. In areas where it has become obnoxious, clean cultivation will destroy this weed. The Chippewas chewed the root and stalk. of this species, or prepared a decoction of it, to relieve sore throat. # / Potentilla recta L. Rough- fruited Cinquefoil. Meaning of Species Name . Upright. Other Names . Sulfur Cinquefoil, Torment il. Type of Plant . A perennial herb, reproducing by seeds. Habitat . Dry fields, roadsides, meadows, pastures, and waste places. Range . Nf to Ont and Minn, s to Va, NC, Tenn, Ky, Ark, Kan, and Mo. Distr in NYS . Estab as a locally common plant in several localities across the state; apparently increasing rapidly in abundance and distr in recent years, being first reported from near Oswego in 1879* Distr in the Torrey Range . In 1915 it was considered to be a rare adv in Ct and NY, hardly persisting. Time of FI. (Late May)Jun-Aug; Jun 20-Aug 10 at Cornell. Origin . Natzd from Eu. Remarks . This plant is rapidly spreading in the Catskills. This species has been suspected of being poisonous to livestock both in Europe and in the United States, but Kingsbury (1967) could find "no definite evidence" of its toxic nature. In areas where this species has become a troublesome weed, Muenscher (1952) suggests pulling or hoeing scattered plants from meadows when the first flowers appear. Badly in¬ fested meadows should be mowed early to prevent the spreading of seeds. Plowing, followed by clean cultivation for a year, will also destroy this weed . Potentilla recta--Rough-fruited Cinquefoil [From USDA Agr. Research Sv. (1971), Fig 108s p. 221. J -9o- Potentilla simplex Michx. Old-field Cinquefoil. Meaning of Species Name. Unbranched. Other Names . Decumbent Five-finger, Barren Strawberry, Five-finger. Type of Plant . A perennial herb, reproducing by seeds and runners. Habitat . Dry or moist woods, thickets, fields, pastures, and road¬ sides . Range . Nf and Que to Minn, s to NC, Tenn, Ala, La, Mo, Okla, and Tex. Distr in NYS . Infrequent or locally common across the state outside the Adirondacks . Distr in the Torrey Range . Common throughout the area except in the pine barrens, there rare and local and probably adv, always increasing northw . Time of FI. Apr-Jun; May 20~Jul 1 at Cornell. Origin . Native. Where this species has become an obnoxious weed, increase the soil fertility and organic matter, when practicable, by adding fertilizer and plowing under a "green manure" crop such as rye, but Muenscher (1952) ob¬ serves that "Land infested with this weed is often acid," however, "and otherwise poorly adapted for any purpose except reforestation." / * Potentilla tridentata Ait. Three-toothed Cinquefoil. Meaning of Species Name. Three- toothed. Other Names. "Sibbaldia." Type of Plant . A small tufted creeping perennial evergreen with de¬ pressed superficial ligneous branches. Habitat. Dry open sterile rocky, gravelly, sandy, or peaty soils, usually at high elevations and on exposed ridges and ledges. Range . G1 and Lab to Mack, s to NF, NY, Mich, Wis, la, and ND, and at scattered stations in the mts to Ga . Distr in NYS . Frequent or common throughout the Adirondacks and n NY, and in the Catskill mts; less frequent southw to Dutchess co and the Hudson highlands, and not reported from w NY. Distr in the Torrey Range . NY: Dutchess co, increasing northw. Elevation . 1000-4020 ft in the Torrey Range. Time of FI. (Late May ) Jun-Aug(Oct ) . Origin . Native. Raymond H. Torrey (1930), quoting Dr. Wherry, remarks of this species that "it seems to grow on gravelly soils irrespective of their derivation, although always acid in reaction.... this plant is absent on some mountains where one might expect it because it is so intolerant of shade and competi¬ tion. It evidently survived the glacial period on the peaks of the Blue Ridge in Virginia and North Carolina . . . and then gradually migrated north¬ ward when the ice retreated. Carrying seeds by the wind seems out of the question, so birds are the only likely means of transportation." -91- (Left) Potentilla simplex--01d-field Cinquefoil [From Smith (1966), Plate 82, p. l8l.] (Right) Potentilla tridentata — Three- toothed Cinquefoil [From Smith (1966), Plate 8l, p. 179*] -92- Primus L. Cherry, Peach, Plum. There are about 200 species of Prunus, a genus of small trees or shrubs bearing fruits containing a hard pit or "stone," growing chiefly in the north temperate zone but extending also into the Andean region of South America. The name of the genus is the ancient Latin name of the plum. Most of the species bear edible fruit and all have attractive flowers. This genus has therefore contributed much both to economic and ornamental horticulture. In addition to the Plum, other well-known species include the Flowering Almond, garden cherries, peaches, apricots, the Japanese Cherry, and the Almond, one member of the genus whose flesh is dry and woody and whose pit is an edible nut, now widely grown commercially in California . One of the simplest ways to identify native species of this genus at any season of the year is to nibble on the inner bark of a twig. If it tastes bitter and astringent with a flavor of hydrocyanic acid (the flavor of peach pits or bitter almonds), there can be little doubt that the genus Prunus is involved (although P. virginiana may be an exception). The wood of this genus is close-grained, solid, and durable, and some species are important timber trees. Many of our cultivated plums are imported varieties of the woolly twigged, thick- leaved European P. domestica . a species that, according to Rogers (1926), "[has] found a congenial home in the mild cli¬ mate of the West Coast." In addition, she states that "Japan has furnished to the Middle West and South a hardy, prolific species, P. triflora . general¬ ly immune to the black knot, a fungous disease which attacks native plums. Crosses between the Japanese and American native plums promise well. Cali¬ fornia now ranks first in prune raising as an industry, with France a close second. Prunes are the dried fruit of certain sweet, fleshy kinds of plum. Many cultivated varieties of Japanese plums have enriched the horticulture of our West Coast." Martin et al. (1961) report that the wild cherries furnish an import¬ ant source of food for wildlife. More than 70 species of birds, including important gamebirds and common songbirds, consume the fruits as they ripen in the summer and fall, and sometimes even before they are ripe. Outstand¬ ing in importance are the widespread wild Black Cherry, the Chokecherry, and the Pin Cherry, all of which are common in the Cat skill region. In ad¬ dition to their use by birds, wild cherries are also relished by many fur and game mammals as well as by a number of small mammals. Bears break down the bushes to get at the fruit, and skunks, raccoons, and foxes also seek them out. The branchlets and foliage are browsed by deer, and rabbits chew the bark of some species. Often these animals feed on the cherries that have fallen to the ground after the birds have taken their harvest. The flowers likewise furnish pollen and some nectar to honey bees. In both Europe and Asia the bark of a number of native species of Prunus has been used as the source of reddish- and yellowish- brown, black, bluish-black, gray, and yellow dyes. It has long been known that at times some of the wild cherries may cause fatal poisoning when eaten by farm animals, as the eastern wild cherries have been responsible for much loss in livestock under conditions which make their foliage available to pastured animals. Black Cherry is "93- frequently the cause of poisoning in cattle eating the wilted leaves, but all wild cherries are subject to suspicion. Muenscher (1949) observes that while the Black Cherry appears to be the most dangerous, the Chokecherry and the Pin Cherry are also dangerous. Both wilted and fresh leaves are poisonous, but vigorous succulent leaves from young shoots contain far more hydrocyanic or prussic acid than foliage from mature trees. Cherry leaves occurring in well- cured hay, however, yield only very small amounts of prussic acid. Cherries are not relished by cattle and sheep when more pal¬ atable forage is abundant; fatal poisoning therefore occurs on ranges where drought and overgrazing have considerably reduced the amount of grass and other forage. Death appears to be due to the depressant effect of the prussic acid on the respiratory and cardiac centers of the brain. Key to the Catskill Species of Prunus 1. Flowers sessile or subsessile, pink to dark pink; ovary velvety or tomentose; exotic species escaped from cultivation . P. persica 1. Flowers distinctly pediceled; native species, 2 2. Flowers numerous, distinctly racemose, terminating leafy branches of the current year (racemes with 20 flowers or more; leaves below the raceme of ordinary size), 3 3. Sepals entire or inconspicuously glandular- erose , usually longer than wide . P. serotina 3. Sepals conspicuously glandular-erose , often wider than long . P. virginiana 2. Flowers few or solitary, in small umbels, short corymbs, or rarely few- flowered racemes, 4 4. Sepals without marginal glands (sepals glabrous on the upper side) . P. pensvlvanica 4. Sepals with marginal glands, 5 5. Sepals glabrous on the upper [inner] side . P. pumila 5. Sepals pubescent on the upper side, at least at base (petals 8-15 mm long; sepals glabrous on the lower [outer] side) . . . P. nigra Key to Plants Bearing Leaves and Fruit 1. Fruit sessile, velvety or tomentose . . . P. persica 1. Fruit pediceled, glabrous, 2 2. Plums; stone flattened to turgid, more or less 2-edged (leaf teeth tipped with a gland, or a minute scar marking the for¬ mer presence of a gland; leaf teeth triangular to ovate, ascending or salient, the gland distinctly terminal, not ad¬ jacent to the sinus; leaves obovate or broadly oblong-obovate , more than half as wide as long) . . . P» nigra 2. Cherries; stone globose or subglobose, 3 3. Inflorescence distinctly racemose, 6-15 cm long, bearing numerous fruits (if all develop), the pedicels much shorter than the axis; fruit blackish or red-purple, 4 -94- 4. Leaves, or at least some of them, with prominent pubescence along both sides of midrib on lower surface; sepals per¬ sistent under the fruit; leaf teeth very short, appressed or incurved . , . P. serotina 4. Leaves usually glabrous on the back; sepals soon decid¬ uous; leaf teeth triangular, ascending . P. yjrginiana 3- Inflorescence of few-flowered umbel-like clusters or of short racemes, the pedicels much exceeding the length of the axis (clusters of flowers and fruits bractless, or bracted only by the bud scales), 5 5. Teeth at the middle of the leaf margin 1-4 mm apart, less than 0.5 mm high; leaf margin cartilaginously thickened; fruit nearly black at maturity . P. pumila 5. Teeth at the middle of the leaf margin 0.5"1 mm apart, ir¬ regular in size; margin not thickened; fruit bright red at maturity. . . . . P. pensylvanica \ V Primus nigra Ait. Canada Plum. Meaning of Species Name . Black, from the dark branches. Other Names . Wild Plum, Red Plum, Horse-plum, Pomegranate. Type of Plant . A small tree sometimes attaining a height of 20 to 30 ft but often only a coarse shrub. Habitat . Thickets, borders of woods, streambanks, and fencerows. Range . NE, NY, and s Ont to Mich, Wis, Minn, s Man, Wyo, and Utah, s to Fla and NM. Distr in NYS . Frequent in the Adirondacks up to 2000 ft in eleva¬ tion, less frequent southw to the higher hills of Dutchess co, the Hudson highlands, Ulster and Otsego co, and locally westw across the state . Distr in the Torre v Range . Sometimes found as an adv; not common. Time of FI. Mid-Apr-early Jun, fr Aug“0ct; fl May 5~20 at Cornell. Origin . Native. This shrub much resembles P. amerieana , the Wild Red Plum, in many respects, but the latter is a more southern species. The Indians are re¬ ported to have given supplies of the Canada Plum to Jacques Cartier when he sailed into Chaleur Bay in 1534, for this rare species of the Catskill re¬ gion is more abundant northward and is said to be "commonly cultivated in the gardens of French Canada," both for its handsome flowers (which turn pink before they fall) and its edible fruit, which, according to Peattie (1950), is still "sold in the markets of Canadian cities." Rogers (1926) remarks that "This tree furnished the settler with a relish for his hard fare, and the horticulturist a hardy stock on which to graft scions of tenderer and better varieties of plums," but "it is a tree well worth bring¬ ing in from the woods to set in a bare fence corner that will be beautified by the blossoms in the spring, and in late summer by the bright orange- colored fruit against the ruddy foliage." Its wood is strong, enabling the tree to survive heavy snows and ice storms with much less injury from break¬ ing than most trees. In Peattie 's opinion, "the Canada Plum deserves more cultivation than has ever been given it," for "horticulturists have given this Plum little attention and as yet few named varieties have been bred from it," in contrast to the Wild Red Plum, which "has given rise to more Prunus nigra- -Canada Plum [From Sargent ( 1891“ 1902) , Vol. IV, Plate 1U9, ff. p. l6.] -96- pomological varieties than any other native species, having been derived from it. some 300 cultivars X / Prunus pensylvanica L. f. Pin Cherry. Meaning; of Species Name. Of Pennsylvania. Other Names . Bird Cherry, Fire Cherry, Wild Red Cherry, Pigeon Cherry, Dogwood, Red Cherry. Type of Plant . A slender shrub or a small tree, occasionally at¬ taining a height of 30“ 40 ft with a trunk up to 1 ft in diameter. Habitat . Dry rocky woods, recent burns, clearings, neglected fields, and fencerows. Range . Lab and Nf to Que and BC, s to NJ, Va , upland to NC, Tenn, Ill, la, SD, and Col. Distr in NYS . Common throughout most secs of the state n of the coastal reg. Distr in tile Torrey Range. NY: At Hewlett and n of the moraine on LI, rare on SI, and thence increasing up the Hudson valley and becoming very common northw. Elevation . Sea level-4020 ft in the Torrey range. Time of FI. Apr~May (early Jun), fr Jul-Sep; fl May 10“ 25 at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks . Often abundant after fires; wood soft, light brown, wt 31 lb per cu ft. This is a small, short-lived tree; not without charm when in full flower, it is generally considered a "forest weed," since it usually dies when the trunk reaches 4 to 6 inches in diameter. With the aspens it forms a pioneer association on cut-over or burned-over forest lands, particularly in areas formerly dominated by White Pine, Hemlock, and northern hardwoods. Its chief value from the forester's standpoint, therefore, is to prevent erosion and to furnish a light shade for other seedling trees growing under¬ neath, acting as a nurse tree until larger and more permanent species occupy the site. It cannot withstand shade and soon dies when overtopped by other trees. Its wood is of no commercial value, but the fruit is consumed by some 23 species of birds; they are almost wholly responsible for the dissem¬ ination of its seeds. Chipmunks and deer mice utilize the "pits" or seeds as food, and the fruits are eaten by several other species of animals. Deer seem not to be overly fond of it as browse, but the bark is sometimes eaten by beaver when more preferred food is not available. This species is known to every country boy for its pleasantly sour fruit, which -is sometimes eaten raw. Although its pulp is thin compared with the large stone, mixed with currants or apple to make it jell, it makes a delicious jelly (use the recipes given under P. serotina or P. virginiana ) . The gum exuded from the trunk is also sought by some people as a substitute for chewing-gum. -97- Prunus pensylvanica — Pin Cherry [From Sargent (1891-1902), Vol. IV, Plate 156, ff. p. 36.] -98- Prunus persica (L.) Batsch. Peach. Meaning of Species Name . An old generic name, an ancient name for the Peach, which reached Europe from China via Persia. Type of Plant . A small tree. Habitat . Roadside thickets and waste places. Range . NE to Mich and southw. Distr in NYS . Occasionally esc from cult or spontaneous in waste ground s of the Adirondacks. Distr in the Torrev Range . An esc in many parts of our range. Time of FI. Apr-May, fr Jul-Oct; fl Apr 20-May 20 at Cornell. Origin . Introd from Asia. Remarks ♦ Long in cult and occasionally adventive from discarded seeds; certainly little more than a waif in the Catskill region, where it has so far been collected only once. The numerous varieties of this species produce the peaches of com¬ merce, from which two well-marked strains, "cling- stones" and "free- stones , have evolved. Double- flowered dwarf forms are grown for ornament. During both World Wars I and II, Hill (1952) states that "peach stones were used as a source of charcoal" in the manufacture of filters "for gasmasks." The bark of the twigs, the inner bark of the trunk, and the leaves have been used in medicine. Lighthall (n.d.), an Indian "medicine man," re marked that "No family should be without a sack of leaves in their house," for he felt that they had "a wonderful power in quieting irritation of the stomach and the ... small bowels." He prescribed an infusion of the leaves in tablespoonful doses every 10 or 15 minutes to quiet obstinate cases of vomiting and considered it a mild tonic in small doses. A hot poultice of the leaves or bark laid on the pit of the stomach would ease stomach cramps He also boiled the leaves with bread and milk to make a poultice for cuts and wounds "where the inflammation runs too high." A "sour" yellow color can be obtained by covering 1 bushel of peach leaves with 10 gallons of water and letting them stand in a warm place com¬ pletely covered for a week or two. One pound of light gray wool was then mordanted with potash alum, boiled, drained, wrapped in a cloth, and set aside for several days, after which the yarn was rinsed and boiled for 1 hour with the fermented peach leaves. Kingsbury (1964) states that of the various species of Prunus culti¬ vated in North America, the Peach seems to be the only one to have caused much trouble among farm animals. While all parts of the plant contain cyanide, the pits are particularly rich in that compound and have caused mortality in hogs in Maryland and Indiana. "Lethal amounts of peach seeds may accumulate from home peach canning projects," he observed, "but the leaves are also potentially dangerous." -99“ Prunus persica--Peach [From Brown (1921), p. 264.] Prunus pumila L. var. denressa (Pursh) Gleason. Sand Cherry. Meaning of Species Name . Small; var. name, low, depressed. Svnonvms . Fernald (1950) refers only to P. pumila L. Other Names . Dwarf Cherry. Type of Plant. A small shrub with prostrate stems. Habitat. Sands, dunes, and rocky calcareous shores. Range. NB and e Que to Minn, s to Ont, Mass, NY, and e Pa. -100- Prunus pumila--Sand Cherry [From Billington (1949), Fig. 98, p. 182.] Distr in NYS . Uncommon on sand dunes, sandy shores, and fields of the Great Lakes reg. Distr in the Torrey Range. NY : Unknown on LI or SI, rare in West¬ chester co, thence increasing and common northw. Elevation. Sea level-4020 ft in the Torrey range. Time of FI. May-early Jun, fr Jul-Sep. Origin. Native. Remarks . While Taylor (1915) states that this species is "common northward" and suggests that it grows on the summit of Slide Mountain, Catskill records of P. pumila are extremely rare. % % Prunus serotina Ehrh. Black Cherry. Meaning of Species Name. Late-ripening. Other Names . Rum Cherry, Wild Cherry, Whiskey Cherry, Wild Black Cherry, Cabinet Cherry. Type of Plant . A medium- sized to large tree, commonly 50~60 ft high with a trunk 1 l/2 to 3 ft in diameter, but it sometimes attains 100 ft in height with a trunk diameter of 4-5 ft. Habitat . Dry woods, roadsides, fencerows, waste land, and forest margins . Range . NS, Que, Ont, and Minn to ND, a to Fla, Tex, and Mex. Distr in NYU . Frequent or common in most secs of the state. Distr in the Torrey Range . Common throughout the range except in the pine barrens, there rare or wanting. Time of FI. May- Jun, fr Jul-Sep; fl May 20- Jun 10 at Cornell, about 2 weeks later than P. virginiana. Origin. Native. Remarks . Wood hard, strong, reddish-brown; wt 36 lb per cu ft. -101- In the forest this species, the tallest of all cherries and the most precious native cabinet wood in the Rose family, develops a tall straight trunk with a relatively small crown, making its best growth on deep, moist, fertile soils, but it is often found growing on drier soils. Michaux re- - ported that trees growing on the banks of the Ohio grew from 80 to 100 feet high, with trunks 3 to 5 feet in circumference, undivided to a height of 25 or 30 feet. In the field the Chokecherry is sometimes confused with young specimens of the Black Cherry, but the relatively more pointed leaves of the latter .species, together with the rusty hairs along the midrib (par¬ ticularly on the leaves of vigorous shoots), will serve to distinguish the two species. The many virtues of the wood of this species have found high favor, ranking it with mahogany and rosewood in the esteem of cabinet-makers. While it is weak when used as a beam, it is heavy, compact and fairly hard, with a beautiful smooth grain that takes a handsome finish and a light red tint that deepens with age. In addition it shrinks but little in seasoning and does not warp. It therefore came to rank second only to Black Walnut as the finest cabinet wood of temperate North America. Peattie (1950) re¬ marks that "in the days of wooden Pullmans, wooden streetcars, and fine car¬ riage-making, Cherry was of utmost importance." Among many other things it was also much used for furniture; many families are still the proud posses¬ sors of fine drop-leaf cherry tables that have been handed down through several generations. The drains upon this species were such that by the beginning of the present century, hardwood buyers were cruising the country in search of Black Cherry trees of fine dimensions. So successful were they that Peattie (1950) states that it now ranks at the bottom of the avail¬ able cabinet wood in the United States. Whenever it can be obtained, it is currently used for show-cases, counters, cabinets, bars, weighing apparatus, spirit levels, paneling, interior finish, precision instruments, musical in¬ struments, and furniture, both solid and as a veneer. This species also makes a desirable ornamental. In the words of Rogers (1926), "A worthy shade and park tree, Black Cherry is charmingly unconventional, carrying its mass of drooping foliage with the grace of a willow, its satiny brown bark curling at the edges of irregular plates like that of the Cherry Birch." The fruit of this species has a sweetish, astringent, somewhat bitter taste, but it makes an especially rich dark jelly with a delicious winey flavor. To 3 quarts of washed, unpitted Black Cherries, add 3 cups of water, bring to a boil, and simmer for 20 minutes. When cool enough to handle, squeeze out the juice. Because cherry juice contains no pectin, one can then follow the recipe for sour cherry jelly found accompanying any package of commercial pectin, but for variety and an excellent flavor, this cherry juice can be mixed half and half with a wild apple juice. Collect about a peck of wild apples (they need not be ripe), cut out any parts damaged by insects, quarter them, and put them into a kettle (peels, cores, and all), barely cover with water, and simmer for 30 minutes or un¬ til the apples are tender, then drain off the juice without crushing the fruit. To 2 cups of cherry juice add 2 cups of apple juice and 4 cups of sugar, stir, and bring to a boil. Continue to boil hard until it passes the jelly test (see the account under Pyrus malus) . Pour immediately into jelly glasses and seal with paraffin. -102- I I I Prunus serotina--Black Cherry [From Sargent ( 1891" 1902) , Vol. IV, Plate 159j H • P* ^7 • ] -103“ The name "Rum Cherry" was acquired because this species was used by early New Englanders to convert the raw rum they obtained from the West In¬ dies into a sweet, beautifully colored cherry liqueur. To 1 quart of Rum Cherries add about 1 dozen crushed seeds and 1 cup of water, then simmer for 15 minutes. When cool enough to handle, strain the juice through a jelly bag, return to the fire, add 1 cup of sugar to each cup of juice, and bring to a full boil again, then pour into bottles or jars, and seal tightly. Add 1 part juice to 2 parts of rum, whisky, or brandy for a fine- flavored drink. The fruit is still occasionally used for flavoring alcoholic liqueurs. Rum Cherries were also once much used to make brandied cherries or cherry bounce. Fill a quart jar three- fourths full of uncooked Rum Cherries, add 1 cup of sugar, then fill the jar to the top with commercial brandy. Seal the jar and set it in a dark place for at least 3 months. Cherry soup can likewise be made from Rum Cherries. Wash 1 quart of unpitted cherries, then crush and pound them until the seeds are broken. Add 1 quart of water and a pinch of salt, then simmer for 30 minutes. Put through a sieve to remove skins and seeds, return to the fire, and thicken with 2 tablespoons of instant mashed potatoes. Simmer for a few minutes more, then add sugar to taste. This soup can be served hot or cold; when served cold, it can be dressed up a bit with a spoonful of sour cream on top of each serving. For those who may be interested in further exploring the uses of Black Cherries, Gibbons (1962) gives a recipe for Blushing Betty, a pudding, and directions for making cherry wine. North American Indians made much use of the fruit of this species, eating it both fresh and dried for future use. The fruits were pulverized in a stone mortar and combined with dried pulverized meat to make pemmican. The fruit was also added to soups, and some tribes enjoyed a tea made from the twigs as an invigorating beverage. Black Cherry was likewise much used by the Indians as a medicine. Cherokee women used a warm infusion of the bark to relieve the pains of childbirth, while the Ojibwas used the inner bark of this species, boiled, bruised, or chewed, as an application to external sores and wounds. An infusion of the inner bark was also sometimes given to relieve pains and soreness in the chest. Densmore (1928) reports that the Chippewas used the twigs of this species to prepare a beverage as well as eating the fruit both raw and dried for winter use. A decoction of the root was also used medicinally to expell worms, and a decoction of the inner bark was used in the treatment of ulcers, cholera infantum, and scrofulous neck; a handful of the prepared roots was boiled in about 1 quart of water. The roots of this plant were also used in combination with those of Ledum groenlandicum (Labrador Tea) in the treatment of burns, ulcers, or any condition in which the flesh was exposed. The roots were dried, powdered, and mixed, but not cooked. This powder was applied to the raw flesh. When it became damp, it was removed, the sore washed, and a fresh application made. The fresh roots mashed were also sometimes used as a poultice, or the inner bark was scraped and boiled for use as a disinfectant wash for sores and scrofulous neck. The Poncas treated diarrhea either with a decoction of the bark or an infusion of the dried and pulverized fruit. Among some tribes the bark was used in the treatment of coughs and colds and as a seasoner for other medicines, while the steeped fruit was used as a bitter tonic. The -lOt- Meskwakis made a tea of the root bark as a sedative and a stomach remedy, a drink that became popular in domestic medicine. The Mohegans put the ripe fruit in a bottle and let it ferment in its own juice for about a year, after which it was used in the treatment of dysentery. For colds, the leaves were steeped with Boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum) . A medicine so widely used by the Indians could not fail to impress the early settlers , and the inner bark of this species was soon adapted by them for use in the treatment of fever, intestinal worms, indigestion, and tuberculosis. In Appalachia a bark tea is still used to treat coughs, colds, and measles. The U.S . Dispensatory of 1865 stated positively that "This bark is among the most valuable of our indigenous remedies. Uniting with a tonic power the property of calming irritation and diminishing ner¬ vous excitability, it is admirably adapted to the treatment of diseases in which debility ... of the system ... is united with general or local irri¬ tation." John Lloyd, writing at a somewhat later date , reported that "No more popular bark of a native tree, excepting Sassafras, is known to home medicine." He was speaking both of Black Cherry and Chokecherry, which were not only used interchangeably in American medicine but were treated as synonymous in some editions of the U.S . Pharmacopeia . Wild Black Cherry bark from the dried stems has been official from 1820 to the present time for use as a sedative and as a pectoral in cough medicines. A syrup made from the bark has likewise been much used as a flavoring agent and a wine made from the syrup also once had wide use in medicine. All parts of the plant yield hydrocyanic acid when steeped in water, the medical properties of which are destroyed by boiling, so the plant is steeped in warm water only. For use in medicine the bark is collected in autumn, when it con¬ tains the largest concentration of the precursors to hydrocyanic acid. Since the bark deteriorates with age, the supply must be renewed each year. Since Black Cherry produces its fruits prolifically , it is a sing¬ ularly dependable source of food for wildlife. The cherries are eaten by many species of wild birds, including ruffed grouse. Such mammals as the black bear, raccoon, skunk, and foxes also consume the fruit, and the "pits" are a favorite food of chipmunks and deer mice, the former often storing large quantities for its winter food supply. This species is the most dangerous of the eastern wild cherries with respect to farm animals; less than 1/4 pound of leaves prove toxic to a 100-pound animal. All classes of livestock have died as a result of eat¬ ing the leaves of this species. Children have also died after ingestion of the seed kernels. Prunus viryiniana L. Chokecherry. Meaning of Species Name. Of Virginia. Type of Plant . A large shrub or small tree; usually only 6-8 ft tall, it may grow 20- 30 ft high with a straight trunk 6-8 in. in diameter. Habitat . Thickets, roadsides, borders of woods, pastures, shores, dunes, and borders of swamps. Range . Nf to Man and Sask, s to Va, uplands of NC, Ky, Tenn, Mo, Ark, and Kan. Distr in NTS. Common or frequent in most secs of the state. -105- Distr in the Torrey Range . NY: Occasional on LI, very rare and local on SI, unknown in the Bronx, rare in Westchester co, thence in¬ creasing and becoming very common northw. Time of FI. (Late Apr )May (early Jun), fr Aug-Oct; fl May 5-30 at Cornell, about 2 weeks earlier than P. serotina. Origin. Native. Sargent (1891-1902) states that this is the most widely distributed "tree" in North America, extending from the Arctic Circle to the southern states and Mexico and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. While usually only a large shrub, in some areas it often becomes a small tree. The flowers appear in late spring, usually 2 weeks earlier than those of the Black Cherry, with which it is sometimes confused. The leaves of this species are oval and short -pointed- or nearly obtuse instead of long- pointed, and they lack the rusty hairs usually found along the midrib of the Black Cher¬ ry. In addition the inner bark of the twigs of the Chokecherry has a rank, disagreeable odor, and the fruit of the Black Cherry is crowned with the persistent remains of the calyx while that of the Chokecherry is not. The wood of this species is similar to that of the Black Cherry, but it is of no commercial value owing to the small size of the tree. Chokecherry is usually regarded as a weed tree associated with road¬ sides, fencerows, and waste places, but it has many qualities which should make it useful in soil-erosion control and game management. Most people who have tested the edibility of its fruit have concluded without hesitation that the Chokecherry is indeed well named. In his New England Prospects . published in 1634, William Wood remarked that these cherries "so furre the mouth that the tongue will cleave to the roofe, and the throate wax hoarse with swallowing those red Bullies (as I may call them,) being little better in taste," concluding that "they are as wilde as the Indians." The quality of the fruit differs much on different plants, however, and one can some¬ times find plants bearing pleasant, juicy fruit with little astringency. Its defects have been corrected in a limited way by propagation of the most promising strains, some of which produce fruit as much as an inch in diam¬ eter. Peattie (1950) reports that "In Quebec this species has long been cultivated and selected strains bear fruit that may be eaten out of hand, like the best orchard cherries, or as preserves or jelly." It holds its fruit better than the cultivated cherries of European origin and ripens late in the season long after other cherries are no longer available. A cultivar, "Shubert," with reddish-purple mature foliag-e, is sometimes still planted for ornament. The Chippewas and other northern Indians gathered quantities of Chokecherries and pounded them between two stones, pits and all, leached out the harmful hydrocyanic acid from the kernels of the stones before drying, then dried the mass in the sun without cooking and stored it for winter use or used the dried paste as an ingredient in their pemmican. They also used a bundle of twigs of Chokecherry and Black Cherry about 4 inches long and 1 inch in diameter to prepare a beverage. This bundle was tied together by a strip of bark long enough to permit the lifting of the bundle and dropping it into about 1 quart of hot water without burning the hand. In the Catskills Chokecherries are among the most abundant and easily gathered of fruits, yet few people make any use of them, although old recipes -IO6- y-v Prunus virginiana--Chokecherry [From Sargent (1891-1902), Vol. IV, Plate 158, ff. p. 43.] -107- indicate that the fruit of this species played an important role in the early settlers' diet. The fact that most people are "turned off" by the mere mention of Chokecherries is perhaps not surprising when one considers the very astringent, "puckery" taste of the ripe fruit, yet some bushes bear quite juicy , palatable fruit, the chief fault of which lies in the thinness of the flesh in proportion to the size of the pits; selected bushes can supply material for a most delicious jelly. Gather about 4 quarts of ripe cherries from bushes bearing the largest, juciest fruit you can find. Stem and wash the cherries and put them, unpitted, into a large kettle, add 3 cups of water, bring to a boil, and simmer, covered, for 15 minutes. When cool enough to handle, strain out the juice through a jelly bag. Put 3 cups of juice into a large kettle, add 6 l/2 cups of sugar, mix well, place over high heat, and bring to a boil, stirring constantly. Stir in 1 bottle or package of commercial pectin, bring to a full rolling boil, and boil hard for 1 minute. Remove from the stove and skim off the foam with a metal spoon. For a stronger cherry flavor, add 1/4 teaspoon of almond extract, pour into sterilized jelly glasses, and seal with 1/8 inch of paraffin. Berglund and Bolsby (1971) give recipes for Chokecherry Cake with Vanilla Sauce, Cold Sour Chokecherry Soup, and Cold Buttermilk and Chokecherry Soup for those who may wish to experiment further with chokecherries. The Chippewas also employed a decoction of the inner bark, said to be very astringent, as a gargle for sore throat and as a rub for treating cramps. The inner bark was steeped with Corvlus root, White Oak root, and the heartwood of Ostrva virginiana for internal use in the treatment of hemorrhages. A decoction made from four roots of Leutanara virginica (Cul¬ ver's Root) and a large handful of the inner bark of P. virginiana in 1 pint of water was taken before breakfast and at frequent intervals during the day as a mild cathartic to cleanse the blood. It was also used with an external poultice of the root or inner bark of P. serotina in the treat¬ ment of sores. A decoction of Chokecherry root was also used as a wash to strengthen the hair and make it grow. Fresh leaves of this species were held in the mouth and stuffed in the nostrils as a protection when "working over the dead." Other tribes of American Indians also made medicinal use of this species, both alone and in combination with other ingredients. The Penob- scots steeped Chokecherry bark to make a tea used in the treatment of diarrhea, while the Pillagers used such tea in the treatment of lung troubles. The Potawatomis not only used an infusion of the bark as an eye¬ wash but made a tonic drink from the berries. Lighthall (n.d.), an Indian "medicine man," considered the bark of this species a fine tonic that re¬ duced nervous excitability and calmed "the force of cardiactive action," a "fine remedy for debility of the stomach, ... a good remedy for fevers, and for consumption," particularly when the patient was "troubled with night sweats, and is fretful and nervous, and wakeful at nights." He made a tincture simply by cutting the inner bark into fine pieces, filling a bot¬ tle half full of the pieces, and adding good whiskey. After standing for 2 weeks, it was ready to use in doses of 1 tablespoonful every 3 or 4 hours. He preferred a cold water preparation, however, which he made by cutting up the fresh bark into fine pieces and soaking it in cold water for 24 hours, of which he prescribed "a common swallow every 3 or 4 hours." To treat fevers he combined this bark in equal proportions with dogwood bark ( Cor~ nus florida) . -108- The early colonists were also quick to recognize the medical virtues of wild cherries. In 1663 John Josselyn considered the fruit of wild cher¬ ry a good remedy for fluxes, and in 1785 the Rev. Manasseh Cutler recommended an infusion or tincture of the inner bark for jaundice. In 1810 Benjamin Barton ascribed bitter, astringent, narcotic, and stimulant powers to the bark, especially that of the root, and considered it most useful for inter¬ mittent fevers, worms, dyspepsia, and consumption, but it is often difficult to know whether the bark of P. serotina or P. virgin iana is meant, as they were used interchangeably. In his American Medical Botany , published in Boston l8l7“20. Dr. Jacob Bigelow called the bark of P. virginiana "undoubtedly a useful tonic, [which] appears to possess, in some degree, a narcotic and antispasmodic property." When Captain Meriwether Lewis was ill with abdominal cramps and fever on the upper Missouri, he took a strong tea made from Chokecherry twigs boiled in water and was well the next day. The Pennsylvania Dutch frequently used a tea of the outer bark of the young branches or the inner bark, sometimes combined with the fruit, soaked in whiskey, as a remedy for colds. Southern mountaineers used a tea made from the bark not only for colds but also in the treatment of measles. The dried ground bark has also been smoked as a treatment for headaches and colds and used as a powder to dry up open sores. The fruit was likewise used to make a crude wine used in the treatment of dysentery. Wild cherry bark has been official in the U.S . Pharmacopeia from 1820 to the present time, listed both under P. vir~ giniana and P. serotina . In the 1882 edition the first was the official name, but the drug was defined as the bark of the second species. Roots of the Chokecherry were used with an alum mordant to produce a reddish-purple dye, 2 pounds of the roots being required to dye one pound of wool. The bark, on the other hand, produced a range of colors from yel¬ low through orange and tan. Many species of wild birds and mammals also consume the fruit of this species, making it of considerable value to wildlife during the late summer . The seeds of this species are widely distributed by birds along fences, hedgerows, and the borders of fields, where they soon produce ex¬ tensive thickets that are difficult to eradicate owing to the formation of numerous sucker shoots from the roots. Muenscher (1952) suggests that small bushes can be grubbed out, but large bushes must be pulled out with a team of horses or tractor and chain. More extensive areas should be cut in midsummer and the bushes burned. Pyrus L. Apple, Pear, Chokeberry, Mountain-ash. There are over 130 species of Pyrus , trees and shrubs largely con¬ fined to the north temperate zone. The name of the genus is the ancient Latin name of the Pear. Not only does this genus provide a wide variety of apples and pears, but several species are highly regarded ornamentals. This genus has sometimes been separated into Pyrus (pears), Malus (apples), Aronla (chokeberries ) and Sorb us (mountain-ashes), but, in the words of Fernald (1950), these genera are "less strongly or constantly marked than -109- our very few species would suggest." When one looks at mountain- ashes , for example, it would seem that they are distinct enough from apples and pears to warrant generic status, but Fernald states flatly that "Cytologically there is no justification for separating them as genera and none in the wood- anatomy . " Key to Local Species of Pyrus 1. Leaves odd-pinnate; cymes very compound (styles distinct, fruit berry-like--mountain-ashes) , 2 2. Inner bud scales glabrous or merely ciliate; leaves yellow- green above; leaflets lanceolate to lance-oblong, long- attenuate, the larger ones three and one-half to 5 times as long as broad; flowers 5-6 mm broad; fruits 4-6 mm in diameter, not glaucous . P. americana 2. Inner bud scales villous; leaves blue-green above; leaf¬ lets oblong to oblong-ovate, short- to long- acuminate , the larger ones twice to thrice as long as broad; flowers about 1 cm broad; fruits 8-12 mm long, glaucous . P. decora 1. Leaves simple or merely lobulate; flowers and fruits few in sub- umbellate or racemose inflorescences, or, if paniculate- corymbose , in inflorescences rarely 6 cm broad, 3 3. Trees or coarse shrubs often with spinescent branchlets; leaves not glandular along midrib; cyme simple and umbelliform or simply racemose; petals large (1-2 cm long, 0.8-1. 5 cm broad); fruit 0.8~3 cm or more in diameter, 4 4. Leaves involute in bud and before expanding; petals white; anthers reddish; orifice of concave receptacle partly or nearly closed by disklike cushion; styles free to base; flesh of fruit (in ours) with grit cells (pear) . P. communis 4. Leaves convolute or folded lengthwise in bud and before ex¬ panding; petals roseate to white; anthers yellow; orifice of receptacle open; styles united at very base; fruit in ours subglobose and without grit cells (apple) (lower surface of leaves, petioles, young shoots, and out¬ side of persistent calyx with whitish or gray tomentum) . . P. malus 3. Shrubs with slender ascending to spreading branches; leaves glandular along the midrib on upper side; inflorescence simple to more or less compound; petals mostly less than 1 cm long and 7 mm broad; fruit small and berry- like (choke- berries), 5 5. Lower surfaces of leaves, new shoots, rachis and pedicels glabrous; fruit black . P. melanocarpa >. Lower surfaces of leaves, young shoots, rachis and pedicels soft-pubescent; fruit dark purple or purple-black. . . . F. floribunda In the following discussion it seems advisable to break away from the usual alphabetical arrangement of species so as to present them in more "logical" groups under the headings Apple, Chokeberry, Mountain- ash, and Pear. -110- Apple Apples, originally native to the forests of temperate Europe and Asia, have been cultivated for many millennia. Small carbonized apples much resembling those that still grow wild in the Swiss forests have been found in the ancient lake habitations of Switzerland. Wot only were they cul¬ tivated by the Phoenicians, but they are also mentioned by Theophrastus, Cato, and Pliny. Early cultivated in Great Britain, the apple was brought to Massachusetts from Europe shortly after the landing of the Pilgrims in 1620 and promptly became naturalized as a wild tree, the seeds having been scattered both by mammals and birds. Since commercial apples are highly developed hybrids, they seldom breed true from seed, the wild trees usually reverting to something closer to the original stock. In addition to the introduced fruit, the Wild Crabapple, native to eastern North America, soon became a highly prized ornamental. Pyrus malus L. Apple. Meaning of Species Name . The Greek name of the Apple tree. Other Names. Scarb~tree, Wilding-tree, Crab-tree, Crab-stock. Type of Plant . A small tree. Habitat . Roadsides, borders of woods, clearings, fencerows, and pastures . Range . Well estab in the ne states and adjacent Can and probably elsewhere . Distr in NYS . Frequent or common in many secs of the state. Distr in the Torre ,v Range . A common esc in our area, but, according to Taylor (1915), "hardly persisting." Time of FI. Late Apr- early Jun; May 1-25 at Cornell. Origin . Introd and natzd from Eurasia. Remarks . Wood hard, reddish-brown; wt 50 lb per cu ft. Johnson (1867) remarks that "The Apple is mentioned by the most an¬ cient Greek writers, and in Pliny's time was cultivated in abundance in the villages around Rome ... The practice of grafting ... is [likewise] of very ancient origin . . . , now in universal use as a means of perpetuating the va¬ rieties originally obtained from seed." To the many well-known uses of the fruit of this tree he adds one that time seems to have passed by during the last century: "The pulp of the fruit, boiled, and dried in the oven, and mixed with two-thirds of its weight of flour, is said to form a wholesome bread . " Wild apple trees are found scattered along roadsides and in pastures throughout the Catskills, despised by most as not worth any further atten¬ tion since the fruit is likely to be both hard and sour. Occasionally, how¬ ever, particularly after they have been touched by frost, one comes upon a tree bearing fruit that is quite delicious eaten out of hand. But the very qualities that make wild apples a poor fruit to eat raw make them superior for cooking. Their firmness and wild sour taste, with a hint of bitter, make them far better cooking apples than those available on the market. Even when they are wormy or otherwise damaged by insects, it is possible to cut away the undesirable sections and in a short time accumulate a good supply . -Ill- Pyrus malus--Apple [From Brown (1921), p. 234.] Pared and sliced wild apples can be substituted for cultivated ones in almost any recipe, but they make an apple jelly superior to any that can be bought at the store; the process is simplicity itself. Gather about a peck of wild apples in early fall, making sure to include as many as possible with red skins. Cut them in quarters, including skins and cores except where damaged by insects. Put the apples in a large kettle, barely cover with water, simmer for 20 minutes, let cool, and strain off the juice. This juice is so rich in pectin that it can either be used alone or combined half and half with other flavorful fruit juices. To 4 cups of juice, plain or mixed, add 4 cups of sugar and boil until it approaches the "jelly point." If the juice runs off the spoon like water when poured from it, the jelly is nowhere -112- near ready; if it drips off the spoon in two places, it is approaching the jelly point. When the last two or three large drops run together, sheet off the spoon, and seem to break below the edge when they drop, the jelly is done. Pour the jelly into sterilized half-pint jars and seal with paraf¬ fin. You will marvel at its delightful flavor. Even the remaining cooked apples have plenty of flavor left in them after the juice is extracted. Put them through a food mill or ricer to re¬ move the skins and seeds. From the resulting pulp one can make a flavorful apple butter by adding 6 cups of sugar and 1 teaspoon of pumpkin pie spice to 2 quarts of pulp. Heat this mixture gently until the sugar melts then boil, stirring constantly until it gets thick and starts "plopping." Store in straight- sided jars so it can be unmolded when served. It can then be sliced like cranberry jelly and served in much the same manner. This tangy, spicy product will add zest to any meal. Apple wood is hard, strong, and close-grained, but it is not a tim¬ ber species. It is sometimes used for firewood, however, and occasionally for tool handles. Its chief importance lies in its horticultural value as the stock from which varieties of cultivated apples have been derived and for the ornamental value of its dwarf and double- flowered forms. Dried apples were much used in pioneer days since they could not only be stored until the next season but could also be easily transported long distances. When apples were not considered good enough for other pur¬ poses, they were made into cider either for drinking as such or for conver¬ sion into vinegar. Another type of apple butter was made by boiling apple cider in a large kettle until it was reduced by about one-third its orig¬ inal volume. To this liquid was added (about half by volume) a measure of carefully pared, cored, and sliced apples, sweet ones being preferred. This mixture was brought to a boil, the mass being constantly stirred with a long-handled wooden spoon until it thickened to the "right consistency." Usually no sugar was added but it could be kept all through the year. The inner bark, either fresh or dried, produces a dye of shades vary¬ ing from dull yellow to pure gold or brass, different trees usually produc¬ ing different shades of yellow. For 1 pound of wool, 1 peck of bark was soaked overnight in 2 gallons of soft water. The next morning the mixture was boiled for several hours, water being added from time to time to replace that which evaporated so as to maintain a constant volume. When cooled un¬ til lukewarm, the mixture was strained to remove the pieces of bark and enough soft water was added to make a dye bath of U gallons. The wool was then immersed in the dye bath, slowly brought to a boil, and boiled for half an hour. With an alum mordant the bark makes a yellow-tan color; the leaves alone result in a honey yellow. Cattle , horses , and mules sometimes gain access to orchards after the apples have fallen in autumn and may consume large quantities. Cows partic¬ ularly then stagger around as if they were drunk. Death can result from eating excess quantities of such apples. Poisoning may also result from eating the cyanogenetic foliage. Apple seeds also are cyanogenetic . One man who found apple seeds a delicacy once saved a cupful, which he consumed at one time, resulting in death from cyanide poisoning. -113- Chokeberry There are two species of chokeberries in the Catskills, neither of which can be called common. Although, as a group, the fruits are widely available through much of the winter, Martin et al. (1961) report that they appear to be of minor importance to wildlife. Ruffed grouse, chickadees, meadowlarks, and cedar waxwings sometimes consume the fruits, as do black bears and red foxes. White-tailed deer occasionally browse on twigs and foliage, while rabbits and white-footed mice also sometimes eat both fruit and foliage. \ / Pyrus floribunda Lindl. Purple Chokeberry. Meaning of Species Name. Free- flowering. Synonyms . Aronia prunifolia (Marsh.) Rehd. Other Names . Red Chokeberry. Type of Plant. A shrub 3“ 6 ft high. Habitat. Peats, low thickets, swamps, wet to dry clearings, and the like . Range . Nf and Ont, s to NC, 0, Ill, and Ind. Distr in NYS . Frequent or common throughout most secs of the state except the higher Adirondacks . Distr in the Torre y Range ♦ Throughout the area, more common southw than elsewhere; perhaps wanting in the pine barrens. Time of FI. May- Jun(mid- Jul) , fr Sep-Nov; fl Jun at Cornell. Origin . Native. Pyrus melanocarpa (Michx.) Willd. Black Chokeberry. Meaning of Species Name. Black- fruited. Synonyms . Aronia melanocarpa (Michx.) Ell. Other Names . Chokepear. Type of Plant. A shrub 2-6 ft high. Habitat . In acid soil of low thickets, roadsides, clearings, rocky pastures, and bluffs, often in drier habitats than P. floribunda . Range . Nf to Ont and Minn, s to SC, Ga, and Tenn . Distr in NYS ♦ Common throughout the state. Distr in the Torrey Range . Common throughout the area. Elevation. Grows to 6000 ft in NC. Time of Fl. (Apr )May- Jun (early Jul), fr Aug-Oct; fl May 20- Jun 15 at Cornell. Origin . Native. American Indians are reported to have gathered the fruits of both species, the very puckery quality of which was destroyed by cooking. Fer- nald and Kinsey (1943) state that they "yield a splendid, heavy and sweet jelly, dark-carmine and very solid." They lament the fact that thousands of bushels of this fruit, which contains "so much' juice and such an abund¬ ance of pectin," goes to waste every autumn when it could at least "be used to supply pectin which is often deficient in some fruits." This species is often cultivated as an ornamental shrub for its showy clusters of white flowers . -114- (Lower left) Pyrus floribunda-- Purple Chokeberry [From Britton & Brown (1913)? Hi 291.] (Upper right) Pyrus melanocarpa — Black Chokeberry [From Stone (19^5), Vol. II, p. 711.1 -115- Mountain- ash The handsome foliage and showy flower and fruit clusters have long made the mountain-ashes a favorite group of small trees for ornamental planting as yard trees. The foliage is almost fernlike in its delicacy, its spreading whorls making a most attractive setting for the white flowers in spring and the scarlet clusters of fruit in autumn. In addition, the berries persist far into the winter, not only supplying food for such birds as grosbeaks, cedar waxwings, and ruffed grouse at a time when their need is greatest but brightening dull thickets of bare twigs on dreary days. Ground squirrels likewise consume the fruit and moose browse both foliage and twigs. One mountain-ash of Japan is hardly distinguishable from our western species, and some authorities believe that our two native species are varieties of one circumpolar complex. Pyrus aucuparia/, the European Mountain-ash, is much planted for orna¬ ment in the Catskill pegion. While it is reported as "freely spread from cultivation," the writer has seen no specimens that were not growing in someone's dooryard, nor, except for its occurrence on the Platt list of 1840, are there any records of its growing spontaneously in that region. The name of the species is an old generic name meaning "attractive to birds," derived, according to Johnson (1867), "from the use made of the berries by German fowlers, who bait their nets with them." Both the inner bark and the fruit possess medicinal qualities, once used in the treatment of scurvy and "as a remedy in hemorrhoids and strangury." The fruit has likewise been used in the preparation of a jam, an alcoholic drink, and as a bread-food in times of scarcity. ' In Norway the inner bark has been used as the source of a gray dye. Pyrus americana (Marsh.) DC. American Mountain-ash. Meaning of Species Name . American. Synonyms . Sorbus americana Marsh. Other Names . Roundwood, Dogberry, Missey-moosey , American Rowan- tree, American Service-tree, Witch-wood, Round-tree, Wine-tree, Elder¬ leaved Mountain-ash, Elder- leaved Mountain- sumac, Moose-missy, Indian Mozamize, Life-of-man. Type of Plant. A small tree or coarse shrub 15_20 ft high. Habitat . Low woods and slopes in moist or wet soil. Range . Nf and Que to Man, s to NJ, Pa, Md, upland to NC, Ga, and e Tenn, WVa, Mich, and Ill. Distr in NYS . Common northw across the state and throughout the Adirondack and Catskill mts; less common or local southw to Westchester co, the upper Susquehanna valley, and westw to the upland swamps of Tompkins, Yates, Wyoming, and Erie co. Distr in the Torrey Range . NY: Unknown on LI and SI, rare and local in n Westchester co, thence increasing and becoming common northw. Elevation . 8OO-3365 ft in the Torrey range. Time of FI. Late May- Jun ( Jul) , fr late Aug-Oct; fl Jun at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks . Wood soft, light brown; wt 3^ lb per cu ft. -II6- Pyrus araericana- American Mountain-ash (flowers) [From Sargent (1891-1902), Vol. IV, Plate 171, ff. p. 80 . ] -117- Pyxus americana- “American Mountain-ash (fruit) [From Sargent (1891-1902), Vol. IV, Plate 172, ff. p. 80.] -118- This small tree is distinctly a northern species, attaining its best development north of Lakes Huron and Superior; in our region it prefers the borders of cold swamps and bogs or rocky mountain ridges. This rather uncommon tree of the Catskills is both slow-growing and short-lived and of no commercial value, but it is an attractive ornamental producing large flat- topped clusters of white flowers in May or June followed by brilliant orange-red fruits in fall. These fruits are both very acid and unpleasant in taste, but they seem to be eaten with relish by many species of birds. Harlow (1957) reports that when this species and the European Mountain-ash are grown together, the birds eat the fruit of the native spe¬ cies first. The American Indians are reported to have used bark preparations of this species in the treatment of heart disease. The fruit is rich in vita¬ min C and has been used "fresh and in tea, to treat scurvy." Pioneers also used the bark in a tea for nausea and "to cleanse the blood in spring." In some areas this species is called Peruve, no doubt a reference by analogy to Peruvian bark or quinine, for in early days any bitter and aromatic bark was considered an acceptable substitute for use in treating malaria and other fevers as well as for use as a tonic. The inner bark has also been used as an astringent and antiseptic. Pyrus decora (Sarg.) Hyland. Showy Mountain-ash. Meaning of Species Name. Handsome. Synonyms . Sorbus decora (Sarg.) C. K. Schneider Other N ame s . Roundwood, Dogberry, Northern Mountain-ash. Type of Plant . A small tree or coarse shrub. Habitat. Woods, rocky slopes, fencerows, and shores. Range . S Gl, Lab and Nf to Minn, s to Mass, NY, 0, Ind, la, Wis, and Minn, ascending to subalpine areas. Distr in NYS . Rare on the subalpine mt slopes and summits of n NY. Distr in the Torrey Range . NY: The highest mts in Sullivan and Greene co. Elevation. 1800-4020 ft in the Torrey range . Time of FI. (May)jun( Jul) , fr Sep-Nov; fl May 25“Jun 10 at Cornell. Origin . Native. Fernald and Kinsey (1943) report that the unripe fruit of this spe¬ cies is "very austere and has an unpleasant flavor, but when thoroughly ripe and mellowed by frost it becomes palatable." An infusion of the ber¬ ries has sometimes been used for a drink. Pear The common Pear, a native of Europe and northern Asia, has been in cultivation for millennia, for a small- fruited kind has been found in the debris of the earliest lake villages of Switzerland. It was also culti¬ vated in the gardens of the Phoenicians, but the Romans seem to have been the first to develop some of its numerous horticultural varieties. 119- Pyrus decora- -Showy Mountain-ash [From Brown (1921) P* 296.] * % Pyrus communis L. Pear. Meaning of Species Name . Common. Other Names . Choke Pear. Type of Plant. A small tree. Habitat . Thickets, borders of woods, roadsides, pastures, and clear¬ ings . Range . A not uncommon esc in the ne states and s Can. Distr in NYS . Rare or local as an esc from cult. Distr in the Torrey Range . A rare esc locally est. -120- Pyrus communis--Pear [From Brown (1921), p. 230.] Time of FI. Apr-May; May 1-20 at Cornell. Origin . Introd from Eurasia. Remarks. Long in cult and spread from cult or from rejected cores; Gleason (1952) reports that it rarely esc, but it is locally common in some secs of the Catskills. Wood hard, fine-grained, reddish-brown; wt 51 lb per cu ft. Johnson (1867) was of the opinion (possibly erroneously) that "The Pear was one of the first fruit trees brought under cultivation," stating that "The earliest notice of it extant is probably that of Homer." He like¬ wise remarks that "Pears have been grown in China from time immemorial," -121- and states that many kinds were known to the Romans, who "perhaps intro¬ duced it into this island [Great Britain]," although he thought it "more likely that the monks were its first cultivators here." He states that "it is more durable than the apple . . . and often grows for centuries with¬ out showing symptoms of decay." This species is not a timber tree, but its hard, heavy, strong, close-grained wood has occasionally been used for tool handles, knife handles, wood engraving, and for fuel, but its chief value lies in its numerous horticultural and ornamental varieties. With respect to its use for wood engravings, however, Johnson (l86?) remarks that "it is not even enough in texture to be fit for the finer purposes of the art." Fruit of the wild species is generally not particularly useful in the raw state although one occasionally comes across a tree bearing edible raw fruit. One can make excellent preserves from it, however, and the hard, solid flesh makes it desirable for use as pickled or spiced pears. In addition, the leaves have been used as the source of "a moderately good yellow dye." % Rosa L. Rose. There are more than 100 species of roses (although many times that number have been described). All species are natives of the northern hemi¬ sphere, with Anatolia being considered a major center of rose differentia¬ tion. They are usually prickly shrubs with odd-pinnate leaves often bearing aromatic glands and stipules chiefly adnate to the petiole. The name of the genus is the ancient Latin name of the rose. Most of the roses in cultiva¬ tion are of hybrid origin. Only a few of our native species, notably R. setieera . are commonly cultivated. Man seems to have been associated with roses since prehistoric times. Rose seeds have been found at an early Neolithic site in the Netherlands dating about 5000 years ago, suggesting that humans were then collecting rose fruits for food, along with other fruits and nuts, including Corvlus . Pvrus . Crataegus . and Rub us . Masses of rose seeds have also been found at Swiss lake dwellings, dated about 2500 years ago, and at sites in Britain. But, according to Widrlechner (1981), "The oldest known tangible historic evidence for the existence and possible use of roses comes to us from the Monoan civilization ... in the form of remains of a fresco from the palace at Knossos, Crete," dated some 3700 years ago, which, according to one author' ity, bears a "striking resemblance to the Holy Rose of Abyssinia, Egypt, and Asia Minor." Roses are also pictured in the murals of Pompeii. The rose was commonly mentioned in literary works in the time of Herodotus (around 500 B.C.), but the oldest surviving horticultural literature on roses is that written by Theophrastus about 300 B.C., in which he not only described the different types of roses growing in the eastern Mediterranean but also dis¬ tinguished wild roses from cultivated types. He also stated that "sesame- oil ... receives rose-perfume better than other oils," a practice still em¬ ployed in India today in extracting rose perfume. The Romans continued the literary tradition of the rose established by the Greeks, Pliny giving the most comprehensive description of the roses cultivated during his time (around 50 A.D.). He likewise listed 32 remedies -122- derived from roses and spoke of the astringent and laxative properties of the petals. Widrlechner (1981) states that "in Spain their use for such effects is still common." Pliny also supplied a recipe for making rose wine. Widrl¬ echner observes that "The rose industry was quite advanced in Rome at the time of Pliny; roses decorated houses, and were occasionally strewn through the streets," to say nothing of their use at banquets. The Romans even had a rose festival, presumably annual, "to celebrate and honor the rose." The flowers were used in such quantities that the marketing of roses became a "big business," so much so that they were introduced into Egypt, where they flowered 2 months earlier than in Greece. They were grown in Egypt in in¬ creasing quantities after 300 B.C. to supply the large demands for them in Rome . Rose hips, the fruit of these shrubs, form an important survival food, not only because they are easily recognized and the chances of getting the wrong plant are almost nonexistent, but also because they are usually available almost all year long. American Indians often ate these fruits raw in times of scarcity. In the field an easy way to dry this fruit is to place handfuls of it in a kettle and put it over a slow fire or set it over¬ night on the coals of a campfire . Few people know that roses are highly regarded for their flavor and food value in many parts of the world; they can be made into many delicious and luxurious dishes, including delicate desserts and delicious jams and jellies. To make a delightful uncooked rose petal jam, gather freshly opened roses, then, since the white base of the petal contains a bitter substance, grasp as many petals as you can hold between your finger and thumb, pull them from the rose and snip off the white bases with a pair of shears. Wild roses are best, but any fragrant rose can be used, provided it has not been sprayed with poisonous insecticides. Put 1 cup of rose petals into a blender with 3/4 cup of water and the juice of 1 lemon. Blend until smooth, then gradually add 2 l/2 cups of sugar with the blender still running and blend until all the sugar has dissolved. Stir in 1 package of commercial powdered pectin, such as Sure Jell, into 3/4 cup of water, bring to a boil, and boil hard for 1 minute, stirring constantly. Pour the pectin into the rose- sugar mixture and blend at low speed until the pectin has been thoroughly incorporated with the other ingredients. Pour immediately into small sterilized jars and seal with paraffin. The jam will be nicely jelled in about 6 hours. This jam will keep for a month in the refrigerator; store it in the freezer if you wish to keep it for a longer time. This jam is not only excellent on toast or hot bis¬ cuits, but it can also add a delightful flavor to ordinary muffins flavored with a pinch of mace. When the muffins are nearly done, make a small de¬ pression in the top of each one, fill it with rose jam, and finish baking until the muffins are lightly browned and the jam is glazed. Serve piping hot . To make a rose omelet, break 4 eggs into the blender, add 1/3 cup of rose petals, l/2 teaspoon of celery salt, and a pinch of marjoram. Blend at medium speed until the eggs are fluffy and the petals practically lique¬ fied. Pour this mixture into a greased iron skillet and cook over medium heat until the bottom is lightly browned, then place the pan under the broiler to brown the top. For those who may wish to experiment further with rose petals, Gibbons (1966) gives recipes for candied rose petals, -123- Harem Kisses, and for making rose water and rose syrup, useful flavoring agents . To prepare rose hip jam, gather the largest bright-red hips you can find, cut off both the stem and blossom ends, make a slit down the side, and remove the seeds. Put 1 cup of prepared hips in the blender, add 3/4 cup of water and the juice of 1 lemon and blend until perfectly smooth. Gradually add 3 cups of sugar while the blender is running at slow speed and blend for about 5 minutes or until all the sugar is completely dis¬ solved. Next prepare 1 package of powdered pectin as directed above, pour into the blender, and blend for 1 minute more, then pour the mixture into small sterilized jars and seal with paraffin. If this jam is to be kept for more than a month, store it in the freezer. Gibbons (1966) likewise gives a recipe for making rose hip soup, a fruit soup that can be served either hot or cold as an appetizer at the beginning of a meal or as a des¬ sert at its close. Rose petals can also be used either fresh or dry in the preparation of "a rather tasty tea," a delightful drink when sweetened with a little honey or sugar to help bring out the fragrance. Dark red roses are more flavorful than others; the aroma and taste become more delicate as the colors lighten. Tea can be made from the dried flowers by covering 2 tablespoons of the petals with boiling water and letting them steep for 5 minutes. The petals also make a pleasant nibble and are sometimes candied or prepared as a salad. Rose hips are extremely rich in vitamin C, the juice containing 25 times more than orange juice. They are also richer in calcium, phosphorus, and iron than oranges. During World War II rose hips were an important source of vitamins and minerals in the Scandinavian countries and elsewhere when the German blockade cut off imports of all citrus fruit. Millions of pounds of rose hips were gathered each year and dried for use in soup, hot or cold drinks, and many other ways. Members of the Swedish Air Force were even taught to carry a handful of rose hips in their pockets for use as a stimulant when under heavy physical strain. In England the people were encouraged to gather these fruits from the hedges. They were then pul¬ verized and distributed throughout the country by the Ministry of Health for their important vitamin and mineral content. The seeds, which many people discard, contain an abundant supply of vitamin E. Separate the seeds from the rest of the fruit, grind them up, and boil in a small amount of water. After carefully straining out the "hulls" and the fine hairs through a triple layer of cheesecloth, the resulting liquid can be substituted for most syrups called for in recipes. The Chippewas employed a decoction of the root of Rosa arkansana in the treatment of convulsions. The fresh or dried root was also chewed to make a poultice for hemorrhages from wounds. The root was likewise employed as a tonic and in the treatment of diseases of women. The Apaches boiled wild rosebuds and drank the resulting tea to cure gonorrhea. Rosa gallica , the French Rose, a native of southern Europe, was for¬ merly much cultivated in the United States as an ornamental. The unexpanded petals, both fresh and dried, were used in medicine. The petals were gath¬ ered before the flower opened, separated from their claws, and dried in the sun or by the fire. They are slightly astringent and tonic and were once thought to possess peculiar virtues. During the l800's, however, they were -124- chiefly employed in infusion "as an elegant vehicle for tonic and astringent medicines . " The origin of the Cabbage-rose (R. centifolia) , widely cultivated in gardens all over the world, is not known with certainty. The extremely fra¬ grant petals, collected when the flower was fully expanded but before they began to fall, were once much used in the preparation of medicines. They were often dried, but they could be preserved fresh for a considerable time "by compressing them with alternate layers of common salt in a well-closed vessel, or [by] beating them with twice their weight of that substance." According to the U.S. Dispensatory of 1865, "The petals are slightly laxa¬ tive, and are sometimes administered in the form of syrup combined with cathartic medicines," but they were chiefly used in the preparation of rose water, which, because of its "agreeable odor," was one ingredient of lo¬ tions . The production of rose water, one of the important products of the rose, is, according to Widrlechner (1981), "not recorded in history; the first reference to it is found after its production was already an estab¬ lished industry," when, between 810 and 8l7 A.D., the province of Faristan in Iran was required to give a tribute of 30,000 bottles of rose water an¬ nually to the Caliph of Bagdad. By that time Faristan was not only supply¬ ing the Islamic world with rose water but was also exporting it to China. The Moors probably brought the technology for rose water to Spain during the tenth century A.D. along with their territorial expansion. Widrlechner adds that "The distillation of the attar from rose water came later and probably arose independently in Europe and the Arab world." The cultivation of roses for attar spread both east and west from Persia and by the close of the l600's distilleries in Iran were a major industry. The rose most often grown for attar production was the Damask Rose, R. damascena . or a similar species, the specific name of which refers to Damascus. At the close of the l600’s a Turkish merchant introduced rose culture into what is now Bulgaria and began the largest rose plantations in the world. India, Jericho, and Jerusalem were also important centers of rose culture during the middle ages, at which time "the Islamic world was first enjoying vast quantities of rose water and later small, but increasing, amounts of attar." Rose water "became a favor¬ ite flavoring material for desserts and beverages, which it remains today," as well as in preserves. The attar has been used almost exclusively in the manufacture of expensive perfumes. One kilogram (about 2 pounds) of Bulgar¬ ian attar cost $5,000 in 1980. The Turks started large-scale processing in 1926, but Bulgaria remains a world leader in the production of the attar of the Damask Rose. Rose hips likewise constitute an important source of food for wild¬ life. In addition to the fleshy exterior of the fruits, both birds and mammals eat the numerous bony seeds inside . Since the fruit remains on the shrubs throughout the winter and into the following spring, it is available as food when other sources of nourishment are covered with snow. Although probably not the choicest of food, it is important to upland gamebirds dur¬ ing times of scarcity. Thickets of wild roses are also excellent nesting sites and furnish protective cover for both birds and mammals. The fruits and other parts of the plants are also utilized by mammals, particularly moose and white-tailed deer. Hedges and living fences of R. multiflora make particularly valuable plantings for those who wish to encourage wild¬ life. -125- Key to the Catskill Species of Rosa 1. Styles united into a column, protruding from the orifice of the hypanthium and about half as long as the stamens; plants of vinelike habit; flowers white; inflorescence many- flowered; stipules pectinate . R. multiflora 1. Styles distinct, scarcely exsert or not at all; plants usually erect; flowers usually red or pink; inflorescences fewer- flowered; stipules not pectinate (flowers solitary or corymbose; when solitary, the pedicel bracted near its base), 2 2. Sepals of each flower unlike in size and shape, the outer pinnatifid with several lateral lanceolate segments; ori¬ fice of the hypanthium about 1 mm in diameter, styles short-exsert ; exotic species occasionally escaped, chiefly in the vicinity of civilization, 3 3. Leaves not stipitate glandular beneath except rarely on the veins; wall of the hypanthium conspicuously thickened around the orifice . R. canina 3- Leaves conspicuously stipitate-glandular beneath on both surface and veins; wall of the hypanthium not thickened around the orifice, 4 4. Styles pubescent; leaves all or mostly rounded at base . R. rubiginosa 4. Styles glabrous; leaves mostly narrowed to an acute base . R. micrantha 2. Sepals all entire, or some with 1-4 linear, scarcely foliaceous, appendages rising near the base; orifice of the hypanthium 2-4 mm wide; styles mostly included, the orifice of the hypanthium closed and covered by the head of the stigma; native species, 5 5. Leaves finely toothed, the teeth near the widest part of the leaf 0.3"1.2 mm high (average about 0.5 mm), measured along their distal margins ( infrastipular thorns at base of or just below the stipules present at many nodes, stout, conic, more or less decurved; internodal thorns none or very few) . R. palustris 5. Leaves coarsely toothed, the teeth near the widest part of the leaf 0.6-2 mm high, averaging about 1 mm, 6 6. Infrastipular thorns stout, often decurved, flat¬ tened toward the base; internodal thorns commonly lacking . R. virginiana 6. Infrastipular thorns straight, slender, terete; stems commonly with numerous internodal thorns.. R. Carolina Since Rosa is a rather complex and difficult genus, an alternate key to the Catskill species is provided: 1. Upper and/or lower surface of leaflets bearing small, round, rust- colored glands, 2 2. Both upper and. lower surfaces of leaflets abundantly gland- dotted; leaflets quite fragrant when bruised; styles hairy; calyx lobes persisting and long- lasting until ripening of the fruit . R. rubiginosa -126- 2. Upper surface of leaflets very sparsely glandular or nearly or quite without glands; foliage slightly or scarcely fra¬ grant when bruised; styles glabrous or nearly so; calyx lobes promptly falling after flowering, not long- lasting . R. micrantha 1. Neither surface of leaflets with resinous glands, but with or without hairs, 3 3. Stipules at base of petioles deeply dissected, fringed and comblike; flowers white, small, 1.5~2.8 cm across . R. multi flora 3- Stipules not as above; flowers pink or red, medium to large, 2-8 cm across, 4 4. Outer calyx lobes or some of them pinnately cut into sev¬ eral narrow segments; mouth of receptacle (through which the styles protrude) about 1 mm in diameter; styles shortly or long-protruding from mouth of hypanthium; chiefly introduced cultivated shrubs (receptacle smooth; petioles usually glabrous) . R. canina 4. All calyx lobes entire or with simple shallow teeth, or some of them with 1-4 narrow, elongated lobes arising from the upper or lower half; mouth of receptacle 2-4 mm in diameter; styles not protruding, forming a dense brush or disk in the mouth of the receptacle and closing it; native species, 5 5. Large shrubs of swamps or wet ground, mostly 5'8 1/2 ft tall; leaves finely toothed, 12-25 teeth above the middle of each margin, the teeth near the widest part of the leaf 0.3_1.2 mm high; stipules more or less con¬ volute, at least on the shoots . R. palustris 5. Plants mainly of dry or rocky ground, usually less than 3 ft tall in R. Carolina but up to 6 l/2 ft tall in R. virginiana ; leaves coarsely toothed, usually 5“ 15 teeth above the middle of each margin, the teeth near the wid¬ est part of the leaf 0.6-2 mm high; stipules flat, 6 6. Infrastipular prickles (those at base of or just be¬ low the stipules) slenderly needle-like and straight, terete; dilated portion of base of larger thorns usu¬ ally less than half the length of the thorn; prickles usually numerous between nodes of the stem; flowers arising from the new growth of the season . R. Carolina 6. Infrastipular prickles stout, flattened and broad¬ ened near the base, often curved or hooked but some¬ times straight; dilated portion of base of larger thorns usually longer than half the length of the thorn; prickles usually absent between nodes of the stem; flowers usually arising from the branches of wood of the previous season . R. virginiana Rosa Carolina L. Low Pasture Rose. Meaning of Species Name. Of Carolina. Other Names . Wild Rose* Hip-tree, Low Rose, Carolina Rose, Pasture Rose . Type of Plant. An erect shrub 1 to 3 ft high. Habitat . Dry open woods, thickets, pastures, and dry sandy, rocky, or open habitats. Range . NS to Minn and Neb, s to Fla and Tex. Distr in NYS. Frequent or common across the state outside the higher Adirondacks. Distr in the Torrey Range . Throughout the range except in the pine barrens, there rare or wanting. Time of FI. (Mid-May) Jun (early Jul); Jun 20-Jul at Cornell. Origin . Native. This species is easily confused with R. virginiana ; it is best dis¬ tinguished by the shape of its thorns and by its habit of blooming on one- year stems, while R. virginiana rarely blooms except on branches from old wood. The aerial stems arise from long underground stems and often die back from year to year. Rosa canina L. Dog Rose. Meaning of Species Name . Of a dog; i.e., mean, from the abundant prickles . Other Names . Canker Rose, Wild Brier, Hip-rose, Hip-tree, Cat-whin, Canke r- blooms , Bramble-brier, Brere~rose, Lawyers (i.e., an old thorny stem), Soldiers, Hedge-peak, Dog-thorn, Horse-bramble, Bird-brier, Bede- guar . Type of Plant. A tall shrub. Habitat . Dry banks, thickets, waste places, roadsides, old fields, and neglected grounds. Range . NS to w NY, s to Va and Tenn. Distr in NYS . No distr given in House (1924). Distr in the Torrey Range . Rare as an occasional esc from gardens; natzd in the valley of the upper Delaware r. Time of FI. Mid-May- Jul. Origin . Introd and natzd from Eu. Remarks . Occasionally planted for ornament and locally esc from cult . The fruit of this species, a native of Europe and temperate Asia, is fleshy, smooth, oval, red, and of a pleasant, sweet, acidulous taste. In addition to sugar, it contains vitamins and uncombined citric and malic acids. In Europe it has been collected since ancient times for use as food when garden fruits were few and scarce. Galen remarked that they were gathered by country people in his day, as they still are in Europe. Gerard stated that "the fruit when it is ripe makes most pleasant meats and ban¬ queting dishes, as tarts and such like." J. Lightfoot, writing in 1789, observed that the pulp of the fruit, separated from the seeds and mixed with wine and sugar, "makes a jelly much esteemed in some countries." John¬ son (1867) gives more details concerning the uses of this species in -128- Dog Rose [From Britton & Brown (1913), Rosa virginiana Tall Pasture Rose II: 284, 285.] Rosa Carolina ““Low Pasture Rose [From Billington (1949), Fig. 95, p. 178.] -129- Europe: "The fruit of the Dog Rose ... has long been used to form a con¬ serve with sugar, much employed in pharmacy. It ... acts as a refrigerant and very slight aperient; but is chiefly applied as a vehicle for other medicines, especially for children, though sometimes given in pectoral dis¬ orders. An infusion of the crushed fruit in hot water forms an agreeable cooling drink. In some parts of Europe the 'Hips' are collected, and sold in the markets for the purpose of mixing with wine. They are often eaten raw by children, and are not unwholesome, but care should be taken to re¬ move all the bristle-like hairs that surround the seeds ... In former times, when garden fruits were scarce, they were much esteemed for dessert. . . . Their taste when cooked is not particularly pleasant to modern pal¬ ates, but in Germany a preserve like our conserve of hips is often made of them. Gerarde recommends the flower of the garden Rose as a culinary vege¬ table, and Roses are largely eaten in that manner in China." He adds that "The leaves have been used as a substitute for tea." This species has like¬ wise often been used as stock for grafting purposes. The U.S . Dispensatory of 1865 notes that the pulp of the ripe fruit has also been used in this country chiefly as "an agreeable vehicle for other medicines." * * Rosa micrantha Sm. Small-flowered Sweetbrier. Meaning of Species Name . Small- flowered. Other Names . Small- flowered Eglantine. Type of Plant . An erect shrub. Habitat. Thickets, clearings, roadsides, pastures, etc. Range . Anticosti I to s Ont and Wis, s to NY, NC, Ky, and Tex. Distr in NYS . Rarely esc from cult in this state. Distr in the Torre y Range . Very rare as an occasional esc from gardens . Time of FI. Jun. Origin . Introd and natzd from Eu. Remarks. Often cult and frequently esc; similar to R. rubiginosa . with which it is sometimes confused. l « Rosa multiflora Thunb. Multiflora Rose. Meaning of Species Name. Many- flowered. Other Names. Japanese Rose. Type of Plant. A sprawling shrub. Habitat. Clearings, roadsides, borders of woods, wasteland, and thickets along rivers. Range . S NE, southw and westw. Distr in NYS. Not listed in House (1924). Distr in the Torrey Range. Not listed in Taylor (1915)- Time of FI. May-Jun. Origin . Introd and natzd from e Asia. The Multiflora Rose is frequently planted as a "living fence" to keep out trespassers and livestock as well as to provide shelter and cover for birds and other wildlife. This recent introduction is spreading rapidly in the Catskill region and promises to become quite pestiferous; animals spread the seeds and it becomes an aggressive weed, invading natural habitats and replacing native species. -130- Rosa multiflora- -Multiflora Rose [From USDA Agr. Research Sv. (1971), Fig. 109, P- 223-] -131- Rosa palustris Marsh. Swamp Rose. Meaning of Species Name. Of marshes. Other Names . Wild Rose, Hip- tree. Type of Plant. A much-branched shrub. Habitat. Wet thickets, swamps, marshes, streambanks, and shores. Range . NS to Mich, Wis, and Minn, s to Fla and Ark. Distr in NYS . Frequent or common across the state. Distr in the Torrey Range . Common throughout the range except in the pine barrens, there wanting. Time of FI. (Jun)Jul(late Aug); Jul 10-Aug 15 at Cornell. Origin. Native. Rosa rubiginosa L. Sweetbrier. Meaning of Species Name . Rusty. Synonyms . R. eglanteria L. Other Names . The Eglantine of Chaucer, Spenser, and Shakespeare; Hip-rose, Hip-brier, Bedeguar, Primrose, Kitchen Rose. Type of Plant . A coarse shrub (sometimes treelike). Habitat . Thickets, clearings, roadsides, etc. Range . Throughout the ne states, adjacent Can, and beyond. Distr in NYS . Common in cult and frequently esc to roadsides, etc Distr in the Torrev Range . Common as an esc from cult in our area Time of FI. (Mid-May )Jun- Jul; Jul at Cornell. Origin . Introd and natzd from Eu. Rosa virginiana Mill. Tall Pasture Rose. Meaning of Species Name . Virginian. Other Names . Pasture Rose. Type of Plant. An erect shrub. Habitat. Damp to dry thickets, clearings, swamps, and shores. Range . Nf to Ont, s to NE, Va, upland NC to Ala, Tenn, and Mo. Distr in NYS . Frequent or common across the state outside the higher Adirondacks. Distr in the Torrey Range . Common throughout the range except in the pine barrens, there only sparingly introd; more common northw than elsewhere . Time of FI. ( Jun) Jul(Aug) . Origin. Native. Remarks . Easily confused with R. Carolina . -132- UJ-t- (Top) Rosa rubiginosa-'S-weetbrier (Bottom) Rosa palustris--S-wamp Rose [From Emerson (1878), Vol. II, plate ff. p. 488.] -133- Rubus L. Bramble. This is a large genus of usually shrubby, often prickly, perennial herbs, usually bearing edible fruit, now almost cosmopolitan in distribu¬ tion but best represented in the north temperate zone and the mountains of South America. The number of species in this complex genus is difficult to estimate owing to differences of opinion among students of the genus, but Fernald (1950) lists 205 species for the northeastern states and adjacent Canada, only 9 of which grow in the Catskills (plus two hybrids). Several species or hybrids are commonly cultivated, including the Youngberry, Lo¬ ganberry, Boysenberry, and Himalaya-berry . The name of the genus is the Roman name, derived from the Latin ruber, red, probably referring to the fruit of the Raspberry. As with practically all edible native fruits, the American Indians made much use of blackberries and raspberries, both fresh and dried in the sun. The dried berries were sometimes pounded and mixed with pulverized meat and other ingredients to which boiled animal fat was added, the dried mass forming their famous pemmican, an important Indian survival food that could easily be carried on long journeys. This type of food was adopted by the early settlers and soon formed an important part of their wilderness food supply. The dried berries were also soaked in water and slowly heated with maple sugar, eaten either as a sauce or mixed with ground corn. The high vitamin C content makes these berries an excellent survival food, par¬ ticularly since they are easily recognized by everyone. In the field the tender young peeled shoots are also edible and make a pleasant nibble. In Scotland an orange dye has been obtained from the roots of native species of Rubus, while in other areas the young shoots of blackberries with an alum mordant were used as the source of a light gray dye. To dye 1 pound of wool, 1 pound of young blackberry shoots was boiled for 45 min¬ utes, after which the liquid was strained and enough water added to make 4 gallons. When the dye bath was lukewarm, the mordanted wool was immersed, brought to a boil, and simmered for 1 hour. If a darker gray was desired, the wool was taken out and 1/2 ounce of ferrous sulfate was added to the dye bath and mixed well. The wool was then returned to the dye bath and simmered until the desired shade was obtained, after which the wool was rinsed and dried. The genus Rubus furnishes many familiar wild berries, all of them with pulpy fruits consisting of many small, mostly juicy drupelets, each containing a hard seed. Both blackberries and raspberries are so familiar to everyone that they require little discussion. Both kinds of fruit have always been picked by those fortunate enough to be near where they grow, not only to use fresh but also to preserve in quantity for winter use. The dewberries or trailing blackberries, which grow close to the ground, how¬ ever, are often overlooked, but many of them often have superior fruit. The leaves of both blackberries and raspberries are sometimes used, both fresh and dried, as a substitute for tea. Those of the Black Raspberry, R. occidentalis are best avoided, however, as they may be harmful. The Chippewas ate blackberries raw as well as dried and stored for winter use. Densmore (1928) observes that when preparing them for winter use, they cooked the berries without sugar, spread them on birch bark in -134- little cakes to dry in the sun, and stored them in birch-bark containers for winter use. The leaves of R. frondosus were combined with other in¬ gredients to make a decoction taken internally in the treatment of lung troubles. A decoction of the root alone was taken internally for stoppage of menstrual periods. Blackberries have long been used in medicine. As early as 1737 John Brickell found blackberry fruit cooling and astringent; the juice, mixed with honey, alum, and red wine, he reported, "fastens loose Teeth." The root bark of both the high and low blackberries was quite generally praised by 19th century physicians for its astringent properties and it was recom¬ mended for the treatment of diarrhea and chronic dysentery. (in the Cats¬ kills the low, trailing blackberries are represented by R. flagellaris and R. his nidus , while R. allegheniensis , R. canadensis . and R. laciniatus are ^high-bush" blackberries.) The American Indians were also well aware of the astringent properties of blackberry root, for Wooster Beach reported in 1857 that when members of the Oneida tribe were attacked by dysentery in one season, all recovered following treatment with blackberry root while their white neighbors "fell before the disease." Other tribes also boiled blackberry roots for use in the treatment of flux and diarrhea, but in some areas blackberries were used for other purposes as well. Vogel (1970) observes that the Alabamas used blackberries as a toothache remedy and as a poultice against pneumonia, although the part used was not specified. Other tribes boiled both canes and roots for a drink used to treat vomiting and spitting of blood, as an eye wash to cure sore eyes, as a diuretic, to treat stomach troubles, and as a poison antidote. Krochmal and Krochmal (1973) report that in Appalachia a tea made from blackberry roots is used to dry up runny noses and to stop dysentery, while the juice of the fruit is used to control dysentery in children. The dried root bark of the genus Rubus was official in the U.S . Pharmacopeia , 1820-1916, and in the national Formulary, 1916-36, for use as an astringent and tonic; the berries were of¬ ficial in the National Formulary, 1916-26, for use in syrup as a flavoring agent. Vogel (1970) reports that a proprietary "blackberry balsam" is cur¬ rently advertised as a remedy for diarrhea "since 1846." Martin et. al. (1961) remark that as a group blackberries rank at the very top of summer foods for wildlife, in part because of their widespread availability in most parts of the country. While their principal use is while the fruit is juicy, even the dried or drying berries are eaten to some extent in late fall or winter. Birds are particularly prominent among the long list of wildlife users, some 97 species making quite extensive use of their fruit. Blackberry fruits are also popular with raccoons, chipmunks, and squirrels as well as with some other rodents, and the leaves and stems are extensively browsed by deer and rabbits. In addition to their value as a source of food, the thorny brambles often make impenetrable thickets where birds, rabbits, and other animals find comparative safety. Blackberry patches also commonly provide nesting sites for small birds. Key to the Catskill Species of Rubus 1. Principal foliage leaves simple and lobed (leaf lobes broadly triangular, acute); flowers rose-purple . R. odoratus 1. Principal foliage leaves compound; flowers white, 2 -135- 2. Stems herbaceous or nearly so, not well differentiated into primocanes and floricanes, spineless, occasionally with very weak bristles; stipules oblanceolate to ovate, blunt or rounded to subacute . R. pubescens 2. Stems woody, biennial, persisting through the winter and bear¬ ing flowers the second year, usually more or less spiny or bristly; stipules linear or setaceous, 3 3. Fruit separating from the receptacle, which is persistent on on the pedicel (raspberries), 4 4. Pedicels beset with stout, curved, or hooked spines, not glandular; fruit commonly black . R. occidentalis 4. Pedicels more or less beset with straight and rather weak bristles, also copiously but minutely glandular; fruit commonly red . Rubus idaeus ssp. melanolasius 3. Fruit separating from the stem with the central receptacle included (blackberries and dewberries), 5 5. Primocanes prostrate or low-arching, rooting at the tip, 6 6. Armature largely or wholly of slender small-based bristles . R. hispidus 6. Armature of stout, stiff, often hooked spines with expanded bases; bristles none, 7 7. Leaves (when fresh) with strongly plicate leaflets puckered at the edge, the main veins forming fur¬ rows above and very prominent beneath . R. plicatifolius 7. Leaves not as above (leaves 3" foliate, the terminal one often coarsely or doubly serrate, commonly sharply acute to long- acuminate ) . R. flagellaris 5. Stems tall, normally erect or ascending; thorns of the primocanes straight or barely reflexed, 8 8. Leaves deeply cut or laciniate, often dissected nearly or quite to the midrib . R. laciniatus 8. Leaves serrate-dentate, but not deeply dissected, 9 9. Corymbs leafy- bracted to or above the middle, the bracts overtopping the flowers . R. frondosus 9. Corymbs not leafy- bracted, 10 10. Glandular hairs abundantly present on the pedicels, commonly also on the, stipular bracts and petioles, often on the sepals . R. alleeheniensis 10. Glandular hairs essentially lacking (leaves softly pubescent to the touch beneath) . R. canadensis Rubus allegheniensis Porter. Mountain Blackberry. Meaning of Species Name. Of the Alleghenies. Other Names . Sow-teat Blackberry, Common Blackberry, High-bush Blackberry Type of Plant. A shrub with erect or arching, often stout, angled, purplish-red canes 3“6 ft high armed with stout, straight, broad- based prickles. Habitat . Clearings, wayside thickets, and open woods. Range . NB and s Que to Minn, s to Md, in the mts to Ga, Tenn, and Mo. -136- . . . 1 1 1 1 1 III 1 1 1 1*1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Rubus allegheniensis--Mountain Blackberry [From USDA Agr. Research Sv. (l97l)j Fig. 110, p. 225.] -137- Distr in NYS . Locally abundant from L Champlain and L George westw and southw across the state outside the higher Adirondack^; apparently rare or absent on much of the sandy coastal plain reg. Distr in the Tor rev Range. Under R. nigrobaccus B*ailey: Common everywhere except the coastal plain of NJ. Time of FI. May-Jul, fr Aug-Sep; fl Jun at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks . Usually abundant; our commonest tall blackberry. This species, the most abundant blackberry in the Catskills, is probably our most valuable wild fruit. It grows over almost the entire eastern United States and southern Canada and the annual crop is probably worth millions. Several cultivated forms have been derived from this wild species . Throughout the northeastern states country people make such exten¬ sive use of wild blackberries for pies, jellies, jams, and puddings, to say nothing of eating them fresh, that giving recipes here would be like carrying coals to Newcastle. Most people, however, are not generally aware that in early spring the young sprouts of the primocanes, gathered before the prickles harden, can be peeled and sliced as an ingredient in tossed salads. Expressed juice from the ripe berries can also be mixed half and half with lemonade to make a refreshing summer drink. Used as a medicine, blackberry juice was once a favorite remedy for diarrhea or "summer complaint." The juice can likewise be used to make blackberry liqueur and wine. To make blackberry wine add 6 cups of water to 6 quarts of berries and boil gently for 15 minutes, then press out the juice. To each quart of juice add 2 cups of sugar, pour into a large crock, spread 1 cake of yeast on a slice of toasted rye bread, and float it on top of the juice. Cover the crock and let stand for 1 week, then carefully pour off the wine into gallon jugs and stop loosely with wads of cotton. Keep in a cool place until the wine clears and shows no further sign of fermentation, then carefully decanter into sterilized bottles and cap tightly. Let it age at least until cold weather. Some people prefer to serve this wine as a mulled drink, prepared by pouring 1 bottle of blackberry wine into a glass or enameled saucepan, adding 6 sticks of cinnamon and sugar to taste, then heating the wine to a temperature as hot as one can drink it, taking care not to let it boil. The entire plant contains an active principle which is one of the best known cures for diarrhea, a fact long known to both Indians and whites. The roots (and the leaves as well) of this species were dug, dried, and stored until needed. One teaspoon of the crushed root (or leaves) was steeped in a cup of boiling water. When cool, one or 2 cups were taken a day until the condition was remedied. Eating a large quan¬ tity of the fresh fruit would have about the same result. Rubus canadensis L. Smooth Blackberry. Meaning; of Species Name. Canadian. Other Names . Millspaugh’s Mountain Blackberry, Thornless Blackberry. Type of Plant. A stout shrub 3” 6 ft high similar to R. allegheniensis but armed with only occasional weak prickles. -138- Rubus canadensis- -Smooth Blackberry [From Billington (19^9) j Fig. 83, p. 162.] Habitat . Woods, thickets, and clearings. Range . Nf and Ont to Minn, s to Pa and upland to n Ga and Tenn. Distr in NYS . Frequent or common northw across the state, appar¬ ently outside the higher Adirondacks, southw to LI and SI, and west™ to L Erie; rare or absent on the coastal plain. Distr in the Torrev Range . Confined so far as now known to the mts of Ulster, Greene, Columbia, Sullivan, and Delaware co, NY, and Monroe and Luzerne co in Pa; locally very common. Time of FI. Jun-Jul, fr Aug-early Sep; fl Jun at Cornell. Origin . Native. The berries of this species, as well as those of R. allegheniensis . have long been much used for the making of pies, jellies, jams, and pud¬ dings. The roots of this and R. villosus were also used as a remedy for dysentery. The roots only were official. As suggested by the U.S . Dispen¬ satory of 1865, "The smaller roots should be selected for use; or, if the thicker pieces are employed, the cortical part should be separated, and the wood rejected. Their virtues are extracted by boiling water, and by di¬ luted alcohol, and depend chiefly, if not exclusively, upon tannin, which is an abundant constituent. These roots are tonic and strongly astringent. They have long been a favorite domestic remedy in bowel affections, and from popular favor have passed into regular medical use. Given in decoction, they are usually acceptable to the stomach, without being offensive to the taste; and may be employed with great advantage in cases of diarrhea from relaxation of the bowels, either in children or adults." The decoction was prepared by boiling 1 ounce of the roots in 1 l/2 pints of water until it was reduced to 1 pint, of which 1 to 2 fluid ounces were administered to an adult 3 or 4 times during a period of 24 hours. -139- % V Rubus flagellaris Willd. Northern Dewberry. Meaning of Species Name . Like a whip- lash. Other Names . Running Blackberry, Low Running Blackberry, Dewberry, Trailing Bramble. Type of Plant. A deciduous shrub with long trailing stems armed with scattered, broadbased, often slightly curved prickles, reproducing by seeds and runners. Habitat. Dry fields, open woods, meadows, pastures, borders of thickets, and rocky places. Range . Me and Que to Ont and Minn, s to Md, n Ga, Mo, and Ark. Distr in NYS . Common across the state southw and locally northw to Albany co, c NY, and doubtless elsewhere. Distr in the Torrey Range . Under R. procumbens Muhl. : Common everywhere . Time of FI. May-Jun, fr J un-Aug; fl Jun at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks . A highly variable species chiefly northern in distrib. In areas where this species has become a troublesome weed, Muenscher (1952) suggests that it can be brought under control in meadows by plowing in autumn, disking several times, and planting a smother crop the following spring. Follow with a cultivated crop before reseeding. Scattered clumps can be grubbed out, but more extensive areas should be mowed and burned. -140- Rubus frondosus-- Leafy- flowered Blackberry [From Britton & Brown (1913), II: 279*] Rubus frondosus Bigel. Leafy- flowered Blackberry. Meaning of Species Name. Leafy. Type of Plant. A perennial shrubby plant growing 2 l/2 to 4 ft high. Habitat . Thickets, hillside pastures, and borders of rocky woods, mostly in dry or stony soil. Range . Mass to Ind, s to Va. Distr in NTS. Frequent in the se part of the state and on LI; less frequent northw to Saratoga co and across the state westw. Distr in the Torrey Range . Throughout the range except in the pine barrens, there wanting; very rare in the reg surrounding the pine bar¬ rens . Time of FI. May-Jun, fr late Jun-Sep; fl Jun at Cornell. Origin. Native. -l4l- Rubus hispidus- -Bristly Dewberry [From Billington (1949), Fig. 60, p. 118.] Rubus hispidus L. Bristly Dewberry. Meaning of Species Name. Bristly. Other Names . Hispid Blackberry, Running Swamp Blackberry, Swamp Dewberry . Type of Plant . A semi-evergreen perennial shrub with long trailing stems usually copiously armed with stiff bristles. Habitat ♦ Moist open soil of ditches, swales, open woods, and low grounds, rarely in drier soil. Range . NS to Wis, s to Md, NC, Ga, WVa, and Mo. Distr in NYS . Common or frequent across the state except in some portions of the Adirondack reg, particularly at high elevations. Distr in the Torrev Range . Common throughout the range. Time of FI. Jun-early Sep, fr mid-Aug-Oct; fl Jun 25"Jul 25 at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks . Abundant throughout the northeastern states and adjacent Can. Although American Indians used blackberries primarily as a remedy for diarrhea, the Mohegans drank an infusion of the berries of this species as a remedy for worms. Rubus idaeus L. ssp. melanolasius Focke. Wild Red Raspberry. Meaning of Species Name . Of Mt Ida; ssp. name, beset with dark hairs . Svnonvms . strigosus Michx.; R. idaeus L. var. strigosus (Michx.) Maxim. Other Names . Red Raspberry. -142- Typp nf Plant. A biennial shrub with round, arching canes 2-6 ft high, often whitened when young and usually bristly but with few or no prickles; while the canes are biennial, the plant is long-lived. Habitat . Dry or moist thickets, fields, rocky slopes^ clearings, and roadsides. Range . Lab and Nf to Ak and BC, s to NC, Ga , Ind, la, Wis, Minn, Neb, Wyo, Col, and Ariz. Distr in NYS. Common northw across the state; less frequent southw and apparently not native s of the Hudson highlands. Distr in the Torre v Range . NY: From the highlands of the Hudson, northw . Elevation. Grows to 5500 ft in NC. Time of FI. May-Jul; Jun at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks . The original of the Cuthbery and Hansall Raspberries. A hybrid between this subspecies and R. allegheniensis has been collected in the Town of Kortright. Our Red Raspberry is a subspecies of the Eurasian circumpolar R. idaeus complex, long used for food in that area, for its fruit has been found in the debris of the ancient lake villages of Switzerland. Rubus idaeus furnished European varieties of the cultivated raspberry as well as those cultivated in American gardens prior to 1865. Early settlers also made use of the native raspberry and by 1887 had developed at least six varieties for cultivation. The fruits of ssp. melanolasius were likewise much relished by the American Indians wherever they were to be found, not only as food but also for medicinal purposes. Several tribes used the ripe fruit simply as a flavoring agent for bad-tasting medicines, but at least one tribe used a decoction of the root bark in the treatment of sore eyes. The Omaha Indians scraped and boiled raspberry and blackberry roots, combined, to make a tea used to treat children afflicted with bowel trouble . The wild Red Raspberry is so well known in the Catskill region that it seems unnecessary to dwell at length on its uses for jam, jelly, and pie, or as a fresh fruit served with cream and sugar. This fruit lacks pectin, however, so that ingredient must be added when making jam or jelly. The juice can either be mixed half and half with apple juice (see the ac¬ count of Pyrus malus ) or commercial pectin can be added; good recipes for both raspberry jam and raspberry jelly are found on the packages or bottles of commercial pectin. Many people are not aware, however, that the dried leaves of the Red Raspberry have long been used as a substitute for tea. The leaves are gathered when the plants are in flower and thoroughly dried indoors out of the sun at room temperature. They .can be spread out on the floor on newspapers or tied in bundles and hung from the rafters in the attic. These leaves should be thoroughly dried before using them for tea, as the wilted leaves have been known to poison cattle. This poison is driven off or altered in composition as the leaves get thoroughly dry and cause no ill effects either in well- cured hay or when used for making tea. The dried leaves can be crumbled, the coarser stems removed, and the resi¬ due packed in glass jars with tight lids to store for winter use. To make raspberry tea, pour boiling water into a teapot and let it stand for 10 minutes. Discard the water, add the equivalent of five or six dried and crumbled raspberry leaves, pour boiling water over them, let steep for 5 minutes, and serve with milk or cream and sugar. This tea contains tannin, as does oriental tea, and has a pleasant aroma that makes an acceptable -143- substitute for tea. A similar tea can also be made from blackberry leaves, but it has a somewhat different flavor. A raspberry-ade can be made by packing a jar with ripe berries, filling in the spaces with white vinegar, capping the jar, and letting it stand for a month. Then strain off the juices through a fine sieve lined with a double layer of cheesecloth and store in sterilized jars or bottles until wanted. To serve, sweeten to taste with sugar and dilute with ice water. The leaves, roots, and fruits of our wild raspberry were also used by the early settlers as medicine. The leaves and roots particularly are astringent and were therefore considered by the laity as specifics in the treatment of dysentery, while the fruits were used for their refrigerant and laxative properties. In "official medicine," however, only the berries were used and then only as a flavoring agent. The fruit and/or the juice has been official since 1882 only for the preparation of raspberry syrup to serve "as a pleasant disguising agent in pharmaceutical mixtures, espec¬ ially those of an adiculous nature . " Rubus laciniatus Willd. Cut- leaved Blackberry. Meaning of Species Name. Slashed, from the leaf shape. Type of Plant. A biennial shrub. Habitat. Esc from cult to roadsides, borders of woods, and waste places . Range . Mass to Mich and southw. Distr in NYS. Occasional in cult and esc or estab in se NYS. Distr in the Torrev Range . A rare, hardly persisting esc in our range . Time of FI. Jun-Aug, fr Jul-Sep; fl Jul at Cornell. Origin. An old world species, probably introd from Eu. -144- Rubus laciniatus--Cut-leaved Blackberry [From Billington (1949), Fig. 84, p. 162.] Billington (1949) describes the pedicels of Rubus x neglectus as be¬ ing "erect or ascending, closely covered with slender prickles and stiff glandular hairs," while the calyx is "hispid and glandular." The pedicels of Rubus idaeus ssp. melanolasius . which, to the writer, this hybrid much resembles, on the other hand, are "pubescent and more or less bristly"; no mention is made of glandular hairs. The calyx of ssp. melanolasius likewise is "bristly hispid," but not glandular. -145- i / Rubus x neglectus Peck. Purple Raspberry. (R. idaeus ssp. melanolasius x R. occidentalis ) This taxon, intermediate between R. idaeus ssp. melanolasius and R. occidentalis . is probably a self-perpetuating hybrid. The berries have a fine flavor, although they are a little more tart than those of its par¬ ents. This hybrid is the parent of several cultivated varieties. % % Rubus occidentalis L. Black Raspberry. Meaning of Species Name. Western; i.e., of the western hemisphere. Other Names . Blackcap, Thimbleberry , Scotch-cap, Purple Raspberry, Blackberry. Type of Plant . A biennial shrub with long arching, usually glaucous, canes often rooting at the tip and armed with scattered hooked prickles. Habitat . Dry or moist open woods, fields, roadsides, thickets, and recent clearings. Range . Que to Minn, ND, and e Col, s to Ga and Ark. Distr in NYS . Common in most secs of the state except the pine barrens of LI, and infrequent or rare above 1600 ft in the Adirondacks. Distr in the Torrey Range . Throughout the range except in the pine barrens . Elevation . Grows to 3000 ft in Va. Time of FI. May- Jun(jul) , fr Jun-Aug; fl Jun at Cornell Origin . Native. Remarks. Often cult in many horticultural varieties; the original of the Gregg, Hilborn, and other raspberries. There is no question but that for many people the Black Raspberry, a native of eastern North America, is one of the finest of our wild fruits, for few surpass its distinctive flavor. Not only was it valuable to the early settlers, in part because it could easily be dried or preserved, but it is much sought after today for use either fresh as a dessert served with sugar and cream or for making pies, jellies, and jams, to say nothing of its popularity as a flavoring agent in ice cream and soft drinks, giving them a flavor quite unlike anything else. Although its fruits are full of seeds, "they offer a high reward for the palate." While Emerson (l875) felt that in the wild state it was "an inferior fruit," not everyone agrees; in the wild it practically always produces fruit of good quality, by many considered superior to the cultivated varieties, although A. J. Downing, writing in 1857? reported that when cultivated "its fruit is much larger and finer than in the uncultivated state, and its rich, acid flavor renders it, perhaps, the finest sort for kitchen use." While the fruit can be used in many ways, either fresh or cooked, the leaves should not be used for making tea, as some have suggested; there is a strong suspicion that they may be unwholesome. For the same reason one should avoid chewing on the tender young shoots of the plants. The American Indians also made much use of this species, both as food and as an ingredient in medicine. Vogel (1970) states that the Ojib- was prepared a decoction of the dried roots of this species for use in treating pains in the stomach* while the Menominees combined the roots of Black Raspberry with St. John's-wort (Hypericum ascyron) for treating the -146- Rubus occidentalis--Black Raspberry [From Billington (1949), Fig. 76, p. 154.] early stages of consumption, as tuberculosis was then called. The Chip- pewas used a decoction of the root of this species in combination with other plants for use in the treatment of pains in the back and for female weak¬ ness. The Omahas scraped and boiled the roots of both the Red and Black Raspberry, combined, to make a tea for children afflicted with bowel trouble, and the Pawnee, Omaha, and Dakota tribes made a decoction of the root bark of this species for use in the treatment of dysentery. While the laity also sometimes used the root bark of the Black Raspberry for similar purposes, it has never been listed as an official medicine in the United States. % % Rubus odoratus L. Flowering Raspberry. Meaning of Species Name. Fragrant. Other Names . Purple-flowering Raspberry, Thimbleberry , Scotch- caps, Mulberry, Rose-flowering Raspberry, Canadian Raspberry, Virginia Raspberry . Type of Plant. A straggling, unarmed shrub 2- 5 ft high. Habitat . Moist shady ravines, rocky woods, borders, and fencerows. Range . NS and Me to Ont and Mich, s to NC, Ga, and Tenn. Distr in NYS . Common throughout most secs of the state except on LI, where rare or local. Distr in the Torrey Range . NY: Roslyn, LI; unknown on SI, rare and local in Bronx and Westchester co, thence increasing northw. Time of FI. Jun~Sep, fr Jul-Sep; fl Jun-Jul at Cornell. Origin . Native. Although the fruit of this species is generally considered as scarcely edible because it is rather insipid, it is not unpleasant. Gathered with Black Raspberries or Red Raspberries, they can be mixed to¬ gether for use in pies, jams, and jellies, thus at least increasing the bulk if other fruit should be in short supply. -147- Rubus odoratus-- flowering Raspberry [From Emerson (1878), Vol. II, plate ff. p. 487.3 % % Rubus plicatifolius Blanch. Plaited- leaved Dewberry. Meaning of Species Name . With plaited Leaves. Type of Plant . A trailing or soon recurving and prostrate, tip¬ rooting shrub . Habitat . Dry open soil. Range . NS and Me to Que, s to Ct and NY. Distr in NYS . Not listed in House (1924). Distr in the Torre v Range . In 1915 known definitely only from the -148- Rubus pubescens--Dwarf Red Blackberry [From Billington (19^9) j Fig* 79s P« 158*] mts in Greene co, NY, and Luzerne co, Pa. Time of FI. Jun-Aug. Origin. Native. % 0 Rubus pubes cens Raf . Dwarf Red Blackberry. Meaning of Species Name . Hairy. Other Names . Dwarf Red Raspberry, Running Raspberry, Mulberry, Plum-bog-berry, Swamp-berry, Pigeon-berry, Dewberry. Type of Plant . A perennial herb. Habitat . Damp mossy woods, slopes, swamps, bogs, rocky shores, and thickets . Range . Lab to Yuk and BC, s to NJ, WVa, 0, Ind, Wis, la, SD, Col, and Wash. Distr in NYS . Common northw across the state and westw to L Erie; less common or rare southw to Bronx co; reported from LI; frequent only in swamps of the higher hills in the s tier of counties bordering on Pa. Distr in the Torrev Range . NY: Unknown on LI and SI, rare in West¬ chester and Bronx co, thence increasing northw. Time of FI. May-Jul, fr Jun-Aug; fl May at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks . Intermediate between blackberries and raspberries. % % Rubus sianatus Bailey Stanley Smith observed this plant in the vicinity of Hancock in Delaware County on a foray to that area 17- 19 June 1954. It is not listed by either Taylor (1915) or House (1924). Furthermore, Fernald (1950) in¬ cludes this taxon in his R. ad.iacens and Gleason (1952) places it in his collective species R. hi spidus L., where it is given a range from Quebec to Michigan, south to Virginia and Illinois. -IU9- Sorbaria' sorbifolia- -False Spiraea [From Britton & Brown (1913)? II: 247.] % Sorbaria R. Br. False Spiraea. This is a genus of about five species of shrubs, all natives of eastern Asia. The name of the genus is derived from the Latin Sorbus , an early name for the mountain- a she s , which have similar foliage. Sorbaria sorbifolia (L.) A. Br. False Spiraea. Meaning of Species Name. With leaves of Sorbus . Other Names . Sorb-leaved Schizonotus. Type of Plant . Shrubby to nearly herbaceous. Habitat. Roadsides, fencerows, wasteland, and copses. Range . NB to Pa, w to Ind and Minn. Distr in NYS . Frequent in cult and locally esc or persistent in some localities. Distr in the Torrey Range . A rare esc known definitely only from Ct and NY in our area. Time of FI. Jul-Jul. Origin . Introd and natzd from e Asia. Remarks . Commonly cult and frequently esc, especially in the e states and e Canada. Spiraea L. Spiraea. There are nearly 100 species of Spiraea , all shrubs of the northern hemisphere with simple leaves and corymbs or panicles of white or rose- colored flowers . The name of the genus is derived from the Greek speira , a wreath. Most of the species are attractive flowering shrubs and nearly 50 species are cultivated for ornament in the northeastern states, some of which have escaped and apparently become established in some areas. -150- (Left) Spiraea latifolia- -Broad- leaved. Meadowsweet (Right) Spiraea tomentosa--Hardhack [From Emerson (1878), Vol. II, plate ff. p. 485.] 151 Key to the Local Species of Spiraea 1. Leaves green on both sides (branchlets of panicle glabrous, not puberulent or tomentulose) . S. latifolia 1. Leaves closely felted beneath with white or tawny to¬ me n turn . S. tomentosa Spiraea latifolia (Ait.) Borkh. Broad- leaved Meadowsweet. Meaning of Species Name. Broad- leaved. Other Names . American Meadowsweet, Quaker Lady, Queen-of-the- Meadow, Spice Hardhack. Type of Plant . A shrubby perennial 2- 5 ft high, reproducing by seeds and rootstocks. Habitat . Moist or dry, usually upland or rocky soil of old fields, pastures, roadsides, and meadows. Range . Nf and Que to Mich, s to NY, Pa, and interior NC. Distr in NYS . Frequent or locally common throughout most secs of the state . Distr in the Torrey Range . Throughout the range except the reg e and s of the pine barrens in NJ. Time of FI. Jun-Aug(Sep) ; Jul 15-Aug at Cornell. Origin . Native. In areas where this species has become an undesirable weed, Muenscher (1952) suggests that small clumps can be grubbed out with a mattock, while it is best to pull out large clumps with a team or tractor and chain. Dense growths should be cut with a brush hook and burned. Where possible the land should then be plowed, disked or harrowed several times, and followed by a clean cultivated crop for a year before reseeding. Spiraea tomentosa L. Hardhack. Meaning of Species Name. Tomentose. Other Names . Steeplebush, Silver-leaf, Silver-weed, White-cap, Woolly Meadowsweet, Poor-man ' s- soap, Spice-hardhack, Rosy-bush. Type of Plant. A simple or sparsely branched shrub growing 1-4 ft high, reproducing by seeds and shoots from creeping roots. Habitat. Sterile pastures and old fields. Range . NS and NB to Que and Man, s to Va, NC, Ga, Tenn, and Ark. Distr in NYS . Frequent across the state northw, and in the Adiron- dacks to 2000 ft; common in c NY, the Ontario lowlands, and on LI and LI SI; less frequent or rare in the w NY highlands. Distr in the Torrey Range . Throughout the range in favorable lo¬ calities; usually very common. Time of FI. Jul-Sep; Jul-Aug at Cornell. Origin . Native. Vogel (1970) states that the Mohegans steeped the leaves of Hardhack to make a tea for use in the treatment of dysentery, while the Flambeau Ojibwas made a tea of the leaves and flowers for "morning sickness" during pregnancy and to aid parturition. In 1849 Dr. Francis P. Porcher reported -152- Waldsteinia fragarioides--Barren Strawberry [From Britton & Brown (1913)? lit 269.] that the Indians made use of this plant and that Dr. Cogswell of Connecti¬ cut had brought it to the attention of the medical profession. It was then considered a valuable tonic and astringent useful in the treatment of diar¬ rhea and cholera infantum. Dr. A. Clapp considered the bark and leaves more efficient than the root, which was the official part; it was thus listed in the U.S . Pharmacopeia , 1820-82, for its astringent and tonic properties, considered useful in the treatment of diarrhea, hemorrhage, gonorrhea, and ulcers. The U.S . Dispensatory of 1865 considered that "in consequence of its tonic powers it is peculiarly adapted to cases of de¬ bility; and, from the same cause, should not be given during the existence of inflammatory action, or febrile excitement." In areas where this species has become an undesirable weed, it can be controlled by the same methods as those outlined for S. latifolia . Waldsteinia Willd. Barren Strawberry. There are five species of Waldsteinia . low perennial herbs of the north temperate zone with chiefly radical 3“5"lobed or -divided leaves and bracted scapes of small yellow flowers. The genus was named to honor Graf Franz de Paula Adam von Waldstein-Wartenburg, 1759” 1823, a German botanist. Waldsteinia fragarioides (Michx.) Tratt. Barren Strawberry. Meaning of Species Name . Like Fragaria, Strawberry. Other Names . Dry Strawberry. Type of Plant. A low perennial herb. Habitat . Open rocky woods, thickets, clearings, and shaded hill¬ sides . -153- Range . Me and w Que to Minn, s to Pa, uplands of Ga and Tenn, and locally to Ind and Mo. Distr in NYS . Frequent or common across the state, especially in the mountainous and hilly secs, s to Ulster, Columbia, Greene, and Sullivan co; infrequent or rare in the s tier of counties bordering on Pa. Distr in the Torrev Range. NY: Ulster, Sullivan, Dutchess, Delaware, and Greene co. Elevation . 800 4020 ft in the Torrey range. Time of FI. Late Apr-May ( Jun) ; Apr 25"May 20 at Cornell. Origin. Native. This plant is a handsome species for the woodland wildflower garden or a shaded rock garden, where it spreads over rocky slopes having good drainage; it prefers an acid soil. LEGUMINOSAE , the Pea Family This family is considered to be one of the three largest families of flowering plants. The Compositae is the largest family, with the Orchidaceae and the Leguminosae competing for second place. The Legumin- osae include about 550 genera and perhaps 13,000 species, cosmo¬ politan in distribution. They are herbs, shrubs, or trees with mostly alternate, compound leaves. The family is divided into three subfamilies, treated by some authorities as separate families comprising a separate order. Lawrence (1951) remarks that "many botanists, perhaps with undue conservatism and adherence to tradition, have held the Leguminosae to com¬ prise a single family rather than 3 or 4 families." Although comparative studies of wood anatomy produced "no sharp lines separating the three sub¬ families," elevation of this taxon to a separate order should perhaps be deserving of more thought. Economically the Leguminosae constitute one of the most important families of flowering plants. Not only are many species grown ornamentally, but many others provide food, fodder, dyes, gums, resins, and oils. Among the important food plants are garden peas, lentils, peanuts, beans, cowpeas, and soybeans. Important fodder and forage plants include clover, alfalfa, soybean, vetch, bird's- foot trefoil, and sweet clover, while among the more outstanding ornamentals are wisteria, sweet pea, lupine, redbud, royal poin- ciana, broom, and senna. Some trees are also much valued for their lumber. Kev to the Catskill Genera of Leguminosae. 1. Trees, shrubs, or woody vines; leaves compound, 2 2. Leaflets 3; flowers purple to white; erect or spreading shrubs . Lg spe.de za 2. Leaflets more than 3 (flowers distinctly papilionaceous; erect or ascending trees or shrubs; flowers white to pink or rose color; flowers in racemes; lower calyx lobes acute to acuminate) . Robina -154- 1. Herbaceous plants, or only slightly woody at base, 3 3. Leaves simple, or 1-foliate, or represented by their stipules only, or none, 4 4. Leaf blade none; leaves represented by a pair of folia- ceous stipules bearing a tendril between them; flowers pink or white . Lathvrus 4. Leaf blade developed, much larger than the stipules; tendrils none; flowers yellow, in racemes (leaves partly 3“ foliate; stamens separate) . Baptisia 3. Leaves compound, 5 5. Leaves evenly pinnate, or the terminal leaflet repre¬ sented by a tendril, 6 6. Tendrils none; leaflets 2-6; flowers white and violet, in short axillary clusters . Vicia 6. Tendrils present, terminating all or most of the leaves, 7 7. Style bearded only at the apex . Vicia 7. Style bearded along the upper side . Lathyrus 5. Leaves odd-pinnate, palmate, or trifoliate, 8 8. Leaflets on ordinary well- developed leaves more than 3, 9 9. Flowers in heads or umbels or solitary, 10 10. Flowers yellow; heads subtended by entire bracts.. Lotus 10. Flowers white to pink; leaflets entire; flow¬ ers 10-15 iron long, 10-15 in each head . Coronilla 9. Flowers in terminal, axillary, or lateral spikes or racemes, 11 11. Leaflets 7"l8, palmately compound . Lupin us 11. Leaves pinnately compound (calyx with 5 unequal lobes, the upper 4 short, nearly equal, the lower elongate; plants twining) . Apios 8. Leaflets 3 3 12 12. Leaflets serrulate, 13 13. Terminal leaflet sessile or nearly so . Trifolium 13. Terminal leaflet distinctly staLked, l4 14. Flowers blue . Medicago 14. Flowers white or yellow, 3-5 . Melilotus 15. Flowers white . Melilotus 15. Flowers yellow, l6 l6. Flowers in slender elongate racemes . Melilotus l6. Flowers in short or headlike racemes, 17 17. Corolla persistent and macrescent after flowering . Trifolium 17. Corolla deciduous after flowering . Medicago 12. Leaflets entire, 18 18. Flowers yellow or cream color, 19 19. Flowers in open peduncled racemes (racemes terminal; terminal leaflet sessile or nearly so) . Baptisia 19. Flowers in headlike umbels, spikes, or heads, 20 -155- Lespedeza 20. Flowers cream color, usually with a purple spot on the standard; calyx lobes about equal . . . 20. Flowers bright yellow; calyx lobes distinctly unequal in size (flowers few, in long-peduncled headlike umbels). Coronilla 18. Flowers blue or purple to pink or white, 21 21. Stems normally twining, or in the absence of support trail¬ ing, but then usually twining on themselves, 22 22. Calyx lobes 5 (flowers 10-12 mm long, numerous, paniculate) . Phaseolus 22. Calyx lobes 4, by the fusion of the upper 2, 23 23. Keel petals strongly curved upward (flowers in long-peduncled heads) . Strophostvles 23. Keel petals nearly straight (flowers without bracteoles; bracts at base of the pedicel per¬ sistent, striate-veined) . Amphicarpa 21. Stems erect, ascending, spreading, or prostrate, but with no tendency to twine, 24 24. Flowers in terminal racemes, 25 25. Terminal leaflet distinctly stalked . Desmodium 25. Terminal leaflet sessile, or with a stalk no longer than the stalks of the lateral leaflets . Baptisia 24. Flower clusters axillary, 26 26. Stems prostrate; leaflets with stipellules (often deciduous in age) . Desmodium 26. Stems erect, ascending, or spreading; stipellules none . Lespedeza * Amphicarpa Ell. Hog Peanut. There are seven known species of Amphicarpa , the other six all natives of eastern Asia. They are low, slender, perennial herbs with twining stems, 3“ foliate leaves, and mostly purplish flowers. The name of the genus is derived from the Greek amphi , both or of both kinds, and karpos , fruit, referring to the two kinds of fruit often produced- ~3~ seeded pods and 1- seeded pods. Fruit of the Wild Bean of the Himalayas, A. edgeworthii . has been gathered while green for use as food. Amphicarpa bracteata (L.) Fern. Hog Peanut. Meaning of Species Name. Bracted. Other Names . Wild Peanut, Pea- vine, American Licorice. Type of Plant. A perennial herb. Habitat. Damp woodlands, thickets, and open marshy spaces. Range . Q,ue and NS to Man and Mont, s to Fla, La, and Tex. Distr in NTS. Common throughout the state. Distr in the Torrev Range . Common throughout the range except in the pine barrens of NJ, there rare or wanting; always decreasing southw. Time of FI. Aug-Sep; Aug at Cornell. Origin . Native. -156- Amphicarpa bracteata--Hog Peanut [From Dana (19OO), Plate l6l, p. 366.] Near the roots of this plant tiny blossoms without petals appear on threadlike branches. These self-fertile flowers produce pods that develop one large light brown seed about the size and shape of a peanut. Hogs running about in the woods often root up the leaves and soil in search of them, hence the common name of Hog Peanut. These large seeds appearing be¬ neath the dead leaves or just under the surface of the ground are often quite abundant. They can be gathered without destroying the plant and even when raw make very pleasant eating. According to Porcher, this species was once cultivated in the south for its nutritious seeds. These subterranean fruits were well known to the Indians, particu¬ larly in the central states, where they were gathered in large quantities. -157- The "skin" or shell is somewhat leathery, hut it cracks off in boiling, exposing the nutritious bean. Weiner (1972) reports that these fruits contain approximately 25 percent protein, "the highest protein yield of any wild plant consumed by the Indians." The Indians sometimes ate these beans raw, removing the shell by soaking the fruit in warm water or in water to which hardwood ashes was added, after which the shells could be removed by rubbing. These beans are often sufficiently abundant to repay the time spent in digging them up. When boiled and seasoned with salt, pepper, and butter or cream, they much resemble shelled beans from the garden, although they are of a rather dry quality. Voles, white-footed mice, and other rodents often gather quantities of these beans, their nests often containing several quarts of them. It is reported that in autumn and early winter Indian women were not averse to robbing the ro¬ dents of their winter stores, securing "big piles of them." Father De Smet, a missionary to the tribes of the upper Missouri, wrote that "The earth pea and bean are also delicious and nourishing roots found commonly in low and alluvial lands. The above-named roots form a considerable por¬ tion of the sustenance of these Indians during the winter. They seek them in places where the mice and other little animals, in particular, the ground squirrel, have piled them in heaps." In their defense, however, Gilmore states that the Dakota Indians, at least, "always replaced them" with "an equivalent amount of corn or other food." The Chippewas also used this plant medicinally, preparing a decoction of five roots in 1 quart of water to be taken internally as a physic and to purify the blood. These underground fruits, available in late fall and early spring, should be remembered as an important survival food should one become lost in the wilderness. Quail and other birds eat both the aerial and subter¬ ranean seeds of this plant, and white- tailed deer are reported to browse on the leaves, but since they are locally abundant at best, they are of limited significance to wildlife, at least in the Catskill region. Apios Medic. Wild Bean, Ground-nut. There are about seven species of Apios . two in North America, the others native to eastern Asia. They are twining herbaceous perennials with compound leaves, flowers in dense, often branching, short racemes, and rootstocks bearing tuberous enlargements. The name of the genus is de¬ rived from the Greek apios , pear, alluding to the somewhat pyriform shape of the tuberous enlargements of the rootstock. Apios americana Medic. Ground-nut. Meaning of Species Name. American. Other Names . Wild Bean, Ground-pea, Trailing-pea , Potato-pea, Pig- potato, Dacotah-potato, Indian Potato, White Apple, Traveler ’s- delight . Type of Plant. A perennial herb. Habitat. Rich woods and thickets, especially in alluvial thickets along streams. Range . NB and Que to Minn, SD, and Col, s to Fla, La, and Tex. -158- Apios americana--Ground-nut [From Dana (1900), Plate 174, p. 395*] Distr in NYS. Frequent or common in most parts of the state but rare in most secs of the Adirondacks and apparently absent from the n portion of the Adirondacks . Distr in the Torrev Range . Common throughout the range. Time of FI. Jul-Aug(Sep) ; Aug-Sep 10 at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks . The stem contains a milky juice. The Ground-nut or Indian Potato, found throughout much of eastern North America, was one of the few native plants held in high repute by the Indians. It therefore soon attracted the attention of the European col¬ onists, who wrote with enthusiasm of its virtues and possibilities in their early chronicles. Thomas Hariot's A briefe and true report of the new -159- found land of Virginia . published in 1590, probably contains the first ac¬ count of this plant in the English language: "Openavk are a kind of roots of round forme, some of the bigness of walnuts, some far greater, which are found in moist and marish grounds growing one by another in ropes, or as thogh they were fastened with a string, being boiled or sodden they are very good meate." It is reported that the Indians showed this species to the Pilgrims of Massachusetts; during that first hard winter they were forced to sub¬ sist largely upon the edible tubers of this plant for want of other sup¬ plies. Ironically enough, by 1654 they passed a law forbidding the In¬ dians from digging these tubers on "English land." For a first offense, the guilty Indian could be jailed; for a second, whipping was the reward. Peter Kalm, an early visitor to North America, reported that "Mr. Bartram [of Philadelphia] told me that the Indians who live farther in the country do not only eat these roots, which are equal in goodness to potatoes, but likewise take the peas which lie in the pods of this plant and prepare them like common peas." Ordinarily, however, the fruits are too scarce to pro¬ vide much food. The Indians rightly considered these tubers among the finest of foods available to them, for in so far as nutritive value is concerned, they contain 18 percent protein by weight. Not only did the Pilgrims make use of them, but the Finns and Swedes who first settled the Delaware val¬ ley gathered and ate them "for want of bread." Even during the Civil War they supplemented scanty food supplies in some areas. This plant was cul¬ tivated in France as early as 1635? but it was soon forgotten. Another attempt was made to introduce it in Europe in 1845 as a possible substitute for the potato, which was becoming subject to disease, but attempts to cul¬ tivate it were soon abandoned as impracticable. Not only did it require two or three years for the tubers to reach a size fit for use, but its habit of producing strings of tubers just beneath the surface of the soil made weeding the field practically impossible. The raw tubers have been described as being "somewhat tough, with a very viscid miLky juice, but of a pleasant sweetish, turnip-like taste." They can be eaten raw, "but the viscid juice leaves an unpleasant rubber¬ like coating on the teeth and lips." This disagreeable quality is removed by roasting or parboiling with salt. They can be boiled in salted water and eaten with butter like potatoes, but a more satisfactory method of preparation is to slice the tubers, skin and all, and fry them in bacon fat like fried potatoes, for which they make a "satisfactory substitute." These fried slices should be eaten hot, for upon cooling they become "tough and uninteresting." Leftover Ground-nuts will regain their flavor if they are greased and then roasted in the oven for a while. Some people may not re¬ gard their sweet, turnip-like taste as anything special, but they can at least add novelty to a meal. -l60- Baptisia tinctoria--Wild Indigo [From Smith (1966), Plate 90, p. 193*] Baptisia Vent. Wild Indigo. There are about 30 species of Baptisia . perennial eastern and south¬ ern North American herbs with palmately 3-foliate (rarely simple) leaves and racemose flowers. The name of the species is from the Greek baptizein , to dye, in allusion to the use of some species as a poor substitute for in¬ digo. Some species turn black in drying. The Meskwakis used B. leucantha in combinations with other herbs for several purposes, including the treat¬ ment of eczema, wounds, sores, catarrh, and snakebite, as well as for its emetic properties. In Iowa this species was also used by the whites as an emetic and cathartic. / \ Baptisia tinctoria (L.) R. Br. Wild Indigo. Meaning of Species Name. Used for dyeing. Other Names . Rattleweed, Horsefly-weed, Yellow Broom, Indigo Broom, Clover Broom, Indigo-weed, Shoofly, Rattlebush, Horse-fleaweed . -161- Type of Plant . A perennial herb. Habitat . Dry open -woods and clearings, usually in sandy or gravelly soil. Range . Me to s Ont, Mich, and se Minn, s to Fla, Ga, and Tenn. Distr in NYS. Frequent or locally common across the state s of the Adirondack reg, becoming more abundant or common southw. Distr in the Torrey Range. Common throughout the coastal part of the range, always decreasing inland, but locally common in sandy places northw . Time of FI. (Late May) Jun-Jul(Aug) . Origin . Native. Remarks. More common southw. Vogel (1970) remarks that the Creek Indians boiled the roots of this species in water and administered the decoction both internally and exter¬ nally to children who seemed listless and on the point of becoming ill. Other tribes steeped the root and used the liquid to bathe cuts and wounds. Tliis species was official in the U.S . Pharmacopeia , 1831“ 42, and in the National Formulary. 1916-36, for use as an emetic, cathartic, stimulant, astringent, and antiseptic. * Cor on ilia L. Crown- vetch. There are about 25 species of Coronilla, glabrous herbs or shrubs, natives of western Eurasia and northern Africa, with pinnate leaves and flowers in umbels on axillary peduncles. The name of the genus is a dimin¬ utive of the Latin corona , a crown, alluding to the inflorescence. Coronilla varia L. Crown- vetch. Meaning of Species Name. Variable. Other Names. Coronilla, Axseed, Axwort, Hive Vine. Type of Plant. A perennial herb. Habitat . Roadsides, waste places, and old house-sites. Range . Abundantly but locally estab from NE to SD, s to Va, NC, WVa, Ky, and Mo. Distr in NYS. Infrequent, but when estab becoming abundant; natzd in many parts of the state. Distr in the Torrey Range . In 1915 considered uncommon as a road¬ side weed throughout the area except in Pa, there reported only from Chester co. Time of FI. (May ) Jun-Aug(Sep) ; Aug at Cornell. Origin . Introd and natzd from Eu. Remarks . Originally cult. Since i960 much planted on roadside banks in the Catskills to prevent soil erosion. This perennial plant forms large clumps of spreading stems with showy umbellate clusters of rose-colored flowers . It does well as a culti¬ vated plant, making an attractive addition to the perennial border. It is much planted by county and town officials in the Catskill region to help bind the soil on roadside cuts and banks and as a consequence is quite abundant in that area. Muenscher (1949) reports that this plant, -162- Coronilla varia Crown-vetch [From Britton & Brown (1913), Desmodium nudiflorum Naked- flowered Tick-trefoil Vol. II, pp. 392, 395-] "especially the seed, has been considered poisonous in Europe," but little seems to be known about its toxic action. Desmodium Desv. Tick-trefoil. There are more than 200 species of tick-trefoil, herbaceous to al¬ most arborescent plants of cool temperate to tropical regions of the Americas, southern Africa, eastern Asia, and Australia. The name of the genus is derived from the Greek desmos . a bond or chain, in allusion to the jointed seed pod. Although the tick- trefoils or beggarweeds are in some areas common in fields, along fencerows, and in open woods of the eastern United States, they have only limited value for wildlife. Martin et al. (1961) report that "The bobwhite quail is the only species known to feed on them to any extent." Although Desmodium is considered both by Tay¬ lor (1915) and House (192U) to be "common throughout the range" or "Fre¬ quent or common across the state," this is an uncommon genus in the Catskill region . Kev to Local Species of Desmodium 1. Peduncles very long and leafless; fruit on a long stalk within the calyx; leaves all crowded at summit of stem (leaves and flowers on separate stems, the raceme on an ascending naked branch from near the base of the plant) . D. nudiflorum 1. Peduncles not conspicuously elongated; stalk of fruit never more than twice the length of the calyx, 2 2. Plants trailing, prostrate, soft-hairy all over; leaflets orbicular; racemes simple, axillary and terminal . D. rotundifolium 2. Plants more or less erect, glabrous or hairy; racemes panicled; leaflets somewhat elongated, not orbicular, 3 -163- Desmodium canadense--Canadian Tick-trefoil [From Smith (1966), Plate 93 5 p. 199* ] 3. Fruit sessile in the calyx, or essentially so; flowers 10-13 mm long (rose-purple, changing to blue); calyx 5" 7 mm long; stem pubescent . D. canadense 3. Fruit on a stalk equaling or slightly exceeding the surrounding calyx; flowers usually 6-8 mm long; calyx 2.5“3*5 mm long; plant essentially smooth throughout . D. paniculatum -164- Desmodium paniculatum Panicled Tick-trefoil [From Britton & Brown (1913) Desmodium rotundifolium Round- leaved Tick-trefoil Vol. II, pp. 399, 397.] Desmodium nudiflorum (L.) DC. Naked- flowered Tick-trefoil. Meaning of Species Name . With naked flowering scapes. Type of Plant . A perennial herb. Habitat . Rich or dry woods and openings. Range . Me to Wis and Minn, s to Fla and Tex. Distr in NYS . Frequent or common throughout most secs of the state outside the higher Adirondacks . Distr in the Torrev Range ♦ Throughout the area except in the pine barrens of NJ, there wanting. Time of FI. Jul-Aug; Jul 20-Aug at Cornell. Origin . Native. % % Desmodium rotundifolium DC. Round- leaved Tick- trefoil. Meaning of Species Name . Round- leaved. Other Names . Prostrate Tick-trefoil, Trailing Tick-trefoil, Hive- vine, Dollar- leaf. Habitat . Dry woods, barrens, and borders of thickets. Type of Plant. A perennial herb. Range . Vt and Mass to Mich and Mo, s to Fla, Ga, La, and Tex. Distr in NYS . Frequent or common across the state southw; less com¬ mon or local northw to Saratoga, Oneida, Oswego, Monroe, and Erie co. Distr in the Torrev Range . NY: Uncommon on LI and SI, decreasing northw to the highlands; in 1915 unknown elsewhere. Time of FI. Jul-Sep; Aug at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks . Taylor (1915) observes that this is "A rare and very local species about whose distribution little is known." -165- Desmodium canadense (L.) DC. Canadian Tick- trefoil. Meaning of Species Name . Of Canada. Other Names. Showy Tick-trefoil, Beggar ’ s-lice , Sainfoin. Type of Plant . A perennial herb. Habitat . Open woods, thickets, and riverbanks . Range . Que and NS to Sask and Alta, s to SC, WVa, 0, Ind, Ill, Mo, 01;la, and Ark. Distr in NTS. Frequent or common across the state, but rare or absent on the coastal plain of LI. Distr in the Torrey Range . Throughout the range except in the pine barrens, there rare and local and probably introd, always increas¬ ing northw . Elevation. Grows to 2000 ft in the Adirondacks . Time of FI. Jul-Aug; Aug-Sep at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks. In many places the commonest and most conspicuous species; our most showy- flowered species. Desmodium paniculatum (L.) DC. Panicled Tick-trefoil. Meaning of Species Name. Paniculate. Type of Plant. A perennial herb. Range . Me to Ont, Mich, la, Neb, and Kan, s to Fla and Tex. Distr in NTS . Frequent or common across the state outside the Adirondacks but extending, in sandy secs, well into the e, s, and w foothills . Distr in the Torrey Range . Common throughout the range except in the pine barrens of NJ, there rare or wanting; not abundant on the coastal plain of LI. Time of FI. Jul-Aug; Aug 10- 30 at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks . Often abundant. The seeds are eaten by bobwhite and wild turkey . Muensch^r (1952) remarks that "Several of the native Desmodiums of the eastern United States may encroach upon pastures, especially those bordering on woodlands. He suggests mowing or close grazing the pastures; clean cultivation of fields will rid them of these weeds. Lathyrus L. Vetchling, Perennial Pea. There are about 160 species of Lathyrus . natives of the north tem¬ perate zone and temperate South America, our species perennial and mostly smooth herbs. The name of the genus is derived from the Greek lathyros . a leguminous plant of Theophrastus. The name is often said to be composed of the prefix la, very, and thuros, passionate, the original plant reputed to be an aphrodisiac. This genus is closely related to Pisum, which in¬ cludes the Garden Pea. Poisoning of both human beings and livestock after eating large amounts of the seeds of L. sativus , the Grass Pea or Indian Pea, L. cicera . -166- Lathyrus latifolius-- Perennial Pea [From Britton & Brown (1913)S II: 4l6.] Flatpod Pea, and L. clymenum, Spanish Vetch, has been known since the time of Hippocrates and has accounted for much loss of life in Europe, India, and northern Africa. In human beings poisoning is associated with condi¬ tions of poverty or drought resulting in a diet composed largely of the seeds of these species and is now primarily of historical interest only. Moderate amounts of these peas are not harmful, but consuming large quanti¬ ties produces a paralytic syndrome in both man and lifestock. Death ensues if the diet is not corrected. Lathyrus sylvestris and L. latifolius have also been reported as toxic to cattle and other farm livestock. Lathyrus latifolius L. Perennial Pea. Meaning of Species Name ♦ Broad- leaved. Other Names. Everlasting Pea. Type of Plant. A perennial herb. Habitat ♦ Esc from cult to roadsides, thickets, and waste places. Range . NE to Ind, s to Va, Mo, and Kan. Distr in NYS . Occasionally esc from cult and est in waste places and along roadsides. Distr in the Torrey Range . In 1915 it was known only from Ct as a waif. Time of FI. Jun-Aug(Sep) ; Aug-Oct at Cornell. Origin . Introd from Eu. Remarks . Popularly cult for ornament. -167- Lespedeza capitata--Round-headed Bush- clover [From Smith (1966), Plate 95? p. 202.] * Lespedeza Michx. Bush- clover. There are about 40 species of Lespedeza , natives of eastern North America, eastern Asia, and Australia. They are mostly annual or perennial herbs or half- shrubs bearing small trifoliate leaves and spicate, racemose, or solitary flowers, purplish to yellowish-white in color, in sessile or peduncled axillary clusters, each flower subtended by 2 or 4 small bract- lets. The fine, straightish veins of the leaves are almost horizontally divergent. The name of the genus honors Vicente Manuel de Cespedes, the Spanish governor of East Florida, 1784-1790? during Michaux's explorations -168- Lespedeza procumbens-- Trailing Bush-clover [From Britton & Brown (1913)? II: 403-3 there. The name was later misspelled, "probably by Michaux’s editor," ac¬ cording to Fernald (1950), as de Lespedez. Key to Local Species of Lespedeza 1. Flowers all alike, petaliferous , in dense spikes or heads, whitish or cream color with a purple spot; calyx 5~7 mm long, scarcely shorter than the corolla; stems upright, 0.6-1. 2 m high (leaflets silky, elliptic- oblong or narrower; spikes nearly sessile)... L. capitata 1. Flowers of 2 kinds, petaliferous and apetaliferous , in irregular or loose clusters, the former violet with a dark spot; calyx 4 mm long, much shorter than the corolla; stem prostrate, downy, 3“9 dm high . L. procumbens ' \ _ Lespedeza procumbens Michx. Trailing~Bush-clover . Meaning of Species Name. Trailing. Type of Plant. A trailing perennial herb. Habitat. Dry sandy or rocky upland woods and clearings. Range . NH, Mass, and NY to Ind and Wis, s to Fla, Okla, and Tex. Distr in NTS. Frequent in the se part of the state; rare or local northw to Schenectady co and w to Yates co. Distr in the Torrev Range . NY: Common on LI and SI, decreasing up the Hudson valley to Dutchess and Ulster co, but, in 1915 3 not reported from the Catskills. Elevation . Sea level-_1000 ft in the Torrey range. Time of FI. Mid-Aug- early Oct; fl Aug at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks . Fernald (1950) suggests that this species might perhaps be better considered as a variety of L. repens . -169- % % Lespedeza capitata Michx. Round-headed Bush-clover. Meaning of Species Name . In heads, referring to the manner of flowering. Type of Plant . A perennial herb. Habitat. Dry open, usually sandy, soil of woods, prairies, road¬ sides, and waste places. Range . NE to Wis, Minn and Neb, s to Fla and Tex. Distr in NYS . Frequent or common across the state outside the Adirondacks from L Champlain and Jefferson co westw; increasingly common southw . Distr in the Torrey Range . Common throughout the area. Time of FI. Late Jul-Sep; Aug 20-Sep 20 at Cornell. Origin . Native. Remarks . One of our most variable species. Lotus L. Deer-vetch. There are about l4o species of Lotus, herbs primarily of western North America and the old world, with pinnate leaves and small yellow or reddish flowers, either in umbels or solitary upon axillary leafy-brac- teate peduncles. The name of the genus is derived from Lotos, an ancient Greek name applied to several kinds of plants but restricted by Linnaeus to these clover- like plants. Young pods of L. edulis and L. gebelia „ both plants of the Mediter¬ ranean region, have in the past been used as substitutes for string beans by the poorer inhabitants. L. tetragonolobus . the Winged Pea, also a plant of the Mediterranean region, was cultivated as a garden vegetable in France as late as 1883 as a substitute for Asparagus. It was also "formerly em¬ ployed as an esculent by the poor of Sicily and Spain" and was likewise cultivated in some of the northern counties of England. It was "reported as being in American gardens in 1863." The deer-vetches are locally abundant in some areas of the western states, where they have forage value for livestock. As with the clovers, both the seeds and foliage are relished by wildlife . The seeds are partic¬ ularly important to western species of quail and small rodents. Lotus corniculatus L. Bird’s- foot Trefoil. Meaning of Species Name. Horned. Other Names . Bastard Indigo, Ground Honeysuckle, Bloom-fell, Crow- toes, Cross- toes, Cat ’ s-clover , Sheepfoot, Bird's-eye, Ladies ' -fingers , Devil's- fingers. Shoes and Stockings, Claver. Type of Plant. A perennial herb. Habitat . Fields, roadsides, meadows, and waste places. -170- I Lotus corniculatus--Bird ’ s-foot Trefoil From Crockett (1977), p. 158*] Range . Local, Nf to Minn, s to Va and 0; also on the Pacific coast. Distr in NYS . Locally common about NYC, Albany, and other cities. Distr in the Torrey Range . In 1915 not very common as an adv. Time of FI. Jun-Aug(Sep) . Origin . Adv from Eu. Remarks . This is a comparatively recent introduction to the Cats- kill region, where it is now quite widespread; it was something of a rarity some 50 years ago. This legume is sometimes cultivated for its pasturage value, succeed¬ ing on poor and dry soils where alfalfa and clover do not flourish. It is believed likely that this species may have future importance as a pasture legume in this country. Johnson (1867) remarks of this plant in Great Brit¬ ain that "The Bird' s-foot Trefoil is a valuable plant in meadows and pas¬ tures when mixed with grasses and other nutritious herbs, and may be sown with advantage with the ordinary meadow grasses for permanent pasture . . . It makes very good hay, but in this, as in other points, cannot bear com¬ parison with the clovers and other plants of the kind in general use." Kingsbury (1964) states that "This popular forage crop has been shown occasionally to produce potentially toxic amounts of a cyanogenetic -171- substance in Europe, Britain, Australia, and the United States," but cases of livestock loss "have not been reported except possibly in Australia." \ Lupinus L. Lupine. This is a genus of some 225 species chiefly of North America but represented also in South America and the Mediterranean region, several species of "which are cultivated for ornament. They are herbs with palmate- ly 1-18-foliate leaves and showy flowers in terminal racemes or spikes. The name of the genus is derived from the Latin lupus, a wolf, "of uncer¬ tain significance" in connection with these plants according to one author¬ ity, but "because of a belief that it destroys the soil" according to Fer- nald (1950) . Lupinus albus, the Field Lupine or Wolf-bean, a plant of the Mediter¬ ranean region, has been cultivated since the days of the ancient Egyptians. The Romans cultivated it as a legume but it seems not to have reached the Rhine region until the l6th century. It is still cultivated in Italy and some other countries both as a plant for green manure and for its seeds, which, when boiled to remove their bitterness, are still an article of food in some areas. Lupinus hirsutus , Blue Lupine, and L. luteus . two other Mediterranean plants, have also long been cultivated and still serve as food for the poorer classes of people in that area. The tough, branching roots of L. littoralis , a plant of northwestern North America, were dried by the Indians of the Columbia River region for use as food during the winter. After being roasted they become farinaceous. While the bitter seeds of L. oerennis are reported to have been used as food by the Indians from Canada to Florida, many lupines contain a well-recognized alkaloid, lupinine, and many cases of poisoning have been recorded from eating the pods and seeds. It is therefore wise to avoid us¬ ing these plants as articles of food. \ * Lupinus polyphyllus Lindl. Garden Lupine. Meaning of Species Name . Many-leaved. Other Names . Lupine. Type of Plant. A stout perennial herb. Habitat. Dry or wet roadsides and banks. Range . PEI, NS, NE, and NY. Distr in NYS . Not listed in House (1924). Distr in the Torre y Range . Not listed in Taylor (1915). Time of FI. Late Jun- early Aug. Origin. Introd and natzd from nw Am. This species has been observed as a waif in the Catskill region and can be expected to grow around dumps that have served as repositories for garden refuse. It should be noted that the accompanying illustration is of L. perennis , the native Wild or Perennial Lupine, a plant not yet known to occur in the Catskills, although it should be looked for along the Delaware valley below Hancock. Aside from the fact that the Garden Lupine is a more -172- Lupinus perennis--Wild Lupine [From Britton & Brown (1913)? II: 3^8.] robust plant, the chief field characteristic to note in distinguishing the two species lies in the number of leaflets that make up the palmate leaf. The lower leaves of L. polyphyllus are made up of 12-18 leaflets, while L. perennis has only 7" 11 leaflets. Medicago L. Black Medic, Alfalfa. There are about 50 species of Medicago, herbs with pinnately 3“ foliate leaves chiefly of the Mediterranean region but extending north through Europe and east into western and central Asia. The name of the genus is derived from medice , the ancient name of Alfalfa, because it came to the Greeks from Media. A broad- leaved variety of M. denticulata . Shang¬ hai Trefoil, was reported to be much used by the Chinese as a winter vege¬ table, while M. platvcarpa furnishes a food in Siberia. Medicago scutellata , a plant of the Mediterranean region known as Snails, on the other hand, is grown in some areas because of the singular shape of its seed pods. More abundant on the Pacific coast than elsewhere, bur-clovers in that area are of major value to some kinds of wildlife, among which is the California quail, which makes extensive use of the herbage. Key to the Local Species of Medicago 1. 1. Flowers only at Flowers through 2- 5 mm long, yellow; fruit subreniform, slightly spiral summit; a low or diffuse annual . M. lupulina 6-12 mm long, blue- violet or purple; legume spiraled 2 or 3 revolutions; an ascending perennial . M. sativa -173" Medicago lupulina-- Black Medic [From US DA Agr Research Sv. (1971), Fig. 113, p. 231.] Medicago lupulina L. Black Medic. Meaning of Species Name. Hoplike, from the spiciform racemes. Other Names. Nonesuch, Hop Medic, Blackseed, Hop-clover, Trefoil, Melilot-trefoil, Black- grass, Black Nonesuch, Black Clover, Natural Grass, Horned Clover, Shamrock, Sainfoin. Type of Plant. An annual or -winter annual herb reproducing by seeds. Habitat. Roadsides, fields, gardens, la-wns, and waste places. Range . NS to BC, s to Fla, Haiti, and Mex; also in SAm. Distr in NYS . Common throughout most secs of the state. Distr in the Torrev Range . Common everywhere as a weed. Time of FI. (Mar)May-Sep(Dec) ; May-Sep at Cornell. Origin . Natzd from Eu. -174- Medicago sativa^-Alfalfa [From Parsons (19^)? P* so3*J The seeds of this plant are said to be greatly relished by the In¬ dians of southern California, according to a USDA report of 1870. Johnson (1867) states that "when cultivated, it attains a much larger size, and yields a moderate crop. It is now seldom grown, being inferior to the clo¬ vers, though it affords very good food for sheep and cattle," while Steyer- mark (1963) observes that "in Hawaii Black Medic is highly valued for for¬ age, but in the continental United States it has not assumed importance and is used only to a slight extent as a cover crop and for winter pasturage." In areas where this species has become an undesirable weed, it can be con¬ trolled by clean cultivation. Medicago sativa L. Alfalfa. Meaning of Species Name. Sown. Other Names. Purple Medic, Lucerne, Burgundy Clover, Chilian Clover, Brazilian Clover, Snail Clover, Great Trefoil, Spanish Trefoil, Holy-hay, Sainfoin . -175" Type of Plant . A perennial herb. Habitat . Almost throughout the US and s Can. Distr in NYS . Common in cult and often esc or estab in many secs of the state. Distr in the Torrey Range . Frequent in fields and waste places in most parts of our area. Time of FI. (May ) Jun-Sep(Oct ) ; Jun-Jul at Cornell. Origin . Introd and natzd from Eu. Remarks . Long in cult as a valued fodder crop. According to a report of 1882, Alfalfa leaves were then eaten by the Chinese as a vegetable. Indians of Utah are also reported not only to boil the new shoots as greens but also to grind the seeds between stones and cook the "flour" as mush or for use as cakes. Alfalfa leaves likewise con¬ stitute one ingredient in Pablum, a popular infants' cereal. Alfalfa, par¬ ticularly rich in vitamins A, D, and K, has been used in medicine as a val¬ uable "natural" cure for jaundice and to encourage the clotting of blood. The leaves are best collected in the spring or early summer to be eaten fresh in salads or steeped in hot water as a tea. Even as early as 1867 Johnson remarked that Alfalfa "has been for ages cultivated in southern Europe as a fodder plant.... The stems spring up more rapidly after mowing than those of any other fodder plant, so that it may be cut in favourable seasons four or five times. It is said that cattle thrive better on Lucerne than on any other food of the kind, and it forms a most nourishing fodder for horses ... It makes good hay, but be¬ ing very juicy takes a long time drying." Steyermark (1963) calls this spe¬ cies "the number 1 legume forage crop in the United States," not only for hay and pasturage but valuable also for "silage and feed concentrates," par¬ ticularly in the western states. In addition, "it is one of three commer¬ cial sources for the extraction of Carotine, a vitamin A synthetic product, and in the form of a meal is added to many of the prepared baby foods and cage bird foods as a source of vitamin A." He adds, however, that "Cases are on record of persons who have suffered hay fever from sensitivity to alfalfa pollen." Melilotus Mill. Sweet Clover. There are about 20 species of Melilotus, annual or biennial herbs with pinnately 3”foliate leaves, natives of central and southern Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia. The name of the genus is derived from the Greek meli , honey, and lotos . the name of some . leguminous plant. Both M. alba and M. officinalis have been widely used as forage crops and as soil builders since about 1920, particularly in the north¬ western states. Kingsbury (1964) states that in 1921 they were recognized as the agents responsible for a severe hemorrhagic disease of cattle in the United States and Canada. Subsequent investigation revealed that this disease was associated with feeding moldy or spoiled sweet-clover hay or moldy silage, of which a large amount is required to induce the disorder. Sweet-clover poisoning is restricted almost exclusively to cattle, as only very minor loss in sheep and horses has occurred. Death by bleeding either internally or externally follows within a very few days after the appearance -176- of symptoms. Further experiment culminated in the development of the medi¬ cally valuable anticoagulant dicoumarin and the highly useful rodenticide Warfarin . Both of these species occur throughout much of the country, but they are more abundant in the western states, where the seeds are of moderate value to some upland game birds. Melilotus alba is likewise regarded as a particularly valuable honey plant. Key to the Catskill Species of Melilotus 1. Petals white........................ . . . M. alba 1. Petals yellow (standard much longer than wing petals).... M. officinalis Melilotus alba Desr. White Sweet Clover. Meaning of Species Name. White. Other Names . Melilot , White Melilot , Corn Melilot, White Millet, King’s Clover, Honey- lotus, Cabul- clover , Plaster Clover, Sweet Lucerne, Tree-clover, Honey Clover, Bokhara- clover, Wild Laburnum, Hart's Clover. Type of Plant . A biennial herb, reproducing by seeds. Habitat . Fields, roadsides, and waste places. Range . NS to BC, s to WI and Mex. Distr in NTS . Frequent or common in most secs of the state. Distr in the Torrev Range . Common as a weed nearly throughout our area . Time of FI. May-Oct; Jun-Oct at Cornell. Origin. Natzd from Eu. In many respects this species might be called the king of weeds, for nitrogen- fixing bacteria that live in nodules on its roots have the ability to use nitrogen from the air rather than taking it from the soil, thereby increasing the available supply of nitrogen in the soil even if the plants are not plowed under as "green manure." Sweet clover thus always leaves the soil somewhat better than it was. White Sweet Clover is also one of the best "bee pastures" and is often called Bee Clover. Steyermark (1963) was of the opinion that it was equally as valuable as M. officinalis "as green manure, and for grazing and fodder," but that because it produced "a somewhat higher yield than Yellow Sweet Clover," it was probably planted more often for hay and pasturage. In their early stages of growth sweet clover and alfalfa look very much alike, but the crushed leaves of the latter lack the sweet aroma of the sweet clovers. In some areas this species is grown rather extensively for forage, pasture, and as a "green manure" crop. This plant can be a bad weed, particularly in recently cleared or disturbed ground. Muenscher (1952) suggests that it can be brought under control by pulling or hoeing scattered plants. More extensive stands in fields should be plowed under then planted with a clean cultivated crop. -177- Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam. Yellow Sweet Clover. Meaning of Species Name . Of the shops, various preparations of it being formerly used in medicine and for flavoring. Other Names . Yellow Melilot, Yellow Millet, Balsam- flowers, Hart's- clover, King's-clover, King’ s-crown, Heartwort, Pla s ter- clover . Type of Plant. An annual or biennial herb reproducing by seeds. Habitat . Neglected fields, pastures, roadsides, and waste places. Range . Throughout the northeastern states and s Can, w to the Pacific . Distr in NYS . Frequent or common. Distr in the Torrev Range . Common throughout our area, but not so common as M. alba . Time of FI. Late May-Oct; Jun-Jul at Cornell. Origin . Natzd from Eu. Remarks . Not common southw. Over 100 years ago Johnson (1867) stated that this species "was for¬ merly much grown as a fodder plant in England, but is now very little cul¬ tivated here, being much inferior to lucerne, clover, and many other herbs of the kind in nutritive qualities.... In Switzerland, and some parts of Germany, it is much grown, and in the former country has acquired celebrity from being used to give the peculiar flavour to the Gruyere cheese, so highly esteemed in Continental Europe . For this purpose the flowers and seeds are bruised and mixed with the curd before processing ... A water distilled from the flowers is used as a perfume. The plant, like most other wild herbs, was once esteemed for its supposed medicinal properties, which appear to have been imaginary." Some 20 years later Millspaugh (1887) reported that the sweet-scented flowers of this species have been used as a flavoring agent in Gruyere cheese, snuff, and smoking tobacco. When packed with furs and woolens, it was claimed that they protected them from moths in addition to giving them a pleasant odor. Boiled with lard, the flowers were once extensively used with much success by the laity as a salve for ulcers, indolent sores, and "broken breasts," but the editors of the U.S . Dispensatory of 1865 like¬ wise felt that it had little medical power. Although it was formerly recom¬ mended in the treatment of various diseases, it was not then employed in¬ ternally. It was not discovered until the 20th century that a medically useful anticoagulant could be derived from this plant. During the last half century, however, there has been occasion to re-evaluate this species, for of it Steyermark (1963) states that not only is it "highly regarded as a bee plant for honey production," but that it is also much "used as a green manure, for hay, and pasture," continuing with the observation that "its chief advantage over alfalfa and red clover lies in its ability to withstand dry sterile soils, and in this role it plays an important part, especially in the southeastern United States, in reclaiming poor or impoverished soils and at the same time being used for hay." One disadvantage is that when improperly cured or spoiled hay is fed to domestic animals, the coumarin contained in it may become toxic, "but varieties ... lacking coumarin have been developed recently." In any case, "it matures earlier and is a better seed producer than M. alba," and it grows better under unfavorable conditions. -178- (Left) Melilotus alba--White Sweet Clover (Right) Melilotus officinalis- “Yellow Sweet Clover [From Smith (1966), Plate 92 } p. 197.] -179- Robina L. Locust. There are about 20 species of Robina , all trees or shrubs native to North America, often with spines for stipules and with odd-pinnate leaves and showy flowers in drooping axillary racemes. The genus was named to honor John Robin, 1550-l6295 herbalist to Henry IV of France, and his son Vespasian Robin, 1579" 1662, who first cultivated the locust tree in Europe. 9 ' » Robina pseudo- acacia L. Black Locust. Meaning of Snecies Name. An old generic name, False Acacia. Other Names . Locust-tree, Acacia, False Acacia, Bastard Acacia, Common Locust, White Locust, Yellow Locust, Red- flowering Locust, Green Locust, Honey- locust , Pea-flower Locust, Post- locust, Silver-chain. Type of Plant . A large shrub or medium- sized tree from 30"70 or 80 ft high with a trunk 2- 3 ft in diameter. Habitat . Roadsides, fencerows, open woods, and waste places. Range . Pa to Ind and Okla, s to Ga and La; natzd n to NS, Que, and Ont . Distr in NYS . Commonly natzd from long cult northw to L Ontario, St Lawrence co, the Adirondack foothills, and L Champlain. Distr in the Torrey Range . Doubtfully indigenous in any part of our area but common as an esc from cult. Time of FI. May-Jun; Jun 1-15 at Cornell. Origin . Originally native from s Pa along the mts to n Ga and in the Ozarks of Mo and Ark; now natzd over a more extensive range, includ¬ ing most of the Catskill region. Remarks . Much planted for lumber and ornament, now natzd in many countries. Wood strong, very durable, greenish-brown, the sapwood yel¬ low; wt 46 lb per cu ft. Much used for posts, in ship- building, and especially for tree-nails. This species makes its best growth in the deep, rich, moist soils of bottomlands, but it is often found growing on drier soils. Sprouts from the roots often form thickets of smaller trees about larger ones. One un¬ usual fact concerning the foliage of this tree is that at nightfall the leaflets "fold up for the night," in a sense seeming to go to sleep, a phenomenon caused by the loss of sap pressure in the petioles of the leaf¬ lets, the purpose of which has yet to be explained. In late May the tree bursts into a bloom that is often so profuse as to make a notable display. Bees lead the insect host that swarms about the very f-regrant, nectar¬ laden flowers with their characteristic "butterfly -like" blossoms reminis¬ cent of small pea blossoms. As a matter of fact, the fragrant flowers are an important source of honey. Originally this species ranged along the Ap¬ palachians from southern Pennsylvania to northern Georgia. It is supposed that the Indians used its wood for bows and eventually spread it beyond its natural range. It was found planted near their villages along the Virginia coast. They also made a blue dye from the leaves. Early American pioneers early learned that the wood of this tree has many fine qualities. It is the seventh hardest of all our trees and as a beam it is the strongest of all North American woods outside the tropics. -180- It is also the stiffest of all our woods, exceeding hickory by 40 percent, and it shrinks less in drying than any other, losing only 10 percent in volume. In addition, it is the most durable of all our hardwoods, exceed¬ ing that of White Oak by 250 percent. The wood takes a high polish, and it has a high fuel content, one cord almost equaling a ton of anthracite coal. Yet Black Locust is not even mentioned in the usual lumbering sta¬ tistics, the chief reason being that in many areas the locust borer has ruined most of the trees and too few are found in sound condition. It is also subject to attack by the locust leaf-miner, causing premature brown¬ ing and death of the foliage. In former days it was much in demand for ship-building. "Tree-nails" (dowels) of this wood were stronger and longer-lasting than the strongest hulls. Very durable in contact with soil or water, it was also used for ships' bottoms, mill cogs, and wheel hubs. Since locust boards are now almost unknown, it is likely to be used only for fence posts, railway ties, mine props, insulator pins, and such small articles as rake teeth, tool handles, and ladder rungs. This species is often planted as an ornamental, but Rogers (1926) was not enthusiastic about such use. In addition to its being subject to insect attacks, "The angled twigs ... break easily in windy weather," so "its symmetry is soon destroyed unless the tree grows in a sheltered situa¬ tion. An old locust is usually an ugly, broken specimen, ragged looking for three-fourths of the year," while in winter "the pods chatter querulous¬ ly, as the wind plays among the tree tops." In the Catskills this tree seems not yet to be subject to insect attack, however, and one frequently sees fine specimens. It has also been planted extensively for erosion con¬ trol in gullies and ravines since it tolerates poor soil and grows rapidly. The parent tree often sends up a host of sucker shoots, however, which are almost impossible to eradicate; this also precludes its use as a lawn tree. Steyermark (1963) states that "Black Locust has been used extensively for reforestation purposes, especially covering newly exposed ground, such as mine excavations and dumps, and eroded areas," as well as being "used ex¬ tensively in some prairie states as a shelter belt." In addition, its ex¬ tensive root system not only keeps the soil from washing away, but it also enriches the soil through the nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in granular nodules on its roots. Martin e_t al. (1961) state that the Black Locust "rates low as a wildlife plant. Its seeds are consumed to a limited extent by quail, other gamebirds, and also by squirrels, but the small extent of wildlife use stands out in contrast with its widespread availability." Birds seem to eat its seeds only if nothing better is available, but the bark is often eaten by cottontail rabbits during the winter months. The U.S . Dispensatory of 1865 states that this species is "supposed by some to possess remedial properties. The bark of the root is the most active part, and is said to be tonic, and in large doses purgative and emetic," while Millspaugh (1887) remarks that "A tincture of the fresh bark from the young twigs was used medicinally." The inner bark, however, con¬ tains a poisonous principle and not only have horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry been fatally poisoned from eating it but several cases of human poisoning have been recorded from eating the seeds, roots, or the inner bark. Kingsbury (1964) states that horses are most commonly poisoned when they strip and eat the bark of the trees to which they have been tethered, -181- Robina pseudo-acacia--Black Locust (flowers) rom Sargent (1891-1902), Vol. Ill, Plate 112, ff. p. 42.] -182- I Robina pseudo-acacia--Black Locust (fruit) [From Sargent (1891-1902), Vol. Ill, Plate 113, ff. p. 42.] -183- and both cattle and horses have been poisoned from grazing sprouts on cut¬ over lands. Symptoms include purging, stupor, weakened pulse, and gastro¬ enteritis . Millspaugh (1887) further reports that while the seeds are quite acrid, they "lost this quality upon boiling; they then furnish a pleasant, nutritious article of food, much esteemed by the aborigines." The seeds, upon pressure, also "yield a large quantity of oil." In New Mexico the flowers of a related species were eaten fresh. Since the bark, roots, leaves, and seeds have a reputation for being poisonous, it is wise to avoid their use either as food or medicine, al¬ though it is possible that cooking the seeds may make them edible. The flowers, on the other hand, have been used both to make a pleasant drink by infusing them in water and to make fritters. For the latter purpose, gather the clusters at the height of bloom, remove the coarse stems, and dip the clusters in a batter made from 1 cup of flour, 1 tablespoon of sugar, 1 tea¬ spoon of baking powder, 2 eggs, and 1/2 cup of milk. Fry these clusters in deep fat heated to 375° F for about 4 minutes or until they are golden brown. Drain them on a paper towel, squeeze some orange juice over them, roll in granulated sugar, and serve while piping hot. -184- Tri-folium L. Clover. There are about 300 species of clover, annual and perennial herbs chiefly of the north temperate zone with leaves mostly palmately 3" foliate, stipules united with the petiole, and flowers in heads or headlike racemes. The name of the genus is derived from the Latin tres , three, and folium, leaf. Trifolium is the most valuable of the legumes for forage and several species are widely cultivated. Clover is also highly valued as a source of honey. Western Indians have used the young herbage of various species of clover either raw as a salad or cooked as a potherb. Vogel (1970) remarks that the Indians of northern California ate the fresh foliage from April through July, picking it from plants before they flowered. The Digger tribe cooked Red Clover by placing several moistened layers on one another in a stone oven. The Apaches boiled clover with dandelions, grass, and "pigweed." Sturtevant (1919) remarks that "Where clover is found growing wild, the Indians practice a sort of semicultivation by irrigating it and harvesting it." The Porno tribe held special feasts and dances in early spring to celebrate the appearance of this food plant. At that time "The people moved out into the fields and reveled in the abundance of these greens, eating great quantities as they gathered them, and bringing them back to the village by the basketfull." Although the leaves contain many essential food elements, they have been known to cause bloating both in human beings and in cattle, particularly when consumed in large quantities. Some Indian tribes ate peppernuts or dipped the clover in salt water to aid its digestion and to prevent bloating. The seeds and dried flowers of various clovers have long been used in Europe in times of famine as a bread-food, usually as an "extender" of whatever flour might be available. Writing of the use of the common White Clover, T. repens , in Scotland, Lightfoot reported that bread made from it was very nutritious and wholesome. Among settlers of the eastern states clover tea, made by brewing the dried flower heads, was esteemed as a whole¬ some and supposedly medicinal drink, for many years prescribed as a sooth¬ ing medicine for people suffering from bronchitis, asthma, and coughs. It was particularly recommended in the treatment of whooping-cough. Martin e_t ad.. (1961) report that wild animals, like domestic live¬ stock, relish clover foliage, and the small hard seeds of western clovers are important to quail and other birds. Ruffed grouse, wild turkey, and bobwhite consume both seeds and foliage, but most upland game birds limit their use of clover almost entirely to the foliage. The varying hare, wood¬ chuck, porcupine, cottontail rabbit, raccoon, and skunk, as well as some other mammals, consume both pods and foliage. Trifolium arvense and T. incarnatum may cause mechanical injury to farm animals by forming "hair balls" in the digestive system. Trifolium hybridum produces a dermititus in some individuals, and cases of photo¬ sensitization in domestic animals have been ascribed to this species in Europe . -185- Key to the Catskill Species of Trifolium 1. Flowers sessile or subsessile in the dense head, the middle and upper ones not strongly reflexed in age, 2 2. Heads subtended by a pair of opposite leaves or their dilated stipules, either sessile or slightly elevated above them (heads subglobose, ovoid, or obovoid; calyx teeth setaceous; corolla much exceeding calyx; corolla roseate or creamy white) . T. pratense 2. Heads on naked peduncles, not subtended by paired leaves or stipules; leaves all alternate (petioles of lower and median leaves shorter than the narrowly oblanceolate or linear- oblong leaflets; corolla pale, macrescent, overtopped by the calyx teeth; heads drab or grayish) . T. arvense 1. Flowers distinctly pedicellate, in loosening heads; pedicels reflexed in age, 3 3. Corolla yellow, becoming brown and macrescent; heads 0. 5-1.5 cm thick; petioles mostly shorter than leaflets (leaflets all sessile or subsessile; stipules elongate, not dilated at base; style and legume subequal; seed globose) . T. agrarium 3. Corolla white, roseate, or purple; heads 1.2-4. 5 cm in diameter; lower petioles longer than leaflets, 4 4. Stems widely creeping or with long basal runners (peduncles rising from the creeping stems, scapiform; calyx teeth shorter than the tube; corolla white) . T. repens 4. Stems erect or ascending, without basal runners (calyx 3 .5" 5 mm long, its teeth only slightly longer than the campanulate tube; corolla pink and white or roseate throughout) . T. hybridum Trifolium agrarium L. Hop- clover. Meaning of Species Name. Of fields. Other Names . Yellow Clover, Hop Trefoil, Field Hop Clover. Type of Plant. An annual or biennial herb, reproducing by seeds. Habitat. Roadsides, waste places, meadows, pastures, and old fields. Range . Nf to BC, s to SC and Ark, commoner eastw. Distr in NYS . Frequent or locally common. Distr in the Torrev Range . Common as a weed throughout our area. Time of FI. (May ) Jun-Sep; Jun-Aug at Cornell. Origin . Natzd from Eu. Both flowers and foliage are edible. Western Indians often eat the flowers, stems, and seeds of this plant after they have been washed and dipped in salted water. As a vegetable it can be prepared by cutting the clover into small pieces and frying them in bacon fat and draining on a paper towel. For those who may wish to experiment with this and other clovers, Berglund and Bolsby (1971) give recipes for clover omelet, clover soup, clover caramel custard, deep-fried clover-blossom fritters, clover and wine lemonade, pork chops baked with yellow clover, braised yellow clover blossoms, and yellow clover salad. -186- Trifolium agrariurrr-Hop Clover [From Britton & Brown (1913)? II: 35^-] In areas where this species has become an undesirable weed, Muenscher (1952) suggests that it can be controlled by close pasturing to prevent seed formation. In meadows it should be plowed under and followed by a clean cultivated crop. \ * Trifolium arvense L. Rabbit ' s- foot Clover. Meaning of Species Name. Of cultivated fields. Other Names. Old-field Clover, Stone Clover, Hare's-foot Clover, Pussy Clover, Calf Clover, Poverty- gra ss , Bottle-grass, Dogs and Cats, Pussies, Pussy-cats. Type of Plant . An annual herb, reproducing by seeds. Habitat . A weed of sterile soil, roadsides, old fields, meadows, and waste places, especially in dry, sandy, or rocky soil. Range . Que to Fla, w to the Pacific coast. Distr in NYS . Locally common in many parts of the state outside the higher Adirondacks . Distr in the Torrev Range . Common everywhere. Time of FI. May-Oct; Aug 15_Sep 15 at Cornell. Origin . Natzd from Eu. In areas where this species has become an undesirable weed, Muenscher (1952) suggests that it can be brought under control by applying fertilizer to improve the soil or by planting a green manure crop and plowing it under, followed by a clean cultivated crop. -187- Trifolium arvense- -Rabbit ' s-foot Clover [From Mathews (1912) , plate between pp. 212-213.] % * Trifolium hybridum L. Alsike Clover. Meaning of Species Name . Hybrid, from an early misconception. Other Names . Pink' Clover, Alsatian Clover, Swedish Clover. Type of Plant . A perennial herb. Habitat . Much cult, spreading to roadsides and clearings. Range . Nf to Ak, s to Fla and Cal. Distr in NYS . Often cult and locally common as an esc or natzd plant in many parts of the state. Distr in the Torrey Range . Common in most parts of our range as a weed, but often locally wanting. Time of FI. Jun-Oct; Jun-Aug at Cornell. Origin . Introd from Eu. Remarks . More abundant northw; sometimes cult for fodder. -183- Trifolium hybridum--Alsike Clover [From Britton & Brown (1913), II: 357.] This species is a good source of honey in some areas. Steyermark (1963) observes that "Alsike Clover is sown as a pasture and fodder plant primarily as a substitute for red clover in wet or sour soils," particular¬ ly in the north- central, eastern, and Pacific northwestern states. Kingsbury (196U) reports that photosensitivity caused by eating this species has been recognized in hogs, sheep, cattle, and horses. The latter seem to be particularly susceptible, poisoning usually occurring among animals on alsike pasturage during bright sunny weather. Animals usually make a prompt recovery on being removed from the clover pasturage. Some individuals likewise get a dermatitis from handling this species. Trifolium pratense L. Red Clover. Meaning of Species Name . Of meadows. Other Names . Purple Clover, Meadow Clover, Sweet Clover, Marl- grass, Cow-grass, Cow- clover, Broad- leaved Clover, Common Clover, Sugar-plums, Honeysuckle- clover , Knap, Suckles, Cleaver-grass. Type of Plant . A biennial or short-lived perennial herb. Habitat . Fields, roadsides, meadows, and clearings. Range . Lab to BC, s nearly throughout temp NAm. Distr in NYS . Very common. Distr in the Torrey Range . Common throughout the area. Time of FI . May-Aug(Sep) ; Jun-Oct at Cornell. Origin . Natzd from Eu. Remarks . Commonly planted for forage. As an agricultural plant, Red Clover, a native of Europe and tem¬ perate Asia, seems to have first attracted attention in England around 1635. It was introduced into America at an early period, for Bartram -189- Trifolium pratense~-Red Clover [From Mathews (1912), plate between pp. 212-213.1 mentioned it before the American Revolution and Samuel Deane in 1797 spoke of it as a plant highly valued in New England. While it is among the most generally cultivated fodder plants, it seems not to have been used as a food plant in Europe until about 1875 5 when J. Lightfoot reported that in Ireland the powdered flowers were "mixed with bread and eaten" in times of scarcity, presumably by adding the flowers to flour to increase its bulk: before baking. Johnson (1867) has much to say concerning the usefulness of this plant to the British farmer: "The Clover is perhaps the most important to the farmer of all the plants cultivated for fodder in this country. In the wild state it is a perennial, but when grown artificially it rarely lasts many years. It is usually sown with corn [wheat or rye] in the spring, and allowed to grow up after the crop is reaped, pastured by sheep or cattle, and either cut for hay the following season, or mowed several times like lucerne [Medicago sativa], and employed for a 'soiling,1 or feeding in the farmstead.... "On good soils fitted for its production Red Clover will often yield upwards of three tons of hay per acre, and sometimes considerably more. -190- Like most plants of the kind, it is very succulent, and requires long dry¬ ing before it is fit for stacking. In Courland and other parts of Russia it is commonly fermented in heaps before drying, and cattle are said to relish it in that condition. To obtain Clover- hay in its most nutritive state, as well as to insure a vigorous after-growth, it should always be cut before it is in full flower . . . "The nutritive qualities of Clover are exceeded by very few plants, and it is so productive that . . . one acre is equal to three of ordinary pasture . . . , and the hay is reckoned more valuable . . . than the same weight yielded by the best meadow land.... "The introduction of this plant and that of the turnip, have caused a revolution in British husbandry. It seems to have been first grown here by Sir Richard Weston, in 1645, being introduced by him from Belgium, where he had observed its large and successful cultivation; but it appears to have been sown on the Continent long before, the want of the fine natural pas¬ tures that we possess having, at a very early period, directed the attention of the German and French farmers to the cultivation of those herbs that yield their best substitute. "The seeds and dry flowers of the Red Clover, like those of the white species, have been occasionally used as a substitute for flour in bread making, and those of all the native species might probably be so em¬ ployed. "The heads are gathered in the north of Europe for dyeing wool green, being boiled with alum or sulphate of iron." Steyermark (1963) was of the opinion that "After alfalfa, red clover is considered to be the most important forage legume crop in the United States," particularly in the north-central, northeastern, and Pacific north¬ western states. The reddish-purple blossoms are currently more likely to be used to make a tea much relished by some people than are other species of clover. The flower heads are gathered on a dry day when in full bloom and dried in¬ doors at room temperature^, either by spreading them out on newspapers on the floor or by hanging them up to dry. When fully dry the flowers can be crushed, then packed and stored in tightly covered glass jars. Herbs to be used in cooking or for making tea should never be dried in the sun or in an oven, for the flavoring oils are usually highly volatile and easily dis¬ sipated by heat. Clover tea is prepared by pouring boiling water over a heaping teaspoonful of the dried blossoms and letting them steep for a few minutes. A more flavorable tea mixture can be made by mixing four parts of crushed dried clover blossoms with one part of crushed dried peppermint or spearmint leaves, used in about the same amount as in preparing regular tea. Among the laity during the l800's, a strong clover tea was very likely to be consumed as a sedative and for its demulcent action, deemed particularly valuable in treating such respiratory ailments as asthma, hoarseness, colds, persistent coughs, and irritations of the respiratory tract. Lighthall (n.d.) suggested a "common swallow" of the hot tea "every hour or two." A cough syrup was also made by adding strained honey to a -191- Trifolium repens--White Clover [From Spencer (1968), Fig. 40, p. 133-1 strong infusion of the blossoms, considered useful for croups, colds, bad coughs, and hoarseness. An infusion of the entire plant at full bloom was likewise a component of salves used to treat skin sores and ulcers. Amer¬ ican Indians used the plant for sore eyes and in a salve for burns, but they could not have done so until the plant had been introduced from Europe In central Europe this species was used medicinally to improve the appetite relieve digestive distress, and to treat liver ailments. Kingsbury (1964) reports that "Hay containing large or moderate amounts of second- cutting or late- season red clover produces a syndrome characterized by slobbering in cattle, horses, and sheep," the symptoms being "likely to continue with increasing severity as long as the hay is * * Trifolium repens L. White Clover. Meaning of Species Name. Creeping. Other Names . Dutch Clover, Honeysuckle Clover, White Trefoil, Purple-grass, Purplewort, Sheep's Gowan, Honeystalks, Lamb- sucklings , Shamrock, White Dutch Clover. Type of Plant . A perennial herb. Habitat. Lawns, roadsides, fields, and open pastured woods. Range . Throughout the US and n into Can and Ak. Distr in NYS . Common. Distr in the Torrey Range . Common throughout our range as a weed. Time of FI. May-Oct; Jun-Oct at Cornell. -I92- Origin . Introd and natzd from Eu. Remarks . Commonly planted. Trifolium repens and other clovers have long been considered highly valuable as forage crops, either alone or mixed with grass. Millspaugh (1887) states that "its nutritive ratio is lower by nearly one-half than that of timothy, yet ruminants seem to eat it more greedily and with a fuller sign of satisfaction." White Clover is also greatly prized as a green manure to improve the soil, an element of importance in crop rota¬ tion because of its large percentage of potash, lime, and phosphoric acid. Johnson (1867) observes that "The chief value of this species is for pas¬ turage. All kinds of domestic cattle thrive upon it. It forms a most val¬ uable addition to the grasses in permanent pastures, and is often sown alone, or with rye-grass, for more temporary use. In this latter way it will last and continue to yield good crops for many years." He also remarks that "The seeds retain their vitality for a long period when buried in the ground, and hence the plants often appear abundantly on land freshly brought under cultivation." It is reported that in Ireland during times of scarcity the powdered flowers of this species were mixed with flour to make a bread considered wholesome and nutritious. It was also much used as one component of a salve for sores and ulcers, "to which it proves peculiarly soothing." A strong infusion was also "often used in half-ounce doses, to suspend the spasm of whooping-cough." A tincture was prepared by pounding the fresh blossoms to a pulp, adding two parts by weight of alcohol, stirring well, and letting the mixture stand at least 8 days in a dark, cool place, after which the tincture was strained and stored until needed. It is reported that in the United States between 2 and 3 million pounds of White Clover seeds are marketed annually, most of which is mixed with grass seeds for lawns. Some strains of White Clover have "a moderate¬ ly cyanogenetic capacity," but no actual cases of loss of livestock have been attributed to this species. This species comes in various sizes. Steyermark (1963) states that "T. repens f. giganteum, Ladino Clover, is a giant form which originated from Lodi, Italy, and was introduced about 1900 into the northeastern states," adding that "various other strains of White Clover are in culti¬ vation, differing from one another in size," with the English White Clover being the smallest and the White Dutch Clover intermediate in size. In addition to its usefulness in pastures and lawns and for its palatable hay and silage value, "it is also employed for soil improvement, erosion control, and food for wildlife," as well as being a source of clover honey. -I93- Vicia L. Vetch. There are about 200 species of vetch, more or less climbing herbs with half-sagittate stipules and flowers on axillary peduncles, widely distributed on all continents but particularly in the northern hemisphere and temperate South America. The name of the genus is the classical Latin name of the vetch. Fernald and Kinsey (1943) report that the seeds of V. sativa have been tried as human food but that they proved to be both un¬ palatable and indigestible. The fact that this species is invaluable as a forage crop for domestic animals is no indication that it is suitable as food for man. It is reported that the starchy seeds of several species of native vetches were eaten by the Indians. Martin et al. (1961) remark that both the seeds and foliage "are eaten to a limited extent by birds and ro¬ dents, including mourning dove, ruffed grouse, ring-necked pheasant, bob- white quail, wild turkey, and some sparrows," particularly in the eastern states where they are most common. Vicia f aba , the Broad, English, or European Bean, is among the most ancient of cultivated plants, one variety having been found in the lacus¬ trine deposits of Switzerland ascribed to the Bronze Age. It was like¬ wise cultivated by the ancient Egyptians, by the Hebrews, and by the an¬ cient Greeks and Romans. One of the noble families of Rome, the Fabii, derived their name from this plant. It is said to have been introduced in¬ to China in the year 2822 B.C. No one knows when it reached Great Britain, but in 1597 Gerarde appears to have known only two varieties. Key to Local Species of Vicia 1. Flowers 1-8, 3"8 mm long (legume nearly equally rounded from both sutures to the blunt tip, beakless, 1-1. 3 cm long).. V. tetrasperma 1. Flowers 20- 40 or more, 0.8-2 cm long; if less than 20 flowers in well-developed racemes, 1.5“2 cm long, 2 2. Appressed-pubescent perennial; upper side of calyx gradually rounded, not gibbous at base, the lower teeth lance-attenuate, the upper very short and broad; limb of standard as long as the claw . V. cracca 2. Spreading villous annual or biennial; upper side of calyx gibbous or saccate at base, the lower teeth linear-acicular, long-ciliate , the upper lanceolate; limb of standard less than half as long as claw . V. villosa / / Vicia cracca L. Tufted Vetch. Meaning of Species Name . The Latin name applied by Rivinius to this plant, the Italian name being Cracca . Other Name s . Canada-pea, Cow Vetch, Blue Vetch, Bird Vetch, Tine- grass, Cat Peas, Wild Vetch. Type of Plant . A perennial herb, reproducing by seeds. Habitat . Fields, meadows, roadsides, thickets, shores, and waste places . Range . Nf to BC, s to Del, Va, Ind, Mich, and Ill; also in Eurasia. -I9L- Vicia cracca--Tufted Vetch [From Dana (1900), Plate 155? P- 351.] Distr in NYS . Frequent across the state norths, where apparently native; locally abundant southw to the vicinity of NYC, where it appears to be adv. Distr in the Torrey Range . Rather common as a weed throughout the range except the coastal plain of NJ. Time of FI. May- Aug; Jun 10-Jul 15 at Cornell. Origin . Native in the n part of its range but apparently natzd from Eu from Mass to Ind and southw. In areas where this species may have become an undesirable weed, Muenscher (1952) suggests mowing infested fields before the seeds ripen. Plow and fallow with a cultivated crop for one season. -I95- Vicia tetrasperma--Four- seeded Vetch [From Britton & Brown (1913)3 II: 4ll.] Vicia tetrasperma (L.) Moench. Four-seeded Vetch. Meaning of Species Name . Four-seeded. Other Names . Slender Vetch, Smooth Tare, Lentil Tare. Type of Plant . An annual herb, reproducing by seeds. Habitat . Fields, meadows, roadsides, and waste places. Range . Nf to Ont and Wis, s to Fla and Tex. Distr in NYS . Frequent or common in many secs of the state. Distr in the Torrey Range . Not uncommon as a weed near the larger cities and towns. Time of FI. May-Aug(Sep) ; Jun at Cornell. Origin . Natzd from Eu. Remarks. In areas where this species may have become an undesirable weed, it can be controlled by the same methods as those outlined for V. cracca . * % Vicia villosa Roth. Hairy Vetch. Meaning of Species Name. Long-hairy. Other Names . Winter Vetch, European Vetch. Type of Plant. An annual or biennial herb. Habitat. Fields, meadows, roadsides, and waste places. Range . NS to BC, s to Ga, Tex, and Cal. Distr in NYS . Infrequent or locally abundant throughout the state outside the densely wooded areas. Distr in the Torrey Range . Collected from time to time as a waif; doubtfully thoroughly est. Time of FI. (May) Jun-Aug(Sep) ; Jun-Sep at Cornell. Origin. Introd and natzd from Eu. Remarks. Cult as a forage crop. -196- Vicia villosa--Hairy Vetch [From Smith (1966), Plate 96, P* 204.] -197- In some areas this species is extensively grown as a cover crop for plowing under as a green manure. It sometimes escapes or persists but does not survive long under cultivation. Steyermark (1963) observes that this species frequently escapes to fallow fields and roadside banks; in flower it is "quite conspicuous" with its "dark lavender to purple, many flowered racemes." Kingsbury (1964) reports that at least one instance is on record in wrhich this plant caused loss of life in cattle in Europe and that the seed was held responsible for the loss of five cows in Alabama. -198- REJECINDAE The botany office at the New York State Museum has for years main¬ tained for each of the counties making up New York State an informal, up- to-date checklist of all plants known to occur in the county. Admittedly, these checklists are not complete, in part because there has not been time to check all herbaria where specimens from the state have been filed and in part because botanical exploration constantly turns up species previously unrecorded, but these lists do provide all the information currently avail¬ able on what plants grow in each of the several counties of the state. A's mentioned in the introduction to Volume 1 of this series, however, the Platt list of 1840 was used as one of the sources in compiling a check¬ list of the plants occurring in Delaware County, although none of the Platt specimens has survived and there is no evidence that the plants studied were confined to those collected in Delaware County. The Platt list, comprising 380 species, contains 36 species from this section of the Catskill flora, 7 of which have neither since been collected in Delaware County, nor are there any records of their occurrence elsewhere in the Catskill region: Ribes americanum Crataegus coccinea Pyrus arbutifolia Pyrus aucuparia Pyrus coronaria Sanguisorba canadensis Phaseolus polystachyios These species are therefore rejected both from the checklist for Dela¬ ware County and as elements constituting part of the Catskill flora until such time as more specific evidence is found that they occur in this area. -I99- LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS The following abbreviations are used primarily in the "plant biographies" and in the Appendix, for the most part without periods: adv, adventive Afr, Africa, African Ak, Alaska Ala, Alabama alt, altitude Alta, Alberta Am, America, American Apr, April Ariz, Arizona Ark, Arkansas Aug, August Austr, Australia BC, British Columbia BW, black-and-white photograph c, central Cal, California cm, centimeter Co, county, counties Col, Colorado Ct, Connecticut cu, cubic cult, cultivation, cultivated DC, District of Columbia Dec, December Del, Delaware distr, distribution dm, decimeter e, east, eastern eastw, eastward esc, escape, escaped estab, established Eu, Europe Feb , February fl, flower, flowering Fla, Florida fr, fruit, fruiting frag, fragmentary ft , foot Ga, Georgia Gl, Greenland I, island la, Iowa Id, Idaho Ill, Illinois in . , inch Ind, Indiana introd, introduced Jan, January Jet, junction Jul, July Jun, June Kan, Kansas Ky, Kentucky L, lake La, Louisiana Lab, Labrador lb , pound LI, Long Island m, meter Mack, Mackenzie District Man, Manitoba Mar, March Mass, Massachusetts Md, Maryland Me, Maine Mex, Mexico Mich, Michigan Minn, Minnesota Miss, Mississippi mm, millimeter Mo, Missouri Mont, Montana Mt(s), Mount, mountains n, north, northern NAm, North America (n) natzd, naturalized NB, New Brunswick NC, North Carolina n . d. , no date ND, North Dakota NE, New England ne, northeast, northeastern Neb, Nebraska Nev, Nevada Nf, Newfoundland NH, New Hampshire NJ, New Jersey NM, New Mexico n.n. , no name northw, northward Nov, November n .p . , no place ITS , Nova Scotia nw, Northwest, northwestern -201- NY, New York NYC, New York City NYS, New York State 0, Ohio, Ohio State University Oct, October Okla, Oklahoma Ont, Ontario Ore , Oregon Pa , Pennsylvania Phil, Philadelphia Acad¬ emy of Sciences Que, Quebec R, river reg, region, regions RI, Rhode Island Rt , route s, south, southern SAm, South America (n) Sask, Saskatchewan SC, South Carolina SD, South Dakota sec(s), section(s) Sep, September SI, Staten Island southw, southward southwestw, southwestward ssp, subspecies St, saint sw, southwest, southwestern T, transparency; i.e., a‘ 35”inm slide in color Tenn, Tennessee Tex, Texas Trop, tropics, tropical US, United States Va, Virginia var., variety vie, vicinity Vt, Vermont w, west, western Wash, Washington westw, westward WI, West Indies Wis, Wisconsin wt, weight WVa, West Virginia Wyo, Wyoming x, a cross between two species, in¬ dicating a hybrid Yuk, Yukon Territory -202- GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS Unhappily for the amateur, botanical literature is so rife with technical terms that it almost seems necessary to learn a new language in order to be able to read some of it with any degree of comprehension. 'The writer has tried (but probably not always succeeded very well) not only to keep the use of technical terms to a minimum but also to define those he does use when they first occur. Since glossaries of botanical terms are readily available in most of the field guides, to say nothing of the two more comprehensive ones given in Fernald (1950) and in Glea¬ son (1952), the writer has made no attempt to compile a glossary of botanical terms for this work. In any case, recourse can always be had to Webster * s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary (1965), where most of them are defined. Should one wish to go further afield, George Usher's (1966) A Dictionary of Botany is an excellent reference. This work contains many references to the medicinal applications of plants, in the course of which the use of a number of medical terms has been necessary. Such words are perhaps likely to be even more un¬ familiar to the layman than are those relating more or less strictly to botany. While the definitions of most of the medical terms are likewise given in the dictionary, the following list, compiled in part from Kroch- mal et al. (1971), may be helpful. Ague, an old word for fever, usually malaria. Allergenic, produces an allergy. Alterative, an old-fashioned medical term meaning a medicine that cures an illness by gradually restoring general bodily health. Amenorrhea, an abnormal absence or suppression of the menstrual discharge. Anodyne, relieves or quiets pain. Antacid, neutralizes excess acidity in the alimentary canal. Anthelmintic, capable of expelling or destroying intestinal worms. Antiasthmatic, relaxes bronchial muscles and relieves labored breathing. Antibiotic, an organic chemical substance, derived from living things, that will work selectively against harmful microorganisms. Antidote, counteracts the action of a poison. Antipruritic, prevents or relieves itching (antipsoriatic) . Antipyretic, any medicine for checking or preventing fever; also called "febrifuge" and "refrigerant." Antiscorbutic, a food or medicine that can prevent or cure scurvy; any plant that contains significant amounts of vitamin C is an antiscorbutic. Antiseptic, checks or inhibits the growth of the microorganisms that cause infection . Antitussive, relieves or prevents coughing. Aperient, a mild and gentle-acting laxative Aromatic, a plant, drug, or medicine with a spicy scent and pungent but pleasing taste . Astringent, causes the contraction or shrinkage of body tissues. Ataxia, an inability to coordinate voluntary muscular movements. Calculous, a mineral deposit or "stone," usually in the bladder or kidney. Carcinogenic, causing cancer. Carminative, used to discourage the formation of gas after eating. -203“ Catarrhal, related to inflammation of the respiratory tract. Cathartic, causes an evacuation of the bowel. Caustic, destroys tissue. Cholagogue, increases the flow of bile Consumption, an old term for tuberculosis. Corroborant, an invigorating agent. Counterirritant, causes irritation of the surface of an area with the object of relieving a deep-seated congestion. Cystic, relating to the urinary bladder or to the gall bladder. Cystitis, inflammation of the urinary tract. Cytotoxic, poisonous to cells. Decoction, an extract obtained by boiling. Demulcent, a substance used to protect or soothe the gastro- intestinal tract. Deobstruent, a medicine that has the power to clear obstructions from the natural ducts of the body. Depurative, removes impurities and waste materials from the blood. Diaphoretic, used to increase perspiration. Disinfectant, destroys or inhibits the growth of harmful microorganisms. Diuretic, increases the volume and flow of urine. Drastic, an agent that acts rapidly or violently. Dropsy, edema, an abnormal accumulation of serous fluid in bodily tissues (excess "water” in the common tongue). Dysentery, a disease characterized by severe diarrhea with passage of mu¬ cus and blood, usually caused by infection. Dyspepsia, a disturbed digestive condition characterized by nausea, gas, and heartburn; indigestion. Emetic, an agent that causes vomiting. Emmenagogue, an agent that induces menstrual flow. Emollient, used externally to soothe or soften the skin and protect it. Excoriation, a peeling or wearing off of the skin. Expectorant, an agent that causes expulsion of phlegm from the respiratory tract . Febrifuge, an agent that reduces fever. Flatulence, stomach discomfort caused by gas. Flux, an excessive abnormal discharge from the bowels. Gastritis, inflammation of the mucous membrane, particularly of the stomach. Hemoptysis, expectoration of blood from some part of the respiratory tract. Hemorrhage, a copious discharge of blood from the blood vessels; bleeding. Hemostatic, an agent used to stop internal hemorrhage. Hepatic, of or pertaining to the liver. Herpetic, pertaining to reptiles. Hygroscopic, having the ability to attract and absorb moisture from the surrounding environment. Hypnotic, an agent that induces sleep without delirium. Infusion, an extract obtained by steeping or soaking in water, usually hot but not boiling. , Irritant, causes inflammation of, or stimulation to, the tissues. Jaundice, a diseased condition that causes the skin, eyes, and body fluids to turn a yellowish- green color. Lumbago, painful muscular rheumatism usually involving the lower back. Menorrhagia, an abnormally profuse menstrual flow. Nephritis, inflammation of the kidneys. -204- Nervine, a medicine that will quiet nervousness or act as a tonic to nerve tissue; a relaxant or calmative . Ophthalmiatric , used in the treatment of eye diseases. Pectoral, usually an expectorant, used for diseases of the chest and lungs. Peritonitis, inflammation of the tissues lining the abdominal cavity. Poultice, a soft, usually heated, medicinal substance spread on cloth and applied to the skin. Pressor, raising or tending to raise blood pressure. Pulmonary, pertaining to the lungs. Purgative, increases peristalsis (contraction of the bowel). Pustulant, causes severe irritation of the skin, especially the sweat glands Refrigerant, allays thirst and gives a sensation of coolness to the body. Rheumatism, a sort of catch-all term that includes almost any pain and stiff ness of the joints. Rickets, a childhood disease characterized by defective deposition and utilization of calcium and phosphorus owing to inadequate sunlight or vitamin D. Rubifacient, causes reddening and mild irritation of the skin. Scorbutic, relating to or resembling scurvy. Scuivy, a disease marked by swollen and bleeding gums, loosening of teeth, and bleeding into the skin and mucous membranes, resulting from a lack of ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Sialagogue, causes an increase in flow of saliva. Somnifacient, produces sleep without delirium; a soporific. Soporific, tending to induce sleep. Stimulant, a substance that increases the activity of some part of the body, but net all stimulants bring a feeling of well-being; stumulants must be carefully distinguished from narcotics, which often bring a feeling of euphoria by depressing certain nerve centers. Stomachic, stimulates appetite and increases secretion of digestive juices. Styptic, an agent to check or stop bleeding; most herbal styptics are strong astringents that staunch the flow of blood by shrinking the surrounding tissues, thus closing the exposed blood vessels. Sudorific, increases perspiration. Thoracic (pertaining to the chest), a medicine used to treat complaints of the lungs and bronchial tubes. Tincture, a solution of a medicinal substance in alcohol. Tonic, stimulates the restoration of strength or tone to the muscles; bitter tonics achieve this by stimulating the flow of gastric juices, which in¬ creases the appetite, enabling the patient to consume more nourishing food. Urethritis, infection of the urethra, the duct by which urine is discharged from the bladder. Vermicide, an agent that destroys worms. Vermifuge, a substance used to destroy or expel parasitic intestinal worms. Vesicant, causes irritation to the skin, resulting in blisters. Vulnerary, an agent that promotes healing of open wounds. -205- REFERENCES Adrosko, Rita J. 1968. Natural Dyes in the United States. U. S. National Museum Bulletin 281. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washingdon, D. C. Reprinted by Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1971, as Natural Dyes and Home Dyeing. Alexander, E. J. 1936. "An Unsought Adventure in the Southern Catskills," Jour. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 37: 42-46. Bailey L[iberty] H. 19^+9* Manual of Cultivated Plants, Rev. Ed. 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Thomas & John Fleet, Boston, 1764. -214- APPENDIX The first three sections of my Flora carried detailed documentation for each dot shown on the distribution maps for each species, whether they referred to actual collections made, a reference in the literature, a photo¬ graph taken by the writer, or to an observation made in the field. The end result was an Appendix that not only frequently overwhelmed the text but also greatly increased the length of each volume. Another factor to be considered is the fact that few people are likely to be interested in any¬ thing more than a general indication of the rarity of a given species or its overall distribution. Clearly a change in procedure seemed advisable. Few distribution maps found in the literature carry extensive documenta¬ tion, yet that information represents countless hours of research in addi¬ tion to much time spent in the field. In fact the writer has spent as much, if not more, time compiling distribution records and keeping them up to date as he has spent on research and writing the accompanying text. Such information should not be entirely thrown to the winds. It has therefore been decided to publish the distribution maps with the text but to file the documentation for those maps with the Botany Office of the New York State Museum as well as with the Bailey Hortorium at Cornell University, where they can be made available to the general inquirer upon request. Families of plants in the data that follow are in general arranged in the order given in Fernald (1950) and in Gleason (1952), with the genera in alphabetical order under the several families, followed by the species in each genus, also in alphabetical order. Following a device used by a number of other writers, the township grid has been used as the basis for the distribution maps that follow, where a solid dot (•) represents a col¬ lection made in that township, while an open circle (o) refers to an obser¬ vation, a reference in the literature, or a photograph taken by the writer. No effort has been made to show the approximate location within the township of collections or of observations; the solid dots and open circles simply in¬ dicate the occurrence of that taxon somewhere within the township. -215- ALBANY S U L L I V A Counties and townships of the Catskill mountain region. -216- Sarracenia purpurea L. Pitcher-plant Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Drosera intermedia Hayne Spatulate-leaved Sundew -217- Drosera rotundifolia L. Round- leaved Sundew Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Podostemum ceratophyllum Micnx. Threadfoot -218- Flora of Sedum acre L. THE CATSKILLS Mossy Stonecrop New York State White Stonecrop -219- Sedum rosea (L. ) Scop. Roseroot Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Sedum sarmentosum Bunge Creeping Stonecrop -220- Sedum telephium L. ssp. purpureum (Link) Schinz & Keller Live- forever Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Sedum ternatum Michx. Wild Stonecrop -221- Chrysosplenium araericanum Schwein. Golden Saxifrage Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Mitella diphylla L. Two- leaved Bishop' s-cap -222- Mitella nuda L. Naked Bishop' s-cap Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Penthorum sedoides L. Ditch Stonecrop -223- Philadelphus coronarius L. Garden Mock Orange Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Ribes cynosbati L. Prickly Gooseberry -224- Ribes glandulosum Grauer Skunk Currant Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Ribes grossularia L. European Gooseberry -225- Ribes hirtellum Michx. Bristly Gooseberry Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Ribes lacustre (Pers.) Poir. Bristly Black Currant -226- Ribes rotundifolium Michx. Round- leaved Gooseberry Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Ribes rubrum L. Garden Currant -227- Rites triste Pall. Wild Red Currant Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Saxifraga pensylvanica L. Swamp Saxifrage -228- Saxifraga virginiensis Michx. Early Rock Saxifrage Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Tiarella cordifolia L. Foamflower -229- Hamamelis virginiana L. Witch-hazel Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Platanus oceidentalis L. Sycamore -230- Agrimonia gryposepala Wallr. Tall Agrimony Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Amelanchier arborea (Michx. f.) Fern. Common Juneberry -231- Amelanchier bartramiana (Tausch) Roemer Mountain Juneberry Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Amelanchier laevis Wieg. Smooth Shadbush -232- Crataegus brainerdii Sarg Brainerd's Hawthorn Crataegus chrysocarpa Ashe Round- leaved Thorn Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State -233" Crataegus holmesiana Ashe Thin- leaved Thorn Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Crataegus macrosperma Ashe Variable Hawthorn -234- Crataegus monogyna Jacq. English Hawthorn Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Crataegus punctata Jacq. Dotted Haw -235- Dalabarda repens L. False Violet Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Filipendula rubra (Hill) Robins. Queen- of- the- prairie -236- Filipendula ulmaria (L.) Maxim. Que e n- o f - the ~ me a dow Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Fragaria vesca L. ssp. americana (Porter) Staudt. American Wood Strawberry -237" Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Fragaria vesca L. ssp. vesca European Wood Strawberry Fragaria virginiana Duchesne Field Strawberry -238- Geum aleppicum Jacq. Yellow Avens Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Geum canadense Jacq. White Avens -239- Geum laciniatum Murr. Bristly White Avens Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Geum macrophyllum Willd. Large-leaved Avens -2b0- Geum rivale L. Purple Avens Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Geum virginianum L. Rough Avens -241- Potentilla argentea L. Silvery Cinquefoil Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Potentilla canadensis L. Dwarf Cinquefoil -242- Potentilla intermedia L. Downy Cinquefoil Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York S+ate Potentilla norvegica L. Norway Cinquefoil -243- Potentilla recta L. Rough- fruited Cinquefoil Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Potentilla simplex Michx. Old-field Cinquefoil -2bh- Potentilla tridentata Ait. Three-toothed Cinquefoil Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State -245- Prunus pensylvanica L. f. Pin Cherry Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Peach -246- Flora of Prunus pumila L. THE CATSKILLS var. depressa (Pursh) Gl. New yor|< state Sand Cherry Prunus serotina Ehrh. Black Cherry -247- Prunus virginiana L. Choke cherry- Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Pyrus americana (Marsh.) DC. American Mountain-ash -248- Pyrus communis L. Pear Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Pyrus decora (Sarg.) Hyland Showy Mountain-ash -249- Pyrus floribunda Lindl. Purple Chokeberry Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Pyrus malus L. Apple -250- Flora of Pyrus melanocarpa (Michx.) Willd. Black Chokeberry THE CATSKILLS New York State Rosa canina L. Dog Rose -251- Rosa Carolina L. Low Pasture Rose Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Rosa micrantha Sm. Small- flowered. Sweetbrier -252- Rosa multiflora Thunb. Floribunda Rose Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Rosa palustris Marsh. Swamp Rose -253" Rosa rubiginosa L. Sweetbrier Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Rosa virginiana Mill. Tall Pasture Rose -254- Rubus allegheniensis Porter Mountain Blackberry Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Rubus canadensis L. Smooth Blackberry -255" Rubus flagellaris Willd. Northern Dewberry Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Rubus frondosus Bigel. Leafy- flowered Blackberry -256- Rubus hispidus L. Bristly Dewberry Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Rubus idaeus L. ssp. melanolasius Foeke Wild Red Raspberry -257- Rubus laciniatus Willd. Cut- leaved Blackberry Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Rubus x neglectus Peck Purple Raspberry -258- Rubus occidentalis L. Black Raspberry Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Rubus odoratus L. Flowering Raspberry -259“ Flora of Rubus plicatifolius Blanch THE CATSKILLS Plaited- leaved Dewberry kl . _ J New York State Dwarf Red Blackberry -260- Sorbaria sorbifolia (L.) A. Br. False Spiraea Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Spiraea latifolia (Ait.) Borkh. Broad- leaved Meadowsweet -261- Spiraea tomentosa L. Hardback Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Waldsteinia fragarioides (Michx.) Tratt. Barren Strawberry -262- Amphicarpa bracteata (L.) Fern. Hog Peanut Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Apios americana Medic. Ground-nut -263- Baptisia tinctoria (L.) R. Br. Wild Indigo Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Coronilla varia L. Crown- vetch -264- Desmodium canadense (L.) DC. Canadian Tick-trefoil Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Desmodium glutinosum (Muhl.) Wood Pointed- leaved Tick-trefoil -265- Flora of Desmodium nudiflorum (L.)DC. THE CATSKILLS Naked-flowered Tick-trefoil New York State Desmodium paniculatum (L.) DC. Panicled Tick-trefoil -266- Desmodium rotundifolium DC. Round-leaved Tick-trefoil Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Lathyrus latifolius L. Perennial Pea -267- Lespedeza capitata Michx. Round-headed Bush- clover Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Lespedeza procumbens Michx. Trailing Bush-clover -268- Lotus corniculatus L. Bird's-foot Trefoil Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Lupinus polyphyllus Lindl. Garden Lupine -269- Medicago lupulina L. Black Medic Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Medicago sativa L. Alfalfa -270- Melilotus alba Desr. White Sweet Clover Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam. Yellow Sweet Clover -271- Robina pseudo-acacia L. Black Locust Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Trifolium agrarium L. Hop- clover -272- i \ Trifolium arvense L. Rabbit ' s- foot Clover Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Trifolium hybridum L. Alsike Clover -273" Trifolium pratense L. Red Clover Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Trifolium repens L. White Clover -27*t- Vicia cracca L. Tufted Vetch Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State Vicia tetrasperma (L.) Moench. Four-seeded Vetch -275“ Vicia villosa Roth. Hairy Vetch Flora of THE CATSKILLS New York State -276- ADDENDUM Desmodium glutinosum-- Pointed- leaved Tick-trefoil [From Britton & Brown (1913)? Vol. II, p. 396*1 While working on the distribution maps for this volume, the writer became acutely aware that he had inadvertently omitted Desmodium glutinosum both from the keys and from the text. Since cards for the Index had even been nearly completed by the time of this discovery, it seemed to be the sensible thing to put that species in an Addendum instead of retyping and repaging the text itself. This species most resembles D. nudiflorum. from which it can be distinguished by the terminal leaflet, which is very acu¬ minate and nearly as wide as long, while the leaf-bearing stem is prolonged into an elongate panicle. The terminal leaflet of D. midi fl omm . on the other hand, is distinctly longer than wide and is usually obtuse or only short acuminate, while the flowers are usually borne on a leafless branch arising from the base of the plant. Desmodium glutinosum (Muhl.) Wood. Pointed- leaved Tick-trefoil. Meaning of Species Name . Glutinous, from the sticky-puberulent rachis of the inflorescence. Other Names. Pointed- leaved Beggar-ticks. Type of Plant . A perennial herb. Habitat. Dry or rocky open woods. Range . NS and Me to Minn and Sask, s to Fla and Tex. -277- Distr in NYS . Locally frequent across the state s of the Adirondack^. Distr in the Torrev Range . Exclusively n of the moraine on LI; un¬ known on SI, scattered up the Hudson valley to the Hudson highlands, thence increasing northw. Elevation. Sea level- 1900 ft in the Torrey range. Time of FI. Jul-Aug; Jul l~Aug 15 at Cornell. Origin . Native. -278- INDEX Underscored figures indicate pages where illustrations are located. Agrimonia, 52 gryposepala, 51, 52, 231 Agrimony, 52 tall, 51, 52, 231 Alfalfa, 173, 175, 270 Alsike clover, 188, 189. 273 Amelanchier, 52 arborea, 54, 55., 231 bartramiana, 56, 52, 232 laevis, 56, 58, 232 American mountain-ash, 116, 117 . 118. 248 American wood strawberry, 74, 15, 237 Amphicarpa, 156 bracteata, 156, 157 , 263 Apios, 158 americana, 158, 159. 263 Apple, 109, 111, 112, 250 Avens, 77 bristly white, 81, 8l, 240 large-leaved, 82, 82, 240 purple, 80, 83, 24l rough, 82, 84, 241 white, 79, 55, 239 yellow, 78, 25, 239 Baptisia, l6l tinctoria, l6l, l6l, 264 Barren strawberry, 153 . 153, 262 Bean, wild, 158 Bird's-foot trefoil, 170, 171. 269 Bishop' s~cap, 19 naked, 1 5, 20, 223 two- leaved, 19. 20, 222 Blackberry cut- leaved, 144, 145 . 258 dwarf red, 149. 149, 260 leafy-flowered, l4l, l4l, 256 mountain, 136, 137 . 255 smooth, 138, 159, 255 Black chokeberry, 114, 115 . 251 Black locust, 180, 182 . 183 . 272 Black medic, 173, 174, 174, 270 Black raspberry, 146, 147. 259 Brainerd's hawthorn, 62, 63, 233 Bramble, 134 Bristly black currant, 22, 30, 226 Bristly dewberry, 142, 142, 257 Bristly gooseberry, 28, 22, 226 Bristly white avens, 8l, 8l, 240 Broad- leaved meadowsweet, 151 . 152, 261 Bush- clover round-headed, 168 . 170, 268 trailing, 169. 169, 268 Canadian tick-trefoil, 164, 166, 265 Cherry, 93 black, 101, 102, 247 pin, 97, 25, 246 sand, 100, 101. 247 Chokeberry, 109, 114 black, 114, 115, 251 purple, 114, 115 , 250 Chokecherry, 105, 107 . 248 Chrysosplenium, 17 americanum, 18, 18, 222 Cinquefoil, 84 downy, 86, 87, 243 dwarf, 86, 8 1, 242 Norway, 88, 89, 243 old- field, 91, 2£, 244 rough- fruited, 89, 25, 244 silvery 85, 86, 242 three-toothed, 91, 25, 245 Clover, 185 alsike, 188, 189, 273 hop-, 186, 187. 272 rabbit's- foot, 187, 188, 273 red, 189, 125, 274 white, 122, 192, 274 Clover, sweet white, 177, 1Z2, 271 yellow, 178, 1Z2, 271 Coronilla, 162 varia, 162, 163 . 264 Crassulaceae , the Orpine Family, 10 Crataegus, 59 brainerdii, 62, 65? 233 chrysocarpa, 62, 63, 233 holmesiana, 63? 64, 234 -279- Crataegus (cont.) macrantha, 63 macrosperrna , 64, 65, 234 monogyna, 64, £l, 235 peiicellata, 66, 66 punctata, 63, 68, 235 Crown- vetch, 162, 163 . 264 Currant, 23 bristly black, 22, 30, 226 garden 30, 31, 227 skunk, 26, 21, 225 wild red, 32, 33, 228 Cut- leaved blackberry, 144, 145 . 258 Dalibarda, 69 repens, 63, 69, 236 Deer-vetch, 170 Desmodium, 163 canadense, 164, l66, 265 glutinosum, 265, 277 . 277 nudiflorum, 163 . l655 266 paniculatum, 165 . 166, 266 rotundifolium, 165 . 165, 267 Dewberry bristly, l4£, 142, 257 northern, l40. 140, 256 plaited- leaved, 148, 260 Ditch stonecrop, 20, 21, 21, 223 Dog rose, 128, 129. 251 Dotted haw, 63, 68, 235 Downy cinquefoil, 86, 87 5 243 Drosera, 4 intermedia, 1, 8, 217 rotundifolia , 2, 7, 218 Droseraceae, the Sundew Family, 4 Dwarf cinquefoil, 86, 83, 242 Dwarf red blackberry, 149. l495 260 English hawthorn, 64, 63, 235 European gooseberry, £3? 28, 225 European wood strawberry, 32? 75? 238 False violet, j^S? 695 236 Field strawberry, 75? 38, 238 Filipendula, 70 rubra, 70, 31? 236 ulmaria, 70, 31? 237 Flowering raspberry, l475 148. 259 Foamflower, 36, 33? 229 Four- seeded vetch, 196. 196, 275 Fragaria, 72 vesca ssp. americana, 74, 31? 237 vesca ssp. vesca, 31, 75? 238 virginiana, 75? 3£? 238 Garden currant, 30, 31? 227 Garden lupine, 172, 269 Garden mock orange, 22, 23? 224 Geum, 77 aleppicum, 78, 32? 239 canadense, 79? 80, 239 laciniatum, 8l, 8l, 240 macrophyllum, 82, 82, 240 rivale, 80, 83? 24l virginianum, 82, 84, 241 Golden saxifrage, 17, 18, 222 Gooseberry, 23 bristly, 28, £3? 226 European, 23, 28, 225 prickly, £6, 2o, 224 round- leaved, 30, 31? 227 Ground-nut, 158, 159. 263 Hairy vetch, 196, 197. 276 Hamamelidaceae, the Witch-hazel Family, 37 Hamamelis, 38 virginiana, 38, 32? 230 Hardhack, 151. 152, 262 Haw , 66 dotted, 63, 68, 235 scarlet, 66, 66 Hawthorn , 59 Brainerd's, 62, 63, 233 English, 64, 63, 235 variable, 64, 65, 234 Hog peanut, 156, 157. 263 Hop- clover, 186, 187. 272 Indigo, wild, l6l, l6l, 264 Juneberry, 52 common, 54 j l£j 231 mountain, 56, 13? 232 Large-leaved avens, 82, 82, 240 Lathyrus, l66 latifolius , 163, 167, 267 Leafy- flowered blackberry, l4l. l4l, 256 Leguminosae, the Pea Family, 154 Lespedeza, l68 capitata, l68, 170, 268 procumbens, 169. 169? 268 -280- Live- forever , 14, 15 , 221 Locust, black, l80, 182, 183 , 272 Long-spined thorn, 6l Lotus, 170 corniculatus, 170, 171. 269 Low pasture rose, 128, 120. 252 Lupine, 172 garden, 172, 269 wild, 171 Lupinus, 172 perennis, 171 polyphyllus, 172, 269 Meadowsweet, 70 broad- leaved, 151. 152, 261 Medic, black, 173, lZk» 174, 270 Medicago, 173 lupulina, 174, 174, 270 sativa, 175 , 175, 270 Melilotus, 176 alba, 177, 112, 271 officinalis, 178, 170. 271 Mite 11a, 19 diphylla , 12, 20, 222 nuda, 12, 20, 223 Mock orange , 22 garden, 22, £3, 224 Mountain- ash, 109, 116 american, 116, 117 . 118. 248 showy, 119, 120. 249 Mountain blackberry, 136, 117 . 255 Multiflora rose, 130, 111. 253 Naked bishop' s-cap, 12, 20, 223 Naked- flowered tick-trefoil, l6l . 165 , 266 Northern dewberry, l40. 140, 256 Norway cinquefoil, 88, 89, 243 Old- field cinquefoil, 91, 33, 244 Orpine Family, 10 Panicled tick-trefoil, 165 . l66, 266 Pasture rose low, 128, 122, 252 tall, 122, 132, 254 Peach, 93, 99, 100, 246 Pea Family, 154 Peanut, hog, 156, 157. 263 Pea, perennial, l66, 167 . 167, 267 Pear, 109, 119, 120, 121, 249 Penthorum, 20 sedoides, 20, 20, 223 Perennial pea, 166, 167 . 167, 267 Philadelphus , 22 coronarius, 22, 23., 224 floridus, 22 Pitcher- plant , 2, 3, 217 family, 1 Plaited- leaved dewberry, 148, 260 Platanaceae, the Sycamore Family, 4l Platanus, 44 occidentalis , 42, 43, 44, 230 Plum, 93 Canada, 95, 36, 245 Podostemaceae , the Riverweed Family, 8 Podostemales , 8 Podostemum, 8 ceratophyllum, 8, 3, 218 Pointed- leaved tick-trefoil, 265, 277 . 277 Potent ilia, 84 argentea, 85, 8£>, 242 canadensis, 86, 83, 242 intermedia, 86, 87, 243 norvegica, 88, 89, 243 recta, 89, 3Q, 244 simplex 91, 33, 244 tridentata, 91, 33, 245 Prickly gooseberry, 26, 26, 224 Prunus , 93 nigra, 95, 36, 245 pensylvanica , 97, 38, 246 persica, 99, 100. 246 pumila, 100, 101. 247 serotina, 101, 103. 247 virginiana, 105, 107. 248 Purple avens, 80, 83, 24l Purple chokeberry, ll4, 115 . 250 Purple raspberry, 145. 146, 258 Pyrus , 109 americana, 116, 117 . 118. 248 communis, 120, 121. 249 decora, 119, 120 . 249 floribunda , ll4, 115. 250 malus. 111, 112 . 250 melanocarpa, ll4, 115 . 251 Queen- of- the-meadow, 70, 33, 237 Queen-of- the-prairie , 70, 33, 236 Rabbit ' s-foot clover, 187, 188, 273 Raspberry black, 146, 143, 259 -281- Raspberry (cont.) flowering, 147, l48. 259 purple, 145. 146, 258 wild red, 142, £44, 257 Red clover, 189, 190. 274 Ribes, 23 cynosbati, ££, 26, 224 glandulosum, 2o, ££, 225 grossularia, 27, 28, 225 hirtellum, 28, ££, 226 lacustre, ££, 30, 226 rotundifolium, 30, £1, 227 rubrum, 30, 31, 227 triste, 32, £3, 228 Riverweed, 8 Robina, 180 pseudo-acacia, 180, 182. 183. 272 Rosa, 122 canina, 128, 129. 251 Carolina, 128, 129. 252 micrantha, 130, 252 multiflora, 130, 131. 253 palustris, 132, 133. 253 rubiginosa, 132, 133. 254 virginiana, 129. 132, 254 Rosaceae, the Rose Family, 46 Rosales, 9 Rose, 122 dog, 128, 129, 251 floribunda, 130, 131. 253 low pasture, 128, 129. 252 swamp, 132, 133. 253 tall pasture, 129. 132, 254 Roseroot, 13, 14, 220 Rough avens, 82, 84, 24l Rough-fruited cinquefoil, 89, 90. 244 Round-headed bush- clover, l68, 170, 268 Round- leaved gooseberry, 30, 31. 227 Round- leaved sundew, £, 7? 218 Round-leaved thorn, 62, 63, 233 Round- leaved tick-trefoil, 165 . 165, 267 Rubus , 134 allegheniensis, 136, 137. 255 canadensis, 138, 139. 255 flagellaris, l40. l40, 256 frondosus, l4l. l4l, 256 hispidus, l4£, 142, 257 idaeus ssp. melanolasius , 142, 144, 257 Rubus (cont.) laciniatus, 144, 143, 258 x neglectus, 145. 146, 258 occidentalis, 146, 147. 259 odoratus, 147, 148. 259 plicatifolius , 148, 260 pubescens, 149. 149, 260 signatus, 149 Sarracenia, 1 purpurea, 2, 3, 217 Sarraceniaceae, the Pitcher-plant Family, 1 Sarraceniales, 1 Saxifraga, 33 pensylvanica, 3k, 35, 228 virginiensis, 3k, 36, 229 Saxifragaceae , the Saxifrage Family, 17 Saxifrage, 33 early rock, 35, 3£, 229 family, 17 golden, 17, 18, 222 swamp, 3k, 35, 228 Scarlet haw, 6£, 66 Sedum, 10 acre, 11, 1£, 219 album, 12, 13, 219 rosea, 13, 14, 220 sarmentosum, 13, 14, 220 telephium ssp. purpureum, 14, 15 . 221 ternatum, l6. 16, 221 Shadbush, 52 smooth, 56, 38, 232 Showy mountain-ash, 119, 120. 249 Silvery cinquefoil, 85, 86, 242 Skunk currant, 26, £7, 225 Smooth blackberry, 138, 139. 255 Sorbaria, 150 sorbifolia, 150. 150, 261 Spa tula te- leaved sundew, £, 6, 217 Spiraea, 150 latifolia , 131, 152, 261 tomentosa, 151. 152, 262 Stonecrop, 10 creeping, 13, 14, 220 ditch, 20, 21, 223 mossy, 11, 12. 219 white, 12, 13, 219 wild, l6, l6, 221 Strawberry, 72 American wood, 74, £3, 237 barren, 153. 153, 262 -282- Strawberry (cont.) European wood, 32? 75? 238 field, 75? 16, 238 Sundew, 4 family, 4 round- leaved, 2? 7? 218 spatulate-leaved, 2? 6, 217 Swamp rose, 132, 133 . 253 Sweetbrier, 132, 133, 254 small- flowered, 130, 252 Sweet clover, 17 6 white, 177? 112? 271 yellow, 178, 112, 271 Sycamore, 42, 4-3, 44, 230 Tall agrimony, 21? 52, 231 Tall pasture rose, 129, 132, 254 Thin-leaved thorn, 63, 64, 234 Thorn , 62 long-spined, 63 round- leaved, 62, 63? 233? 234 thin- leaved, 63, 64 Threadfoot, 8, 2? 2l8 Three-toothed cinquefoil, 91? 92 . 245 Tiarella, 36 cordifolia, 36, 33? 229 Tick-trefoil, 163 Canadian, 164 , 166, 265 naked- flowered, 163 , 165? 266 panicled, 165 , 166, 266 pointed- leaved, 265? 277 . 277 found- leaved, 165 . 165? 267 Trailing bush-clover, 169, 169? 268 Trefoil, bird's-foot, 170, 171. 269 Trifolium, 185 agrarium, 186, 187. 272 arvense, 187, 188. 273 hybridum, 188, 189 « 273 pra tense, 189? 190. 274 repens, 192. 192, 274 Tufted vetch, 194, 195 . 275 Two- leaved bishop' s-cap, 12? 20, 222 Variable hawthorn, 64, 65, 234 Vetch, 194 four-seeded, 196. 196? 275 hairy, 196, 197. 276 tufted, 194, 193, 275 Vetchling, 166 Vicia, 194 cracca, 194, 195 . 275 tetrasperma, 196. 196, 275 villosa , 196, 197. 276 Violet, false, 62, 69? 236 Waldsteinia, 153 fragarioides , 153. 153? 262 White avens, 79? 22? 239 White clover, 192. 192? 274 White sweet clover, 177? 179. 271 Wild bean, 158 Wild indigo, l6l. l6l, 264 Wild lupine, 173 Wild red currant, 32, 32? 228 Wild red raspberry, 142, 144 . 257 Witch-hazel, 38, 32? 230 family, 37 Wood strawberry American, 74, 32? 237 European, 32, 75? 238 Yellow avens, 78, 32? 239 Yellow sweet clover, 178, 332? 271 -283- New York Botanical Garden Library 3 51 85 00217 4470 83-9356