L I B RARY OF THE UN IVLRSITY or ILLl NOI5 574072 M62c top. 2 /UWSIS HISTOiim SUIVEY ILLINOIS NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY Bulletin Volume 27, Article 2 December, 1958 Printed by Authority of the State of Illinois A Century of Biological Research HARLOW B. MILLS GEORGE C. DECKER HERBERT H. ROSS J. CEDRIC CARTER GEORGE W. BENNETT THOMAS G. SCOTT JAMES S. AYARS RUTH R. \YARRICK BESSIE B. EAST STATE OF ILLINOIS* William G. Stratton, Governor DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION • Vera M. Binks, Director NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION • Harlow B. Mills, Chief Urbana Illii STATE OF ILLINOIS Wiii.iAM G. Stratton. Governor DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION X'era M. BiNKS, Director BOARD OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION Vera M BiNits. Chairman. A. E. Emerson. Ph.D., Biology: L. H. Tikfany, Ph.D., Forestry; Walter H. Newhouse, Ph.D., Geology: Roger Adams, Ph.D., D.Sc, Chemistry: Rohert H. Anderson. B.S.C.E., Engtrteering: W. L. EvERiTT, E.E.. Ph.D., Representing the President of the University of Illinois: Delyte W. Morris. Ph.D., President of Southern Illinois University NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION, Urbana, Illinois SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL STAFF Harlow B. Mills. Ph.D., Chiej lUssii. H. East, M.S.. Assistant In th,- Chi,-t Section of Economic Entomology Geor^^e C. DtiKLK. Pii.D.. Principal Scientist and Head J. H. Bigger, M.S.. Entomologist L. L. E.NOLISH, Ph D., Entomologist Willis N. Bruce, Ph.D., Associate Entomologist Norman Gannon, Ph.D., Associate Entomologist W. H. LucKMANN. Ph.D., Associate Entomologist John D. Briggs, Ph.D., Associate Entomologist Ronald H. Meyer, M.S., Assistant Entomologist John D. Paschke. Ph.D., Assistant Entomologist Robert Snetsincer, M.S.. Field Assistant Carol Morgan. B.S.. Laboratory Assistant Eugene M. Bravi, M.S., Research Assistant Richard B. Dysart, B.S., Technical Assistant Re<;inald Roberts. A.B., Technical Assistant James W. Sanford, B.S., Technical Assistant Earl Stadelbacher, B.S.. Technical Assistant Sue E. Watkins, Technical Assistant H. B. Petty, Ph.D., Extension Specialist in Entomology* Stevenson Moore, III, Ph.D., Extension Specialist in Entomology* John W. Matteson, M.S., Research Associate* Zenas B. Noon, Jr., M.S., Research Assistant* Clarlncl E. White, B.S.. Research Assistant* John Arthur Lowe, M.S., Research Assistant* J. David Hoffman, B.S., Research Assistant* Carlos A. White, B.S., Research Assistant* Roy E. McLaughlin, B.S., Research Assistant* CosTAS Kouskolekas, M.S., Research Assistant* Louise Zincrone. B.S.. Research Assistant* MvRv K M\NN. R.N., Rc'carch A^i'lant" Section of Faunistic Surveys and Insect Identification H. II. Ross, Ph.D., Syslcmntic Entomologist and Head Milton W. Sanderson, Ph.D., Taxonomist Lewis J. Stannard. Jr.. Ph.D., Associate Taxonomist Philip W. Smith, Ph.D., Associate Taxonomist Leonora K. Gloyd, M.S.. Assistant Taxonomist II. B. Cunningham, M.S., Assistant Taxonomist Edward L. Mockford, M.S., Technical Assistant TiiEi.MA H. OvERSTREET, Technical Assistant Section of Aquatic Biology GF..,K,.r \V. Blnm IT, IMi.I).. Aqiialu Kialu^i.l and Head William C. SiARRLri. Ph.D., Aquatic Iholngist R. W. Larimurf. PIi.D.. Aquatic Biologist David II. Bi;ck. Ph.D., Associate Aquatic Biologist Robert C. IIilthiran, Ph.D., Associate Biochemist Donald F. Hansen. Ph.D.. Assistant Aquatic Biologist William F. Ciiilders, M.S.. Assistant Aquatic Biologist John C. Crali.ky, B.S.. Field Assistant Richard E. Bass, Field Assistant Robert D. Crompton, Field Assistant Section of Aquatic Biology— continued .Maurice A. Whitacre, M.A., Assistant Aquatic Biologist* .\rnoi.d \V. Fritz, B.S., Field Assistant* David j. McGintv. Field Assistant^ Section of Applied Botany and Plant Pathology I. Cedrr Carter. Ph.D., Plant Pathologist and Head J. L. Forsberg, Ph.D.. Plant Pathologist G. H. Boewe. M.S., Associate Botanist Robert .\. Evers, Ph.D., Associate Botanist E. B. HiMELiCK. M.S.. Assistant Plant Pathologist Robert Dan Neely, Ph.D., Assistant Plant Pathologist Walter Hartstirn, Ph.D., Assistant Plant Pathologist Donald F. Schoeneweiss, Ph.D.. Assistant Plant Pathologist Ro\i\iA K. Fitz-Gerai.d. B..\.. Technical Assistant Section of Wildlife Research TiioMA.s G. ScoiT, I'h.D.. (.lame Specialist and Head Ralph K. YtATThK. Ph.D., Game Speciali>l (.'arl O. Mohk. Pli.D., Game Specialist F. C Bellrose. B.S., Game Specialist II. C. Hanson, Ph.D., Associate Game Specialist W. R. Hanson, Ph.D.. Associate Game Specialist Richard R. Graber. Ph.D., Associate Wildlife Specialist Fr\nces D. Robbins. B.A.. Technical AssiitanI X'iRGiNiA A. Langdon. Technical Assistant Howard Crum, Jr.. Field Assistant Rkxford D. Lord, D.Sc. Project Leader* Frederick. Greeley, Ph.D., Project Leader* Glen C. Sanderson, M.A., Project Leader* Paul A. Vohs, Jr., M.S., Project Leader* Ronald F. Labisky, M.S., Project Leader* Iack a. Ellis, M.S.. Assistant Project Leader* Thomas R. B. Barr. M.V.Sc, M.R.C.V .S., Research Assistant* Bobbie Joe Verts, M.S., Field Mammalogist* Erwin W. Pearson, M.S., Field Mammalogist* Ken.nkih 1.. Johnson, A.B., Field Assistant* K Ell II I'. Dvuphin, Assistant Laboratory Atlendant* Section of Publications and Public Relations Iamis S. A^ \ks, H.S.. Tchnuat Editor and Head Hi.ANiHi. I' 'l'iirN(.. B..A., .tiyiilant Technical Editor Diana R. Braverm\n, B.A.. Assistant Technical Editor William E. Clark. Assistant Technical Photographer Margitrite \'i;ri.ev. Technical Assistant Technical Library Ri I II R. W akku k, Nell Mills, M.S. Librarian H.S., B.S.L.S. B.S.I..S.. A> Technical Librarian istant Tchniial CONSULTANTS: Herpetoi.oc.y, Hobart M. Smith, Ph.D., Projessor of Zoology, University of Illinois: Parasitology, Norman D. Levine, Ph.D., Professor of Veterinary Parasitology and oj Veterinary Research, University of Hlinois: WllDI.l^E Research. VVillard D. Klimstra. Ph.D.. Assistant Professor of Zoology and Director of Co-operative IVildlife Research, Southern Illinois Unii'ersity. •Employed on co-opcrative projects with one of several agencies: University of Illinois, Illinois Agricultural l-'.xlcnsion Service, Illinois Deparlmciil of Conservation. United Stales Army Surgeon General's OtlKe. United Stales Department of AKriculture, United Slates Fish and Wildlife Service, United Slates Public Health Service, and others. (8r.O;!2— .fiM— il-.'-.S) c_ 0^ FOREWORD THE record of one hundred years of the scientific progress of the Illinois State Natural History Survey inspires us to reflect on its origin and brilliant achieve- ments. We pay the highest tribute to those early educators and scientists who had vision beyond the exigencies of the moment. And we express the highest commenda- tion to the present Chief, Dr. Harlow B. Mills, and all of his staff for their contri- butions to the well-being and pleasure of our citizens. The important results of their research extend well beyond the borders of Illinois. In contemplating the future, we are con- fident that this group of dedicated men and women will meet the increasing demands for assistance in the problems of the pro- duction of the necessities of life, that they will continue their research on the devel- opment and protection of our natural re- sources. In the future we may be depend- ent for our very existence on scientists such as these. We know they will meet the challenge. Illinois is justly proud of the century of progress of one of its own agencies. Congratulations! Vera A I. Binks, Director Department of Registration and Education '^ T!|ni! ft! r,'J;&^^^ The original hiiiidiiifj; of the Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois, spring, 1880. In this building the lUinois Natural History Society was founded and its museum was housed. Here the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History had its head(iuarters from its founding in 1877 until late in 1884, and here the fourth State Entomologist was located for approxi- mately 2 years. CONTENTS From 1858 to 1958 85 Natural History Society 86 State Laboratory of Natural History. 87 State Entomologist 88 Benjamin Dann Walsh 91 William Le Baron 91 Cyrus Thomas 93 Stephen Alfred F"orbes 94 Reorganization 97 Natural History Survey 98 The Future 101 Economic Extomoi.ogv 104 Early History 104 Practical Problems and Progress 106 Fruit Insects 106 Truck Crop Pests Ill Cereal and F"orage Crop Pests 113 Pests of Forest and Shade Trees and Ornamental Plants 118 Insects Attacking Man and Animals 119 Biological Control 120 Value of Insect Control 123 Emphasis for the Future 124 Fauxistic Surveys 127 Early Background 127 Changing Habitats 128 Periods of Faunistic Activities 128 Initial Period, 1858-1869 129 Expansion Period, 1871-1922 130 Specialization Period, 1923 to Present 132 Research Collections 134 Vertebrates 134 Invertebrates Other Than Insects. . 134 Insects 134 Faunistic Reports 135 Vertebrates 135 Invertebrates Other Than Insects. .137 Insects 137 Retrospect and Prospect 144 Applied Botany AND Plant P.athology 145 Early Activities 146 Recent Activities 149 Plant Disease Survey 149 Botanical Collections 152 Shade and Forest Tree Pathology 154 Floricultural Pathology 158 Identification and Extension 159 Past and Present 160 Unsolved Problems 160 Future Possibilities 161 Aquatic Biology 163 Beginning of Aquatic Ecology 163 First Field Laboratory 165 Fishes and Plankton 166 The Fishes of Illinois 167 Illinois River Plankton 167 Bottom Fauna 168 New Lines of Research 169 Early Management Attempts 170 Modern Management 170 The Last Twenty Years 172 Direction of Future Studies 177 Wildlife Research 1 79 Development 179 Organization 181 Research Contributions 183 Birds 183 Mammals 195 Wildlife Management 198 The Future 199 Publications and Public Relations. 202 Early Publications 203 Publications Series 205 Editorial Personnel 207 Public Relations 208 Editorial Policy 208 Library 210 The Library at Normal 210 The Library at Urbana 210 Library Collections 211 Library Personnel 213 Financial Support 213 P'ormer Technical Employees 215 Literature Cited 219 From 1858 to 1958 HARLOW B . x\l 1 L L S THE inid-point of the nineteenth cen- tury in the United States was marked by ferment, by excitement, by great ideas. River traffic was at a peak ; rail- roads had been built and were being ex- tended. New areas were becoming more easily accessible to settlers. The point of departure to the exciting and mysteri- ous Far West was on the Mississippi River, and two things happened just before 1850 which focused attention on that vast and largely unexplored area — the movement of the Mormons from Nauvoo, Illinois, on the banks of the Mississippi, to the Great Salt Lake, and the discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in California. The United States tried its muscles in the Mexican W'^ar in its first inter- national conflict since its last test with England, and it ended Mexican domi- nance in California with the assistance of the Bear Flag Revolution. Politically the young country was go- ing through the series of events which ultimately led to the Civil War. On August 27, 1858, the most important of the Lincoln-Douglas debates, according to the estimate of some historians, took place at Freeport, Illinois. This debate is said to have won for Judge Douglas the Senatorship in his contest with Lin- coln, but at the same time it lost the Presidency for the Judge in a later con- test with the same adversary. At the debate, there was a boy of four- teen who wormed his way to the front of the crowd and gained some renown b\- vocally taking issue with Douglas at one point in this historically climactic discussion. The youngster was consider- ably chagrined by reproof from those around him, but perhaps he was caught by the character of that meeting, for it is reported bv George W. Smith (1927: 410) that' There was much confusion — some real dis- order. ... It appears from the reports that orators, reception committees, invited guests, and newspaper reporters all engaged in a hand-to-hand conflict for seats and in some cases for standing room. This boy who had the courage to chal- lenge Judge Douglas was Stephen Alfred Forbes, later to be the person most re- sponsible for the development of the Illinois State Natural History Survey, the centennial of which this number of the Bulletin commemorates. Not only was this point in history one of swift movement and of critical impor- tance in the politics and development of the country; it also brought science into clearer focus. Many scientific societies were organized. Darwin's Origin of Spe- cies appeared in 1859. Scientists were just beginning to play with the idea that their field was not a mental toy, that it could be put to practical use ; and some scientists were announcing that they were interested in the practical application and popularization of their knowledge, much to the distress of most of their colleagues. As an illustration, there is a rather long apology which Walsh (1868/^:9) felt con- strained to include in his First Annual Report of the Acting State Entomologist. Apparently this comment was written for the eyes of Walsh's scientific confreres ; in part it says: In a Memoir intended for publication in the Proceedings of some grave Scientific So- ciety, it would, of course, be highly indecorous to break the dreary monotony of scientific hair-splitting by a single remark, which had the slightest tendency towards exciting that convulsive movement of the midriff, which the vulgar herd of mankind call "laughter." . . . Four hundred years ago Martin Luther said, that "he could see no reason why the Devil should run away with all the good tunes." I can see no reason, in the year 1867, why the pestilent yellow-covered literature of the day should monopolize all the wit and humor. If there is one thing which I have at heart more than another, it is to popularize Science — to bring her down from the awkward high stilts on which she is or- dinarily paraded before the world — to show how sweet and attractive she is when the frozen crust, in which she is usually en- veloped, is thawed away by the warm breath of Nature — ... If I merely succeed in en- ticing away a single young woman from her [85] 86 lii.iNois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 mawkish novelettes and romances into the flowerv paths of Entomology, or if I can only induce a single young man, instead of haunt- ing saloons and lounging away his time at street-corners, to devote his leisure to study- ing the wonderful works of the Creator, as exemplified in these tiny miracles of perfec- tion which the people of the United States call "bugs," 1 shall think that I have not written altogether in vain. The (growth of the population of Illi- nois resulted in the brin^inji together, within the state's boundaries, of people with common interests in natural history. This Held of knowledge had not gone un- noticed in this general geographical area, but the investigators here were individuals and worked pretty much alone. Just across the Wabash River to the east, Thomas Say had earlier done research on insects and other animal groups. Across the Ohio River to the south, John Jaines Audubon had studied birds. NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Because by mid-century people inter- ested in natural history had become more numerous in the state, Cyrus Thomas of Carbondale was able to propose to the December, 1857, meeting of the State Teachers' Association in Decatur that a Natural History Society of Illinois be formed (Bateman 1858(7). The next year, on June 30, 1858, the Society was organ- ized at Bloomington in the office of the Illinois State Normal University (Bate- man 1858/>' : 258-9). It was given official sanction and notice when It was chartered by an act of the state legislature ap- proved Februarv 22, 1861 (Illinois Gen- eral Assembly 1861:551-2). Immediately' after its organization the new Society began the development of a museum and the collection of scientific literature. Among its active members mentioned by Forbes ( 1907r : 893-4) were C. D. Wilber, who later became a consulting mining engineer; Dr. J. A. Sewall, who later became President of the University of Colorado at Boulder; iMajor J. W. Powell, who was to gain renown as an e,xplorer in the West; Dr. George W. V^asey, for many years botanist with the United States Department of Agricul- ture; A. H. Worthen, head of the first Illinois State Geological Survey; Cyrus Thomas, Benjamin D. Walsh, M. S. Bebb, Dr. Oliver E^verett, James Shaw, Dr. Henry M. Bannister, Dr. J. W. Velie, Professor J. B. Turner, Dr. Ed- mund Andrews, Dr. Frederick Brendel, and Newton Bateman. The above list in- dicates a great breadth of interest and no lack of intelligence on the part of the original members of the Society. The first officers of the Society included a General Agent, among whose duties were the collection and exchange of speci- mens (Batemen 1858Z<:258). C. D. Wil- ber was named to this office. The Society's original constitution (Bateman 1858/*: 258) and the revised constitution of 1859 (Francis 1859/^:662-3) provided that all specimens should be deposited in the Museum of the State Normal Uni- versity. The constitution as revised on June 20, 1859 (Francis 1859/^:662-3), 'dropped the General Agent, gave most of his du- ties to a newly created Superintendent, and added a Curator, whose duties were to receive and arrange specimens. Cyrus Thomas, who was elected Curator, lived in Jackson County, many miles from the Museum, and the elected Superintendent, Wilber, who taught geology at the State Normal University, according to Mar- shall (1956) acted as unofficial curator. At the 1860 meeting, R. H. Holder of Bloomington was named both Curator and Treasurer (Wilber 186l«:538). The state charter of 1861 gave the Society authority to establish its own Museum at the State Normal University (Illinois General Assembly 1861:551), and officers of the Society set December 25, 1861, as the date on which the Mu- seum was to be "dedicated, with appro- priate exercises, as a free offering to THE CITIZENS AND SCHOOLS of Illinois" (Wilber 1861r:675). Forbes (1907r:893) listed Sewall, Powell, Vasey, and himself as curators of the Society's Museum, Vasey serving only nominally as Powell's deputy. Powell was named Curator by the State Board of Education on March 26, 1867. His ap- pointment was ratified and consented to on the same day b}' the Directors of the Natural History Society (Bateman 1867: D ecembcr. 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 87 8). Forbes was appointed to the same office on June 26, 1872, the day Powell's resignation was offered and accepted (Bateman 1872:6). Because the Natural History Society was composed principally of people who were prosecuting natural history investi- gations as sidelines to other activities, and because it was not a strong cohesive agent, it finally reached the point where it could no longer sustain itself. Forbes (1907r: 898) said of the times, "It should be remembered, in this connection, that this was a time when college men, as a rule, worked like dray-horses and were paid like oxen, . . ." The Society turned to the state for aid, and by an act approved February 28, 1867, $2,500, to be paid annually to the State Board of Education, was appropri- ated by the General Assembly for the salary of a curator and "for the necessary expenses of improving and enhancing the value" of the Museum (Illinois General Assembly 1867:21). Major Powell was the first curator to receive state aid. The state appropriations, according to Forbes ( 1907c : 895) , "were largely drawn upon to outfit and maintain the Powell expedi- tions to the far west." As a condition upon receiving further state aid, as pro- vided by legislative act approved April 14, 187i, the Society had to turn its Mu- seum over to the state (Illinois General Assembly 1872:152). On June 22, 1871, the Society agreed to the transfer and when, on June 28, 1871, the Board of Education accepted the transfer, the Mu- seum officiallv became state propertv (Bateman 1871:9; Forbes 1877:324-5)'. On December 15, 1875, the State Board of Education passed the following resolution (Etter 1876:17): Rfsol-vrd, That we regard the Museum as a State institution, devoted to the prosecution of a natural history survey of the State, to the encouragement and aid of original research, and to the diffusion of scientific knowledge and habits of thought among the people. Forbes, who in 1872 had been appointed by the State Board of Education as Cura- tor of the Museum, remained in that capacity until July 1, 1877, when by legis- lative act approved May 25, 1877, a State Historical Library and Natural History Museum were established at Springfield, and the Illinois Museum of Natural His- tory at Normal was "converted into a State Laboratory of Natural History" (Illinois General Assembly 1877:14-6). STATE LABORATORY OF NATURAL HISTORY The act that established the State Laboratory of Natural History relieved Forbes of the necessity of developing mu- seum exhibits and allowed him to turn more of his attention to research. Shortly after the establishment of the Laboratory, Forbes' title was changed from Curator to Director (Etter 1877:25). Forbes had not been occupying his time completely in the preparation of museum material while he was Curator of the Illi- nois Museum of Natural History. He had taught classes in zoology at Illinois State Normal University and he had started a series of bulletins reporting on research and investigation. The first number of the series is dated December, 1876, and carries the title. Bulletin of the Illinois Museum of Natural History. From the appearance of No. 2 of the first volume, in June, 1878, until the beginning of Volume 13, in 1918, the title was the Bulletin of the State Laboratory of Natural History, and from that time to the present it has been the Bulletin of the Illinois State Natural History Survey or Illinois Natural His- tory Survey Bulletin. The volumes have been numbered serially from December, 1876, to the present time. The work of the Laboratory and its young Director attracted the attention of the new Illinois Industrial University at Urbana. Not only had Forbes been pub- lishing actively, but in 1882 the duties of State Entomologist had fallen on his capa- ble shoulders. Shortly afterward the Uni- versity made an offer of employment to the Director of the Laboratory and State Entomologist. Forbes faced the choice of declining the offer, of abandoning the Laboratory, which had been established at the Illinois State Normal University by legislative act, or of moving the Labora- tory with him. Apparently at his suggestion, the mat- ter was taken up with the State Board of Education by the Trustees of the Illinois Industrial University, and an agreement 88 Ii.i.iNois Natlral History Slrvhv Hclletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 was made that the hiw be changed to allow for the move. In a report addressed to the Recent and dated December 12, 1SS4. Forbes made known his needs at the University (Burrill 1887^:10). He stated : As voii are (l(Jiibtless aware, I have for some time held the position of Director of the State Laboratory of Natural History, lo- cated in the Normal I'niversity building at Normal, and, indeed, still remain in nominal charge of that establishment, having received from the State Board of Education a leave of absence, without pay. from January 1 to June 30, 1885. in order to enable me to enter upon my duties in the I'niversity here. If I believed that my acceptance of a chair in this University necessarily involved an inter- ruption or serious modification of the work which I have organized as Director of the State Laboratory of Natural History, I should keenly regret it; and, indeed, I did not ex- press my acceptance of that position until I had arranged a plan of readjustment which I thought adequate to prevent such a con- tingency. Later in the same meeting, Trustee Alexander McLean offered the following resolutions (Burrill 1887^:18): Resolved, That the Trustees of the Illinois Industrial University have heard with great satisfaction the suggestion that the State Lab- orator>- of Natural History may be united with the University under their charge. Resolved, That in case such a union shall be accomplished they will, to the extent of the means intrusted to them, aid in carrying forward the valuable work of the laboratory, bv assigning to it suitable apartments in the building of the University, and by providing such conveniences as the nature of the work may require, to the end that it may enjoy a commodious and perpetual home within, and the generous cooperation of, an institu- tion founded and maintained for the promo- tion of scientific research and the dissemina- tion of practical knowledge. Forbes officialh' took over his duties at Urbana on Ianuar\ 1, 1885 (Forbes 1886/^:lx). In the following March the Regent, Dr. Selim H. Peabodv, had the following comment (Burrill 1887rt: 19-20) : The unsuccessful effort of three years ago to secure for the I'niversity the presence and aid of Prof. S. A. Forbes for the organization of the instruction of Zoology was renewed last year, and has been crowned with better fortune. Since the opening of the new year the Zoological laboratory has become an ac- tive agency in this department of physical science, and its success is well assured. \ new interest has been aroused in this science. The office of the State Entomologist has found a home, it is to be hoped permanent, where it naturally belongs. The governing board of the Normal University has unani- mously resolved that the State Laboratory of Natural History should find its proper abode here at the State University, and has consented that the property peculiar to the work of that [laboratory] may be transferred hither. This change requires only legislative action before it can legally go. as it has prac- tically gone into effect, and there appears to be little doubt that such action will be taken during the present session. The legislature approved the action, and everything was legal. On July 1, 1885, the appointment of Forbes as Professor of Zoology and En- tomology at the University of Illinois (previously Illinois Industrial University) at an annual salary of $1,160 was ap- proved by the Board of Trustees, which also appointed Forbes Director of the State Laboratory of Natural History and authorized him to receive laboratory prop- erty transferred by the State Board of Education (Burrill 1887fl:50). It is inter- esting to note the size of the Laboratory stafF at that time. On September 8, 1885, the Trustees approved the following ap- pointments (Burrill 1887^:55-6): Entomological Assistants Thomas F. Hunt $40 a month Clarence M. Weed $40 a month Botanical Assistant Charles F. Hart $45 a month Amanuensis Miss Mary J. Snyder $45 a month Services relating to botanical survev Prof. T. T. Burrill $300 for the vear F. S. Earle $83 1/3 a month Such other miscellaneous assistants as might be required and within the funds available The State Laboratory of Natural His- torv continued under that name until 1917. STATE ENTOMOLOGIST The rapid settlement of Illinois during the middle of the nineteenth centur\ brought in a great number of agricul- turists. The country was new, and the breaking down of the original vegetation for the establishment of fields in which crops were grown brought about great losses from insects. These losses, while De 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 89 seen and experienced, were not well un- derstood. (Official entomology was born during this period. The agriculturists felt the need of assistance and cried out to the government for it. At the end of the Civil War, the Presi- dent of the young Illinois State Horticul- tural Societ\ , John P. Reynolds, spoke \igorously on the subject at the December 19, 1865, meeting of the Society at Nor- mal. In his retiring address, Revnolds (1866:8) said: And, first, the appointment of a State Entomologist. The time has been in this State when it required some moral courage for anv one to advocate the appointment and lomprnsation from the treasury of an officer to look after the bugs, but I venture the opinion that there is no subject in which you, as amateur or professional horticulturists, have a more direct, immediate or larger pe- cuniarv interest, than in Entomology — . . . No one who has given the subject any atten- tion will question the truth of the statement that the people of Illinois are to-day many millions of iloliars poorer bv reason of noxious insects; nor the additional statement that a very large proportion of this loss might have been averted by the labors of a competent Entomologist with a little means at his disposal. In 1866 the Horticultural Society, meeting at Champaign, passed the fol- lowing resolution ( Deyo 1867:58): Resohvcd, That we most urgently pray the honorable legislature of our great state to appoint a State Entomologist, that Agricul- turists and Horticulturists may not quite despair of ever overcoming the giant insec- tiforous [j/V] difficulties in the way of suc- cess in their professions. As one eminently qualified, and the highest in his profession in the whole west, we most hopefully mention the name of Benjamin D. Walsh, of Rock Island. The Horticultural Society was not alone in this movement. At a meeting of the executive committee of the Illinois State Agricultural Society on January 3, 1866, G. W. Minier offered the following l^niversity Hall on the l-niversity of Illinois campus. This building, completed in 1874 and razed in 1938, was headquarters for the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History and the Office of State Entomologist for a few years after they were moved from Normal to Urbana. 90 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulli-tin Vol. 27, Art. 2 specific and forthright resolution (Revn- olds 1868:18): Resolved, That whenever a sum of fifteen hundred dollars ($1,500) shall have been obtained, by legislative action or otherwise, for an annual salary, this Board will then appoint a competent scientific man as State Entomologist. Rcsoh'ed, That Mr. B. D. Walsh be and he is hereby appointed State Entomologist, sub- ject to the preceding resolution. The legislature listened to these pleas and in 1867 passed a law which author- ized the Governor, with the consent of the Senate, to appoint a state entomologist. The work of this officer was considerably handicapped. \Vhile he was voted a salary, he was given no work fund, and the first three persons t find space lor the personnel in the rooms which the LFniversitv could devote to use of die Natural Histtotr Survey. Dr. Frbon and Dr. 11. M. Leig|iton, Chief of the lUinois Geological Survey, conferred on the problems of space and their occupancy. The building, and subse- quent win^ w^hich were completed in 1950, were given to the University and added to that orgjanization's inventory. For the fiirst time, the Natural History' Survey had a home which it could really call its own. Frismi had wide interests, and immedi- ately upon becoming Chief he began the development of wildlife research. This December. 1958 Mills: From 1838 to 1958 101 field, as a separate discipline, was new. He was instrumental in organizing the Midwest Wildlife Conference, the initial meeting of which was held in Urbana in 1035. Also he was a charter member of the Wildlife Society. The staff of the Natural Historv' Sur- vey increased from 16 in 1930 to 38 at the beginning of World War II. In intellect and aggressive enthusiasm, Prison was a worthy successor of Forbes. He made many contributions to knowl- edge. He was a member of many learned societies and was given positions of re- sponsibility in them. Beyond that, he was a golf and tennis pla\'er, a fine violinist, and had a great interest in art, histor\ , and current afifairs. It was a loss to the Natural History Survey, and to science, when he passed away December 9, 1945, after 15 profit- able vears as Chief. On December 10, 1945, Dr. Leo R. Tehon was appointed Acting Chief, a position which he held until February 28, 1947. Tehon was a meticulous scholar. He was not only a fine plant pathologist and mycologist, but also a good linguist and musician (Carter 1955, Avars 1956). On March 1, 1947, Dr. Harlow^ B. Mills, the present incumbent, took over the duties of Chief. THE FUTURE Throughout its century of existence, this organization has attempted to meet the needs of the economy of Illinois with an eye to the state's future requirements. The Board has appointed scientists with broad views and excellent training, men who were not satisfied with the present but who had a strong interest in the future. A half century ago Forbes (1907r:892) wrote, "I shall be governed by the reflection that we are to-day look- ing forward and not back — that we are preparing for the future and not studying the past — . . ." The same fresh view should govern us at the end of 100 years. The problems in nature are ever chang- ing, or, rather, our needs from and ap- proach to nature are ever changing. There are new demands and new approaches. New research techniques require re-eval- uation of what has been done. In agricul- ture there are new crops and new meth- ods of raising them. New plant diseases appear. New insect pests invade the state. New demands are made for recreation. New advances in pure scientific knowl- edge must be made. All of these demands and approaches require the attention of the research specialist. All are inextri- cably bound up in the future. A scientist who looks only to the past is professionally dead. Perhaps the greatest challenge of the future lies in the indisputable fact that human populations in the world — and that includes Illinois — are increasing. The demands which these people make on their environment are increasing more rapidly than are the people themselves! For most of our food and living room we are dependent on that surface which marks the boundary betw^een the earth and the atmosphere, on that surface upon which the sun's rays strike. We are de- pendent on it for our food and for our relaxation. More people mean greater food demand and greater need for remov- ing ourselves periodically from the intri- cacies of a complex civilization. More peo- ple mean a reduction in space for both of these necessities. This is the dilemma of the future. As the years roll by and the population statistics pile up, our de- pendence for existence on our living re- sources constantly becomes greater, and our dependence on the research scientist in fields of interest to the Natural His- tory Survey becomes a complete necessity. Now, in 1958, we are concerned about the great strides made by the physical sciences. These advances have great po- tential for good and tremendous potential for human destruction. International scientific competition has raised its head. If the deleterious side of this physical science development is kept in check, we can be sure that the need for sustaining humanity, both physically and spiritually, will be colossal in the years ahead. We hear in 1958 of "crash programs" to develop in the shortest possible time certain phases of physical science applica- tion. When the collective human popula- tion of the United States has to tighten its collective belt just one small notch, we will hear of a "crash program" the like of which has not as yet even been 102 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 Harlow Burgess Mills, Chief, Illinois Natural History Survey, 19+7 to date. conceived. And when that time comes, the Natural History Survey will he called on for even j^reater activity. In closinji this discussion, it would be well to call attention to a House Joint Resolution introduced in the Seventieth General Assembly of the State of Illinois by Representatives Ora Dillavou, Charles Clabau^h, and Leo Pfeffer (Illinois House of Representatives 1957). The Resoluti(jn reads as follows: Whereas, On June 30, 1858, a group of far-sighted citizens of this State met at Bloomington and organized the Illinois State Natural History Society which was incorpo- rated in 1861 by an Act of the legislature; and Whereas, In 1877 the name of the so- ciety was changed to the State Laboratory of Natural History, and in 1885 the laboratory was moved to Urbana where it was placed under the direction of the Board of Trustees of the Universit)' of Illinois; and Whereas, The State Laboratory of Nat- ural History and the research activities of the State Entomologist's office were united in 1917 to form the State Natural History Sur- vey Division of the Department of Registra- tion and Education ; and Whereas, The Natural History Survey has rendered outstanding service in the field of natural history, especially in regard to the control of noxious insects, the control of Deccinbcr, 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 103 diseases attacking floricultural and ornamen- and, above all, lias contributed immeasurably tal plants, the development of forestry in to the welfare of all the people of this State; Illinois, the management of fishes in ponds and and streams, the foods and movement of Whereas, The 100th anniversary of the waterfowl in this State, the problems of up- Natural History Survey will be celebrated in land game species, and the periodic report 1958; therefore, be it of species which are especially endangered, Rrsolvrd, By the House of Reprrsentativrs such as the prairie chicken and wood duck; of the Seventieth General Assembly of the 3nd State of Illinois, the Senate eoncurring herein. Whereas, The following world recog- that this General Assembly, on behalf of all nized scientists and scholars have been as- the people of this State, extend heartiest con- sociated with the wonderful work of the gratuiations and sincere appreciation to the Natural History Survey: Stephen A. Forbes, staff, members and employees of the State Robert E. Richardson, David S. Jordan, Natural History Survey Division, on the oc- Frank C. Baker, Charles A. Kofoid, Robert casion of their 100th anniversarv, for the Ridgway, Benjamin D. Walsh, Wesley P. outstanding contributions they have made to- Flint, \'ictor E. Shelford, Theodore H. ward the growth and development of this Frison, and Leo R. Tehon ; and State; that we extend to them a wish for Whereas, Since 1858 the Natural His- continued success and progress in the future, tory Survey has received wide recognition and that a suitable copy of this preamble for its contributions to society, has gained the and resolution be forwarded to the chief of respect of scientists throughout the world, has the Stat? Natural History Survey Division, brought considerable prestige to this State, Mr. Harlow B. Mills. Economic Entomology GEORGE C. DECKER "\X7'HEN settlers iiioxed into the Illi- ' nois country, established homesites, and be^an to till the virgin soil, they found that hundreds of species of insects native to the area readil\' transferred their affections from wild plants to culti- vated crops, at times in hordes sufficient to destro\- the crops completely. It was inevitable that the Illinois settlers, like the eastern colonists, had brought certain pests along with them. The hitch-hiking pests included the codling moth in apple barrels, the hessian fly in straw used as packing material, bedbugs in bedding, and lice on the bodies of the settlers. As if these were not enough, other migrants, such as the Colorado potato beetle, the imported cabbage butterfly, the cotton leafworm, the San Jose scale, the Nor- way rat, and the fleas thereon, invaded the area. They were followed in later years by such notorious insect pests as the oriental fruit moth, the European corn borer, the sweet clover weevil, the Mexi- can bean beetle, and the Japanese bee- tie. The early Illinois settlers were a hardy, self-sufficient, and determined lot, gener- ally not rich but for the most part thrifty and aggressive. They took pride in the fact that they were skilled in the agricul- tural arts of their da\-. At the same time, they admitted that the problem of coping with the many insect pests that damaged their crops, annoyed their livestock, and in- vaded their homes was beyond their com- prehension. They sought the aid of neigh- bors, school teachers, doctors, and local amateur naturalists, who in turn sought the counsel and advice of Fitch, Harris, and other entomologists located in the far-ofif New England and Atlantic coastal states. When these sources of informa- tion proved inadequate, the settlers ap- pealed to the state legislature to appro- priate funds and to appoint a state ento- mologist to study what appeared to be the most perplexing of all their problems. On Februarv 27, 1867, the Illinois Gen- eral Assembly created the office of State Entomologist. EARLY HISTORY Pleasant surprises await the curious who attempt to assay the extent and use- fulness of man's knowledge of insects, their habits, and control measures in the 1850's and 1860's. It is gratifying to note that local, self-trained entomologists such as Walsh, Le Baron, Thomas, Shimer, and Riley had collected and identified hundreds of species and that they possessed a remarkable knowledge of the life cycle and ecology of perhaps three-fourths of the economic species ordinarily included in any current list of noxious insects in the Midwest. Le Baron (1871:5-6) sum- marized the situation as he saw it at that time: The history of many of our noxious insects, and especially the most notorious of them, has been pretty thoroughly traced, not only by the entomologists expressly employed by several of the States for this purpose, but also by many other active gleaners in this field. Still, any one wh© enters upon the study of this extensive subject, soon finds work enough upon his hands. It cannot be said that the history of any insect is perfectly and absolutely known, and it is a notorious fact that some of the insects which have been longest known and studied, such as the Plum Curculio and the Apple Worm, are the very ones which are causing the most damage to the horticulturist at the present day; and if we take into account the multitude of insects which are preying upon our shade and ornamental trees and shrubs, which, in the estimation of many, are scarcely inferior in value to the fruit bearing trees, we may safely conclude that the prospect is very remote when the work of the practical ento- mologist will cease or materially diminish. And the force of this view is greatly enhanced by the [occurrence], every year, to a greater or less extent, of new species of noxious in- sects, or rather of insects which, having ex- isted here or elsewhere in moderate numbers, from time immemorial, have suddenly sprung J into destructive profusion in consequence of an I abundant supply of congenial food, or the ab- setic'j of their natural enemies, or other condi- tions favorable to life, some of which are known, and some of which are obscure or in- [104] Df 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 105 >criitahle. The Coloracdn Potato-beetle, the Currant Saw-fly, the Asparagus-beetle, and the Bnu lilts granariiis \ to which we might add the Pear-caterpillar (Callimorpha Lrcnntri) , and the Lesser Apple-leaf folder ( Tortrix maliz'orana,) treated of in the follow-ing re- port, were all unknown here as noxious in- sects until within the last few years. It is true that some noxious insects, on the other hami, have greatly diminished, and some, which have been the sorest scourges of the orchardist, such for example, as the notorious Bark-louse of the apple tree, seem to be in the process of ex- tinction. Walsh and the others acquired much of their knowledge throug:h their own ob- servations and experience, but obviously they were familiar with most of the Avorld literature on the subject. Furthermore, it seems reasonably certain that then, as now, much unpublished knowledge on the subject was transmitted from individual to individual through correspondence and conversation, some of it even as tradition. We know that pioneer naturalists ob- tained considerable information from the Indians. For example, the English ex- plorer, Jonathan Carver (1778:493-4) wrote of his travels among the American Indians in 1766: I must not omit that the LOCUST [grasshop- per] is a septennial insect, as they are only seen, a small number of stragglers excepted, every seven years, when they infest these parts and the interior colonies in large swarms, and do a great deal of mischief. One may be more than a little sur- prised to discover that several local ama- teur naturalists — doctors, lawyers, college professors, orchardists, and agricultural- ists, never referred to as or considered to be entomologists — knew many of the common insects by name and possessed a knowledge of their biology and habits adequate to permit these men to engage in lengthy and intelligent discussions on the subject at meetings of agricultural and horticultural societies. For example, Dr. E. G. Mygatt (1855), a physician, wrote an essay, "Bark Louse of the Apple Tree," for the first Transactions of the Illinois State Agricultural Society, 1853- 54, and J. B. Turner (1859), a professor of Latin and Greek, presented a paper, "Microscopic Insects," at the first meet- ing of the Illinois Natural History Soci- ety in 1858. It is interesting to note that at this time two men, Le Baron (1855) and Thomas (1859^), each one later ap- pointed to the office of State Entomolo- gist, were presenting papers on Illinois birds and other topics in the Held of nat- ural history. In the light of these pleasant surprises, one is amazed to realize that the com- bined knowledge of all the experts was almost nil when it came to questions of practical control measures that could be employed to eliminate these pests or even to reduce materially the annual losses attributable to them. It is possible that the paucity of practical information can best be understood if we recall that for many years it was believed well-nigh sac- rilegious for a scientist to consider the practical application of his accumulated knowledge ; as the distinguished Professor Louis Agassiz (1863:24) once said, "the man of science who follows his studies into their practical application is false to his calling." Local and national repudiation of this philosophy contributed to the industrial and agrarian crusades that resulted in creation of state entomologists' offices and land grant colleges. Touching upon the new philosophy of science and educa- tion in addressing the founders of the Illinois Natural History Societv at their first meeting in 1858, Turner (1859: 647) said: In respect, also, to those grosser forms of vegetable and animal life, it seems to me that our research should in future aim more di- rectly at practical utility than in the past. We are quite too content with mere descrip- tion of forms and names, sometimes, without pushing our inquiries into the causes, relations and uses, and evils of things. . . . We need not simply to christen all these things — not simplv to name the beasts, but also to rule over them, as did our great father Adam ; and, also, all other forms of matter. And we cannot do this till we know minutely their history, habits and relations to other things and beings. The grand end to be aimed at, in reference to most forms of fungi and parasites of all sorts, is their prevention or destruction. But a vast amount of minute antecedent knowledge is needed before we can hope to say, "thus far and no farther," even to one single race or tribe, much more to the vast myriad of races and tribes. Benjamin Walsh, the first State Ento- mologist of Illinois, was in full accord with the views of Turner. In addressing 106 Illinois Natural History Sur\ey Bulletin Vol. 27. Art. 2 a ineen'n^ at Cobdeii, Illinois, in \o- \ember, 1(S67, he said: I do not regret to say that I belong to the modern school of science, and think it no deg- radation, so far as my specialty is concerned, to bring science to the aid of practical men in the related departments of human industry. And I need not tell you, for you know, that insects pick your pockets, and that to fight them successfully it is necessary to know their habits and how to distinguish friends from foes (Walsh 1868rt:143). Cyrus Thomas subscribed to the new philosophy several years before he became State Entomologist. And the study of natural history is a useful study, having many direct practical advan- tages. Agriculture is the pedestal on which the stately fortunes of bankers and merchant kings are reared, and as the pedestal contracts or expands, so rises or falls the lofty column (Thomas 1859«:667). Therefore, we say, that natural history should be studied for the practical use made of the knowledge obtained. And, if it be a study so desirable and so useful, the question arises, Should not the study be generaUy intro- duced into our schools and colleges? I answer, most emphatically, j^es ! There is no other branch of physics, nor any branch of metaphysics so important and so necessary to be studied in the school room as natural his- tory. And I am glad to see that quite a num- ber of institutions have ventured to cross the Rubicon; yet others are halting at the brink, fearful of the result (Thomas 1859rt:668). Thus, the first and third State Ento- mologists publicly expressed their views. They took office dedicated to the task of assisting the residents of the state of Illi- nois to find practical solutions for their numerous and complex entomological problems. Their successors followed the same course. PRACTICAL PROBLEMS AND PROGRESS Change is eternal in the insect world ; thus, it appears that the need for contin- ued stud\' of insects will never end. This situation ma\- be confusing to laymen, but entomologists and others who have closely studied nature realize that insects are dynamic creatures subject to constant change in characteristics. Because of their great mutabilit\, insects have sur- vived in an ever-changing world for mil- lions of years and are still capable of making the necessary adjustments to many of the important changes in their environment. Most of the important eco- logical changes in an area or community are accompanied by changes in the insect fauna; some species drop out and others move in. Every agricultural practice adopted or discarded by man induces a significant en- vironmental change or modification which will favorably or unfavorably affect in- sects and, for that matter, all other living organisms in the area involved. Changes in crop rotations, fertilization practices, pruning, or drainage will prove favorable for some species and unfavorable for oth- ers. At the time the Office of State Ento- mologist was established in Illinois, fruit and vegetable crops could not be econom- ically produced and marketed in the state without reasonably effective insect con- trol. Since the high per acre value of such crops seemed to warrant expenditures for insect control, Illinois producers of these crops demanded and received a large share of the Entomologist's time. As the nature and magnitude of insect losses in other agricultural and nonagricultural areas became more apparent and better understood, pressures from a multitude of other sources necessitated a realignment and much greater diversification of ento- mological research. Space will not permit enumeration and full discussion of all the insect problems that have arisen to plague Illinois farm- ers in the past century and it will not allow a detailed review of the thousands of printed pages that have been used to record the findings of research conducted during this period. Therefore, in the brief resume that follows we confine our attention to a few specific examples. Fruit Insects In 1868 an editor of The American Entomologist, probably Walsh, sum- marized the fruit insect situation as fol- lows : It is notorious among fruit growers, that the Curculio has now almost entirely vetoed the cultivation of the plum ; and of late years this pernicious little Snout-beetle has extended its ravages to the peach, and even to the apple and pear, to say nothing of those rarer and De 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 107 choicer fruits, the nectarine and the apricot. The strawberry and the grape vine are in- fested by a host of insects, some of them known for many years back to science, others (ie- scribed and illustrated for the first time by the editors of this paper in various publications; while there are still others the natural history of which has never yet been published to the world, and which will be figured and described by the editors in the progress of this work. What with the Bark-louse in the North, the Apple-root Plant-louse in the South and the Apple-worm everywhere, the apple crop in North America is gradually becoming almost as uncertain and precarious as the plum crop (Walsh & Riley 1868a:l). To show that the testimony of an ento- mologist was not biased and that the con- ditions described above were more or less general, we may note a comment made by the eminent journalist Horace Greele\' (1870:301): If I were to estimate the average loss per an- num of the farmers of this country from insects at $100,000,000, I should doubtless be far be- low the mark. The loss of fruit alone by the devastations of insects, within a radius of fifty miles from this city, must amount in value to millions. . . . We must fight our paltr\- ad- versaries more efficiently, or allow them to drive us wholly from the field. The first white settlers in Illinois ob- served that the native fruits — plums, grapes, haws, and berries — were subject to attack by a variety of insects. More than three-fourths of the species recog- nized as fruit pests today were recognized and mentioned in agricultural or horti- cultural reports and farm journals prior to 1870. The plum curculio, for exam- ple, was to be found in every plum thicket and, when improved varieties of plums were introduced, the curculio took to them like ducks to water. In discussing plum culture at a fruit growers' meeting in 1852, a Mr. Brewster reported that for 4 years the curculio had destroyed his plum crop. Then followed a general dis- cussion of proposed control measures, such as jarring, banding, paving, and using lime, soap suds, and chamber lye. The following year a similar report pro- voked a repetition of the members' favor- ite control measures, but by then two gen- tlemen had the answer: Just fence the plum orchard and turn in chickens (J. A. Kennicott 1855:296, 314-5). The idea of using chickens for control of curculio paralleled a suggestion made by a Mr. Harkness at a horticultural meeting in 1853: Some twelve years since, a neighbor of his en- closed a wild plum thicket, as a yard for swine; trees bore full crops every year; never troubled by curculio, whilst other thickets about had fruit nearly all destroyed by them. Four years since the hogs were turned out, and the ground appropriated to other uses; the first year after, the fruit was mostly destroyed by curculio (J. A. Kennicott 1855:314). Gradually- certain members of the cur- culio tribe developed a liking for related stone fruits and even apples. In his first and onlv report as State Entomologist, Walsh (1868/^:64) noted: Although the Curculio now infests the culti- vated species of Plum (Primus domrstica, Lin- naeus,) to fully as great an extent as our com- mon wild species (Prutius amrrlcana,) yet it is only at a comparatively recent date that it attacked our cultivated Plums, and since that epoch it has been growing every year worse and worse, and making onslaughts upon other fruits, such as the Peach, the Cherry, and even the Apple. For 20 to 30 years the use of Hull's curculio catcher or similar devices to jar curculios out of infested trees, so that the insects could be destroyed, and the use of hogs and chickens confined to the or- chards to consume infested fruits as they fell were the two principal, and perhaps the only meritorious, control measures. One should note, however, that farm journals carried glowing advertisements for numerous concoctions, which were almost worthless or which did more harm than good. The successful use of insecticides for the control of the plum curculio on peach and other stone fruits did not materialize until lead arsenate came into the picture in the late 1890's, because the more solu- ble arsenic compounds — white arsenic, Paris green, and London purple — then available oroved too phytotoxic for use on such delicate foliage as that of peach, plum, and cherry. With the aid of im- proved insecticide formulations, spray schedules, and equipment developed through years of continued research, Illi- nois orchardists were able to hold their own with the curculio until a crisis de- veloped during World War II. Then as labor and other overhead costs increased and lead arsenate became less effective, 108 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27. Art. 2 man\- peach growers, after a few \ ears in the red, pulled up their trees and aban- doned production. A hope that DDT would control plum curculio faded quick- ly, but BHC became available just in time to save the peach-growing industry. BHC was short-lived as an insecticide for plum curculio control ; it was replaced hv more eltective and less objectionable materials such as chlordane. dieldrin, and parathion. However, it was BHC that saved the day for a number of orchardists. Orchards that could have been bought for a song, and a poor one at that, in the fall of 1946 and spring of 1947 were not for sale in 1948. After a century of research by the Nat- ural History Survey and its parent or- ganizations, we find the plum curculio is, for the moment at least. ver\ well under control. Surveys conducted in 32 com- mercial peach orchards for the past 5 years showed that at harvest time less than 1 per cent of the fruit was infested or dam- aged by this weevil. Other insects of the peach that ha\ e required research attention include the oriental fruit moth, a group of sucking insects responsible for an injury known as catfacing, the peach tree borers, and at least three species of scale insects. For- tunately these, too. are successfully con- trolled by currently available measures. Even so, peach growers insist that the entomologist will have to find more eco- nomical control measures, or the high cost of producing peaches will put the growers out of business. The codling moth (mentioned by Walsh as the "Apple-worm"), unques- tionably the No. 1 apple insect in Illinois, apparently arrived in eastern United States from Europe about 1800 and made its first appearance in Illinois about 1850. In 1869, while checking his theory that this insect had been a hitch-hiker in apple barrels, Walsh reportedly found about 200 cocoons in a single barrel. The cod- ling moth wasted no time in becoming adapted to its new environment. In the early transactions of the horticultural and agricultural societies and in pioneer farm journals, there are numerous references to the ravages of this insect. For example, in the first issue of Hie Arnericun Kntornol- ogist in September, 1868, we read: Jotham Bradbury, residing near Quincy, 111., has an old apple orchard, which many years agti used invariably to produce nothing but wormv and gnarly fruit. A few years ago he plowed up this orchard and seeded it to clover, by way of hog pasture. As soon as the clover had got a sufficient start, he turned in a gang of hogs, and has allowed them the range of his orchard ever since. Two years after the land was plowed the apple trees produced a good crop of fair, smooth fruit, and have continued to bear well ever since (Walsh i' Rile\ 1868//: -1-5). In the same article, further extolling the value of hogs, we read: But the plum curculio and its allies are not the only insects that we can successfully attack through the instrumentality of the hog; neither is stone fruit the only crop that can be pro- tected in this manner. For the last fifteen \ears or so. pip fruit, namely, apples, pears, and quinces, have been annually more or less deteriorated bv the apple worm or larva of the codling moth boring into their cores, and filling their flesh with its loathsome excrement (Walsh & Riley 1868/7:3). In addressing the Southern Illinois Fruit Growers Association in 1867, Pres- ident Parker Earle (1868:137) said: ihe curculio and the tree borers have been di^cu>sed at length in our former meetings, but the codling moth — which threatens us even greater damage than the curculio — has re- ceived little attention. There is some hope that great promptness and energy may save us from the terrible devastation which this moth has wrought in all the older States, and in the older fruit-growing neighborhoods of Illinois. Its damage to the apple crop of the country each passing year should be reckoned at mil- lions of dollars. From all sections we have the same sad story of "the apples dropping prema- turely"— "the apples mostly wormy" — "the ap- ple crop used up," by the codling worm. In many districts of the East where apples were once abundant they now entireh- fail, because of the worms, and they not only threaten the destruction of the apple crop of the country, the whole country, but pears seem equally exposed. In many sections of the West nine-tenths of the pears are reported spoiled by the codling moth. The comments of Earle and other early horticultural leaders clearly establish the codling moth as the outstanding pest of apples in Illinois in the third quarter of the nineteenth century. From 1850 to 1870 the pasturing of hogs in the or- chards and the use of straw or cloth bands around the tree trunks to trap larvae for later destruction were about the only con- trol measures of established merit. Even December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 109 these measures were only partially eft'ec- ri\e, and a large percentage of the apples harvested showed insect damage. In fact, the situation was so bad that the fruit judges at county fairs protested the ad- mission of fruit damaged by codling moth, and eventually a rule was passed that the unmistakable evidence of codling moth damage or the presence of San Jose scale disqualified a fruit for competition. In- secticides did not come into the picture until after the value of Paris green had been established for the control of the Colorado potato beetle and a number of other pests. In his third report as State Entomolo- gist, Le Baron (1873:172) recommended only cultural practices for control of the codling moth : PRACTICAL TREATMENT. This may be reduced to the four following heads: 1st. Destroying the insects in their winter quarters. 2d. Picking the wormy apples from the trees. 3d. Gathering the wormy apples from the ground, or letting swine and sheep have the range of the orchard. 4th. Entrapping the w^orms in bands and other contrivances. To which may be added the help to be de- rived from their natural enemies. In his previous report, Le Baron (1872:116) had mentioned the use of Paris green to control cankerworms on apple, and this may in part have led to the subsequent work by Forbes and oth- ers for control of codling moth on apple. We find but few references to trials with Paris green on crops in 1867 and the following decade. In 1880, however, with repeated warnings that suitable precau- tions must be observed, large-scale testing of Paris green and its companion, London purple, got under way. After 2 years (1885-1886) of experimentation, Forbes (1889:15) concluded: The experiments above described seem to me to prove that at least seventy per cent of the loss commonly suffered by the fruit grower from the ravages of the codling moth or apple worm may be prevented at a nominal expense, or, practically, in the long run, at no expense at all, by thoroughly applying Paris green in a spray with water, once or twice in early spring, as soon as the fruit is fairly set, and not so late as the time when the growing apple turns downward on the stem. He presented data showing that, in 1885, 68 per cent of the unsprayed apples were wormy, whereas only 21 per cent of the sprayed apples were wormy, and, in 1886, 40 per cent of the unsprayed apples were wormy and 12 per cent of the sprayed fruit. When lead arsenate became avail- able about 1895, entomologists began ex- perimenting with it, and for the next 30 to 40 years practically all codling moth research centered around attempts to improve formulations and spray sched- ules involving the use of this chemical. Between 1915 and 1918, in seven sep- arate studies, Illinois entomologists found that in unsprayed blocks fruit ranged from 9 to 84 per cent wormy and aver- aged 45 per cent wormy, whereas in the blocks sprayed with improved lead arse- nate formulations the fruit ranged from 1 to 20 per cent wormy and averaged 4.4 per cent wormy. \Vith what appeared to be a satisfac- tory control measure working reasonably well year after year, entomologists and fruit growers alike became more or less complacent, only to be shocked by a dou- ble-barrelled attack. The codling moth began to show evidences of resistance to arsenical sprays, and, as dosage rates and numbers of applications were increased, the United States Food and Drug Ad- ministration began to bear down on lead and arsenic tolerances. The next three decades might be characterized as a pe- riod of mad scramble for cover. Attempts were made to find ( 1 ) ways to remove spray residues, (2) suitable substitute materials, (3) ways to synergize insecti- cidal action without increasing residues, and (4) better sanitation and other non- chemical procedures. Research did well to hold its own, during this critical pe- riod, until DDT came into the picture at the close of World Wai II. The success of DDT in controlling the codling moth was spectacular, and within 2 years the growers' clamor for more work on codling moth control faded. A review of research data and the re- sults of harvest surveys made the past 3 years show that now 33 to 94 per cent of the fruit in unsprayed apple orchards is wormy, approximately the same percent- ages as in the 1860's, 1880's, and the sec- ond decade of the present century. In no Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27. Art. contrast, we find that in sprayed orchards 0.03 to 7.6 per cent, or an average of 2.2 per cent, of the fruit is womiy. Thus, we find that, in spite of adversities and re- verses, continued research has developed control measures that have enabled apple growers to reduce the percentage of a dozen important scale insects alone. One scale insect of great importance is the San Jose scale, which was introduced into California from China about 1880 and into Illinois about 1895. For a time this scale threatened to wipe out the Illi- nois commercial fruit industrv. Parasites, >pray;r.g equipment designed and used aDout lsy7 Dy tde Mate Entomologist and his assist- ants for experiments on control of San Jose scale. '"The principal apparatus used is a large and complicated machine sprayer consisting of a one-horse power gasoline engine, a three-cylinder force pump, and a large double galvanized-iron tank with a powerful gasoline heater beneath for making the solution of whale-oil soap" (Forbes 1900:14j|. The sprayer was mounted on a r»To-horse baggage wagon. worm-damaged apples from possibly 60 to 100 per cent in 1867 to 21 per cent in 1885. 4.4 per cent in 1915, and 2,2 per cent in 1957. If it appears that entomologists have devoted too much attention to this one insect, let us recall that codling moth re- search has been the traditional guinea pig for the study of many insect control pro- cedures, and that the measures developed for the control of the codling moth for the most part have given satisfacton con- trol of a considerable number of other pests of apples. A list of the insects attacking fruit crops in Illinois would no doubt include 100 or more species. There are at least predators, and diseases have played an im- portant role in holding this insect at bay, but for over 50 years orchardists have found it necessary to apply a dormant spray or some other special treatment to bring this insect under control. As late as 1950, Illinois apple growers seemed to agree that if the use of sprays was to be forbidden San Jose scale would eliminate commercial orchards within 5 years. This insect, perhaps more than any other, has been responsible for the development of a strong plant inspection and quarantine system in Illinois, and. for that matter, in other states as well. Here we have an insect that can barely survive on wild or neglected trees but that thrives on young. December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 111 vigorously growing orchard trees — an ex- cellent example of how man creates, or at least aggravates, his own insect problems. The more man prunes and fertilizes, the more certain he is to develop a serious San Jose scale problem. Truck Crop Pests An article, probably by Walsh, pub- lished in 1869 makes it clear that at an early date a host of insects were recog- nized as important pests of a wide vari- ety of vegetable crops: There is scarcely a vegetable raised in our gardens that is not preyed upon by one or more grubs, caterpillars, or maggots, so that, when we eat it, we have positively no security that we are not mingling animal with vegeta- ble food. Two distinct kinds of maggots, pro- ducing two distinct species of two-winged Fly. burrow in the bulb of the onion. Scabby po- tatoes are inhabited by a more elongated maggot, producing a very different kind of two-winged Fly, and also by several minute species of Mites. Turnips, beets, carrots and parsnips are each attacked by peculiar larvae. And as to the multifarious varieties of the cabbage, not only are they often grievously infested by the Cabbage Plant-louse — a species which has been introduced from Europe into this country — but also by an imported cater- pillar producing a small moth, and by several indigenous caterpillars producing much larger moths, some of which caterpillars, when full- grown, are over one inch long (Walsh & Rilev 1869:114). Why the article failed to include the corn earworm, the squash vine borer, the cucumber beetles, and the melon louse is hard to say, for they were numbered among the best known pests at the time. One is amazed that the Colorado potato beetle was not mentioned, because this species was the most spectacular insect pest of vegetable crops in Illinois in the latter half of the 1860's. Presumably, prior to 1850 the Colorado potato beetle was unknown except as an interesting species found only in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, where it fed on a wild potato somewhat resembling the common horse nettle. When the pioneers planted Irish potato and egg plant in Nebraska and Colorado, the beetle found these closely related plants to its liking, in- creased its numbers many fold, and took ofi for the East, flying from one settler's potato patch to another's. Here again we have an example of how man may create his own insect control problems. The in- troduction of a crop highly attractive to a native insect invites this insect to trans- fer its affections to the newly introduced crop. The potato beetle transferred its afifections from its native host to the in- troduced potato. It seems quite probable that the potato beetle's many natural en- emies did not travel eastward but con- tinued searching for it in its old haunts. With an abundance of lush, nutritious potato vines and a temporary release from its natural control agencies, the Colorado potato beetle, in the vernacular of today, "went to town" until a new system of checks and balances could be established. The eastward movement of the potato beetle was first noted in eastern Colorado in 1859. It did not appear in Illinois un- til 1864. Damaging populations of this beetle were reported in several Illinois counties in 1865. Some of the tales of wholesale potato destruction related in the local press and the Prairie Farmer were downright pathetic: "Let every man and woman in the country or in town, who has a potato patch, try experi- ments for the destruction of these pests and report progress. Something must be done to stop the destruction of the vines by these in- satiate creatures or we may as well quit trying to raise potatoes" (Cedar Valley, loiva, Times, quoted by Riley 1866:432). I know of several cases near Rock Island, Illi- nois, where the owners of potato-patches, after persevering in a course of hand-picking for fully a month, finally gave up in despair, be- cause as fast as they killed off their own bugs, a fresh supply from their neighbors' potato- patches kept flving in upon them (Walsh 1866:14). All accounts seem to agree that neither lime, nor ashes, nor any available external applica- tion is of the least use in checking the depre- dations of this insect. The Prairie Farmer says that "Mr. Jones found, after many experi- ments, that neither hot lime, lime-water, brine, tobacco-water, wine (?) nor sulphur had any effect on them ; that turpentine, benzine and kerosene would kill them when copiously ap- plied, but also killed the potatoes" and that "coal-oil mixed with water is ineffectual." . . . Although there is some contradictory evi- dence, yet the general result of all the testi- mony is, that neither domestic fowls, nor ducks, nor turkeys will eat them, at all events to any very extensive amount (Walsh 1866:14). Hand picking, or the manual collection and destruction of the beetles, their lar- vae, and their eggs, was about the only really effective control measure. During 112 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 the next several decades, it was said of many a farm boy who had risen to a prominent position, "He made his first dime collecting potato bugs on his grand- father's farm" — not his father's farm, for there, in accord with the tradition of the The value of predators and parasites was not overlooked, and at times differ- ent kinds of poultry, particularly turkeys, were noted as effective control agents. Hellebore, London purple, and calcium arsenate were later added to the list of Spraying equipment developed in recent years by entomologists of the Illinois Natural History Survey for the control of the corn earworrn and the European corn borer on sweet corn and field corn. day, he performed the task without com- pensation as a member of the family. Many potato growers experimented with Paris green applied in several ways, and by 1870 dusting plants with a mix- ture of Paris green and flour or lime was quite generally accepted as the most ef- fective remedy available. However, there were many growers who were fearful of the poisonous properties of the arsenical compounds and they continued to place their trust in hand picking. Some grow- ers went so far as to design rather elab- orate mechanical devices which they mounted on skids and dragged up and down the rows to beat the beetles from the plants and collect them in pans, trays, or boxes, where the beetles could be de- stroved. insecticides recommended for control of the Colorado potato beetle. As the potato leafhopper, aphids, blight, and other pests attracted increased attention, a variety of insecticide and fungicide combinations came into common use. Research pro- duced minor improvements in formula- tions and methods of application that en- hanced the efifectiveness or economy of control measures, but there was no sub- stantial or basic change in control pro- cedures or practices until the advent of DDT in 1946. While potato growers and entomologists alike had been inclined to feel that the control measures in use in the early 1940's left little to be de- sired, they apparently overlooked or gross- ly underestimated the damage inflicted by the insects, for within 2 years after December, 1958 Df.cker: Economic Entomology 113 DDT came into general use the per-acre potato yields practically doubled. Numerous early reports indicate that the pioneer cabbage grower had to con- tend with about the same insects that plague the cabbage grower of today, but the pioneer had no arsenal of effective in- secticides. Lime, lye, and ash mixtures advocated by some growers were of little use except in those cases where the plants were so heavily coated with one of the mixtures that physical contact between the insect and the plant was practically impossible. The scalding water drench proposed by some persons was at times of value, but was very apt to damage the plants. The arsenicals were used spar- ingly and on small plants only; they could not be safely employed on more mature cabbages. Thus, for many years the sound, unblemished head of cabbage was a rarity, and there was always danger of consuming protein with the slaw. In fact, it is very doubtful if any kraut made in those days could have passed present day Food and Drug Administration inspec- tions for insect fragments. There are those who contend that the prevalence of scurvy in the armies of the North and the South during the Civil War was in no small measure due to the fact that farm- ers could not produce adequate quantities of cabbage and related cole crops. Although some nicotine and pyrethrin products had been known for many years, they did not come into practical use until about 1910. Derris, cube, and other ro- tenone preparations made their appear- ance in the 1920's. When properly ap- plied, these insecticides were quite effec- tive, but they possessed very limited re- sidual properties and were relatively ex- pensive. Their acceptance by cabbage growers was not enthusiastic, and ento- mologists were under constant pressure to improve formulations by the use of synergists or stabilizing agents. Then came DDT and the organic phosphate in- secticides, and it looked for a time as if the cabbage growers' insect problems were effectively solved. But the insects once again demonstrated their mutability, and soon cabbage worms were resistant to DDT. Today the entomologist is worse off than he was in the early 1940's, be- cause the cabbage growers, having once experienced the fine performance and economy of DDT in the early 1950's, are unwilling to settle for anything less effi- cient. The currently recommended spray schedule, which calls for using endrin un- til cabbage heads begin to form and fin- ishing with occasional applications of phosdrin or parathion, is a highly effec- tive treatment, but the growers remem- ber equally satisfactory results with the less complicated use of DDT. Sweet corn growers in Illinois, like the cabbage growers, must cope with an insect problem that requires both a thorough knowledge of the seasonal ac- tivities of the pest and a rather meticulous control treatment. The corn earworm is a native American pest that has long con- tested man's right to the sweet corn pro- duced in Illinois. Unlike the cabbage worm, this insect has continued to defy man's best efforts to control it. Several reasonably effective control measures have been developed, but none has been fully accepted by Illinois sweet corn growers. The corn earworm control measure cur- rently recommended involves precise but not unreasonable methods of application and accurate timing of treatments. Some Illinois sweet corn growers have been un- able or unwilling to apply the requisite control measures. When infestations of the corn earworm are light, mediocre con- trol practices prove adequate, but, when infestations are heavy, more meticulous practices are essential. In parts of Flor- ida and Texas, where sweet corn growers cannot afford to gamble on having light infestations, many growers produce 97 to 99 per cent clean ears of corn by care- fully following the control measures rec- ommended by entomologists. Cereal and Forage Crop Pests Insect depredations were by no means confined to the fruit and vegetable crops produced by the early settlers in Illinois. Wheat, corn, and even the native prairie grasses were subject to attacks that at times amounted to almost total crop de- struction. In an article in the first issue of The American Entomologist, a writer, presumably Walsh, observed : Few persons are aware of the enormous amount of wealth annually abstracted from the pockets of the cultivators of the soil by those 114 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27. Art. 2 insignificant little creatures, which in popular parlance are called "bugs," but which the sci- entific world chooses to denominate "insects." Scarcely a year elapses in which the wheat crop of several States of the Union is not more or less completely ruined by the Chinch-bug, the Hessian Fly, the Wheat Midge, or the Joint Worm. . . . The White Grub attacks indiscriminately the timothy in the meadows, the corn in the plowed field, the young fruit trees in the nursery, and the strawberry beds in the garden; always lurking insidiously under ground, and only making its pres- ence known to the impoverished agriculturist by the losses which it has already inflicted upon him. ... at periodic intervals the Army-worm marches over their fields like a destroying pestilence; while in Kansas, Ne- braska, and Minnesota, and the more westerly parts of Missouri and Iowa, the Hateful Grasshopper, in particular seasons, swoops down with the western breeze in devouring swarms from the Rocky Mountains, and, like its close ally, the Locust of Scripture and of Modern Europe, devours every green thing from off the face of the earth (Walsh .i- Riley 1868^:1). Certainly Walsh was in a position to know the armyworm problem, because in 1861, 6 years before the creation of the State Entomologist's Office, the Rock Island and Chicago and the Illinois Cen- tral railroads granted him, as a member of the Illinois Natural History Society, passes that permitted him to spend sev- eral weeks studying a major armyworm outbreak that developed in central and southern Illinois. That fall, in typical Walsh style, he wrote: . . . I always hate to give nothing for something, and having been obliged by the railroad companies, I endeavored, to the extent of my poor abilities, to return the obligation, by seeking a remedy for a little pest, that has this year destroyed one-fourth part of the tame hay grown within the limits of the State (Walsh 1861:350). This was the introduction to an ex- tremely interesting and informative 15- page report on the ecology of the army- worm and its natural enemies which he appended to an essay prepared for de- livery at the annual meeting of the Illi- nois Agricultural Society. Walsh re- ported : When they [armyworms] leave the meadows in which they originate, they travel on — some- times as far as half a mile — until they meet with wheat, rse, oats, corn, sorghum, or Hun- garian grass "(Walsh 1861:351). Many instances are on record of the great difficulty with which they have been kept out of houses which happened to lie in their path (Walsh 1861:352). From the Prairie Farmer of Julv 4, 1861, Walsh (1861:351) quoted ' the words of "an accurate observer" who described an infestation of armyworms : "As to their number, they have been seen moving from one field to another, three tiers deep, a ditch has been filled with them to the depth of three inches in H.A.LF AN HOUR." Walsh was fortunate in being able to acquire, through contacts with a number of pioneer settlers, valuable notes on his- toric armyworm outbreaks of the past. Some of these notes seem worthy of repe- tition as an e.xample of the fund of un- published entomological history and knowledge that has passed from one gen- eration to another: As we might expect from the laws govern- ing the development of insect life, the army- worms make their appearance in noticeable numbers in different years in different parts of the State. I have no doubt that they exist in small numbers in every part of the State from year to year; for although they have never appeared till 1861 in the neighborhood of Rock Island, in such numbers as to attract attention, yet I myself captured a single specimen of the army-worm moth in Rock Island county, in each of three years, '58, '59 and '60. At Okaw they are recorded to have appeared in 1850; in the south part of Vermilion county, in 1835 ; and Mr. Joseph Bragshaw, of Perry county, says that they visited that county in '25, '26, '34, '39, '41 and '42. Colonel Dougherty, of Jonesboro, in Union county, one of the oldest and most respected citizens of Southern Illi- nois, informed me that about 1818 or '20 they were far more numerous there than in 1861, and that in 1861 there would not be a single cock of hay put up in his neighborhood save one meadow which was part clover and part timothy, and which I can myself testify was badly "patchy," there not being more than an eighth part of it which would turn out a good swarth of clover, the timothy being "nil" throughout. In 1838 again, according to the Colonel, there were but few of them. In 1842 they were about as in 1861 ; and in 1856 they occurred onlv in small numbers (Walsh 1861: 353). It certainly is an encouraging sign of the progress of entomological discovert' in this State, that a noxious insect of primarv impor- tance should have been, for the first time, traced through all its transformations in the year 1861 by no less than four citizens of Illi- nois to my certain knowledge — I refer to Mr. Cvrus Thomas of Murphysboro, Mr. Emerv of the Prairie Farmer, Col. Doughertv of Jones- boro, and last and least mvself (Walsh 1861: 356). De 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 115 While many of the observations made by Walsh and the other gentlemen men- tioned were sound and are still valid, one observation was in error and resulted in a recommendation which, although it had the desired effect, was based upon a false premise. Walsh (1861:349) advised, "Burn your tame grass meadows over annually, in the dead of the year, and get your neighbors to do the same, and you will never more be troubled with the army worm." Walsh thought that the armyworm passes the winter in the egg stage, but such is not the case, and there- fore burning, as he recommended, did not destroy the eggs. We now know that when the moths appear in the early spring the\ fly at night; in the daytime, they hide in rank grass, preferably a dense mat of old, dead grass in a vigorous meadow. There, in April and May, they lay their eggs. Thus, while winter burning did not destroy eggs, it had a profound effect on the number of worms developing in burned-over fields and often, if not usu- ally, prevented serious infestations from developing. The recommendation for burning per- sisted for several years, and by 1880 it was supplemented by a recommendation for the use of dusty trench barriers to trap worms on the march. Spraying strips with Paris green was proposed by some, but was generally considered both dan- gerous and impractical. The use of poison bait (a mixture of bran and Paris green) for the control of armyworms, cutworms, and grasshoppers came into use about 1885, and with minor modifications remained the principal and most practical control measure available until the advent of the modern chlori- nated hydrocarbon insecticides. Since 1951, growers have been generally suc- cessful in controlling armyworms by spraying with such materials as toxaphene. dieldrin, and endrin. Furthermore, with the insect outlook and warning service bulletins available weekly during crop seasons from the Natural History Survey, Illinois farmers are now able to control armyworms eff'ectively when the worms are one-fourth to one-half grown. Ap- plied control measures save the small grain and the meadow grasses as well as protect adjacent crops from migrations. The chinch bug, another infamous pest, has been well known to Illinois farmers since 1820. This species, like the army- worm and many others, is not a serious pest every year, but tends to be sporadic, perhaps somewhat cyclic, in its appear- ance. Weather, of course, is a factor that influences the chinch bug population. One is indeed surprised to learn that the farmers of 1860 were just about as much aware of this pest as are the farm- ers of 1958. In 1861 Thomas (1865: 466—7) observed: Although we cannot predict with certainty one season the action of insect enemies for the next, yet we often can from the character of the season itself, know that certain species are likely to be upon us in increased numbers. This was the case the present season in re- gard to the appearance of the "Army-worm." The cold, cloudy spring hanging so long before opening into summer weather, caused the ex- clamation from several of our older citizens, "I wouldn't be surprised if we had the Army- worm this season." Although this was rather guessing, yet there evidently pervaded the minds of the elder settlers a semi-conscious feeling of dread in regard to this insect, which most assuredly originated from the similarity in this spring to the previous seasons when it had appeared. And when the long dry weather we sometimes have in June and July has parched the vegetation, we may expect the grass-hoppers to multiply rapidly, and by their attacks on the plants already struggling for life, to soon effect a far greater injury than the same attack made on vigorous plants would have done. Later, Thomas (1880:242) observed, "The high temperature of 1854, '71 and '74, together with the diminished rainfall, furnish the key to the cause of the great development of the Chinch-bug during these years." One could cite hundreds of quotations, from the Prairie Farmer and other early farm papers, concerning damage by the chinch bug and other field crop pests that would put the potato beetle reports to shame. But let the words of Walsh and of Thomas suffice. Walsh wrote as fol- lows : It is only two years since the entire w^heat crop of the State was so damaged by the chinch bug that a great deal of it was not cut at all, and a great deal that was cut barely paid for the harvesting. Scarcely a year elapses but what more or less damage is done to it by this insect, and by the Hessian fly and the wheat midge. A large breadth of winter wheat, which is commonlv supposed to be "winter- 116 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 3 S-a s 'I' 2iZ — u -y. r. ^ '■> o a. ■r. -(- 3 S .: December, 1958 Deckkr: Economic Entomology 117 killed," is in reality killed by the Hessian fly; and there may be, and probably are, many other insects which depredate upon this crop, but whose habits have not yet fallen under the notice of entomologists (Walsh 1861:335). Taking the average of years, we may safely assume that a fifth part of the wheat crop — or, which is the same thing, a quantity equal to one-fourth of what we actually do harvest — is destroyed by insects. Even at the low price, therefore, of 75 cents per bushel, we have over four and a half million dollars' v:orth of wheat annuallv destroyed by "little vermin which it is not worth our while to notice." But this is not all. Other crops are damaged by other insects, though not generally to so ruinous an extent; so that we cannot put the whole annual damage done by insects to the State of Illinois at less than twenty million- dollars (Walsh 1861:336). And Thomas (1865:457) wrote: "So much has already been written in the pa- pers of this State concerning the Chinch- bug {\lacropus leucopterus. Fitch,) that I shall pass it by in this paper without further notice." Shelford (Sc Flint (1943) made a thor- ough study of the history of the chinch bug in Illinois. The figure on page 116 is presented to illustrate the type of his- toric records that have been made and preserved by the Natural History Sur- vey. The data on which the figure is based cover the century beginning in 1840. Records for subsequent years have, of course, been kept. Similar data have been collected for several other important pests. In the 1860"s and 70's, many measures were proposed for control of the chinch bug: abandon wheat and barley or corn; burn fencerows and all wild grass areas to destroy hibernating bugs ; plant border crops to retard migrations ; fertilize crops to get dense stands unattractive to the in- sects; and construct barrier lines of lime, salt, and carbolic acid solutions. The measure most widely used was the dusty furrow. Each year saw some new version of the furrow proposed, such as pouring tar oil, road oil, or creosote into the fur- row to form a barrier; covering the fur- row with straw and setting it afire to de- stroy the bugs ; digging post-hole traps in the furrow and later spraying the trapped bugs with kerosene and burning them. There was no great change until the paper fence barrier, proposed in 1934, was widely adopted, but even this barrier was not without precedent; over 50 years earlier the use of tar-covered boards set on edge and placed end to end had been proposed. The later control measures, like the early ones, were scheduled to be used around harvest time. About 1945, the paper fence barrier was practically re- placed by the dinitro dust barrier, and in another 10 years this was replaced by diel- drin, spraj'ed on strips of ground along the margins of small grain fields where these fields adjoined fields of corn or later maturing grain. The more aggressive fol- lowers of research progress were spray- ing entire fields of heavily infested wheat as soon as chinch bug eggs began to hatch so as to protect the wheat crop itself from serious damage and to eliminate the necessity of establishing a barrier of any type 2 or 3 weeks later. In the past century, progress has been made in controlling many other insect pests that attack cereal and forage crops. Among the most important of these pests are the grasshoppers, the cutworms, the white grubs, and the hessian fly. Instead of attempting to summarize in detail, we note here some of the general trends in this area of insect control. Before extensive agricultural develop- ment of the state, a large part of Illinois consisted of broad expanses of prairie grass, much of which was replaced by timothy and other tame grass or cereal crops planted by farmers. Insects prefer- ring these crops became notorious pests, but as the acreage of grasses was reduced as a result of increased legume produc- tion, certain insects began to decline in importance. These included the white grubs, the billbugs, the armyworms, the sod webworms, and the corn root aphid. The burrowing webworm and the cut- worm Liiperina stipata have all but dis- appeared ; not a single specimen of either has been received by us for identification in the last 20 years. As the rail fence was replaced by the wire fence, and roadsides and ditch banks were graded or otherwise cleaned up, the amount of giant ragweed and elderberry available to insects was greatly reduced, so that the common stalk borer became less important and the old spindleworm was practically extermin- ated. Likewise, as the pot holes and low spots were drained, wireworm damage in Ill Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 those areas declined steadily. Conversely, in certain dry, sandy areas which were broujjht under irrijjation wireworm dam- a% as in other branches of sci- ence, real progress is made through the December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 125 development of some new fact, some bio- logical or chemical law or principle re- ferred to as a "break-through," discov- ered by scientists pursuing basic research. Practically all entomologists agree that Nature is more efficient than man in con- trolling insects; there is an urgent need for a return to the basic study of insect biolog\' and ecology and for expanded work in the promising field of biological control. With a more thorough knowl- edge of the environmental factors that favor insect reproduction and survival and of those factors detrimental to these processes, man might conceivably control some pests by diminishing the favorable factors, enhancing the unfavorable fac- tors, or pursuing both courses. This type of basic research is expensive, and prog- ress comes slowly, but successful projects based on the accumulated results of such research pay handsome dividends. While more intensive studies in insect genetics, ecology, and biology may play increasingly important roles in the devel- opment of new insect control procedures, man will for many years find it necessary to rely on chemical weapons — insecticides — to fight many of his insect pests. As more and more toxic insecticides are de- veloped, it becomes increasingly important that they be thoroughly tested for safety before they are placed in general use. The evaluation of insecticide residues, their degradation products, and possible ad- verse effects on man and other animals, is currently time consuming and expen- sive. We must undertake considerable basic research to discover and to develop basic principles or natural laws that will simplify insecticide evaluation and reduce the cost of pursuing such routine studies. Come what may, man must never be- come complacent with his temporary suc- cesses nor assume that the insects have given up or will give up their struggle for supremacy. We must be ever mindful of the theses of L. O. Howard (1933) that insects are better equipped to occupy the earth than are humans ; insects have been on earth for 40,000,000 years, while the human race is only 400,000 years old. As Forbes (1915:2) soberly asserted: The struggle between man and insects began long before the dawn of civilization, has con- tinued without cessation to the present time, and will continue, no doubt, as long as the hu- man race endures. It is due to the fact that both men and certain insect species constantly want the same things at the same time. Its intensity is owing to the vital importance to both of the things they struggle for, and its long continuance is due to the fact that the contestants are so equally matched. We com- monly think of ourselves as the lords and con- querors of nature, but insects had thoroughly mastered the world and taken full possession of it long before man began the attempt. They had, consequently, all the advantage of a pos- session of the field when the contest began, and they have disputed every step of our in- vasion of their original domain so persistently and so successfully that we can even yet scarcely flatter ourselves that we have gained anv very important advantage over them. There seems to be little question that insects will continue to demand tribute of enormous proportions which will have to be paid in terms of damage, pain, and suflering caused by the insects, or in ex- penditures for insect control. Man may, through judicious expenditures for re- search and practical insect control meas- ures, reduce or minimize the tribute to be paid, but he can never eliminate it entire- ly. In this connection, it should again be noted that entomology is not static. In- sects, as highly versatile living organisms, are constantly changing to meet each change in the environment, whether it be biological, physical, or chemical. If we are to hold our own in this continuing battle, research must be carried on un- diminished, and, if we are to make prog- ress, research must be expanded. At the moment, entomology and re- lated biological sciences appear to be los- ing ground. State and federal appropria- tions have not kept pace with rising costs. Basic research is currently financed largely by grants from the principal en- dowed foundations. If it were not for funds made available by chemical and other large industrial companies, applied research in entomology would have been greatlv handicapped and curtailed in the last decade. Today, faced with the fact that an- other nation was the first to launch a man-made earth satellite, America is sub- jecting her own research facilities and educational system to critical review. At the moment, the physical sciences are in the limelight and apparently stand to profit from increased emphasis. That the 126 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 natural sciences can safely be relej^ated to a secondary or back-seat position is open to question. Almost 100 years ago, B. D. Walsh, deploring American neglect of the natural sciences, observed : "They manage these things better in Europe. In Russia and other continental states, En- tomology in its rudiments is made a por- tion of common school education" (Anon. 1860:12). There is every reason to believe that current entomological research in other countries is in no way inferior to our own. If the biological sciences, including entomology, are neglected in a revitalized educational program, America may find herself again out-distanced by other coun- tries— by men who are trained in a sci- ence-oriented system that is balanced to include all areas of scientific endeavor. If one step forward in the physical sciences causes us to slide two steps backward in the biological sciences, all our efforts spent to initiate a sound program for the ad- vancement of science — all science — will have proved useless. Faunistic Surveys HERBERT H. ROSS T N their beginnings and early develop- -*■ ment, investigations of the fauna of the Midwest differed in several respects from similar endeavors in other parts of the world. The Midwest was explored and collected intensively considerably later than the eastern American seaboard, so that the advances in the knowledge of the North American fauna made in the eastern United States were available as an aid to moderately rapid advances when faunal studies were begun in the Mid- west. In the eastern United States and also in Europe, systematic investigations were begun in response to man's in- herent curiosity concerning the kinds of life in his surroundings and were de- veloped to a considerable state of ad- vancement chiefly under this stimulus. In the Midwest, the first serious syste- matic efforts were undoubtedly begun in answer to pure curiosity, but almost im- mediately after their inception, especially in Illinois, these studies were picked up and swept along by the tremendous de- mand for identification caused by the agricultural and scientific developments of the latter half of the nineteenth century. EARLY BACKGROUND The sudden formation of natural his- torv societies in the Midwest during the 1850's — at Louisville in 1851, Grand Rapids in 1854, Milwaukee in 1855, and Chicago in 1856 — gives an impression in retrospect that before that decade there were no naturalists in the area. This was far from the case, for a few enthusiastic naturalists were active in various lo- calities through the Midwestern region even before these dates. Among the Midwestern naturalists were the famous zoologists Thomas Say, C. A. Le Sueur, and G. Troost, living and working on the banks of the Wabash River at New Harmony, Indiana, in the 1820's and 1830's, and' C. S. Rafinesque at Louisville, Kentucky, in the 1810's and 1820's. Many other persons collected material for these men or sent speci- mens for identification to taxonomists in the eastern United States or Europe. The early faunistic workers of the 1840's and the 1850's in Illinois included such men as Cyrus Thomas, John A. and Robert Kennicott, J. B. Turner, and Benjamin D. Walsh, all of them self- taught naturalists. These and other en- thusiasts made accurate observations on the fauna, built up collections of various animal groups, and kept in touch with their confreres in the eastern states. The Illinois entomologists published articles, some of them in the Prairie Farmer, and absorbed the ideas of such great early entomologists as T. W. Harris of Mas- sachusetts and Asa Fitch of New York. In Illinois the State Agricultural So- ciety, formed in 1853, was an important agent in bringing together Illinois zo- ologists, entomologists, and botanists into an organized natural history society. The progressive officers of the Agricultural Society were conscious from the first of the destructive nature of insects and were sufficiently versed in biological concepts to realize that applied biology requires a full knowledge of all forms of natural life. To encourage acquisition of this knowl- edge, the Agricultural Society offered prizes at its state fairs for collections in natural history fields. In 1854 Wm. J. Shaw of Tazewell County won first prize for the "Best suite of the animal king- dom, including insects and animals in- jurious to the farmer" (J. A. Kennicott 1855:122). In 1855 Robert Kennicott won two prizes, one for the "Greatest and best collection of named insects," the other for a zoological collection; in 1856 he won seven firsts — for a collection in each of the following classes: shells, named insects, zoology, botany, stuffed birds, rep- tiles, and fishes (J. A. Kennicott 1857:90, 142). In the State Agricultural Society's first Transactions, three lists of animals for Illinois were published, one on southern [127] 128 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 Illinois birds by Henry Pratten (1855), one on the Mollusca of southern Illinois by H. A. Ulffers (1855), and another (solicited by the Society's secretary) on the animals of Cook County by Robert Kennicott (1855). It is interesting that in this last article Kennicott recorded "buffalo" and elk for Cook County and noted that the "wild pigeon" (passenger pigeon) was "very abundant" and the magpie "not uncommon in winter." For a few years after the first corpo- rate form of the Illinois Natural History Survey had come into being as the Illi- nois Natural History Society, the Agri- cultural Society published the proceed- ings of the infant organization. In Illinois the faunistic worker of 1858 had few of the work aids which we en- joy today. The only Midwestern institu- tional reference collection was that at Northwestern University, built up by Robert Kennicott and considered out- standing in its day, although small and limited in group representation compared with collections now available. Most zoologists accumulated their own private collections, identifying their speci- mens with the aid of the few books avail- able and through consultation with other naturalists. Few libraries existed in the area. The reference shelves of the best zoologists contained comprehensive treat- ments covering the eastern North Ameri- can fauna for most of the vertebrates and the Mollusca. For the insects Say's vol- umes were available, but for many orders his treatment was fragmentary. For most insect groups and many other inverte- brates, extremely helpful world synopses had just been written by European au- thors, and some of them contained sepa- rate keys for the North American spe- cies. Aside from these basic references, there existed a number of journals carry- ing short papers, some of them published by the scientific societies of the Atlantic seaboard states, where such societies had been organized a century before their Midwestern counterparts. This period, the 1850's, was a stirring one scientifically. Europe had just wit- nessed the successive development of com- parative anatomy and physiology, the cell theory, embryology, histology, and the theory of evolution. These basic concepts did not immediately influence faunistic work in North America but they did so later to a greater and greater degree. In North America prior to the 1850's, the great bulk of the invertebrate material, including insects, had been sent to Euro- pean specialists for description. Follow- ing the pioneer examples of Frederick Melsheimer and Thomas Say with in- sects and mollusks, American zoologists w^ere beginning to describe more and more species of the native American fauna. In the invertebrate groups they had virtually a virgin field, for in 1858 great numbers of species were still un- known, and workable synopses were avail- able for only a small proportion of the native American fauna. CHANGING HABITATS Originally Illinois was chiefly a com- bination of forested hilly country and flat mesic prairies of a marshy nature. Inter- spersed with these main types were sand areas, bogs, river and stream habitats, and other local areas of diverse kinds. The rapid rise in the population of Illi- nois in the mid-nineteenth century initi- ated in the native vegetation drastic changes which have progressed steadily to the present time; these changes have had a marked effect on the distribution and composition of the animal life of the state. By 1858, towns or farms or logged- over areas had broken up large tracts of forest. Plowing had made great inroads into the prairies. Large area drainage op- erations in the marsh country had started about 1850, had gained great momentum by 1880, and by 1900 had turned the great bulk of the marshland into farms. The resultant changing ecology is a back- ground feature important to keep in mind when viewing the faunistic developments outlined in this chapter. PERIODS OF FAUNISTIC ACTIVITIES The faunistic activities of the Illinois Natural History Survey and its prede- cessors may be divided into three fairly distinct periods, the initial, chiefly vol- untary, period of roughly 1858-1869, the December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 129 expansion period of roughly 1871-1922, and the specialized faunistic survey pe- riod of roughly 1923 to date. Initial Period, 1858-1869 The Illinois Natural History Society, when formed in 1858, had as its primary objectives the exploration of the biota of Illinois and the establishment of a scien- tific library. Encouragement of animal studies was patently aimed at systematics; yet even in the inaugural presidential ad- dress by J. B. Turner there is more than an overtone of putting systematics to work. In the words of Turner (1859: 647), A true philosophy, as it seems to me, would never let us rest content till we had truly and fully learned not the bare name and form, but the final cause and use, the good and evil, the full relation of each thing, object and being, to all other beings, and especially to man — to all his interests, enterprises, arts, uses and developments, physical, mental and moral. At the anniversary meeting in 1860 at Bloomington, certain objectives of the Society were expressed differently but in equally broad terms (Anon. 1860:3): It is the aim of the Society ... to establish a Museum of Natural History, at the State Normal University, comprising every species of plants, birds, shells, Hshes, insects, quad- rupeds, minerals and fossils, found in Illinois, together with such collections from various parts of the world as will assist our youth in gaining a knowledge of the general studies of nature. The Natural History Society did in fact found a museum at Normal, Illinois, which served as a rallying point for zo- ologists of the area. The Society's papers and proceedings continued to be published by the Agricultural Society, which fur- ther continued its active encouragement of faunistic work by awarding prizes for exhibited collections at the state fair. At about this time several Illinois nat- uralists began publishing accounts of the zoology of the state. C. D. Wilber (1861/') described a fossil mastodon, Thomas (1861^/. 186U) wrote lists of mammals and of some insects, R. H. Holder (1861rt, 186U) wrote about birds, and Walsh (1861-1868) published a re- markably fine series of papers before his death in 1869. Although a skeleton net- work of railroads crisscrossed the state, most of the collecting was local, because it had to be done as a hobby appended to the naturalist's business or other oc- cupation ; hence, the papers were based chiefly on material from a few localities. Collections exhibited at the state fairs give another informative light on faunis- tic activities of that time. At the 1859 fair three entries were exhibited, one a red deer, another a collection of stuffed birds, and the third a collection of in- sects. In 1860 seven entries (Reynolds 1861:190-1) and in 1861 eight entries (Reynolds 1865:137) were exhibited in zoology. There were no more exhibits in zoology until 1864; in that year the winners were chiefly the Illinois Natural History Society and Illinois Wesleyan University at Bloomington (Reynolds 1865:310). Apparently these two groups enjoyed some rivalry at that time in the development of natural history. An idea of the high merit of these ex- hibits can be gained from the 1861 Awarding Committee's remarks (Reyn- olds 1865:149) on the insect exhibits: In Entomology, a collection exhibited by T. G. Floyd, of Macomb, entitled the exhibitor to the "commendation" of the Society. In this department. Dr. Charles A. Helmuth, of Chi- cago, made a fine exhibition. His collection of Beetles is very valuable and attracted much attention. He has over 1100 species col- lected in Illinois, besides many fine species from other States and foreign countries. We think him entitled to "very high commenda- tion," especially for specimens exhibited be- longing to the order of Coleoptera. But by far the best collection exhibited was presented by B. D. Walsh, Esq., of Rock Island. It is hardly possible to speak in too high terms of this extensive collection of the insects of Illinois. So far as Illinois insects are concerned, it outnumbers in the order of Coleoptera, the collection of Dr. Helmutii, and is very full in all the other orders. It could only have been collected and arranged by an exercise of industry, [perseverance] and skill, and by an application of scientific knowledge, reflecting great honor upon the collector and entitling him to high rank among the Naturalists of the State and of the country. The Committee do not hesitate to pronounce his the "best collection illustrating the Entomology of Illi- nois," and unanimously award to him the premium of the Society. In spite of the achievements in faunis- tic activities shown by both publications 130 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 and exhibits, the Natural History So- ciety itself faltered because it could not make ends meet on private subscriptions alone and by the end of the 1860's was a mere shell of an organization. Expansion Period, 1871-1922 The establishment of the State En- tomologist's Office in 1867 and the in- corporation of the Illinois Natural His- tory Society into the State Board of Ed- ucation in 1871 brought together as offi- cial state organizations two agencies in- vestigating natural science and marked the beginning of continuing state support for faunistic programs. The appointment of Walsh as first State Entomologist had little effect on this movement because Walsh confined his official writings almost entirely to nontaxonomic subjects. His successor, William Le Baron, introduced serious taxonomic contributions into the reports of the State Entomologist in 1871. In his first report as State Entomolo- gist, Le Baron described a new species of moth attacking apple, in his second described four more new species of in- sects of economic importance, and in his third gave an outline of and key to the orders of Illinois insects (Le Baron 1871 : 20-3; 1872:117-24, 138-9, 140, 157-8; 1873:25). Here he called particular attention to the great need for identifica- tion aids in the pursuit of economic en- tomology. Le Baron's was the first of much faunistic work which continued as an integral part of the development of economic entomology in Illinois. At al- most the same time (1871), the educa- tors and scientists of the state, alarmed at the continued decline of their Natural History Society, induced the legislature to take over and assign the Society's mu- seum and library to the State Board of Education in exchange for state appropria- tions (Illinois General Assembly 1872: 151-2) for the Society's continued growth. Thus, the need for state aid in the de- velopment of faunistics arose from two different directions. Both Le Baron and Thomas as State Entomologists published many fine taxo- nomic insect studies in their reports. Un- der the auspices of the Illinois Museum of Natural History, naturalists in the state published faunistic papers on a wide range of Illinois groups, including Crustacea, fish, birds, reptiles, and insects. The period 1858-1878 witnessed the first concerted awakening of American naturalists to the taxonomic opportunities in the invertebrates, especially in the in- sects. Specialists in many states published comprehensive treatises on orders or fam- ilies of insects of North America. For these animals, this was truly the age of North American discovery. In 1877 the Museum of the Natural History Society, by that time known as the Illinois Museum of Natural History, was separated into two institutions : the Natural History Museum, designed as a public exhibition museum, in Spring- field, and the State Laboratory of Nat- ural History, at Normal (Illinois Gen- eral Assembly 1877:14-6). The duties of the State Laboratory, presumably as set forth by Stephen A. Forbes, its Di- rector, stressed ecological approaches to the animal life of the state and in this policy reflected thoughts expressed by Turner 20 years before. The primary in- tent of the systematic program described was "to monograph those groups which have not been thoroughlv studied else- where" (Forbes 1882«:9). In 1882 Forbes became State Entomol- ogist, as well as Director of the State Laboratory. Following the establish- ment of both of these offices at Urbana in 1885, the faunistic program received great impetus. Reading between the lines of the original reports of the Director, it seems safe to surmise that by this time the ecological studies already attempted had highlighted the pressing need for the accurate identification of the animal spe- cies encountered in these studies. In the revised list of duties of the State Labora- tory we find the directive, "he [the Di- rector] shall present for publication, from time to time, a series of systematic reports covering the entire field of the zoology ... of Illinois" (Illinois Gen- eral Assembly 1885:23). In its Bulletin. the Laboratory had previously published many papers by nonstaff members, but from this time on a larger and larger pro- portion of these papers was the product of staff members of the State Laboratory or of the State Entomologist's Office. December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 131 The main faunistic activities of these staff members concerned aquatic organisms and insects associated with the develop- ment of ecology and economic entomol- og>". Forbes repeatedly mentions that the most important tools of the biologist are roads traversed the state and these were the only means of rapid travel. Collecting was done intensively around a few head- quarters, especially Urbana, Carbondale, and Havana. On the Illinois River and other waterways, boats were available Field party of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History at one of several collecting --tations near Havana, 1894. This station was on the east shore of Thompson's Lake, which has >ince been drained. In the picture are, left to right, Franlc Smith and Henry E. Summers, zoolo- gists, Charles A. Hart, entomologist, and Miles Newberry, fisherman and boatman. a reference collection for the identifica- tion of specimens and a scientific library. -All staff members collected specimens as part of their duties, and every effort was made to obtain material from different parts of the state and from areas of in- terest in adjacent states. By 1894 the collections were of sufficient magnitude to be placed under the charge of a cura- tor, C. A. Hart. In 1903 Hart became Systematic Entomologist and Curator of the insect collections, and R. E. Richard- son was brought in to take charge of the hsh collections. In 1915 J. R. Malloch was appointed to assist Hart with the insects. Collecting conditions from 1870 to well into the 1900's were greatly dif- ferent from those of todav. A few rail- for travel up and down the rivers. Local travel was done bv horse-drawn vehicles. As late as 1900 Forbes (1901:3, 5-6) wrote of the Laboratory : Its field operations have been conducted mainly from the Illinois Biological Station [at Ha- vana and Meredosia] as a center, . . . Besides this local work on the fishes of the State, two extensive wagon trips have been provided for, one made in the fall of 1899, and the other in progress at this date [Sep- tember, 1900]. . . . A considerable number of collections have a!?o been made by high school principals and science teachers and sent to the Laboratory in aid of this survey. Hart and his assistants traveled to various points by train and in each town set up headquarters in a local hotel or rooming house, hired a buggy, and made 132 Illinois Natlral History SuR\tv Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 dav trips into the surrounding territor\ . In this way, over the years a remarkably fine collection of insects was built up from almost every part of the state. 1 he establishment of the field laboratory at Havana formed a basis for many seasons of intensive insect collecting in the rich waters of that area and on the extremely interesting sand areas which line the east bank of the Illinois River through sev- eral counties. At the present time such restrictions on movement might seem a terrible handi- cap, but one must remember that in those days the land was not so intensively culti- vated as it is at present. Within a very short distance of almost any town, tracts of virgin forest, prairie, marsh, or other undisturbed habitats could be reached with little effort. Many of the old virgin landscapes which were the type localities of Illinois species are now either flooded by artificial lakes, under cultivation, or covered by urban developments. Most of the marshes, which were once common- place, have been drained. Because of the abundance and accessibility of varied habitats, the early collections were both large and diversified. The very nature of the substation headquarters method en- couraged the collection of all species of insects in a given locality, rather than specialization on any one group. Human labor was relatively cheap; hence, pre- parators and collectors could be hired and trained at a nominal cost. As a result, the State Laboratory in- sect collections (which constituted also the insect collections servicing the State Entomologist's Office) became the finest which had ever been assembled for any one state, and early in the twentieth century the collections of fishes and cer- tain other groups were equally fine. This faunistic program reached a peak about 1910 and continued into the next decade. In 1917, when the State Entomol- ogist's Office and the State Laboratory were combined to form the present Illi- nois State Natural History Survey, the reorganization did not effect any changes in the internal structure of the faunistic staff. Immediately afterward, however, the faunistic program began to dwindle. Many of the well-trained personnel ac- cepted positions in universities and other scientific centers which were growing rapidly. AVorld War 1 drew away much of the younger help. Richardson concen- trated on ecology. Hart, the work horse of the entomological collections, died in 1918, and in 1919 C. P. Alexander was appointed Systematic Entomologist. Al- exander and Malloch worked chiefly on stream surveys. The studies of Alexander resulted in a report on the \ermilion River (Alexander 1925). After the resignations of Malloch. in 1921, and Al- exander, in 1922, there were no faunistic taxonomists left on the Natural History Survey staff. No comprehensive faunistic projects had been in operation for several years, and these resignations left the Survey without even curators. Specialization Period, 1923 to Present The appointment of Theodore H. Pri- son as Systematic Entomologist in 1923 marked the beginning of a resurgence in the faunistic activities of the Natural History Survey. Until several years later this move was felt primarily in the in- sects, but eventually it spread to the other animal groups. Prison's first endeavors were to collate the insect collections, but his chief thoughts were aimed at meth- ods for revitalizing the old charge to publish a series of systematic reports covering the entire field of the zoology of Illinois (Illinois General Assembly 1885:23). Forbes was as anxious as Prison to see this program begin. By this time several factors had changed the faunistic outlook considerably from that of the beginning of the century. Good roads reached almost every hamlet in the state, and the automobile had supplanted the train and bugg)' as a ready means of travel. The ease of reaching all points of the state made up in large measure for the increasing destruction of large tracts of native habitats and the necessity of seeking primeval collecting spots in re- mote and widely separated localities. Taxonomically the picture had changed to an equal extent, at least for insects. In 1900 it was generally considered that except in groups like aphids and ecto- parasites, species could be readily identi- fied by external characters through use of, at most, a hand lens. Variation had December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Survkys 133 been little recognized as a factor in and a difficulty of identification. A reference series of a few specimens was considered thoroughly adequate for each species. Al- though the value of series of specimens was becoming recognized at the beginning of the twentieth century, the true neces- sity for larger population samples was not fully recognized in insect groups un- til about the 1920's. By this time, in group after group of insects and indeed of other invertebrates, many of the older species units were each being divided into several species separated only by micro- scopic characters, which were often minute in character and difficult to see. So detailed was the knowledge required to identify many of these groups that it was no longer possible for one person to cover reliably the tremendous number of groups which Hart had done so success- fully according to the standards of his day. Influenced by these changes, a faunistic program was evolved centering around in- tensive studies of individual groups. The program called for each staff member to study some special group, collect material throughout the state at different seasons and in different habitats, identify the ma- terial, and write up a report of the group for Illinois. It was hoped that the serv- ices of specialists at other institutions could be obtained during the summer months to work with Natural History Survey personnel on Illinois reports. In the original plan, the thought was that these reports could be restricted quite closely to Illinois material and to Illinois species. This plan did in fact prove satisfactory for the aphids and Orthop- tera, which were relatively well known for the country as a whole. When, how- e\er, projects were started for groups which were poorly known for the conti- nent, it was found essential to extend the scope of the reports to cover roughly the mid-central states, as Forbes had implied as a general policy as early as 1900. It was recognized early in this pro- gram that many insect groups of little importance economically were neverthe- less of great importance ecologically. An attempt was therefore made to develop a program which would alternate the treatment of groups having principally economic importance with those having principally ecological importance. Within the bounds of a primarily systematic treatment, it was hoped that basic information could be obtained on the place of the species in nature. Collect- ing programs therefore stressed discover- ing the microhabitats, hosts, seasonal ap- pearance, or other ecological attributes of the different species. An aim of great importance which de- veloped for these reports concerned their usability from the viewpoint of the be- ginning student. Many keys made by specialists contained language too tech- nical to be readily understood by non- specialists. Frison was acutely aware of this fact and insisted that all keys in the faunistic bulletins be couched in language as simple as possible and that, wherever helpful to an understanding of characters or specialized terms, illustrations should accompany the keys. Frison's plan for faunistic reports was not put into operation until 1928, when F. C. Hottes was employed during the summer as a special appointee to work on the aphids of Illinois. The appointment of Hottes was the first of several of its kind. In 1931, when Frison became Chief, Herbert H. Ross became Systematic En- tomologist. In 1935 the insect systematic program became the Insect Survey Sec- tion of the Natural History Survey. The identification of economic insects, always a duty of the Systematic Entomol- ogist, became an important feature of the Section. The Section was called on also for the identification of certain other invertebrates important in agriculture or public health, especially mites, ticks, aquatic Crustacea, and earthworms. In these activities, changing taxonomic con- cepts and the introduction of economic insects and mites new to the state con- tinually increased the difficulties of ac- curate identification and the need for ob- taining additional specialists for the staff. In 1947 the faunistic program was expanded to cover all animal groups, with the idea of extending to groups other than the insects the faunal survey aims which had been developed for insects. The Insect Survey Section was renamed the Section of Faunistic Surveys and In- sect Identification, and it became the 134 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 custodian of all the Survey's taxonomic collections of animal groups. Over the years several artists have contributed ^reatl\- to the utility and ap- pearance of the Survey's faunistic publi- cations— Lydia \l. Hart, H. K. Knab, C. O. Mohr, Kathryn M. Sommerman, and Elizabeth Maxwell. Miss Hart and Dr. Mohr, especially, have graced Nat- ural History Survey publications with a multitude of remarkably fine total views of insects. RESEARCH COLLECTIONS The great value of research and refer- ence collections to programs in natural history was stressed in the founding ar- ticles of the Illinois Natural History So- ciety and has been evident ever since in all phases of applied ecology. The Natural History Survey has therefore stressed the assembling and maintenance of adequate research collections of animal groups as a corollary to its faunistic activities. The general aims in augmenting the collections have varied over the years, but in recent decades have approached closely the policy expressed at the 1860 anniversary meeting of the Natural His- tory Society and have emphasized first the species found in Illinois and then species or additional material from other regions which contribute to analyzing or interpreting the Illinois fauna. Taxonomists in other institutions have aided the Illinois Natural History Survey greatly by identifying Surve\' material in their respective specialties. This aid has not only resulted in keeping the Survey collection up-to-date but has afforded needed reference material in many genera or families. Vertebrates During the early periods of Survey history, Forbes and his assistants built up and maintained a large collection of Illi- nois fishes, but kept only a small reference collection of other groups. Much of the fish collection is intact at present, but the older material of other vertebrate groups has become dissipated. In recent decades emphasis has been placed on build- ing up collections of amphibians and reptiles, especially variational series from Illinois and surrounding states; on start- ing reference collections of birds and mammals; and, more recently, on as- sembling fish collections designed to be a basis for a re-study of Illinois fishes. Invertebrates Other Than Insects In early records of the Survey, there is no indication of the extent of invertebrate collections other than that given by inci- dental mention in a few small published papers. The largest of these collections comprised the molluscs; the aquatic spe- cies were obtained chiefly from river sur- veys and the extensive series of land spe- cies from the collecting of Frank C. Baker and Thural Dale Foster. Early collections of other groups were made, at least of phalangids, crustaceans, and cer- tain protozoans, but only scattered vials or slides of these materials are extant at the present. Since 1930, special Illinois collecting has been initiated for a few groups, and in the pseudoscorpions and ticks excellent Illinois series have been assembled. Insects From the late 1870's to the present, the insect collections grew steadily. The first oflicial collection was Walsh's pri- vate collection purchased by the State for Le Baron in 1870. Le Baron picked out duplicates for a reference collection in his office and then sent the main Walsh col- lection to the Chicago Academy of Sciences for safekeeping. There it was destroyed in the Chicago fire of 1871. Ironically, some of the material Le Baron selected from the Walsh collection may have persisted and be represented in the present Natural History Survey collec- tion. Since the extant Le Baron specimens lack locality data, however, it is impos- sible to determine their original source. A collection of aphids made by Thomas was preserved, also. The insect collection which Forbes be- gan in the State Laboratory was quite small while he was at Normal. As soon as he became established in Urbana in 1885, he started to place great emphasis on building it up. About 5 years later Forbes (1890:3) gave the following ac- count of the collection : December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 135 The entomological collection has been great- ly enlarged, especially in Diptera, and a large number of determinations in all orders have been made. The named collection is now con- tained in 160 double boxes, and numbers about 5,000 species, each being represented, as a rule, by four selected specimens. The pinned and determined duplicate insects on hand — largely in process of distribution to public schools — amount to 42,600 specimens. The alcoholic insects, including large numbers of larvae, are contained in about 10,200 bot- tles and vials. Although we have no later estimates of the size of this insect collection, it is obvious from material now in the collec- tion that by 1910 Hart was keeping much larger series of each species. In addition to material gathered by the staff, in the Natural History Survey col- lection are several collections of note that have been given to or acquired by the Survey. Notable items include the W. A. Nason collection (insects of Algon- quin, Illinois), the C. W. Stromberg collection (insects of northwestern Illi- nois), the Andreas Bolter collection (all orders of insects), the Emil Beer Lepidop- tera collection, the Charles Robertson collection (insects on flowers), the L. J. Milne caddisfly collection, the C. L. Metcalf flower fly collection, the W. P. Hayes weevil collection, the A. D. Mac- Gillivray sawfly collection, the P. N. Musgrave water beetle collection, and the K. F. Auden beetle collection. Amateur entomologists, such as Murray O. Glenn of Henry and Alex K. Wyatt of Chicago, have made numerous valuable additions to the collection. Because of special taxonomic interests on the part of staff members, the collec- tion is unusually comprehensive in certain groups of insects. To this category be- long the stoneflies, mayflies, and caddis- flies; the aphids, mirids, and leaf hoppers; the leaf beetles, rove beetles, and June beetles ; the sawflies and bees ; the thrips and psocids ; the springtails ; and a few groups of the true flies. In many orders the collection contains a great deal of ma- terial of the immature stages, which have been emphasized in our reports. The large collections of rove beetles, sawflies, and ectoparasitic groups are associated with plans for future projects. Since 1925 primary types at the Nat- ural History Survey have been segregated for reference and protection. In 1927 these represented about 1,000 species; the number now stands at about 2,500 spe- cies. At present the total insect collection contains roughly 2,000,000 specimens, in- cluding over 50,000 slide mounts, repre- senting about 40,000 species and housed in 2,700 insect drawers and 100,000 vials. FAUNISTIC REPORTS The preparation and publication of re- ports on the animals of Illinois, a respon- sibility repeated several times in mandates to the Natural History Survey and its predecessors, was begun with the first publications of the Illinois Natural His- tory Society and has been continued to the present. Many of the first reports were mere lists, often local in nature, and have needed revision or complete retreatment. In addition to the chiefly systematic accounts outlined below, ecological and economic studies over the years have con- tained a wealth of records and descrip- tions of a large number of species. This is true especially of surveys of the sand areas, prairie and forest areas, and exten- sive bottom fauna and shore studies of the large rivers. Vertebrates Faunistic reports have been published on all the vertebrate groups occurring in Illinois. Certain of the older reports are now out-of-date because of our greatly increased knowledge of the fauna. Fishes. — The work on Illinois fishes may truly be considered the first sustained faunistic project carried on by personnel of the Natural History Survey or its par- ent organizations. The project was begun with Forbes' first connection with the Illinois Natural History Society and con- tinued as a cohesive systematic study until 1909. At the time of birth of the Illinois Nat- ural History Society, approximately three- quarters of the Illinois fishes had been de- scribed and named by such distinguished early ichthyologists as Rafinesque, Le Sueur, Girard, Agassiz, Mitchell, and Kirtland. Half a dozen of these species were first discovered in Illinois waters. During the next three or four decades, 136 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 when lUiiujis waters were bein^ studied intensively by Forbes and his colleagues, most of the remaining Illinois fishes were described by such famous zoologists as Jordan, Cope, Gilbert, Nelson, and Forbes himself. A regional list treating the fishes of the Chicago area was prepared by Robert Kennicott (1855), and comprehensive catalogs of the fishes of the entire state appeared in the first volume of the Bulle- tin (Nelson 1876; Jordan 1878). Sev- eral years later Forbes (1884) prepared a third catalog of Illinois fishes, and early in the present century Thomas Large (1903) published a fourth list. Some time in the 1870's Forbes seems to have developed the idea of producing a well-illustrated and detailed account of the Illinois fishes which would be useful for all the Mississippi River states. Year after year, wagon parties were sent to ex- plore and collect in different streams of the state until finally records were avail- able for virtually every river and rill in Illinois. Along the Illinois River large collections were made year after year. Some extensive collecting parties visited localities in neighboring states. The amount of human endeavor that went into this project is monumental and rep- resents the steadfast patience and toil of 30 years. The final report, The Fishes of Illinois and its Atlas, by Forbes & Rich- ardson (1908), summarized all this in- formation and featured a remarkable set of color plates prepared by Lydia Hart. Since the appearance of the Forbes & Richardson report, two other contribu- tions have been made by the Natural His- tory Survey to Illinois fish taxonomy. D. H. Thompson & F. D. Hunt (1930) published a report on the fishes of Cham- paign County, and D. J. O'Donnell (1935) published an annotated list of Illinois fishes. Birds. — Before 1858 there was an abundance of illustrative and synoptic references to North American birds by Wilson, Nuttall, Audubon, and others, and there were local lists of Illinois birds bv Robert Kennicott (1855) and H. Pratten (1855). Later, R. H. Holder (1861ff) published a list of Illinois birds and a short taxidermy manual in the Transactions of the Illinois Natural His- tory Society. In 1881 Robert Ridgway published a revised catalog and, a few years later, two large reports, the two volumes of The Ornithologx of Illinois (Ridgway 1881, 1889, 1895). The first volume was destroyed by fire in the state printer's ofSce and had to be completely reprinted before it was issued. These two volumes were among the pioneers in the use of structural characters in keying the birds of an area. Ridgway, a native of Illinois, was not an employee of the state but wrote these volumes because of his intense interest in Illinois birds. In later years Forbes, A. O. Gross, and Frank Smith made many observations on Illinois birds, but these studies were pri- marily of an ecological nature. Amphibians and Reptiles. — Survev studies concerned with these animals did not start until the 1880's. In the first vol- ume of the Bulletin, N. S. Davis, Jr., & F. L. Rice (1883) published a catalog of amphibians and reptiles found east of the Mississippi River. H. Garman (1890) also studied these groups. No synoptic collections were kept of the early ma- terial. In the 1930's Francis Lueth and Willard Stanley accumulated records and assembled several hundred specimens. In the early 1940's the Natural History Sur- vey focused attention on these groups through the co-operation of H. K. Gloyd of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, C. H. Pope of the Chicago Natural History Museum, and H. M. Smith of the Uni- versity of Illinois. In 1947 P. W. Smith initiated an intensive study of these ani- mals, making collections in all parts of the state and plotting the variation and distribution of each species. In 1957 this project culminated in a comprehensive report on the amphibians and reptiles of Illinois; the report is now awaiting pub- lication. Mammals. — The Natural History Survey and its parent agencies have pub- lished only a small number of reports on Illinois mammals. The first, by Cyrus Thomas (1861/*), was published by the Natural History Society. Early in the present century, F. E. Wood (1910^) published on the mammals of Champaign County. In the 1930's C. O. Mohr be- came interested in the mammal fauna of Illinois and gathered a great deal of in- December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 137 formation on distribution and habits. After Mohr left the Natural History Sur- vey in 1947, the work on mammals was taken up by D. F. Hoffmeister of the Uni- versity of Illinois, and the resultinji field- book appeared shortly after Mohr had rejoined the Survev staff (Hoffmeister (S: Mohr 1957). Invertebrates Other Than Insects Most of the invertebrate studies made durinfi; the early history of the Survey concerned chiefly aquatic organisms which were important in limnological inves- tigations. The first paper by Forbes (1876) in the Bulletin was a list of the Illinois Crustacea; this was followed by a paper on Crustacea bv L. M. Under- wood (1886). A. Hempel (1896, 1899) described a few rotifers and protozoans from the Illinois River, and C. A. Kofoid (1898, 1899) described a few plankton organisms of Illinois. R. \W . Sharpe (1897), F. W. Schacht (1897, 1898). and Ernest Forbes (1897) made addi- tional contributions to a knowledge of the Crustacea. C. M. Weed (1890) did con- siderable work on the phalangids of Illi- nois and published a partial catalog of the group. Several other invertebrate studies pub- lished in the Bulletin were almost en- tirely the work of nonstalt members, some of whom worked activelv in co-operation with the Survey. J. P.' Moore (1901) treated the Illinois leeches; Frank Smith (1895-1928) published many papers on earthworms; H. J. Van Cleave (1919) studied Illinois River Acanthocephala ; Henry E. Ewing (1909) studied the orobatid mites; and F. C. Baker (1906) published a catalog of the Illinois Mol- lusca. Ecological work on the rivers amassed collections of the various plankton groups, but only those portions noted above were ever analyzed taxonomically. Much of the material was discarded after being recorded, and much was lost by desicca- tion. Except for the collections of Mol- lusca, by 1947 only a small amount of the early invertebrate collections re- mained. About 1930 a survey of the land snails of Illinois was organized under the lead- ership of F. C. Baker. The field work was done primarily b\' T. D. Foster. Foster used a motorcycle on collecting trips and shared with S. C. Chandler the distinction of being one of the few mem- bers of the Survey's motorcycle brigade. For 2 years he conducted a whirlwind search over the entire state for land snails and brought together a remarkable num- ber of records. The material was iden- tified by Baker, who prepared a report that appeared as a fieldbook of the Illinois land snails (Baker 1939). The book was beautifully illustrated by C. O. Mohr. Berlese collecting, instituted about 1933 primarily for exploring the insects in duf¥, netted not only insects but large numbers of terrestrial invertebrates, mainlv arach- noids. About 1940 C. C. Hoff of the University of New Mexico became inter- ested in co-operating in a study of pseudo- scorpions of Illinois. He found that many species collected in these Berlese samples were new and represented a Midwestern faunal element which had remained un- seen because other pseudoscorpion spe- cialists lived in either the East or the West. Hoff's report on the Illinois fauna was published bv the Natural Historv Survey (Hoff 1949). Insects Considering not only the economic im- portance of insects but also the exceed- ingly large number of species expected in the state (approximately 20,000), it is not surprising that the Natural History Survey's most extensive faunistic contri- butions have been made in this group. Many of the studies have resulted in de- scriptions of new species, life history notes, and distribution records contained in short papers; many others have resulted in comprehensive accounts of various groups found in Illino's. Orthoptera. — Thomas was early a keen student of the Orthoptera and in the first of the Transactions of the Natural History Society published a list of this or- der for Illinois (Thomas 1859/*). His in- terest continued and he published a second, enlarged list in the first volume of the Bulletin (Thomas 1876). In the early 1900's, Hart and A. G. Vestal made large and extremely interesting collections of this order in the Illinois sand areas, in which an appreciable number of western 138 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 species occur. In 1932 Morgan Hebard of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia offered to prepare an account of the Dermaptera and Orthoptera of Illinois. For this project staff members made additional collections in areas of the state not previously covered for the group. The report appeared 2 vears later (Heb- ard 1934). Aphids. — This group was one of the first emphasized in studies by the Natural History Survey's parent organizations. Thomas, one of the leading early investi- gators in the taxonomy of this group, pub- lished a synopsis of one of the tribes and described many new forms from Illinois (Thomas 1878). About the same time Nettie Middleton (1878) described an- other species, and several years later C. M. Weed (1891) published the results of his studies on the life histories of a number of species. Little more was done with this group until J. J. Davis started further taxonomic investigation of the aphids about 1908. In the Bulletin, Davis (1913) published a commentary on the Cyrus Thomas collection and in addition 20 papers on aphid taxonomy in various entomological journals. Most of this work he did while an assistant in the State Entomologist's Office. In 1928 Prison and F. C. Hottes, the latter now at Grand Junction, Colorado, took up a study of Illinois aphids. This was the first study to be based on a com- bination of intensive collecting for one group and opportunities for rapid travel to all parts of the state. Field investi- gations were made during the summers of 1928-1930. Each year collecting parties started in the southern part of Illinois and worked north and then reversed the pat- tern so that each locality was collected at different seasons. A complete set of slide mounting equipment was taken into the Held, and temporary headquarters were An Illinois Natural History Survey entomologist making held notes relating to insects he has collected. The association of insects with their host plants is an important phase of the work of Survey entomologists. December. 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 139 set up in hotels at various towns. Each party consisted of three persons. Usually all three collected during the first half- day spent in each locality ; after that one person stayed in the headquarters hotel and mounted aphids while the other two continued collecting. Lists of potential hosts, with especially interesting ones in- dicated, were used as a tick sheet in each locality. About a hundred species, 36 of them new to science, were added to the state list. The report on this project was published in the Bulletin (Hottes & Pri- son 1931). Odonata. — X^mphs of this order were frequently encountered in limnological work, and H. Garman and Hart reared many of them during the 1880's and 1890's. This work set the stage for the first report on Illinois dragonflies, an ar- ticle by J. G. Xeedham & Hart (1903). Later Philip Garman did much work on the group and wrote an excellent account of the damselflv suborder Zvgoptera in Illinois (P. Garman 1917). ' Pentatomoidea. — This group includes the stink bugs, a group of sucking insects for which Hart had a special interest. He assembled a remarkably fine collection of the Illinois species and had virtually com- pleted an account of the state fauna at the time of his death. The manuscript was completed bv J. R. Malloch and was pub- lished in xht Bulletin (Hart 1919). This report was especially useful because it in- cluded not only keys to the Illinois spe- cies but also keys to the Xearctic genera. Diptera. — The first serious work on the flies done for the Xatural History Survey or a parent organization was by J. R. Malloch. Although interested in Diptera in general, Malloch specialized in the Chironomidae or midges, of great importance in the economy of Illinois waters. He reared a large number of these insects and was one of the first workers to delve into the minute char- acters of the male genitalia and the larval mouthparts as an aid in species discrimina- tion and identification. His rearings were done chiefly in the vicinity of Havana and Urbana, with a great deal of help from Hart, who also collected adult ma- terial from various parts of Illinois and surrounding states. The report by Mal- loch (1915) on the midges was outstand- ing among faunistic works. Xot only did it give equal emphasis to the adults and larvae, a most unusual feature for the time, but it benefited from two remark- able faculties of Malloch's. One was Malloch's ability to spot new characters (dipterists agree that Malloch was a genius at this not only in the midges but in every group in which he worked). The other was his ability to prepare un- usually clear keys, which made his publi- cations quite out of the ordinary in their usefulness to other workers. The breadth of Malloch's interest in Diptera was expressed when he published in the Bulletin a classification of the order based primarily on larval and pupal characters (Malloch 1917). This study was one of the first in which recognition was given to the value of characters of the immature stages in determining the relationships of families within a large in- sect order. Certainly it is a classic and contains cogent ideas of fly classification which even at this date have not been fully incorporated into accepted classi- fications of the order. The next intensive Xatural History Survey work on Diptera was a study com- menced by H. H. Ross about 1938 on the Illinois mosquitoes. Because of restric- tions on travel and lack of availability of personnel during World War II, field work and rearing progressed at a rela- tively slow rate. The report on these in- sects was published in the Bulletin (Ross 1947). Plecoptera. — Although the Plecop- tera or stoneflies are an abundant com- ponent of many aquatic communities, no state-wide taxonomic work on the Illinois species was done until Frison became in- terested in them in 1927. Previously Walsh (1863, 1864«) had observed and recorded many of the species occurring in the vicinity of Rock Island. Frison and another entomologist, R. D. Glasgow, loved to hike and picnic, especially in the hilly country along the Salt Fork River south of Oakwood, Illinois. On fall ex- cursions to this locality they noticed that, in some of the very small streams, the smallest of the stonefly nymphs kept in- creasing in size as winter approached. This observation excited Prison's curios- itv and from it arose an abiding interest 140 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 in and love of stoneflies which continued through the rest of his life. Prison fol- lowed the development of these little stoneflies. which proved to be the small group called winter stoneflies. He discov- ered that little was known concerning the fauna of the Midwest and began a study of the group for Illinois. The first report on stoneflies treated a few small families comprising the winter stoneflies (Prison 1929). The collecting and rearing of species of the other families in the order were begun. Rearing these insects proved to be diflflcult because the laboratory water available at Urbana did not sustain the stoneflies. Copper cages on a raft placed in a stream were eventually devised to overcome this difficulty, but the losses of these expensive cages by vandalism finally proved so great that the practice was dis- continued. A considerable number of species were reared from emerging nymphs caught at the water's edge. By one means or another, all the Illinois spe- cies were finally reared. Six years after publication of the winter stonefly report, a report covering all the Illinois Plecop- tera appeared (Prison 1935). Prison found sets of nymphal charac- ters which appeared to have great prom- ise for indicating natural groupings of the species and genera, indications such as Malloch had previously found when exploring characters of the larvae and pupae of Diptera. The studies of stone- fly nymphs set the stage for what might be called the modern classification of the order and stimulated emphasis on the study of immature stages in subsequent Survey projects on several other orders of insects. These insects proved so fascinating that Prison's studies did not long stop at the boundaries of Illinois. Through material obtained on vacation trips and at other opportunities, the stonefly collection was enlarged to cover all of North America. With large series available from diverse areas of the continent, it became apparent that many of the old species were in real- ity species complexes, and as a result many of the Illinois populations had to be described as new. The results of these latter developments in the stoneflies were published in the Bulletin (Prison 1937, 1942rt) and as shorter papers in various entomological journals. Megaloptera. — These, the alderflies and dobsonflies, were collected during the aquatic work on stoneflies and caddis- flies; some specimens were received from fishermen who had encountered them along streams and had sent them in for identification. Attempts to identify these Megaloptera by means of then current literature proved unsatisfactory. In the alderfly genus Sialis, characters noticed in the male genitalia seemed to provide an excellent means for positive determina- tion of the species and an analysis of these characters led to a re-evaluation of the species in the genus, many of which proved to be new. About half a dozen species were found in the material from Illinois and surrounding states. As part of an effort to learn something of the en- tire distribution pattern of the Illinois species, the study was extended to cover the fauna of the whole continent. The report on this study was published in the Natural Historv Survev Bulletin (Ross 1937). Miridae. — As the aphid project was coming to a close, H. H. Knight of Iowa State College agreed to work summers with the Illinois Natural History Survey and prepare a report on the Miridae or plant bugs of Illinois. Knight was on the Survey payroll for three summers. Pre- viously Hart had assembled and identified an excellent collection of this group for the state, but since Hart's time Knight had shown that characters of the genitalia indicated a much larger fauna than ear- lier workers had suspected on the basis of the external characters they used. The mirid field trip pattern followed that of the aphids, with the trips around the state scattered through the different seasons. Again host collecting was em- phasized, and field headquarters were set up locally in hotels. The general plan was to collect until about 3 o'clock in the afternoon, and then pin up the day's catch. With the Miridae, this was thought desirable because of the fragile nature of certain diagnostic characters, especially pubescence, which might be brushed off if the specimens were relaxed and pinned later. Many thousands of specimens were collected each year, and December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 141 again a large number of species, including about 20 new ones, were added to the state list. Members of the staff served as "guinea pigs" to try out the keys, to point out spots difficult for the uninitiated, and to suggest improvements. IVIohr did his usual excellent job in providing many total views of various species. The report resulting from this project was published in the Bulletin (Knight 1941). Ephemeroptera. — The mayflies were early recognized as being one of the most important components of the fresh-water biota of Illinois, but, except for earlv local studies by Walsh (1863, 1864/^), lit- tle was done concerning their systematic^ in this state until about 1925. At that time collections were sent to J. W. Mc- Dunnough at Ottawa, Canada, who iden- tified a considerable amount of material. Collecting and rearing of species in the order were only sporadic until about 1937, when B. D. Burks, assigned to the project, began an intensive field program. Certain genera of the mayflies proved difficult to rear because the subimagoes seldom survived in cages, and in some species the nymphs did not molt to the subimaginal stage in still water. For these genera Burks worked out a neat con- trivance. He placed fully mature nymphs (which emerge at night) in a pan of water containing a large stone, placed the pan on the floor of a car at nightfall, and had the car driven over a gravel road. The wave action produced in the pan by the rough ride broke the surface film enough so that the nymphs could emerge. As the driver guided the car along the road, Burks sat in the back seat and periodically examined the pan with a flashlight; he captured each subimago as it emerged, put it in a vial for emergence to imago, and associated the cast skin with it. The extremely short period of adult emergence of many species frequently necessitated camping out along a stream and keeping an around-the-clock vigil for emergence. During one summer a rear- ing station was established at a fish hatchery along Nippersink Creek, in the extreme northeastern part of the state, which is especially rich in mayfly species. A flash flood inundated the rearing rooms and nearly swept away the sum- mer's material. The material was res- cued as the vials were beginning to float out of the window in the shoulder-deep water. At first, Burks had difficulty obtain- ing good series of imagoes, although the subimagoes could be collected in quan- tity at lights. Burks found that he could catch great quantities of these sub- imagoes in paper bags, turn them loose in his hotel room, and have them emerge in fine shape, so that any desired number of imagoes could be secured. When Burks left the Natural History Survey in 1949, he had completed the mavflv report, which was published in the Bulletin (Burks 1953). Gicadellidae. — About 70 vears ago, C. W. Woodworth (1887) published a short treatment of this family, com- prising the leafhoppers, and later Hart and Malloch made extensive collections of these insects, some of which were identified and recorded by W. L. Mc- Atee of the United States Biological Survey (McAtee 1924, 1926). Malloch himself (1921) wrote a short paper on the group. In 1934 D. M. DeLong of Ohio State University agreed to tackle the job of working up a more extensive treatment of the leafhoppers of Illinois. A few years prior to 1934, DeLong had begun an investigation of the male genitalia in the leafhoppers and found that, as in a number of other groups, manv of the species previously identified on the basis of external characters were in reality clusters of species which could be separated primarily on the basis of genitalic structures. Both in North America and elsewhere the discovery of these characters had set off a tremendous burst of activity by leafhopper workers to explore these structures. It was in the midst of this burst of effort that the Illinois project was launched. DeLong and other staff members spent almost all of the next three summers crisscrossing Illinois and collecting leafhoppers in the various habitats of the state. During rainy weeks and also during the winter back in Columbus, Ohio, DeLong iden- tified these collections and continued his revisional studies. Various members of the staff made special collections as in- dicated bv new taxonomic discoveries. 142 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 By 1945 it was apparent that a re- port embracing all the leafhoppers un- der one cover vv^as impractical, and De- Long prepared the manuscript for about half of the fauna, which included all the subfamilies except the Cicadellinae. This report was published in the Bulletin (DeLong 1948). At this time, R. H. Beamer of the University of Kansas had drawn atten- tion to the tremendous number of Mid- western species contained in the genus Erythrojieura, the largest genus of the untreated subfamily Cicadellinae. Mrs. D. J. Knull had identified a large part of the Natural History Survey material in this genus. Most of the several hun- dred species were known only from hi- bernation collections, and it was felt that, before proceeding with the manu- script on this subfamily, the host rela- tionships and other ecological informa- tion should be ascertained for these species. As a result the project was re- aligned and a new host-collecting pro- gram for the entire subfamily was dele- gated to the faunistic staff of the Survey. The large number of host associations al- ready established have proved of interest in contributing ideas concerning evolu- tionary problems in insects having moder- ately rigid host associations. Trichoptera. — A study of the caddis- fllies was prompted by the importance of this group in the economy of Illinois fresh- water habitats. The project was planned originally as a joint one with Dean Cor- nelius Betten of Cornell University, who had in manuscript at the time the first comprehensive and useful New World faunistic study of the group; his study dealt with the fauna of New York. Bet- ten in America and A. B. Martinov in Russia had pioneered in the technique of clearing the male genitalia of Trichoptera in KOH in order to get a more exact knowledge of these diagnostic structures. Betten spent 6 weeks on the Illinois Nat- ural History Survey staff in the summer of 1931, his time being spent partly on collecting trips around the state and partly in identifying the caddisfly ma- terial in the Survey collection. In 1932 press of other duties caused Dean Betten to retire from the project, which was then assigned to Ross. Much of the caddisfly collecting was done as an adjunct to stonefly, mayfly, mirid, and leafhopper collecting, but spe- cial trips were made to springs and cer- tain rivers, such as the Kankakee, which supported unusual species. As the taxo- nomic analysis of the material progressed, it became evident that the Illinois fauna differed in remarkable fashion from that of the only other state for which it was well known. New York. As a result, it was necessary to practically revise the entire North American fauna before the Illinois groups could be satisfactorily segregated to species. This was true espe- cially in the family Hydropsychidae and the so-called microcaddisflies, the Hydrop- tilidae. As with the other aquatic groups, an effort was made to rear the species and associate larvae and pupae. Some of this work was done with rearing cages, but the greater part was accomplished by as- sociating mature pupae with their corre- sponding larval parts in the cocoon or case. The report of the Illinois fauna of this order, including keys to the adults and immature stages, was published by the Natural History Survey (Ross 1944). After this report appeared, some ac- tivity relating to the Trichoptera was continued, primarily centered around at- tempts to reconstruct the origin of groups and the dispersal patterns which led to the formation of the present Illinois fauna. As genera and families from other parts of the world were studied, it was possible to get a better understanding of the classification and evolution of the or- der. It is reminiscent of Malloch's and Prison's work in the Diptera and Ple- coptera that the immature stages were found to hold the principal key to deduc- ing the evolution of the group. These studies made possible the publication of the book Evolution and Classification of the Mountain Caddisflies (Ross 1956). Goleoptera. — The beetles have fre- quently been the subject of intensive study by the Natural History Survey staff. Early in the history of the organization, extensive rearing was done, and volumes of important information on this work are scattered through the State Entomolo- gist's reports. The first extensive Illinois publication on the order was by Le Baron (1874) who, in his fourth report as December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 143 State Entomologist, published an outline of the Coleoptera of Illinois, with keys to genera and notes on many species. The next serious study of the order concerned the genus Phyllophaga, the June beetles. The larvae of these beetles were extremely serious pests, and before 1890 Forbes and his assistants set about making systematic collections of the genus throughout the state. Forbes (1891) pub- lished a survey of the Illinois June beetles ; the publication included keys to the spe- cies written by Hart. R. D. Glasgow (1916) reviewed this material and pub- lished a synopsis of the synonymy and the description of a new species. Shortly after, J. J. Davis made a detailed study of the ecology of Phyllophaga and also became interested in their taxonomy. The study resulted in one fine paper on the natural enemies of June beetles and in another describing new forms. These two papers appeared in the Bulletin (Davis 1919, 1920). Glasgow continued his in- terest in the genus, but subsequently pub- lished only one or two small papers on the subject. In 1944 another beetle project was in- augurated, this one on the leaf-feeding beetles, or Chrysomelidae, with M. W. Sanderson as the investigator. The be- ginning of the leaf beetle investigation was based on a need for supplying cor- rect names for various species of economic importance to Illinois crops. Early at- tempts at identification disclosed that much of the older literature on the fam- ily was unreliable, and diagnosis of spe- cies often was uncertain. Not only were there deficiencies in the literature ; few attempts had been made in North Ameri- ca to relate larval and adult morphology for generic or species diagnosis. The proj- ect for Illinois was organized along the lines of earlier faunistic studies. Collec- tions were made throughout the state, with special emphasis on securing host- adult-larval associations. At present a report embracing two-thirds of the sub- families and including about a half of the Illinois species is nearing completion, and a large proportion of the field work for other subfamilies is in an advanced stage. Thysanoptera. — Survey activity re- lating to this order of little insects, the thrips, had its beginning about 50 years ago; J. D. Hood (1908) published a paper describing a group of species from Illinois. Late in the 1930's, when Berlese sampling was started in the Survey, inter- est in this group was again aroused be- cause of the large number of specimens and variety of species which appeared in the collections from moss and leaf mold. In 1947 L. J. Stannard planned a com- prehensive faunistic study of the order for Illinois. Many difficulties were encoun- tered, including the inaccessibility of critical types, difficulties in finding satis- factory mounting media, and difficulties in interpreting existing keys and descrip- tions. The genera were especially poorly defined and inconsistently used, and be- fore satisfactory names could be estab- lished for the Illinois species it was neces- sary to embark on major studies in the general classification of the group. The results of one of these studies, investigat- ing the generic categories in the suborder Tubulifera, were published by the Uni- versity of Illinois (Stannard 1957). As a consequence of all these factors the Illi- nois study of this group has come close to a treatment of the thrips for half the continent. Intensive collecting in all con- ceivable situations and at different sea- sons has brought to light large numbers of new state records. A report on these insects for Illinois is in an advanced state of preparation. Lepidoptera. — As mentioned earlier, in his first report Le Baron (1871) de- scribed a new species of moth. Since that time a great deal has been written, espe- cially in the State Entomologist's reports, on the moths of Illinois. Most of this material, however, is in the form of small contributions on the descriptions of spe- cies, their larvae, or their habits. How- ever, Thomas (1881), with the assistance of Nettie Middleton and John Marten, published a synopsis of lepidopterous larvae for Illinois. This report included a similar synopsis by D. W. Coquillett (1881). Later, Forbes and his assistants prepared kevs to certain economic spe- cies, and W." P. Flint & Malloch (1920) published in the Natural History Survey Bulletin a paper on the European corn borer and related species. In 1955 R. B. Selander began a fau- nistic project designed to cover many of 144 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 the families of small moths or micro- lepidoptera, which were poorly known in Illinois. The Blastobasidae were chosen as the first family for study because the genitalic structures of the Nearctic spe- cies had never been investigated. Selander, now with the University of Illinois, as- sembled large quantities of Illinois mate- rial and unearthed a diagnostic set of characters in the genitalia. Work on this project is continuing. Hymenoptera. — Aside from rearing and describing a few parasites and saw- flies, the Natural History Survey staff has done only one serious piece of work on the Illinois Hymenoptera fauna. This was a study by Malloch (1918) on the genus Tiphia. Gollembola. — Although among the most abundant insects numerically, the Collembola or springtails were not stressed until 1928, when large collections were made in various parts of the state and sent to J. W. Folsom, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, for identification. When Folsom died, the project reverted to simply a collecting program. Subse- quently, Berlese sampling added large quantities of these insects to our series. The project was revitalized when H. B. Mills joined the Natural History Survey in 1947; since that time steady progress has been made on a study of this group for Illinois. RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT In following the objectives set forth in the original organization of the Illinois Natural History Survey, the faunistic program performs three principal func- tions pertaining to the animals of Illinois — assembling and maintaining research and reference collections, preparing re- ports on the various animal groups, and identifying economic species. At times the program has emphasized one function more than another, but over the years steady progress has been made in all three departments. Today the taxonomic methods by which these functions are achieved are far more complex and time-consuming than they were when the program was started. If transplanted to today, the fau- nistic worker of 1858 would doubtless be astonished at changes in the species con- cept, in taxonomic techniques, in micro- scopic and other equipment, and at the great increase in recognized invertebrate species and genera. As these complications have developed, it has become clear that there is no easy short cut in making an adequate survey of an animal group for Illinois. Each re- port represents a great deal of collecting and study over a period of years. Members of other sections of the Nat- ural History Survey have aided the fau- nistic program immeasurably by rearing and collecting material, identifying host or indicator plants, editing reports, and assisting with library problems. Taxono- mists in other institutions have been of great aid not only by publishing papers of inestimable use in studies of Illinois species, but also by assisting in many other ways with specific problems. It is a tribute to the founding fathers of the Illinois Natural History Society that certain of their general principles were and still are remarkably good guides for a faunistic program. The importance of combining systematics and ecology and of having a broad geographic scope for reference collections becomes more ap- parent as new discoveries help unravel the complex faunal relationships of Illinois species. Applied Botany and Plant Pathology J. CEDRIC CARTER V\/'HEN the Illinois Natural History edible fruits, common tea, and medicine, ^ ^ Society was organized in 1858 to those known to be poisonous, and those promote the advancement of science in the known to be troublesome weeds. The year state, botany was a major field of interest of several of its founders. The earliest reported botanical research in Illinois was the study of flora in south- ern Illinois by Andre Michaux (Sargent 1889), a distinguished botanist of France. In 1795 Michaux traveled from the Ohio River up the Wabash River to Vincennes, Indiana. He crossed Illinois to Kaskaskia, August 23-30, to Prairie du Rocher, Sep- tember 5-6, and returned to Kaskaskia, September 8-9. On October 2, he started toward the Ohio Kiver and arrived at Fort Massac on October 8. Later he re- turned to Kaskaskia, Fort Chartres, and Prairie du Rocher and started on his re- turn from southern Illinois on December 14. Following Michaux and during the first half of the nineteenth century, many physicians and amateur botanists studied and reported on the flora of Illinois. Dr. Lewis C. Beck (1826r/, 1826/v, 1828), in publishing his contributions to the bot- any of both Illinois and Missouri, listed 65 plants in the prairies near St. Louis and 14 in barrens. Also, he reported on his studies of plants along the Illinois River bluffs near St. Louis. A catalog of plants collected in Illinois by Charles A. Geyer was published with critical remarks bv Dr. George Engelmann (1843) of St. Louis, Missouri. Dr. C. W. Short (1845) of Louisville, Kentucky, reported on his observations and collections of the flora of prairies of Illinois as a result of his extensive travels in several sections of the state. Dr. S. B. Mead (1846) prepared a catalog of plants growing in Illinois, most of them growing near Augusta in Hancock County; this work was pub- lished in the Prairie Farmer. Dr. Mead mentioned the habitats of the plants he included in his catalog. Also, he listed the uses of the plants, including those used by dyers and coopers, those used for hedges, chair bottoms, hay, ornamentals. before the Illinois Natural History So- ciety was founded, I. A. Lapham (1857fl) published a catalog of the plants of Illi- nois; his catalog included lists con- tributed by Mead and Engelmann. In pre- paring the catalog, Lapham examined the extensive collections of plants made by Robert Kennicott, Emile Claussen, anil others. Mead's list, as mentioned above, com- prised plants principally in the vicinity of Augusta in Hancock County. Engel- mann's list comprised plants in southern Illinois, especiall\- in the vicinity across the Mississippi River from St. Louis, Mis- souri. Dr. Mead, Lapham (1857«:494) wrote, "has probably devoted more time and labor to the examination of Illinois plants than any other botanist, and his collections now form part of most of the principal herbaria of the world." Lapham emphasized that catalogs of plants were useful to farmers, physicians, horticulturists, botanists, cabinet makers, wheelwrights, and other workers in wood because these catalogs listed plants of in- terest to each group ; his catalog listed 1,104 species representing 111 orders of plants. From a geographical point of view, Lapham divided Illinois into three districts : ( 1 ) the heavily timbered tracts, mainly in the southern portion of the state, and the "groves" or detached bodies of timber surrounded by prairies, in the middle and northern portions of the state; (2) the open prairie tracts of 1 to 20 miles in diameter and destitute of trees; (3) the tracts of "barrens," intermediate between the prairie tracts and the tim- bered tracts. The barrens appeared to be in transition from open prairies to densely timbered tracts. They were sparsely cov- ered with several species of oak trees and with dense undergrowth of shrubs and annuals. Treatises on plant material, published in the Illinois State Agricultural Societv [145] 146 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 Transactions for 1856-1857, indicated the rapidly increasing interest in applied botanv. These treatises, presented by O. Ordwav (1857) of Lawn Ridge, H. L. Brush (1857) of Ottawa, Samuel Ed- wards (1857) of La Moille, J. P. Eames (1857), Dr. Frederick Brendel (1857) of Peoria, and L A. Lapham (1857//) of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, dealt with sev- eral phases of research, including culture and cultivation. The types of plants studied were evergreens, flowers, grasses, grain fruits, and vines. At La Moille, Edwards started plant- ing evergreens in 1845 and, by 1857, had planted more than 125,000 plants ob- tained from forests of Minnesota, Wis- consin, Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, New York, and upper Canada and also some obtained from eastern and European nurseries — in all, more than 25 species of evergreen plants. He was most favor- ably impressed with the growth of Nor- way and black spruces, Austrian, Scotch, and white pines, and balsam fir. Siberian and American arbor vitaes and red cedar, he found, were excellent for screening. Other species he mentioned that suc- ceeded well in this climate and soil were Irish, Swedish, and savin junipers, red spruce, and a variety of pine from Ten- nessee. Hemlock was subject to winter injury; Douglas spruce, cedar of Leba- non, deodar cedar, silver fir, English and Irish yews, Himalayan and Araucarian pines, and Chinese arbor vitae did not survive the winters. In 1857 Dr. Cyrus Thomas, with the help of S. Burtley, started studying the flora of the Murphys- boro region of southern Illinois (Thomas 1857). EARLY ACTIVITIES Among the persons interested in botany who were active in organizing the Illinois Natural Historv Societv were M. S. Bebb, Dr. Frederick Brendel, E. Hall, Robert Kennicott, Dr. S. B. Mead, Dr. Cyrus Thomas, and Dr. George Vasey. Much of the information obtained by them on the flora of Illinois was pub- lished in the Illinois Natural History Society Transactions. When the original purpose in organizing the Natural His- tory Society was set forth as the advance- ment of science, botany was mentioned along with entomology and geology. In succeeding years special interests de- veloped in the field of botany, as indicated by the published works of Brendel, Bebb, Vasey, Thomas, Edwards, G. W. Minier, Henry W. Bannister, and H. H. Bab- cock from 1859 to 1887, most or all of whom were members of the Natural His- tory Society. Brendel was a prolific worker and was the author of numerous articles published over a period of nearlv 30 vears (Brendel 185%, 1859/^, 1859r, 1859r/, 1860, 1861, 1870, 1876, 1887). These articles included information on the flora of Peoria and other areas of the state. Brendel was interested in shrubs and forest trees, especially the oaks. Also, he wrote on rare plants in the state and on a peculiar growth of the water lily. It is significant that an article by him, "The Tree in Winter," was one of the first articles published in the Bulletin of the Illinois State Museum of Natural History. Bebb (1859) published a list of 44 species of plants occurring in the northern counties of the state; his list was an addi- tion to the catalog by Lapham (1857<7). Vasey 's interest in different phases of botany is indicated by his papers (Vasev 1859,' 1861, 1870«, WQb). Among these papers were studies on flora, including mosses of the state and maritime plants of the Great Lakes and interior regions ; also, descriptions of two plants new to Illinois. When Thomas (186L) proposed a plan for a natural history survey of Illi- nois, he suggested that this survey include a systematic cataloging of the flora and fauna of the state and that the data be published so that the same work would not need to be repeated by others. Ban- nister (1868) described prairie and forest plants of Cook County, and Babcock (1872) described the flora of the Chicago area. John Wolf and Elihu Hall prepared a list of mosses, liverworts, and lichens of the state. This list, which was pub- lished in the Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, contained 115 genera and 386 species (Wolf & Hall 1878). Wolf was on the staff of the State Laboratory of Natural Historv in 1880. December, 1958 Carter: Applied Botany and Plant Pathology 147 By 1865 concern was voiced that trees of the state were beinj^ used so rapidly for lumber that cultivation and planting of trees should be promoted. Minier (1865, 1868) published two articles on the cultivation of forest trees. In his sec- ond article Minier (1868:279) stated: "Tree planting in Illinois is no longer for ornament merel\'. It has become a neces- sity. ... If, then, the coming genera- tions are to be supplied with timber, the present must plant it for them." Edwards (1868) recommended planting trees but pointed out that black locust trees that had been planted 25 years earlier had been seriously damaged by borers. Specific interest in some specialized groups- of plant life in Illinois became evident shortly after 1870, as indicated b\ the works of Thomas J. Burrill on plant diseases caused by fungi and bac- teria. Burrill, on the staff of the Illinois Industrial University, the University of Illinois, and the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, was a close associate of Stephen A. Forbes for 27 years. He reported on fungus diseases in the 1870's, especially on fungi which cause diseases of vegetable and fruit crops (Burrill 1874, 1876, 1877). Later he reported that the widespread blight of pear trees was caused by a bacterium (Burrill 1881). This, the first report that bacteria cause plant diseases, opened up a new field of research. Burrill continued to publish articles on fungi and bacteria that cause plant diseases and in 1885 he published a 115-page article, in the Bul- letin of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural Historv, on the parasitic fungi of Illinois (Burrill 1885). Following 1885 botanical research ex- panded in scope to include all types of native and naturalized plants in the state. The work of Burrill while on the staff of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History from 1885 to 1892 in- dicates the expanding development of botanical interest in forest trees and dis- eases of crop plants. Burrill prepared papers not only on fungal and bacterial diseases of crop plants but also on forest, roadside, and street trees, biology of silage, and extermination of the Canada thistle (Burrill 1886. 1887^, 1887r, 1888, 1889fl, 1889/;, 1890). Among others em- ployed as botanists on the stafif of the State Laboratory of Natural History were Rachel M. Fell, Arthur B. Seymour, Benjamin M. Duggar, and Arthur G. Vestal. A well-illustrated, 142-page article on edible and poisonous mushrooms in Illi- nois, prepared by Walter B. McDougall (1917), was published in the Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History. This article contains many plates illustrating the mushrooms de- scribed and is exceedingly useful in dif- ferentiating between poisonous and edible mushrooms. Studies on plankton were carried on bv C. A. Kofoid from 1895 to 1900 and bv Samuel Eddy from 1925 to 1929. Ko- foid's extensive work on the plankton of the Illinois River was published in the Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratorv of Natural History (Kofoid 1903, 1908)'. Eddy's work dealt with plankton of Lake Michigan, the Sangamon River, and some sinkhole ponds in southern Illinois; this work was reported in the Bulletin of the Illinois Natural Histor\- Survev (Edd\- 1927, 1931, 1932). Interest in the ecology of vegetation and plant associations of sand prairies in Illinois is indicated by the papers of C. A. Hart and H. A. Gleason (Hart & Glea- son 1907; Gleason 1910), F. C. Gates (1912), and Vestal (1913) published in the Bulletin. Information was obtained not only on the general plant associations but also on the phvsical environment, the blow-out formations, the blow-sand com- plex, the blackjack oak associations, and some adaptations of the plants to the en- vironment. Although Minier (1865, 1868) and Edwards (1868) were concerned about the rapid destruction of trees in the 1860's, it was not until 1911 that a policy on forest management was recommended by R. C. Hall and O. D. Ingall. In an article on forest conditions in Illinois, published in the Bulletin (Hall tS: Ingall 1911), they recommended (1) adoption of an adequate state fire-protection sys- tem, (2) inauguration of an education campaign for scientific and practical forest management, and (3) further investiga- tion of the forest problems involved and development and extension of wood lots 148 Illinois Natlkal History Surnly liuLLETiN Vol. 27, Art. 2 in the state. Also, they proposed a forest law for the state. Later, Forbes and Rob- ert B. Miller (Forbes 101%, 191 9/v; Forbes I 1.837.000. In most years of the past decade the estimated annual losses from diseases of Illinois wheat have been 5,500,000 to 7,150,000 bushels. The greatest loss in a single vear. 7,150.000 bushels, valued at 515,158,000, occurred in 1950. In 1953, a year of minimum loss, the esti- mated reduction in vield was onlv 368,- 800 bushels, valued at S586,400. The estimated annual losses resulting from diseases of corn usually are greater than the losses resulting from diseases of wheat. In the past decade the lowest esti- mated reduction in corn yield. 54.250,000 bushels, valued at S82.450.000. occurred in 1952 and the highest estimated reduc- tion in vield, 168.100.000 bushels, valued at SI 98.358,000, occurred in 1949. The average annual estimated reduction in yield of corn in Illinois during the past decade was 90.626.100 bushels, valued at SI 12.139.072. Homemade m... ,. . . „;.,.^t 25 years ago by plant pathologists of the Illinois Natural History Survey to demonstrate effectiveness of chemical treatments in control of seed-borne dis- eases ot small grains. Ue 1958 Carter: Apimjud Hotanv and Plant Pathology 151 The plant disease survey not only in- dicates the annual losses caused by plant diseases but reveals diseases new in the state and the sudden and widespread damage caused by any disease that has caused only minor damage in preceding years. Downy mildew of alfalfa appeared generally in the state and was abundant in the extreme north in 1924. This disease had not been seen in Illinois previous to that year. A new leaf spot of cowpea was discovereci in Clinton County in 1927. In an article by Stout (1930), 16 new fungi found on corn in Illinois were described. Downy mildew of soybean, first reported in Illinois in 1929, caused considerable damage in 1935, when it was found in 12 counties. Brown stem rot of soybean, first recognized in the state in 1944, sud- denly became widespread and destructive in 1948. This outbreak of the disease fol- lowed a fortnight of low temperatures, which ended on August 10. Septoria leaf spot of broom corn was discovered in Illi- nois in 1949 and was very destructive in several fields west of Galton in Douglas County. Diseases recorded for the first time in Illinois in recent years include ergot on timothy, bacterial blister spot on apple, charcoal rot on pepper, and downy mil- dew on wheat in 1952; basal glume rot on barley, anthracnose on sweet clover, and rosette on cherry in 1954; Ascochyta leaf spot on rhubarb and bacterial leaf spot on mulberry in 1955; powdery mildew on apple, ergot on oats, Helminthosporium leaf spot on red top, and Gloeosporium leaf spot on currant in 1956; and Phy- tophthora root rot on alfalfa, Phytoph- thora stem rot on lily, Cercospora leaf spot on Deutzia, Abelia, ornamental gooseberry, and wafer ash, downy mil- dew on cucumber, squash, and water- melon, rust on apricot, anthracnose on iris, powdery mildew on pecan and frag- rant sumac, Badhamia slime mold on timothy, Herptobasidium scorch on bush honeysuckle, and Phyllachora tar spot on lespedeza in 1957. In the plant disease survey, not only are the various kinds of crops examined but many plants in many fields of the same crop are examined each summer. For instance, in 1949, data on prevalence and severitv of wheat diseases were ob- tained by examination of plants in 42 wheat fields that totaled 1,033 acres and that were located in 38 widely scattered counties of the state. Another phase of the plant disease sur- vey is that of forecasting the anticipated occurrence and seriousness of plant dis- eases. This forecasting has been notably efifective for Stewart's disease of corn. The bacterium that causes Stewart's dis- ease overwinters chiefly in the body of the adult corn flea beetle (Chaetocnema puli- caria) . The mortality rate of the flea bee- tle is affected by weather conditions dur- ing hibernation. Although forecasting the early season or wilt stage of Stewart's disease had pre- viously been worked out bv others, fore- casting the late season or the leaf blight stage was worked out by G. H. Boewe. Making use of data accumulated in the 5-year period 1944-1948, Boewe found that a winter temperature index rather accurately forecast the late season develop- ment of Stewart's disease. The index for any growing season was based on the sum of the mean temperatures of the previous winter months of December, January, and February. While early season epi- demics do not develop unless the index is 90 or above, light to moderate late sea- son epidemics develop when the indexes are between 80 and 85, and moderate to heavy late season epidemics when the in- dexes are above 85. No disease or only a trace of disease develops when the in- dexes are below 80. Forecasting of the severity of disease each year has been quite accurate. The appearance and spread of new dis- eases on crops in Illinois often are re- corded first as a result of the annual sur- vey made for plant diseases. Aid to farm- ers in combating these diseases is made through warnings and through publica- tions such as Diseases of Small Grain Crops in Illinois (Boewe 1939). Fruit Diseases. — Of the many dis- eases that affected fruit trees in the state each year during the early years of the plant disease survey, the most common and destructive were scab, shothole, brown rot, and leaf curl of peach ; fire- blight, frogeye, and blotch of apple ; fire- blight, leaf blight, and leaf spot of pear; and shothole and leaf spot of cherry. 152 Illinois Natiral IIisiorv Sur\ly Hui.lltin Vol. 27, Art. 2 In i-;irl\ Au;j;ust of l'^27 Professor M. J. Dursey of the Universit> of Illinois foiind, in a larj^e orchard near Ccntralia, the first authentic case of peach yellows in Illinois. By 1929 the disease had spread to 37 trees scattered in 11 orchards located in Jefi'erson, Marion, Pike, and Pulaski counties. In recent _\ears peach \ello\vs has not been observed in Illinois. Diseases which are destructive to the peach crop and which have appeared an- nually in recent years are scab, brown rot, shothole, and peach leaf curl. Durinji the earl\' years of the plant dis- ease survey, nailhcad canker was a serious disease of apple trees. However, this dis- ease disappeared from the orchards of the state when j^rowers eliminated those va- rieties susceptible to the disease. The majcjr destructive diseases of apples which have continued to appear annually are scab, lircbli^ht, frof^eye, and blotch. Mil- dew has increased in destructiveness in recent years because the sulfur fungicides which controlled the disease in the early years have been replaced by new types of fungicides; these new materials more ef- fectively control the other diseases of apples. Cedar apple rust, which was prev- alent and destructive for many years, is controlled satisfactorily at present by some of the recently developed fungicides, fer- bam plus sulfur on the deciduous hosts, Elgetol and acti-dione on the evergreen hosts. Many pear orchards in the state have been severely damaged or destroyed by fireblight. At present there is hope that this disease can be effectively controlled by some of the new antibiotic sprays. Other diseases destructive annually to pear trees are leaf blight and leaf spot. The disease most destructive to cherry trees in the state is shothole. Yellowing, necrosis, and premature leaf drop, caused by this disease, gradually reduce the vigor of affected trees and, eventually, the qual- ity and (iuantit\' of cherries produced. Diseases that may appear annually on other fruit crops are bacterial spot and black knot of plum ; black rot, downy mildew, and powder\ mildew of grape; crown gall and rust of blackberry ; an- gular leaf spot of currant; leaf spot, leaf scorch, and yellows of strawberry; an- thracnose of raspberry, currant, and goose- berry ; and Septoria leaf spot of black- berry and raspberry. Although many of these diseases are not destructive each year, they cause serious losses in some years. Vegetable Diseases. — Although vegetable crops are affected by many dis- eases, only a few of the diseases cause serious losses annually. The most com- mon and destructive diseases in Illinois are bacterial blight, halo blight, and mosaic of bean ; yellows of , cabbage ; Ascoch\'ta leaf spot, Fusarium wilt, and powdery mildew of pea; Fusarium wilt, mosaic, and bacterial leaf spot of pepper; early blight, Fusarium wilt, black leg, and scab of potato; and early blight, Fusarium wilt, and Verticillium wilt of tomato. Botanical Collections The first of the present botanical col- lections of the Natural History Survey was started in a small way in 1921. At that time the collection of plant disease fungi of the Natural History Survey was separated from the collection of the Uni- versity of Illinois. The vascular plants collected with State Laboratory funds and with Natural History Survey funds previous to 1921 were left in the her- barium of the University of Illinois. Plant Disease Collection. — The earliest reported specimens in the plant disease collection of the Natural History Survev are several hundred specimens col- lected", 1918-1921, by H. W. Anderson of the University of Illinois. Collection, identification, and preservation of such specimens were expanded rapidly during the four summers of 1921 through 1924, when special emphasis was placed on ob- taining information on the plant disease situation of the state. To conduct this plant disease survey, one to four men were employed full-time each summer to collect specimens of diseased plants in each county of the state. This activity resulted in adding over 18,000 plant dis- ease specimens to the collection. Among these specimens were five plant diseases new to the state and 18 species of plant parasites new to science. In 1924 this collection contained type specimens which represented three genera and 73 species of plant-inhabiting fungi Dt 1958 C.\rti:r: Ai'I'MUD Botann and Plant Pathoi.oc.y 153 first known for their occurrence in Illi- nois. Although some specimens have been added to the plant disease survey collec- tion by all botany staff members since 1924, most of the specimens have been added by Boewe, the plant pathologist now responsible for the plant disease sur- vey. Specimens of special interest sent to the laboratory for diagnosis of disease are added to the collection. Gilbert L. Stout was the first plant pathologist to devote full time to plant disease survey work. He was succeeded by Boewe in 1Q30. In this work diseased plant material is carefully examined to determine the specific disease involved. IVIany specimens are collected not only as characteristic examples of the disease but for further study in the laboratory to determine the organism causing the dis- ease. Specimens of diseases new to the United States, Illinois, or a county of the state are preserved in the plant disease collection. As of April, 1958, the plant disease collection contained 32,624 specimens. Al- though this collection contains mostly fungi that cause plant diseases, it also contains specimens affected by disease- causing bacteria, viruses, and noninfectious agents. Information on new diseases has been published in Mycologia, Phytopa- thology, and the Plant Disease Reporter. Vascular Plant Collection. — The collection of vascular plants in Illinois by Natural History Survey staf¥ members was begun in 1927 with the establish- ment of a project on the accumulation of plants of the state. By 1931 three addi- tional projects had been added: mainte- nance of a herbarium containing repre- sentative plants of Illinois, maintenance of a bibliography of Illinois plant records, and maintenance of a card record of the occurrence of plants in Illinois. The first systematic collection of Illi- nois vascular plants for the Natural His- tory Survey was made by James Schopf, who collected 1,676 specimens during the summer of 1931. In September of 1931 Dr. Herman S. Pepoon joined the Survey staff. Pepoon, with the assistance of E. G. Barrett, collected 1,300 specimens. After Pepoon left the Survey in 1933 the ac- cumulation of Illinois plants was added to the duties of the plant pathologists. -Much of the collecting was done by Boewe in conjunction with his work on the plant disease survey. In October of 1946 R. A. Evers joined the staff and was assigned the botanical survey work. His work is devoted almost exclusively to a study of the flora and vegetation of the state. Since 1946 he has collected plant specimens annually in each of the 102 counties of the state. Previous to 1947 the number of speci- mens in the vascular plant collection was increased by gifts of specimens from R. A. Dobbs of Geneseo, R. A. Evers then of Quincy, and G. D. Fuller of the Illinois State Museum. Also, the herbarium of Charles Robertson of Carlinville was ac- quired. Since 1947, plant specimens, as gifts or exchanges, have been received from Franklin Buser (graduate student), James Long of Amboy, Dr. V. H. Chase of Peoria, Dr. Sidney Glassman of the University of Illinois staff at Navy Pier, Chicago, Dr. John Voigt of Southern Illinois University, Dr. John Thieret of the Chicago Museum of Natural History, and others. Thirteen species of plants have been added to the known flora of Illinois by Natural History Survey staff members since 1947. They are Daucus pusillus, Medicago arabica, Setaria faherii, Spec- ularia biflora, Rudheckia missouriensis, Heliotropium teuelliim, Eriochloa villosa, DicUptera brachiata, Cyperus lancas- triensis, Haplopappus ciliatus, Verbascum virgatum, Helianthus angustifoUus, and Jussiaea leptocarpa. Publications resulting from the collec- tion of vascular plants of Illinois include a 339-page bulletin on native and nat- uralized trees of the state (Miller & Tehon 1929), two fieldbooks, one on wild flowers (Anon. 1936) and one on native shrubs (Tehon 1942), and articles on genera and species of Illinois plants, including several new to the state (Evers 1949, 1950, 1951, 1956; Evers & Thieret 1957). Identification and preservation of vas- cular plants in the Natural History Sur- vey herbarium were under way to a limited extent by 1927. In succeeding years students have been employed to mount specimens for the herbarium. In 1936 Richard A. Schneider was em- 154 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 ployed to identity the accumulated col- lection of plant specimens. Although col- lection, identification, and preservation of vascular plant specimens were curtailed durinji World War II, the herbarium contained 13,749 specimens in May of 1Q43 and 17,330 specimens in October of 1946. The abundant collection of plant material in succeedin;^ years has in- creased the number of vascular plant specimens in the herbarium to 70,600. and approximately 8,000 additional speci- mens are on hand to be added to the herbarium. Under present conditions three student assistants are employed to prepare the plant material for placing in the herbarium. A card index is main- tained of all plant specimens. The bibliography of Illinois plants, started previous to 1931, is not up-to-date because of lack of funds and lack of as- sistants to examine the literature. In co-operation with L. E. \'eager, R. E. Yeatter, A. S. Hawkins, and D. H. Thompson, fellow staff members doing wildlife or fisheries research, botanists made a census of waterfowl food plants of the Chautauqua Drainage District, car- ried on a surve>' of Illinois plants useful to wildlife as food or cover, and con- ducted experiments on propagation of plants useful to wildlife as food or cover. A collection of 848 samples of seeds was developed for identification of seeds in- gested by waterfowl. Activities pertaining to the botany of Illinois include preparation of manu- scripts designed for publications, mainly of an educational or popular type. These publications are on such subjects as noxious weeds, directions for the study and identification of plants, drug plants (Tehon 1937^. 1939^/, 1951./), plants poi- sonous to livestock (Tehon, Morrill, & Ciraham 1946), and vegetation of hill prairies in the state (Evers 1955). The publication on the vegetation of hill prairies is a report on an extensive ecological study of 61 prairies on the brow slopes of bluffs of the Mississippi River from East Dubucjue to southern Illinois, the Illinois Ri\er from the big bend near Hennepin to Grafton, and the Rock and Sangamon rivers. This type of publication by the Natural History Sur- vey is a continuation of those published earlier b\ the State Laborator\' of Nat- ural History. Shade and Forest Tree Pathology The earliest reported conspicuous dying of trees in Illinois was among the elms in Normal-Bloomington and Champaign in the period 1883-1886 (Forbes 1912«). The next reported conspicuous dying among elms occurred from 1907 through 1911, when many trees succumbed in southern Illinois. During this period con- spicuous losses of elms were reported in Cairo, Carbondale, Centralia, Clayton, Du Quoin, Edwardsville, Fairfield, Ga- latia, McLeansboro, Mount Vernon, Quincy, Robinson, Sumner, and Van- dalia. These 14 towns are located in 13 counties of western and southern Illinois. Although the cause of the dying of elms during these two periods was not de- termined, it was suggested that some dis- ease might be involved. Dying of feeder roots, wilting of foliage, and dying of terminal twigs was followed by death of the trees. Many of the affected elms in southern and western Illinois were heavily infested with the elm borer, Saperda tri- deniata, and the red elm bark weevil, Magdalis armicoUis, called by Forbes the reddish elm snout-beetle. Elm Diseases. — A few years after the establishment of the Section of Bot- any in 1921, reports and inquiries were received about a widespread wilting of elms growing in commercial nurseries and in decorative plantings, most of them in northern Illinois. Some special exam- inations made of these trees by Dr. Christine Buisman of Holland, an expert on elm diseases, revealed that the malady was not Dutch elm disease. Research on the cause and control of this wilting was started in 1930. Until May, 1934, the work was carried on by graduate students — H. A. Harris, Leo C\ampbell, J. A. Trumbower, and A. S. Peirce. In May of 1934 J. C. Carter joined the staff as a full-time plant pathologist to study dis- eases of trees. Although intensive study of the elm wilt problem was continued for se\eral years, other elm diseases and diseases of other species of trees were studied as they became evident. From 1934 to 1950 research on tree diseases was carried on by Carter. With the expan- December, 1958 Carter: Applied Botany and Plant Pathology 155 sion of the tree disease research program in 1950, additional plant pathologists were added to the staff. The recent re- search program has been carried on by four plant pathologists, Richard J. Campana, Walter Hartstirn, Eugene B. Himelick, and Dan Neely. In the studies on the cause and control of the wilting of elms, it was found that several fungi w'ere involved. Although the first report on this work (Harris 1932) indicated that several fungi were capable of causing the wilting, later studies showed that most wilting was caused by the Dothiorella wilt fungus and it was most serious in plantings of trees that were weakened by overcrowd- ing and by repeated annual defoliations from heavy infestations of the spring cankerworm. Spraying with copper and sulfur fungicides was not effective in noticeably reducing or preventing wilting. This spraying included dormant and foliar applications, in some years as many as one dormant and seven foliar sprays. Al- though research failed to find a control for this type of wilting of elms, it showed that applications of either sulfur or cop- per fungicide in June and early July gave excellent control of the black leaf spot disease (Trumbower 1934). Control of this disease in commercial nursery plant- ings of elms increased the annual growth ; sprayed trees made as much growth in 4 vears as unspraved trees made in 5 years (Carter 1939). A conspicuous and widespread dying of elms which became evident in Danville and Peoria in the late 1930's appeared in other areas in succeeding years. It now is widespread and destructive throughout the southern two-thirds of the state. North of Peoria, Bloomington, Cham- paign, Urbana, and Danville, it occurs in only a few isolated places. The north- ernmost isolated infection is in Rockford. This disease, called phloem necrosis and described as a virus disease in 1942 (Swingle 1942), has killed thousands of elms in Illinois and is one of the two major diseases that continues to kill thou- sands of elms annually. In Champaign and Urbana phloem necrosis killed 2,460 trees in a period of 14 years; this number represents over 16 per cent of the total elm population in the two cities. Mount Pulaski, with an elm population of ap- proximately 600 trees in 1940, had all but 19 elms killed by the disease by Sep- tember of 1948. During the late 1930's and early 1940's, in investigations of the wilting and dying of elms, several fungi capable of producing cankers were studied. Can- ker diseases usually were confined to a few trees in a planting of elms but were found in plantings in widely scattered locations in the state. The cankers caused bv species of Cytosporina, Phoma, and Coniothyrium were prevalent only on American elm. The canker caused by Tubercularia ulrni affected the Asiatic species of elm, Ulmus pumila and U. parvifoUa. A serious and widespread wilting of elms in Hinsdale was brought to the at- tention of the Natural History Survey by Village Forester W. E. Rose in 1939. Intensive research on these elms resulted in the discovery of a bacterial disease called wetwood (Carter 1945). Wet- wood is a chronic disease that affects most elms but usually does not result in the death of affected trees. Ulmus pumila is especially susceptible to wetwood. Re- search on this disease is described in a 42-page article under the title "Wetwood of Elms" (Carter 1945). The National Arborist Association awarded a citation to the author in "recognition of his ex- cellent work" reported in the article. This work the Association "considered the outstanding research during 1945 on shade tree preservation." Dutch elm disease is the most destruc- tive disease of elms in Illinois. Although this disease was first discovered in the United States at Cleveland and Cincin- nati, Ohio, in 1930, it was not until 1950 that the first diseased elm was found in Illinois. Only one tree affected with Dutch elm disease was found in 1950, 11 were found in 1951, 24 in 1952, and over 500 in 1953. The numbers of counties in which the disease has been found each vear were 1 in 1950, 4 in 1951, 9 in 1952, 15 in 1953, 55 in 1954, 74 in 1955. 86 in 1956, 94 in 1957, and 99 in 1958. The rapid destruction of elms by the disease is illustrated by the numbers of trees af- fected each year in Champaign and Ur- bana. Onlv one affected tree was found in 156 Ii.i.ixois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27. Art. 2 Plant pathologists of the Illinois Natural History Siir\'ey culturing sample of American elm susjiected of being affected by the Dutch elm disease. Modern laboratory equipment enables the plant pathologists to substantiate field ' before 1939. In response to numerous requests for help in dealing with disease problems in floricultural crops, a pro- gram of research was initiated, and Don B. Creager was appointed to the staff in September of 1939. This program, car- ried on by Creager for 5 years and con- tinued b\ J. L. Forsberg. included work on diseases of greenhouse crops and field- and garden-grown floricultural plants. Much attention was given to bulbous ornamental plants, which were being propagated extensively in Illinois for shipment to other states. The early work was concerned with ( 1 ) obtaining as much information as possible about diseases important to Illi- nois growers. (2) conducting research on diseases for which vital information on cause and control was lacking, and (3) rendering every possible aid to growers in the recognition and control of diseases in their crops. As the work progressed more attention was given to developing disease control measures that would be more effective than those that were being used. Crops which have received attention during the course of this work are ama- rylHs, aster, azalea, begonia, calla, carna- tion, chrysanthemum, gardenia, geranium, gerbera, gladiolus, hollyhock, hydrangea, iris, ivy, lily, orchid, peony, peperomia, periwinkle, petunia, poinsettia, rose, Afri- can violet, snapdragon, stevia, stock, sweet pea, tuberose, tulip, violet, and zinnia. Of these crops, gladiolus, rose, and carnation are grown in greatest quantity, and. since all three crops are subject to a number of destructive dis- eases, more work has been done on them than on the other crops. Because of the serious losses due to diseases of gladiolus in the large com- mercial gladiolus growing area in Kan- kakee County, much research work has been directed toward developing effective control measures for these diseases. Prior to 1940, gladiolus corms generally were not treated for disease control, but in re- cent years nearly all commercial gladiolus planting stocks in all parts of the United States have been treated with a fungicide before being planted. This practice has developed largely as a result of the suc- cess of experimental treatments by Illi- nois Natural History Survey pathologists. If these or other equally effective treat- December, 1958 Carter: Applied Botany and Plant Pathology 159 ments had not been worked out, the uladiolus industry in Illinois would have succumbed. Among other noteworthy accomplish- ments achieved by Natural History Sur- vey pathologists in the field of floricul- tural pathology are the following: control of peony measles with an Elgetol ground spray (Creager 1941r, 1943fl) ; control of black mold of rose grafts by chemical treatments (Creager \94\b) ; control of calla rots by chemical treatments (Creager 1943^)) ; establishment of viruses as the causes of peperomia ringspot (Creager 1941fl), carnation mosaic and streak (Creager 1943f, 1944, Forsberg 1947), and coleus mosaic (Creager 1945) ; clarification of the Fusarium dis- ease complex in gladiolus (Forsberg 1955rt) ; discovery of the vascular phase of the Curvularia disease of gladiolus (Forsberg 1957) ; discovery of scab on violets in Illinois (Forsberg & Boewe 1945); control of Thielavia root rot of sweet peas (Creager 1942); control of bacterial scab of gladiolus by use of soil insecticides (Forsberg \955b) . The value of an insecticide in the con- trol of bacterial scab of gladiolus became apparent in 1953 when gladiolus corms were treated with a seed protectant which contained an insecticide in addition to a fungicide. This treatment resulted in the production of corms free of bacterial scab and free of injury caused by white grubs. Results of this treatment supported observations that white grubs are instru- mental in spreading bacterial scab. Suc- ceeding tests showed that 25 per cent al- drin granules applied to the soil at the rate of 4 or 8 grams per 10 feet of row prevented white grub injury and bac- terial scab. Identification and Extension During each growing season the Sec- tion of Applied Botany and Plant Pathol- ogy receives for examination and diagnosis several thousand samples of trees, shrubs, and other plants suspected by Illinois residents of being diseased. Diagnosis results and treatment recommendations are sent as soon as possible to the persons sending the samples. Most of the samples received are from elms suspected of being affected with Dutch elm disease. To handle the labora- tory diagnoses requires the full-time help during the summer months of four ad- ditional persons: one mycologist, two lab- oratory technicians, and one stenographer. It is anticipated that the demand oc- casioned by Dutch elm disease for service from Natural History Survey personnel will continue indefinitely. To supply the demand from hundreds of communities and individuals through- out the state for information on identifi- cation, control, and other aspects of Dutch elm disease has occupied a major portion of the time of one plant pathol- ogist. Educational material on Dutch elm disease has been prepared for distribution ; this has included mimeographed leaflets on control and other phases of the disease, a series of news releases, kodachrome trans- parencies, black and white photographs, specimens, exhibits, maps, tables, and graphs. Technical advice and information were furnished the Illinois State Cham- ber of Commerce for two state-wide con- ferences on Dutch elm disease, one in 1955 and one in 1956. These conferences provided specific and detailed information on the nature and control of the disease. Outstanding authorities on Dutch elm disease in the United States were on the programs. Additional activities have in- cluded aid in field identification of the disease, aid in local surveys, training and instruction in collecting specimens, set- ting up laboratories for final diagnosis of the disease, and making laboratory diagnosis of each of several thousand specimens received each j^ear. Each year, activities of an educational or extension nature by staff members of the Section of Applied Botany and Plant Pathology include talks on plants and vegetation of Illinois, and on diseases of trees, shrubs, and floricultural crops. Ex- aminations are made of numerous plant- ings of ornamental and economic crops in various parts of the state. Numerous pasture lands are examined in co-opera- tion with members of the University of Illinois College of V^eterinary Medicine for plants poisonous to livestock. Many plants examined in the field or received through the mail are identified for farm- ers, homeowners, and other interested persons. 160 Illinois Natural History Survhy Bulletin \^)1. 27, Art. 2 PAST AND PRESENT Early botanical research in Illinois was concerned mainly with field surveys of plants native to the state and with the distribution of these plants in the state. Althou,<:h botanical research in the state is still concerned with native plants, it is concerned also with the cause and control of diseases affecting ornamental plants — trees, shrubs, and floricultural crops — and losses caused by diseases of economic crops, including cereal, fruit, forage, pas- ture, and vegetable crops. Much of the early work with plants was done by amateur botanists who had very little formal training in botany. Some of these men were physicians who were interested in plants that had medic- inal values. These early botanists were individuals, engaged in various profes- sions or businesses, who were keenly inter- ested in nature, especially in the plant life around them. They usually studied plants in local areas, as their modes of travel were by foot, by horseback, or by car- riage. Their equipment and reference works were meager. Their efforts were directed mainly toward the collection and identification of plants. Many of these early botanists were members of the Natural History Society. Some of them became professional bot- anists and were employed by the State Laboratory of Natural History. Inheritors of some of the traditions of these early botanists are the present mem- bers of the Section of Applied Botany and Plant Pathology of the Natural History Surve\-. Unlike the early botanists, these men have received specialized botanical training in leading colleges and universi- ties of the United States. Their fields of specialization include botany, taxonomy, plant pathology, plant physiology, mycol- ogy, and biochemistry. They are provided with specialized ec|uipment including high-powered com- pound and phase microscopes, high-speed centrifuges, pH meters, fluorescent lamps, spectrophotometer, and Geiger counter, and with excellent librar\ facilities in- cluding numerous books on specializeil subjects in botany and related fields. They are able to study plants in all parts of the state, as they can rapidly travel great distances by automobile, train, air- plane, or helicopter. They study the tax- onomy of plants, as the early botanists did, and in addition the pathology, physi- ology, mycology, and biochemistry of plants, including fungi, and especially the fungi that cause diseases of plants. UNSOLVED PROBLEMS The partially solved problems receiv- ing major attention of the Section of Ap- plied Botany and Plant Pathology at the present include the control of glad- iolus corm rots, oak wilt, elm phloem ne- crosis, and Dutch elm disease. x'\lthough these diseases have been investigated for several years, continued research is needed to develop more effective treatments for their control. Other unsolved problems include the abnormal growth, wilt, de- cline, or death of trees, floricultural crops, and shrubs used for ornamental, shade, or forest purposes. Some specific unsolved problems are a virus disease complex of gladiolus, a general decline of ash, elm, and oak in localized areas of the state ; a rapid decline and death of red pine in localized plantings in north- ern Illinois; wilt, occasionally followed by death, of ash, catalpa, fragrant sumac, Japanese quince, and hard maple ; a needle blighting of white pine; diseases of hackberry, Norway spruce, and white pine, with symptoms suggesting virus dis- eases ; and wetwood of elm. Although a research program on the control of diseases of fruit, grain, and vegetable crops is conducted by the Agri- cultural Experiment Station at the Uni- versity of Illinois, some of the unsolved or partially solved problems are men- tioned here. Because of the continued ap- pearance of new physiologic races of rust on small grains, it is essential to develop new varieties of grains resistant to these races. Also needed are varieties of small grains resistant to scab and loose smut. Another disease of small grains that needs further study is the \irus disease known as yellow dwarf. Corn is affected by stalk rots caused by several fungi ; varieties of corn are needed that are resistant to the stalkrot caused by each fungus. Other problems include more effective control for bacterial spot December. 1958 Carter: Aimm.ikd Botany and Plant Pathoi.oc.y 161 of pepper and for diseases caused by soil- borne microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, and nematodes. If the future can be measured in terms of experience in the past, new diseases and other types of new plant disorders will appear each year to require addi- tional attention of the research personnel of the Section of Applied Botany and Plant Pathology. FUTURE POSSIBILITIES Future possibilities in the botanical survey include further collections of na- tive and naturalized vascular plants to increase the knowledge of the habitats and the range of these species in the state. As plants migrate, slowly under natural conditions but swiftly with the help of man, it is necessary to be on the alert for new additions to the state flora and to give warning if any introductions are of an obnoxious character. The final aim of a floristic study is to produce a manual of the flora of Illinois which will give not only good descriptions of the species but also a discussion of the variations of the species within the state and a discus- sion of their distribution In Illinois. Collections of the nonvascular plants — algae, fungi, and bryophytes — should be expanded. Although a small collec- tion of bryophytes — mosses and liver- worts— is housed in the herbarium, much collecting remains to be done before the present bryophyte flora and its distribu- tion in the state can be known. A nu- cleus of a phycologlcal collection has been made and should be increased. Only a few of the nonpathogenic fungi are repre- sented in the Natural History Survey col- lections. Collections of slime molds, lichens, and fleshy fungi — mushrooms and bracket fungi — should be started, as these plants are a part of the flora of Illinois and thus a part of the natural resources of the state. Vegetatlonal studies should be contin- ued. Although many of the original prai- rie types of Illinois have been destroyed and only remnants remain, these remnants should be described so that future citizens of Illinois will have some botanical knowledge of the prairie types. Hill prai- rie studies should be continued to solve some of the problems of succession in this type of prairie and to learn how such prairie recovers from heavy grazing. Ad- ditional study should be made of the vege- tation of the sand areas of the state. An ecological studs of the forests in Illinois should be made. The ultimate aim of these studies is to produce a manual of the plant geography of Illinois. Not only should the various vegetations of Illinois be described; remnants of them should be preserved. This is true especially of the prairie types. As we do not know what lies in the future for land use In the locations of the present hill prairies, now one of the least disturbed prairie types in Illinois, several of these beautiful grasslands should be set aside as natural areas by the state or federal government and should be so adminis- tered that picnic parties, hunters, or oth- ers cannot disturb them but that inter- ested persons may view and study them. Although only very small remnants of the flatland and bottomland types of prairie remain, several such remnants should be set aside and allowed to expand so that future generations may have a general idea of the nature of these types of prairie which gave the name "the prairie state" to Illinois. Examples of sand prairies should be preserved. Some of these prai- ries which come under state control should be left as prairies instead of being converted into pine plantations. Aban- doned railroad trackways in sand prairie regions should be permitted to develop as a type of the sand prairie. Other vegeta- tions also should be preserved. The bogs In northeastern Illinois, In Lake County, are valuable from the botanist's point of view. The few remaining, sizable tam- arack bogs could be easily set aside for the study of bog plants and animals and of succession in the bogs. Future research on plant diseases will continue the advancement of present re- search, and new fields of research will open up. Some of the types of research that appear promising in the control of plant diseases include the use of chemo- therapeutants, antibiotics, and soil fungi- cides. Further research is needed on in- secticides and their indirect role in the control of plant diseases. One Instance of this is illustrated in the control of bac- 162 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 terial scab of gladiolus by use of aldrin to prevent white grub injury to the corms. Chemical compounds obtained from min- eral deposits in the state hold promise for the control of some plant diseases (Schenck Sc Carter 1954). Research on these compounds through the co-operation of the Geochemical and Coal sections of the Illinois Geological Survey and the Wright Air Development Center of the United States Air Force has been fruitful in the development of fluorine compounds with fungicidal properties against certain disease-producing fungi. Research along these lines resulted in publication of six articles on the fungistatic capacities of aromatic fluorine compounds in relation to cloth-rotting fungi (Tehon l95\/.i, ]952b, 1954; Tehon ^& Wolcvrz 1952./, \952b; Finger, Reed, & Tehon 1955). Research on the physiology of plants and on organisms that produce plant dis- eases will aid materially in the develop- ment of more effective controls for these diseases. One objective of this research is to develop a more realistic approach to the control of diseases through obtaining information on the movement of raw ma- terials, elaborated foods, and chemical compounds introduced into woody plants. I he addition of a plant physiologist to our staff would materially increase re- search in this field. In our study of several thousand speci- mens of diseased ornamental plants each year, many unknown fungi are obtained. These fungi need to be identified and those that are found affecting new hosts or that have not been found previously in the state should be added to our myco- logical collection. To adequately handle this work, to make monographic studies of economical!}' important fungi, and to attack new mycological problems as they appear, a mycologist with special interest in economic fungi would greatly facilitate our research. As we contemplate the future possibili- ties for research by the Section of Ap- plied Botany and Plant Pathology, it is evident that there are unlimited oppor- tunities not only to continue the research now in progress but to expand into new fields of research. This statement applies to the botanical survey, the study of vege- tation, the study of diseases of ornamental plants, and the study of the various kinds of fungi that occur in the state. Aquatic Biology GEORGE W. BENNETT THE research in aquatic biology that was so much a part of the endeavors of the staff of the Illinois State Labora- tory of Natural History and later the Illinois Natural History Survey vi^as in- itiated by Stephen A. Forbes. From the very beginning of his active period in Illinois, Forbes showed great interest in fishes and he began collecting specimens for species records, distributional records, and food habits studies. He wrote ar- ticles on Illinois Crustacea and food of Illinois fishes for the first volume of the Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural Historv (Forbes 1876, 1878^, 1880^, 1880^-, \^iU, 1883c). In the pe- riod 187^1888 he collected 1,221 fish of 87 species, 63 genera, and 25 families; these he used to study their diagnostic characteristics, their distribution in the state, and their food habits. Forbes' inter- est in aquatic biology was broad, and he himself worked on or arranged for others to work on crustaceans, leeches, proto- zoans, rotifers, and aquatic insects, as well as fishes native to Illinois. BEGINNING OF AQUATIC ECOLOGY Many of the early publications of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural His- tory dealt with the taxonomy and distri- bution of aquatic animals new to science, or additions to the known distribution of named animals. Forbes was familiar with these subjects and also with the ecology of aquatic organisms at least as early as 1887. In that year his "The Lake as a Microcosm" was first published in the Bulletin of the Peoria Scientific Associa- tion; later it was republished in volume 15 of the Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory. In this short but epoch- marking paper, Forbes (1925) described a lake or pond as an environment in which the animals and plants were largely isolated from the surrounding ter- restrial animals and plants but were very much interrelated and interdependent among themselves; each organism was producing more new individuals than the environment could support, so that many of them served as food for other types of animals, and competition was very keen. Forbes had observed the biological phe- nomena associated with fluctuating water levels — with floods following excessive precipitation and low waters following droughts — and described them as follows: Whenever the waters of the river remain for a long time far beyond their banivs, the breed- ing grounds of fishes and other animals are immensely extended, and their food supplies increased to a corresponding degree (Forbes 1925:538). As the waters retire, the lakes are again de- fined ; the teeming life which they contain is restricted within daily narrower bounds, and a fearful slaughter follows; the lower and more defenceless animals are penned up more and more closely with their predaceous en- emies, and these thrive for a time to an extraordinary degree (Forbes 1925:539). Forbes recognized that periods of bio- logical expansion and contraction were normal and, without the introduction of abnormal forces, would tend to hold "each species within the limits of a uni- form average number, year after year." Every organism had its enemies that seemed to be balanced against its repro- ductive potential and, although every species had to "fight its way inch by inch from the egg to maturity," yet no species was exterminated. Apparently the Illinois State Fish Commissioners, assigned the duties of protecting the fisherit- resources of the state during this period, either had not read Forbes' "The Lake as a Microcosm" or did not understand it, because their main activity for the 20 years following 1890 was the rescuing of fishes from the land-locked, drying backwaters of the Illinois and Mississippi rivers and the returning of these fishes to the open wa- ters. Perhaps the Commissioners should not be condemned severely, because their be- liefs and activities were in no way dif- [163] 164 Im.inois Naturai. History Survuy Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 ferent from those of similar bodies in other states throuy;hout the country. They were in tune with the times. In the re- port of the Commissioners to the Gov- ernor of Illinois for the period October 1, 1890, to September 30, 1892 (Bartlett 1893:3), is to be found the followin^^ statement: The number of fish left to die in the shal- low waters has been beyond computation, and has seemed to be greater than ever before, from the fact that the attention of the people generally has been called to them and the terrible waste ensuing. . . . We have been severely criticised because so many fish are allowed to perish, but when the fact is considered that the Mississippi river has a meandering frontage of 450 miles in this State, with bottoms varying in width from a few hundred yards to several miles, and the Illinois and other rivers adding per- haps as much more, it can readily be seen that, if the work were carried on to a suc- cessful completion, it would require hundreds of men and thousands of dollars of ex- pense; in other words, it would be simply impracticable. Fish rescue operations were done with seines dragged through shallow waters by crews of men. The fish were separated from the mud and vegetation and carried by boat to open water, or in tubs to tanks on wagons when overland transportation was necessary. The operations were car- ried on in summer and early fall when both the water and the air were very warm. Toda\ fisheries biologists are well aware of the fact that, even if the fish had been released "alive" in open water, their chance of survival w^as very low. Few fishes are able to survive even a short exposure to a lukewarm, mud- and-water suspension, such as is created when a seine is dragged through shallow backwaters in August. This statement applies particularly to the game and fine fishes. We now suspect that the phenomenon of fluctuating water levels, which cre- ated a fish rescue problem along the Illi- nois and Mississippi rivers for the Illinois State Fish Commissioners, may have been highly favorable to the well-being of the population of fishes, particularlv large- mouth bass, northern pike, walleyes, crappies, and other pan fishes. A com- bination of natural predation (largelv b\ fish-eating birds) and water level fluc- tuations prevented excessive competition among the coexisting species and allowed for excellent survival of game fish. 1 he report of the Fish Commissioners (Bart- lett 1893:4) for the 2-year period ending September 30, 1892, contains the follow- ing statement : In the Quincy Bay [of the Mississippi River], this season, the number of black bass has been unprecedented, and a fair estimate of the number taken with hook and line would place it in the hundreds of thousands. Most of them were too small to use on the table, yet were as voracious as larger ones and fell an easy prey to the angler, whether he of the rod and reel or the small boy with a willow switch and a tow line, all caught bass. One man, who called himself a sports- man, boasted of having caught 800 of them in one day with hook and line, all too small to eat, but he carried them away and threw them on the ash heap. From my oHice win- dow I saw 225 taken by two little boys in one day, all of them wasted. The production of a dominant brood of bass (undoubtedly largemouth) such as this might be expected to follow a pe- riod of very low water in the late sum- mer and fall and a period of moderately high water during the bass spawning sea- son the following June. J The theory of the benefits of fiuctuat- ' ing water levels is further substantiated by a published record of the catch of four commercial fishing firms operating in the Illinois River near Havana between July 1 and December 1 (5 months) in 1895 (Roe & Schmidt 1897). Their catch was 358,843 pounds, mostly of carp and buf- falo, which made up 85.7 per cent of the total. An unusual part of the catch was the proportion of "bass" (undoubtedly largemouth), 7,852 pounds, and walleye and "pike" (northern), each 200 pounds. The last two species are seldom taken in the Illinois River today. The catch of bass (7,852 pounds) was larger than the catch of crappies ( 7,405 pounds) . Crappies are easily caught in hoop and fyke nets or seines; bass do not enter hoop and fyke nets readily and when surrounded with a seine they show considerable aptitude for jumping over. Inasmuch as more pounds of bass than of crappies were caught, prob- ably many more pounds of bass were available. Today, with water levels of bottom- land lakes in the Havana region much more stabilized, it would be an impossi- December. 1958 Bennett: Aquatic Hiology 165 ble task to catch 7,000 pounds of bass with commercial fishing gear. This im- portant game species is very much less abundant now than it was when the river was free to spread over its wide flood plain. FIRST FIELD LABORATORY Forbes was much interested in the Illi- nois River and in 1894 he established a biological station on its shores (Forbes 1895fl:39) "for the continuous investiga- tion of the aquatic life of the Illinois river and its dependent waters, near Havana." That Forbes (1895«:46-7) had great breadth of vision in biological research is shown by his description of the objectives of the laboratory : The general objects of our Station are to provide additional facilities and resources for the natural history survey of the State, now being carried on, under legislative authoriza- tion, by the State Laboratory of Natural His- tory; to contribute largely to a thoroughgoing scientific knowledge of the whole system of life existing in the waters of this State, with a view to economic as well as educational applications, and especially with reference to the improvement of fish culture and to the prevention of a progressive pollution of our streams and lakes ; to occupy a rich and promising field of original biological investi- gation hitherto largely overlooked or neglect- ed, not only in America, but throughout the world ; and to increase the resources of the zoological and botanical departments of the University by providing means and facilities for special lines of both graduate and under- graduate work and study for those taking major courses in these departments. The Station differs from most of the small number of similar stations thus far estab- lished in this country from the fact that its main object is investigation instead of in- struction, the latter being a secondary, and at present an incidental object only. It has for its field the entire system of life in the Illinois river and connected lakes and other adjacent waters, and it is my intention to extend the work as rapidly as possible to the Mississippi river system, thus making a beginning on a comprehensive and very thoroughgoing work in the general field of the aquatic life of the Mississippi Valley, in all its relations, scientific and economic. The special subject which I have fixed upon as the point of direction towards which all our studies shall tend is the effect on the aquatic plant and animal life of a region produced by the periodical overflow and gradual recession of the waters of great rivers, phenomena of which the Illinois and Mississippi rivers afford excellent and strong- ly marked examples. Forbes (1895rt:47) believed that the natural sciences should be studied out of doors and that colleges and universities of his day were not doing well by their students in botany and zoology when they confined them to laboratory studies: Not many years ago, biological instruction in American colleges was mostly derived from books. Of late, it has been largely ob- tained from laboratories instead, but several years' experience of the output of the zoologi- cal college laboratory has convinced me that the mere book-worm is hardly narrower and more mechanical than the mere laboratory grub. Both have suffered, and almost equally, from a lack of opportunity to study nature alive. One knows about as much as the other of the real aspect of living nature and of the ways in which living things limit and de- termine each others' activities and characters, or in which all are determined by the in- organic environment. It is possible that Forbes' feeling on this point of training may have influenced the University of Illinois to require field courses at a biological station before granting a graduate degree in zoology. Havana was selected as the location for the Illinois Biological Station because of its several advantages : Forbes liked the blufts along the eastern shore of the Illi- nois River because at their bases they furnished a clean, hard sand beach suit- able to work from and ideal for camping. Moreover, along these bluffs was an abundance of pure, cold spring water. The laboratory consisted of "three well-placed rooms" in the town itself and a "cabin boat" on the Illinois River. The office and laboratory rooms were sup- plied with running water and electric light, and liberally provided with the usual equip- ment of a biological laboratory, consisting of compound and dissecting microscopes (Rei- chert and Zeiss), microtomes, biological re- agents to the number of one hundred bottles, water and [paraffin] baths, laboratory glass- ware, tanks for alcohol, a coal stove, a kero- sene stove, laboratory tables for five assist- ants, and a working library of about one hundred and twentv volumes (Forbes 1895fl:48). The cabin boat was stationed on Quiver Lake north of Havana, about 2.5 miles from town. The boat contained a well- furnished kitchen and sleeping quarters for four men. Most of the rest of the space was taken up by equipment, includ- ing limnological apparatus, seines, collect- ing nets, microscopes, and a small library. Ibb Illinois Natural History Slrvhv Bulletin Vol. 27. Art. 2 The original staff of the station, in 18Q4, consisted of Frank Smith, who was directly in charge and whose principal in- terest was aquatic worms; Charles A. Hart, entomologist and curator of col- lections for the State Laboratory; Adolph Hempel, who worked on protozoans and rotifers; and Mrs. Dora Smith, who served as microtechnician and was in charge of the rooms in Havana. Miles Newberry, who lived in Havana, had charge of the cabin boat and acted as a general field assistant. Others who were present at some time during the first year of operation were Ernest Forbes, for 6 weeks of general collecting. Professor Thomas J. Burrill, a Mr. Clinton, a Mr. Yeakel, and a Miss Ayers, all of the Uni- versity of Illinois Botany Department, who were collecting aquatic plants ; a Professor Palmer, who was making chem- ical analyses of the water ; Assistant Pro- fessor Henry E. Summers of the Univer- sity Physiology Department, who photo- graphed the region ; and the staff artist. Miss Lydia M. Hart. Professor Forbes exercised general supervision over the sta- tion work, planning and following its op- eration. FISHES AND PLANKTON Within a year or so aquatic investiga- tions were stepped up through increased use of the laboratory and cabin boat at Havana. At the beginning of this cen- turv Frank Smith (1901:567) stated in Science that the ichthyological survey of Illinois had received much attention dur- ing the previous 2 years and that a com- prehensive report was soon to be pub- lished. He also stated that Dr. C. A. Kofoid had been studying the plankton of the Illinois River for the previous 5 years. This short statement in Scietice announced the progress being made on two of the important contemporary- con- tributions to aquatic biology, namely Forbes Si Richardson's The Fishes of Illinois (1Q08) and Kofoid's studies on the plankton of the Illinois River. Shortly after, in an essay dealing with "statistical ec()log\-," Forbes (1907^) pre- sented a method for showing relation- ships between individual species of fishes and preferences of certain kinds of fishes with respect to features of the physical environment. The validity of this method depended upon the numbers of collections that were available for study. Where sufficiently large numbers of collections could be mustered, Forbes compared ob- served relationships with expected rela- tionships and obtained a coefficient of as- sociation by dividing the former by the latter. A hypothetical example is given below : Given species A and species B inhabit- ing waters in the same general land area : In 1,000 collections, species A occurred 159 times and species B 85 times. Thus, the probability that they would occur to- gether in anv single collection was 159/1,000 X 85/1,000 or 13,515 times in a million or 13.5 times in 1,000, and the probable number of these double oc- currences in the 1,000 collections was 13.5/1,000 X 1,000/1 or 13.5 times. However, in the 1,000 collections, spe- cies A and species B were found together in 40 ; thus, the coefficient of association for species A and B was 40/13.5 or 2.96: they were found together about three times as often as was to be expected. This same type of reasoning was ap- plied to show relationships between indi- vidual species and the physical environ- ment: stream, lake, pond, marsh; size of water area and water movement ; bottom of mud, sand, gravel, or rock. These co- efficients of association are found fre- quently in Forbes & Richardsons The fishes of Illinois. Unfortunate!}" about half the collections referred to in this pub- lication were made without notes on wa- ter current and bottom materials, so that this method of showing association could be applied only to stream, lake, pond, or marsh, or to sectional distribution in the state. Thus, when Forbes & Richardson (1908:195) stated that the frequency ratios for a fish were "3.19 for the smaller rivers, 2.06 for creeks, and .58 for the largest streams," they meant that these hsh exceeded expectancy in "smaller riv- ers" and "creeks" by about 3 and 2 times, respectively, and were considerably below expectancy in "the largest streams." A coefficient of association of 1 indicated correspondence with expectancy ; a co- efficient below 1 indicated a negative re- lationship. December, 1958 Bennett: Aquatic Biology 167 This method of showinji ecological re- lationships between species and ranges, species and local habitats, or between spe- cies themselves, allowed the use of num- bers to show the degree of the relation- ship or lack of it. Its shortcoming was that it made no distinction between col- lections containing one fish of a species under consideration and those containing several hundreds or thousands. THE FISHES OF ILLINOIS The first edition of The Fishes of Illi- nois was published by the State of Illinois in 1908; a second edition was published in 1920. Collections and observations for this work had been started in 1876 by Forbes and had been expanded through the help of many assistants working at rather irregular intervals until 1903. Field work on fishes became nearly con- tinuous for a few years after establish- ment of the Illinois Biological Station at Havana in 1894. Special recognition was given to Wallace Craig, who collected during the winter and spring seasons of 1898 and 1899, to H. A. Surface, w^ho collected during 1899, and to Thomas Large, who made extensive wagon trips, the most important of them in 1899, to collect fishes from streams in many parts of the state. Recognition was given also to unnamed high school teachers who col- lected fishes under specific instructions. Collections of fishes studied by Forbes and Richardson were taken from many sources : catches made by collecting par- ties with seines of various size and mesh (including minnow seines and bag seines), trammel nets, set nets (both fyke and hoop) ; catches made by commercial fishermen ; and selections from fishes on display in fish markets. A^Iore than 200,- 000 specimens representing 150 species were collected from more than 450 loca- tions in the state. The Fishes of Illinois was published in two parts, one of which was an atlas. The larger or first part contained a sec- tion on "The Topography and Hydrog- raphy of Illinois" written by Professor Charles W. Rolfe, at that time head of the Geology Department of the Univer- sitv, a section entitled "On the General and Interior Distribution of Illinois Fishes," a section on "The Fisheries of Illinois," and one on the individual spe- cies of fishes found in the state. This last section made up by far the largest num- ber of pages and included keys for the identification of fishes and a glossary of technical terms. For each species of fish were given the scientific name, common name or names, synononiy of scientific names (where such existed), and a de- tailed description of the fish. The de- scription was followed by a statement of the fish's distribution within and without the state, a statement on average and maximum lengths and weights, and infor- mation on habitat preferences, food pref- erences, and other phases of biology. For most species, information was given on how the fish might be caught and its value (if any) as food. Many species were illustrated by black and white photo- graphs or by colored plates painted by Mrs. Lydia M. (Hart) Green and Miss Charlotte M. Pinkerton. These colored plates were so fine that for nearly a half century none published elsewhere was their equal. The second part, the atlas, contained maps of the 10 stream systems of the state. These maps showed the glacial ge- ology of Illinois, localities from which collections were made, and interior dis- tribution of 98 of the most important fishes. x\s a state publication on fresh-water fishes. The Fishes of Illinois remained unique for a period of more than 40 years. ILLINOIS RIVER PLANKTON Kofoid's studies of the plankton of the Illinois River appeared as five articles in volumes 5, 6, and 8 of the Bulletin of the State Laboratory of Natural History. Altogether Kofoid published nearly 1,000 printed pages on the plankton of the Illi- nois River. From 1895 to 1900 Kofoid was su- perintendent of the biological station at Havana. In 1900 he went to the Uni- \ersitv of California at Berkeley. At the time he left Illinois for California and a new position, he had published only three short papers on plankton, one dealing with methods and apparatus, one with a 168 Illinois Natural History Survey Bullltin Vol. 27, Art. 2 Two members of the staflr of the Illinois State Laborator\' of Natural History making obser- vations ofi the breeding habits of fish near Havana, 1910 or 1911. The box at the stern of the boat was used by observers in watching the movements of fish and in searching for fish nests and fry. new species, and one with a new genus of plankton (Kofoid 1897, 1898, 1899). Two longer papers on plankton (Kofoid 1903, 1908), one on quantitative inves- tigations and the other on constituent or- ganisms and their seasonal distribution, he wrote in California. Kofoid remained on the st.'iff at Herkelc\ until his retire- ment in 1936. BOTTOM FAUNA I\. K. Richardson's classic studies of the bottom fauna of the Illinois River covered a period that coincided with se- vere changes in the biologv of the river (Forbes & Richardson 1913, 1919; Rich- ardson 1921, 1925./, 1925/., 1928). Be- fore 1900 the Illinois was a reasonably clean river receiving very limited organic pollution from a small number of towns along its banks. H\ 1900 Chicago had become an important trading center and was growing rapidl\'. In order to get rid of the sewage and the organic waste from a number of meat packing plants of Chi- cago, a diversion channel was opened be- tween Lake Michigan and the Des Plaines River, one of the headwater streams which united with the Kankakee to form the Illinois. Forbes and Rich- ardson had collected bottoin fauna in the Illinois prior to 1900, and Richardson had continued to do so after the diver- sion of Lake Michigan water had begun. At first the organic pollutants created a nuisance only in the upper part of the river, at Morris, Marseilles, and Starved Rock. Richardson studied the bottom fauna throughout the length of the upper part of the river in 1909, 1910, and 1911 and found that the river was nearly nor- mal at Chillicothe and Hennepin. Above these towns it became progressively more polluted. During the period 1900-1908 the or- ganic pollutants acted as fertilizer, and the annual fish yield of the lower part of the Illinois increased from 11.5 million to 24 million pounds. Gradually, after December, 1958 BiiNNor: Aquatic Biology 169 1908, organic waste from Chicago in- creased until the volume approached the capacity of the river to oxidize it. Diver- sion was increased, and the fish yield dropped; a peak diversion occurred in 1927 with a flow of 10,245 cubic feet per second (MulvihiU &: Cornish 1930:57). The period of maximum pollution oc- curred between 1915 and 1920. From his studies of bottom fauna during this time, Richardson calculated a reduction in the total weight of bottom organisms in the reach from Chillicothe to La Grange of 34.5 million pounds, representing a po- tential loss of 7 million pounds of fish. By 1921 the fish yield of the river had hit an all-time low of 4 million pounds, partly from pollution and partly from ex- tensive bottomland lake drainage. Aiter 1922 there was some reduction of the raw sewage going into the Illinois River, and from 1924 to 1930 the yield of commer- cial fish varied around 10 million pounds per year. Between 1913 and 1928, Richardson (with some assistance from Forbes on two of the early papers) published six articles in the Bulletin series. Because of the op- portune timing of his studies in relation to the pollution of the Illinois, Richard- son was able to set up a classification of seven degrees of pollution based on the presence of certain groups of aquatic or- ganisms. These groups were often better indicators of the degree of pollution than were oxygen analyses, because the animal associations were sensitive to small in- creases in pollution, or to fluctuations in pollution that might be missed unless oxygen analyses were made continuously. NEW LINES OF RESEARCH During the second decade of the twen- tieth century, biologists became interested in measuring the effects of physical and chemical changes in the aquatic environ- ment upon fish, and in the responses of the fish to these changes. From 1914 to 1925, members of the staf¥ working in aquatic biology published papers on the suitability of bodies of water for fishes; the poisoning of fishes by illuminating gas wastes; the reaction of fishes to carbon di- oxide and carbon monoxide ; a collecting bottle for quantitative determination of dissolved gases; methods of measuring tlie dangers of pollution to fisheries; and ob- servations on the oxygen requirements of fishes in the Illinois River. These publi- cations were the work of V^ictor E. Shel- ford (1917, 191 8«, 1918/;), Morris M. Wells (1918), Edwin B. Powers (1918), and David H. Thompson (1925). They represent a new approach to fisheries studies, e.g., the use of labora- tory studies to explain and expand the knowledge of the relationships of fishes and other aquatic organisms to their en- vironments. In the early 1920"s acjuatic investiga- tions were continued on the Illinois River, where the Natural History Survey main- tained a houseboat laboratory and attend- ing boats and equipment. At this time studies were begun on the lakes of north- eastern Illinois, studies that included the taking of quantitative plankton and bot- tom samples and collections of fishes and higher aquatic plants. In 1923, an inves- tigation was begun also on the Rock River (Forbes 1928). Surveys on the Illinois River, made in co-operation with the Illinois Water Sur- vey in 1923 and 1924, showed that the normal life of the river had been de- stroved bv pollution as far down as Peoria Lake. By 1927 the stafif had published in the Bulletin 20 articles, comprising 1,856 printed pages, on Illinois River biology. These articles apparently had had a pro- found effect on aquatic biologists in many parts of the United States; other states were engaged in making their own lake and stream surve\s, for the most part not so comprehensive as those of the Illinois River, but adequate to give some informa- tion on physical and chemical conditions and rough measurements of the fish food resources, plus inventories of the kinds and relative abundance of fishes present. At this time (1927) the Natural His- tory Survey had expanded its own stream survey program to include, besides the Rock River, the Hennepin Canal, the Sangamon and Kaskaskia rivers, and the streams of Champaign County (Forbes 1928). The Rock River investigation was operated from 1923 to 1927 with David H. Thompson in charge of field collecting and R. E. Richardson in charge 170 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 of the analysis of data at Urbana. Thompson and three or four other men, working steadily each year through spring, summer, and fall, collected and shipped to Urbana about 90,000 fishes of 90 species, 2,400 fish stomachs. 15.000 river mussels belonging to 40 species, 820 collections of small invertebrates, and 500 collections of plankton and algae. Samuel Eddy (1927. 1931, 1932) worked on the plankton of Lake Michi- gan and the Sangamon River and on plankton collections from some sinkhole ponds in southern Illinois. EARLY MANAGEMENT ATTEMPTS ALiny of the early activities in the man- agement of aquatic resources of the United States were based on premises which later research proved to be inac- curate or erroneous. These included such measures as stocking and the protection of fish from human exploitation through re- strictions in the form of fishing seasons, length limits, and creel limits. Toward the end of the last century, James Nevin (1898:18), speaking before the American Fisheries Society, made the following statement: Personally I have been on the various spawning grounds of the whole chain of Great Lakes from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Lake Superior during the spawning seasons; and I have many times watched the salmon trout, white fish and waii-eyed pike spawn in their natural way; and I am convinced that only a very small percentage of the eggs so de- posited are fertilized. This statement represented the attitude of the hatchery supervisors and most ad- ministrative personnel connected with federal and state agencies dealing with fisheries resources. xAs the spawning grounds of most fishes of the Great Lakes remain relatively unexplored even today, it is doubtful if Nevin was very familiar with them. Ideas having no scientific basis often become w'idel\' accepted. For example, al- most everyone has heard that one should wet his hands before handling a fish if he wants it to remain alive after release. Apparenth' this idea originated w-ith G. H. Thomson, Superintendent of the Estes Park Fish Hatcherv, Colorado. Thomson had cards printed with the title, "A Plea for the Fish." The cards stated : When removing an undersized trout from vour hook, always moisten your hands before grasping the fish ; otherwise the dry hand will remove the slime from the back of the trout, when it is only a question of time until fungus sets in and the fish will die. Thomson distributed these cards to residents of all states and of many foreign countries. In 1912 he reported that at the September 21-24, 1908, meeting of the American Fisheries Society in Wash- ington, D. C, the Society "recommended that the various state commissions educate the people by every means in their powder to follow the directions given about wet- ting the hands" (Thomson 1913:171). He reported also that his program was endorsed by 28 fish and game commis- sioners throughout the United States. His idea was so widely disseminated that al- most everyone has heard of it ; yet there is no evidence that any atteinpt was made to test it through scientific experimentation. In spite of continued emphasis on arti- ficial propagation, new techniques were gradually discovered and put into use by researchers in the fisheries field, and these laid the foundation for modern thought in management. Borodin (1924) and Barney (1924) called attention to the value of using growth rings on scales and otoliths for determining the age of fishes; Wiebe (1929) proposed the use of fertilizers to increase plankton produc- tion; Surber (1931) discussed the use of sodium arsenite in the control of aquatic vegetation; Burr (1931) used electrical equipment to stun fish; Markus (1932) investigated the relationship between w^ater temperatures and food digestion in largemouth bass; through tagging and re- covery, Thompson (\933a) studied mi- grations of stream fishes. These and other findings laid the groundwork for modern attack on the problems of fish management. MODERN MANAGEMENT The modern concept and use of the term "fish management" first appeared about 30 years ago. It was suggested December, 1958 Bennett: Aquatic Biology 171 (if not named) by E. A. Birge in writing about fish and their food. Birge (1929:194) stated: Good fishing for sport calls for the con- tinued presence in a lake of a relatively few large individuals of the desired species, which are to be caught singly. They must be larger than the average adult. They are not caught primarily for food but for sport and as a basis for stories. A dozen half- pound bass are by no means an equivalent to one three-pounder from this point of view. But these large individuals are few in num- ber: they are old and have come to full size very slowly. It is easy to catch them and very hard to replace them in the presence of the vigorous competition for food that goes on in a lake. And as yet little thought and less study have been given to the needs of this specific form of conservation of fish resources. (Italics mine.) This statement implies a concept of management for sport ' in 1944 was begun with Thompson in charge of the laboratory boat and Paul G. Barnickol as the chief fisheries investi- gator for Missouri. Thompson resigned from the Natural History Survey to go with the Forest Preserve District of Cook Count}', and in May, 1945, Barnickol was employed to replace him. Barnickol was in charge of the crew that covered the upper part of the river from Burling- ton to Dubuque in 1946. In May, 1948, Barnickol was recalled to Missouri to be- come Head of Fisheries Research for the Conservation Commission. At that time data from 2 years of field work on the Mississippi Ri\er were only partl\ analv/.ed. On July 1, I'HS, William C. Starrett began employment by the Natural His- tory Survey for the difficult task of work- ing over Mississippi River fishery data collected by others. In this he had the co-operation of Barnickol ; their combined efforts resulted in publication of two articles of the Natural History Survey Bulletin : "Commercial and Sport Fishes of the Mississippi River Between Caruth- ersville, Missouri, and Dubuque, Iowa" (Barnickol & Starrett 1951) and "Effi- ciency and Selectivity of Commercial Fish- ing Devices Used on the Mississippi River" (Starrett - of pheasant eggs was reduced h\ heat exposures, the reduction increas- ing with the higher temperatures." It was concluded that this vulnerability of pheasant eggs to high air temperatures constituted an important barrier to the southern distribution of pheasants, and it was suggested that pheasants in the south- ern Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain regions might be more tolerant of higher temperatures. Recent experiments by Yeatter lend strong support for this sur- mise (Yeatter unpublished MS). At the present time, the Illinois De- partment of Conservation, the Illinois Natural History Survey, and the U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife are co-operating in a comprehensive and intensive investigation of the ring-necked pheasant. This research is being carried on by Dr. William R. Hanson, Dr. Fred- erick Greeley, Jack A. Ellis, and Ronald F. Labisky and involves study of range- limiting factors, the biology of pheasants within the established range, and experi- ments with the establishment of self- maintaining populations outside the ex- isting range. The Canada Goose. — Canada geese wintering on the islands and bars in the Mississippi River from Chester, Illinois, southward to Cairo must have found the fight for survival during the early part of the twentieth century severe indeed. The conservationists who, with the ob- jective of providing for pole-and-line fish- ing, arranged for the purchase of Horse- shoe Lake, an ancient oxbow of the Mis- sissippi River in Alexander County, by the Illinois Department of Conservation in 1927 were unaware of the part they would play in protecting this goose popu- lation and setting the stage for its future growth. About 1,900 Canada geese win- tered at Horseshoe Lake, now famous as the Horseshoe Lake Game Refuge, dur- ing the first vear. During the winter of 1957-58, about 225,000 Canada geese wintered in southern Illinois; these geese constitute a resource which has been esti- mated to contribute about $1,500,000 an- nuallv to the economv of southern Illinois. The refuge was soon surrounded by j commercial shooting clubs, and a problem which attracted national interest was created. Leopold (1931:206) wrote: "The question of whether public refuges should be surrounded by public shooting grounds is frequently debated. Horse- shoe Lake in Alexander County, Illinois, is a good place to study the question." Nevertheless, it was not until 1939, when about 40,000 (the same number estimated to have been killed in southern Illinois in 1957) geese were wintering at the refuge, that the annual kill and the need for knowledge on which to base intelligent control became alarming enough to at- tract researchers. In 1940 Arthur S. Hawkins initiated the Illinois Natural History Survey's long-time research program on Canada geese (Hanson & Smith 1950:70), and in 1941 geese were banded in the area for the first time by Hawkins and John M. Anderson. The initial effort was necessarily directed toward the develop- ment of efficient trapping and handling methods (Hanson 1949rt), and colored bands were tested on geese ( Balham j^ Elder 1953) for the first time. The massing of so large a portion of the Canada geese of the flyway at Horse- shoe Lake created a unique opportunity for population research. Practical meth- ods for aging geese were worked out for the first time (Elder 1946; Hanson \9-\-9b, 1953a), and these methods, which were used for measuring the composition of the population, formed the basis for all subsequent investigations. Elder's (1946:94-8) analysis of the weight of Canada geese by sex and age constituted the first analysis of its kind for geese. Hanson (1949/v) developed techniques for placing Canada geese in three age categories (juvenile, yearling, and adult), thus making possible a considerable ad- \ancement in the understanding of popu- lation mechanics in these birds. A definitive investigation of the biol- ogy of the Canada goose constitutes the long-range objective of the research on this species. Early findings were reported in a 144-page article (Hanson & Smith 1950). In this article the four flyway populations of Canada geese breeding in the general area of Hudson Bav were December, 1958 Scott: Wii.Di.iFii Research 191 revealed for the Hrst time. The breed- ing range, migration routes, wintering grounds, and populations were discussed for each flyway population. Later, the South Atlantic Flyway population was treated in greater detail (Hanson (S: Grif- fith 1952). Observations on the relation of hunting losses to the age structure of the population wintering at the Horse- shoe Lake Game Refuge proved especially useful. The heavy kills of immature geese in the first half of the 1940's not only altered the age composition of the flock but reduced the average longevity of these geese as shown by life survival indices, the first constructed for a species of waterfowl (Hanson iSc Smith 1950: 172-88). A recent 3-year study of the kills of Canada geese by the natives of the Hudson- James Bay region has estab- lished the location and size of these hunting losses with exactness (Hanson (S: Currie 1957). The Canada geese on the Horseshoe Lake Game Refuge provide a unique op- portunity for study of behavior. The adult males of the largest families usually dominate males leading smaller families, and the social rank of the adult female is determined by that of her mate (Han- son 1953^). The conception "that the small goose flock is usually a family and that larger flocks are frequently multiples of families rather than mere aggregations of individuals . . ." also became apparent in observations made at the Horseshoe Lake Game Refuge (Elder & Elder 1949:139). Diseases and parasites of Canada geese have been investigated in anticipation of epizootics among geese crowding into winter refuges. Blood protozoa (Levine & Hanson 1953) and microfilaria (Han- son, Levine, & Kantor 1956; Hanson 1956) have been surveyed. The pre\a- lence of helminths in relation to age and the incidence of Leucocytozoon infection in immature geese are currently under study. Dr. Norman D. Levine (1953) made a valuable review of the literature on coccidia in the avian orders Galli- formes, Anseriformes, and Charadri- iformes. Coccidial infection was initially investigated in the flock at the Horseshoe Lake Game Refuge by Levine (1952), and the coccidia of North American wild geese and swans were subsequently con- sidered by Hanson, Levine, & Ivens (1957). Host specificity of some species of coccidia was shown, and certain coc- cidia seemed restricted to one flyway popu- lation. Thus, coccidia appeared to offer promise as biological tracers for confirm- ing the distribution of flyway populations indicated earlier bv band recoveries (Hanson & Smith 1950:74-9). Ducks. — The early settler found mul- titudes of ducks in Illinois, not only along major streams, but also on the prairie sloughs. The vast numbers of ducks migrating through the bottomlands of the Illinois River valley made this vallev a famous shooting ground as far back' as the 1880's. Indeed, in 1886, a group of businessmen from the Peoria area founded the Duck Island Preserve, probabl\' the first hunting club in the state. Prior to 1900 the Illinois River and its connecting waters were in a near pristine condition. Sloughs and lakes con- tained an abundance of aquatic vegeta- tion (Kofoid 1903), which provided food for ducks; other food was furnished by pecan nuts and pin oak acorns which be- came available when high water flooded the low-lying, timbered bottoms. In January of 1900 the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal was opened, greatly in- creasing earlier diversion of water from Lake Michigan (Mulvihill 6: Cornish 1930:53). This increased diversion re- sulted in water levels which were high enough to destroy extensive tracts of bot- tomland timber, including most of the pecans and pin oaks, in the Illinois River valley. During the early 1900's not only were the tracts of mast-producing trees, so im- portant as sources of food for mallards, lost to the ducks, but drainage destroyed manv other important feeding grounds. Between 1900 and 1922, almost 200,000 of 400,000 acres in the flood plain of the Illinois River vallev were leveed and drained ( Mulvihill' .Sc Cornish 1930). The number of ducks in the lower flood plain area and shooting success declined when the mast-producing trees were lost. Then the practice of feeding waterfowl was begun at some duck hunting clubs in the early 1900's, was prohibited by state 192 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 law from 1909 to 1911, became a wide- spread practice in the 1920's, and was prohibited bv federal regulation in 1935 (Bellrose 1944:333). Finally, in recognition of the import- ance of waterfowl problems in Illinois, the Natural History Survey employed Arthur S. Hawkins and Frank C. Bell- rose to initiate a waterfowl research pro- gram in 1938. Up to that time, the study feet of baiting and live decoys on water- fowl and "estimated that 6,000,000 bushels of corn were fed by Illinois clubs during the 1933 season" (Bellrose 1944: 365). About 193H initial attention was given to the wood duck, and in 1939 the first successful nesting box of rough-cut lum- ber was developed for this waterfowl spe- cies (Bellrose 1953c/). By experimenta- Wildlife technicians preparing to fluoroscope a mallard drake at the Illinois Natural His- tory Survey Held laboratory near Havana. The fluoroscope has facilitated studies involving crippling by hunters and lead poisoning. of waterfowl had received little attention tion, a nest box entrance with a 4-inch in Illinois. In 1922, at duck hunting horizontal measurement and a 3-inch clubs near the mouth of the Sangamon vertical one was evolved in 1942 for River, Dr. Frederick C. Lincoln (1924) the purpose of excluding raccoons which of the U. S. Bureau of Biological Survey were preying upon the hens and their eggs, (now the U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries In 1950, a cylindrical, galvanized metal and Wildlife) made the first large-scale house was developed to exclude fox squir- bandings of ducks in North America, rels, as well as raccoons, as predators on Francis M. Uhler of the same agency examined the food contents of duck giz- zards collected at the Duck Island Pre- serve in 1933 (Uhler unpublished re- wood duck eggs. Because diversion of Lake Michigan water, drainage, and sediment decreased the duck foods in the Illinois River val- port). Also, Uhler investigated the ef- ley, several of the early investigations December, 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 193 dealt with duck food plants. A study of the ecology of aquatic and marsh plants revealed the relationships of fjuctuatinji water levels and turbidity to plant growth (Bellrose 1941). As a result of this study, two techniques for production of duck foods were recommended : ( 1 ) dewaterino; certain areas to encoura^^e growth of moist-soil plants on exposed mud flats and (2) stabilizing; water levels at depths of 2 to 3 feet to promote jj;rowth of aquatic plants. A stud\ of the relative value of various plants as duck foods (Bellrose & Ander- son 1943:432-3) showed that moist-soil plants, such as rice cut-grass, millets, smartweeds, and nut^^rasses, were much more valuable as duck foods than such aquatic and marsh plants as the pond- weeds, coontail, duck potato, and bur-reed. This stud\ is believed to be the first in which the food habits of waterfowl were related to food availabilitv. Later, a study by Low & Bellrose (1944:21) re- \ealed that, among 28 waterfowl food plants, 6 of the 7 heaviest seed producers were emergent or moist-soil plants. Harry G. Anderson (unpublished MS) made a little known but substantial con- tribution to knowledge of the diet of ducks in Illinois when he analyzed and reported upon the contents of 4,977 giz- zards of ducks, representing 17 species, taken during the hunting seasons in 1938, 1939, and 1940. In a sense, Illinois is at the bottleneck of the Mississippi Flyway, the fiyway with the largest population of ducks in North America. The resulting constric- tion of duck populations streaming into Illinois has provided a remarkably fine opportunity for study of flyway popula- tions. A comprehensive investigation of sex and age among ducks, covering 1939 through 1954, has been completed (Bell- rose, Hawkins, Low, 5: Scott unpublished MS). From 1938 through 1958, periodic censuses have been taken of waterfowl populations in the Illinois River valley during fall, winter, and spring. In 1946 the census route was expanded to include the Mississippi River valley between Rock Island and Alton. These censuses have provided information on the effect of weather, water levels, food, and refuges upon waterfowl populations. A 5-year investigation of duck popula- tions and kill by hunters revealed that "altering the length of the season is one of the most expedient wavs to regulate the duck kill" (Bellrose 1944:371). The most desirable dates for waterfowl hunt- ing seasons of various lengths in Illinois were determined (Bellrose 1944:371): For a 30-day season, November 1-30; for a 45-day season, October 22-December 5; for a 60-day season, October 10-December 8; tor a 70-day season, October 1-December 9; for an 80-day season, September 26-December 14; for a 100-day season, September 20- December 28. A studv of flvwav refuges in Illinois (Bellrose' 1954:169) led to the conclu- sion that they were of value both to waterfowl and to hunters. Flyway refuges permitted waterfowl to rest along the flyway during the hunting season and placed more food within their reach, thereby conserving food resources on the wintering grounds. Waterfowl concen- trating on the refuges fed in fields and marshes within their daily cruising range. Thus, the refuges provided for holding local concentrations of ducks which could be shot when they flew out to feed. One of the most impressive duck flights in a decade swept through Illinois on November 2, 1955 (Bellrose 1957). It was determined that most of the birds in the flight left Canada on November 1 and moved so rapidly that some reached the Gulf of Mexico by the morning of November 3. This mass migration of waterfowl was evaluated bv Bellrose (1957:24) as follows: Low pressure areas in Canada resulted in a southward flow of a mass of Continental Arctic air. The low temperatures resulting from Continental -Arctic air triggered the flight from the Great Plnins of Canada and the I'nited States. Over 75,000 ducks, largely mallards, have been banded by Natural History Survey investigators at four widely sepa- rated localities in the state. Recoveries from some of the bandings were used in calculating the annual mortality of the mallard, black duck, and blue-winged teal (Bellrose & Chase 1950). Of the three species, the mallard proved to have the lowest mortality rate, and this "amounted to 55 out of 100 birds the 194 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 first year, or year of banding, 20 the sec- ond year, 11 the third year, and 6 the fourth year" (Bellrose tS: Chase 1950: 25). The bandinji data have also been used to delineate the mijj;ration routes of ducks passing through Illinois. As part of an effort to evaluate losses from crippling by hunters, several thou- sand ducks were trapped and fluoroscoped for shot pellets and broken bones. Among apparently healthy mallards, 36.4 per cent of the adult drakes, 18.0 per cent of the juvenile drakes, and 21.4 per cent of the hens were carrying one or more shot pellets imbedded in flesh or internal organs (Bellrose 1953^:344). "Of the ducks . . . knocked down by hunters, as reported from various sections of the United States, 22.5 per cent were not retrieved" (Bellrose 1953^:357). A spectacular die-off of mallard ducks near Grafton in January, 1947, prompted a joint investigation by the Natural History Survey and the United States Fish and Wildlife Service [now V. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife]. A still greater die-off in the same area a year later attracted the attention of officials of the Western Cartridge Com- pany of East Alton. As an outgrowth of the situation, a co-operative investigation of lead poisoning in waterfowl was begun in July, 1948, by the Illinois Natural History Survey, the Western Cartridge Company, which is a Division of the Olin Industries, Inc. [now Olin Mathieson Chemical Corpora- tion], and the Univcrsitv of Illinois (Jordan & Bellrose 1951:3-4). Although Lubaloy shot and several lead alloys were tested as substitutes for commercial lead shot, none showed prom- ise in alleviating lead poisoning in water- fowl (Jordan & Bellrose 1950:167-8). It was estimated by Bellrose (1959) that each year approximate!) 4 per cent of the mallards of the Mississippi Flyway die from lead poisoning and that an addi- tional 1 per cent are afflicted with lead poisoning but are bagged by hunters. Al- though several other species of ducks in- gested larger numbers of shot per bird than did the mallard, the mallard suffered the highest rate of loss. Mortality from lead poisoning proved to be greater among ducks of the Mississippi Flyway than among those of other fly ways. The use of iron shot as a substitute for lead shot was suggested as a possible means of con- tending with the lead poisoning problem in the event drastic measures should be- come necessary. The means by which ducks find their way from their breeding to wintering grounds has been under investigation. Juvenile blue-winged teals were captured in migration in Illinois and held in cap- tivity until all the other blue-winged teals had migrated south of the United States (Bellrose 1958fl). They were then banded and released. From recoveries of bands it was found that these juveniles, though unfamiliar with the route, flew southward along lines of flight similar to those of adults. Experiments with wild mallards demonstrated an ability to orient by celestial means (Bellrose 1958//). The initial flight of mallards released in unfamiliar areas was northward on clear days or nights and in apparently random directions when skies were cloudy and sun and stars were obscured. The Mourning Dove. — The mourn- ing dove became the subject of an in- tensive research effort in the autumn of 1948 when it was seen that data were needed for an objective evaluation of claims that doves were being shot to ex- tinction by hunters in Illinois. The kill of doves in 1946 and 1947 was estimated from hunter reports to have been 200,000 in each year and about 300,000 in 1949 (Hanson & Kossack 1950:31). It was later determined that the kill was fairly evenly distributed over the state (Mar- quardt 5c Scott 1952). A program of dove banding, particu- larly of nestlings, was undertaken to de- termine points of origin of populations. Banding by amateur co-operators was en- couraged (Kossack 1955), and a tech- nique employing elastic adhesive tape to secure bands on small nestlings was de- veloped (Kossack 1952). These aspects of the program were later adopted on a country-wide scale by the U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. A portable candler was constructed for aging dove eggs in the field (Hanson 1954). Photographic and descriptive guides for aging incubated eggs and nestlings were prepared (Hanson 6c Kos- sack 1957a). The predominance of uni- sexual broods in mourning doves was found in early studies (Kossack & Han- son 1953). This subject is being treated Ue 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 195 in greater detail in a report, now in preparation, on sex ratios in doves. The effort to appraise mortality among mourning doves included study of their parasites and diseases (Kossack (Sc Han- son 1954; Levine 1954; Hanson, Levine, Kossack, Kantor, & Stannard 1957). The paper by Han:on et al. describes the ectoparasites of doves and the arthropod fauna of their nests and summarizes the results of a 7-year study of the incidence of blood parasites in relation to ages of the doves and to regions of the state. The relation of age and the stages of wing molt to body weight, body fat, and migration habits was studied (Hanson & Kossack \951 b) . In contrast to interpre- tations of fat deposition in passerines, the analysis of data on fat deposition in mourning doves showed no consistent re- lationship to migratory habits, but instead proved to be related to the energ>' de- mands of the molt, regional farming prac- tices, soil fertility, and food habits. Doves that had fed almost exclusively on corn in good soil areas had formed relatively heavy amounts of fat ; most of those taken on poor, sandy soil where they fed largely on seeds of wild plants had formed little or no fat. After 10 years of study there is still no evidence that dove populations in Illi- nois are controlled by hunting. Popula- tion declines which have taken place are generally traceable to habitat destruction, disease, and adverse weather. Mammals To the wildlife historian the apparent lack of interest in mammals by early re- searchers of the Natural History Survey and its predecessors constitutes something of an enigma. Almost half a century slipped away before Forbes, upon receiv- ing a letter from C. A. Rowe of Jackson- ville in April of 1907 reporting the de- struction of seed corn by moles and en- closing the stomach contents of a mole containing about 65 per cent corn, was stimulated to authorize research on a problem in economic mammalogy (West 1910:14). The resulting studies (Wood 1910^; West 1910) provided the f^rst evi- dence that moles included corn, or any substantial amount of plant food, for that matter, in their diet. Fur-Bearing Mammals. — Forbes (1912//) included fur-bearing mammals among the animal resources of Illinois, but a program of consequence did not get under way until the 1930's, when evaluations of fur resources were under- taken. Neither technical nor popular interest was great enough to focus further attention of the state's research agencies on furbearers until, in 1930, David H. Thompson, E. C. Driver, and D. I. Rasmussen of the Illinois Natural History Survey staff borrowed trap- pers" reports . . . from the Illinois State De- partment of Conservation, to which law provided that each licensed trapper report his catch monthly during the trapping season (Mohr 1943rt:505). Brown ^ Yeager (1943:437) stated that some of the figures derived by Driver and Rasmussen were published in the Blue Book of the State of Illinois (Frison 1931, 1933). Following a limited survey of helminth parasites in fur-bearing animals collected during the hunting seasons of 1935—36 and 1936-37, Leigh (1940:191) stated that "A study of the literature offers lit- tle information on pathogenicity of the parasites found in the hosts studied." This shortcoming in our knowledge con- tinues to prevail. The desire to obtain a reasonably re- liable evaluation of the fur resource in Illinois eventually resulted in two im- pressive reports (Brown & Yeager 1943; Mohr 1943^/). Brown & Yeager (1943) based their evaluation on an intensive oral survey covering the 1938-39 and 1939-40 trapping seasons, and Mohr (1943rt) made an analysis of fur-taker re- ports beginning with the 1929-30 trap- ping season and ending with that of 1939_40, excepting the 1931-32, 1932- 33, and 1933-34 seasons. The results obtained by the two methods were rela- tively similar. The average value of the annual fur catch was estimated to have been a little over $1,000,000, about 80 per cent of which represented returns for muskrats and minks. To aid in investiga- tion of fur-bearing animals. Yeager (1941fl) assembled a bibli()graph\- of over 2,600 references on North American fur animals. Some valuable contributions on the relationship of muskrat populations to % Illinois Natural History Survky Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 fluctuating water levels in bottomland lakes Hankinj: the Illinois River have been made by Natural History Survey re- searchers. Bellrose c^- Brown (1941:207) observed that the numbers of niuskrat houses were nearly six times as many in lakes with a stable, as in those with a semistable, water level and there were twice as many lodges per acre in lakes with a semistable, as in those with a fluctuating, water level. Stable water levels favored the growth of those species of aquatic plants most desirable for muskrats. Later, following an investigation of the response of musk- rat populations to flood and low water levels in these bottomland lakes, Bellrose & Low (1943:187) concluded: While muskrats may be harassed and deci- mated within a short time during flood con- ditions, those living under low water condi- tions may escape without serious loss in summer but may be seriously afl^ected during cold, winter weather. In 1940-41 and 1943-44 Bellrose 1950) developed a new technique for evaluating the food preferences of musk- rats by comparing the proportions of plant foods taken from "feeding" lodges in mid- winter with the proportions of plants known to have been within the feeding range of the muskrats. Cattail was rated the most preferred food. The capacity of vegetative types to support muskrat popu- lations was determined by recording the density of muskrat lodges in each vegeta- tion type. River bulrush and cattail had the greatest population values. Advantage was taken of two unusually fine opportunities for measuring the re- sponse of raccoons to a food windfall of ducks (Yeager & Rennels 1943) and geese (Yeager «S>: Elder 1945) made avail- able as hunters' crippling losses at the Pere IVLirciuctte Wildlife Experimental Area immediately above the confluence of the Illinois and Mississippi rivers and at the Horseshoe Lake Game Refuge in Alexander County. At the Horseshoe Lake Game Refuge, where crippling losses were alarmingly high, bird remains, chiefly those of Canada geese, occurred in 20.7 per cent of the raccoon droppings collected a day after the hunting season opened and in 87.9 per cent of the drop- pings collected 3 weeks after the close of the season (Yeager ik Elder 1945:49- 51). In 1939 and 1940, on the Pere Marquette AVildlife Experimental Area, duck remains did not occur in raccoon droppings collected before the opening of the waterfowl season, but after opening of the season "remains of mallard, pin- tail, and wood duck were 89 per cent of the bird material in 1939, and 76 per cent in 1940" (Yeager & Rennels 1943:59). These findings indicate that crippled waterfowl may not constitute a complete loss, inasmuch as furbearers utilize them as food. The biology of the raccoon is currently under intensive study by Glen C. Sanderson. A survey of the population and distri- bution of beavers in Illinois was con- ducted under a co-operative Federal Aid project from April 1, 1947, through June 30," 1951. It was found (Pietsch 1957: 193-6) that beavers were "last reported" in Illinois in 1912, were reintroduced in 1929, were estimated to number 3,565 in 45 counties in 1950, and were reported from 55 counties in 1954. The red fox was made the subject of a thorough evaluation (Scott 1955) be- cause the values of this colorful mammal were believed to have been regularly underrated. This evaluation was based on personal experience extending over 20 years and a number of intensive investi- gations (Scott 1943, 1947; Scott ^ Klim- stra 1955) especially relating to the red fox as a predator. As a result of this evaluation, Scott (1955:14) recom- mended : 1. The encouragement of an increased use of red foxes for sport hunting, . . . 2. The education of those who hope for increased small game populations through fox extermination campaigns to the more con- crete and lasting results that may be expected from habitat improvement programs. . . . 3. The elimination of bounty payments on red foxes. 4. The enactment and enforcement of more efl"ective antirabies laws, especially as ap- plied to the compulsory vaccination and quarantine of domestic dogs, and prompt re- duction by organized trapping of red fox populations in which rabies epizootics occur. 5. The increased attention by game man- agers to the proper management of the red fox resource in general, including assistance with the cropping of surplus animals in areas where adequate cropping has not been ac- complished b\- hunters. De 1958 Scott: Wildlife Rhsearch 197 Game Mammals. — The cottontail rabbit tops the list of game mammals in Illinois in a number of respects. In a survey of license-stub kill cards for the 1950—51 hunting season, Marquardt & Scott (1952:4) found that rabbits pro- vided twice as many sportsmen with game in the bag as did any other game species and numbered more than twice as many as any other kind of game animal re- ported. Rabbits constitute the chief game animal of the state largely because they are widely distributed and because they possess the reproductive potential to main- tain themselves despite high mortality, in- cluding that from severe hunting pressure. Proving that there is some bad with the good, however, is the fact that tula- remia, a disease which is transmissible to man, occurs in rabbits. "In the period 1926-1949, Illinois had more than 3,000 reported cases of human tularemia, about twice as manv as anv of the other states" (Yeatter & Thompson 1952:351). Yeat- ter (Sc Thompson ( 1952:379) reported that "The human tularemia rate in any year in Illinois seems to be determined both by temperatures about the time of the open- ing of the rabbit season and by the abundance of rabbits." They concluded that the incidence of human tularemia in Illinois could be reduced by delaying the opening of the rabbit hunting season until about December 1. As a result of these findings, the opening of the hunting sea- son in Illinois was postponed until No- vember 26 in 1955. In recent years meth- ods of treating tularemia in humans have i been greatly simplified by the use of anti- ; biotics. It seems certain, however, that most hunters will prefer not to depend I upon antibiotics — that they will enjoy ' their rabbit hunting far more knowing that by hunting within a season which opens after the onset of sharp freezing weather they and their families are ex- posed to the hazard of tularemia only to a minimum extent. Yeatter & Thompson (1952:378) recommended, as a refinement to their studies, further study of ticks, other tula- remia vectors, and the biology of the rabbit. Ecke (1955:29-1—6) recorded a complete description of the courtship and mating of cottontails. Also, Ecke (1955: 305) found evidence which suggested "that some component of green vegeta- tion, possibly V^itamin E, is responsible for stimulating the pituitary glands of rabbits into the secretion of somatic nutri- tives, and consequently', determining the breeding conditions of the animals." Dr. Rexford D. Lord (1958:274) has recently constructed life tables which indicate that as many as 24 to 27 per cent of the rabbits available to hunters in autumn may be the young of rabbits born in the spring of the same vear. Ecke & Yeatter (1956:212-3) at- tributed the death of a rabbit, estimated to have been about 13 days of age, to coccidiosis and suggested further study of coccidiosis as a cause of mortality among rabbits. Detailed studies of ectoparasites of rabbits have been carried on since 1952 bv Dr. Lewis J. Stannard, Lvsle R. Pietsch, Dr. Carl O. Mohr, and Dr. Lord. The realization that tradition for a summer hunting season on squirrels in Illinois was not biologically sound touched off a thorough investigation (Brown & Yeager 1945) of fox squirrels and gray squirrels in 1940. The chief objection to a summer hunting season was that it re- sulted in the killing of pregnant and lac- tating females. Brown & Yeager (1945: 526) estimated that summer hunting re- sulted in a wasteful loss of 31.8 unborn and suckling squirrels for each 100 squir- rels bagged. Because the tradition for summer hunting was strong and because squirrel hunting was good in some parts of the state despite early hunting seasons in the past. Brown & Yeager (1945: 526-8) believed it unwise to enact a sea- son beginning so late that it would pre- vent all losses resulting from the killing of pregnant and lactating females and they observed: "Such a -eason could hard- ly begin earlier than October 1, and it would certainly be opposed by a large number of hunters." A compromise sea- son of September 15 to November 15 in central and northern Illinois and Septem- ber 1 to October 31 in southern Illinois was recommended. This recommendation has not been accepted by Illinois hunt- ers. The report by Pietsch (1^54) on deer populations in Illinois will be of especial value to the future wildlife historian. 198 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 Pietsch reported upon the early history of the deer in Illinois, recent populations, and manafiement. Huntinji was suggested as a means of control, and the deer sea- son, after being closed for 56 years, was opened in 1957 for hunting with bows and shotguns. Miscellaneous Contributions to Mammalogy.— Mohr (1943/a 1Q47^/) appraised population data for small mam- mals in North America. He calculated the weight of specific populations within the area occupied and concluded that population densities within groups of mammals having similar feeding habits were limited by the size of the mammal concerned. Also. Mohr (1947^) recorded miscellaneous data on populations of cer- tain mammals in Illinois for future refer- ence. On December 1, 1956, a grant-in-aid was made by the National Institutes of Health of the U. S. Public Health Serv- ice to initiate a 3-year study of epizootiol- ogy of rabies in wild mammals. This in- vestigation is aimed at identification of the key hosts to rabies in Illinois and those factors that make them key hosts. WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT "Applied programs in the field of bio- logical science are seldom, if ever, de- veloped without the aid of years of pa- tient, so-called unapplied, researches" (Prison ]9-i2b:5). Prison believed that sufficient basic knowledge had been ac- cumulated to support applied manage- ment programs of an exploratory nature, and, with characteristic vigor, he encour- aged work of this kind in the late 1930's. Later, he insisted that these programs be evaluated for monetary return, wildlife \ ield, and other benefits. Two of these early programs concernec.! management of upland wildlife in central and northern Illinois. One of the first attempts to develop wildlife habitat on intensively cultivated land took place on the Urbana Township Wildlife Area, which was believed "typical of the best Illinois cornbelt farmland" ( Hessel- schwerdt 1942:31). Habitat develop- ment was begun on this area in 1^37, and in 1939 the project came under the Federal Aid program. Development fea- tures included fencerow plantings, instal- lation of den boxes, block planting, and protection of strips along drainage ditches. Usage of the den boxes was evaluated. Pox squirrels appeared to extend their range and to increase in numbers as a result of the provision of den boxes (Hesselschwerdt 1942:33-4. 36). Usable den boxes are no longer present on the area, and resident fox squirrels are un- common. As the fencerow plantings ma- tured, cottontail rabbits and songbirds in- creased in numbers (Wandell 1948:262- 3), but populations of pheasants and quail have shown no appreciable increase. Minks and muskrats trapped along an un- grazed section of a drainage ditch in 1944 — 1-5 provided an estimated per-acre income of $62.78, more than 10 times that produced by the same ditch where it was heavily grazed (Yeager 1945:85). On October 1, 1939, a Pederal Aid project to determine the availability of land for wildlife habitat on the inten- sively cultivated farm land of the Illinois dark prairie was initiated (Spooner & Yeager 1942). Land for refuges and cover development was found to be avail- I able, without purchase, in small scat- • tered tracts, and obtainable through long- term easements. Spooner & Yeager ( 1942: 54) concluded that "Although the proj- ect shows promise of wide application on the Illinois prairie, there are yet many problems which must be further an- alyzed before its entire success is proved." Natural History Survey staff members have participated in various other pro- grams closely related to management of upland wildlife. The Survey sponsored the initial acquisition in 1940, by the Department of Conservation, of a tract of sand prairie and wet land in Lee Coun- t\ , the Green River Area, as a manage- ment area for prairie chickens, water- fowl, and other animals. It is believed that this tract of land has played an im- portant part in maintaining the only siz- able flock of prairie chickens surviving in northern Illinois. Howe\er, unless the area is managed with primary considera- tion for the original objectives, it may well go down in history as the place where native prairie chickens met their end in northern Illinois. Prank C. Bell- rose proposed the purchase of the Rice December, 1958 Scott: W'ii.di.ifk Rksuarch 199 Lake Wildlife Area by the state in 1942, and the area, now the best duck area in the state, was purchased by the Illinois Department of Conservation in 1943. In 1955 a Federal Aid research proj- ect was initiated by Southern Illinois University, the Illinois Department of Conservation, and the Illinois Natural History Survey to determine the economic values and benefit to wildlife of wide- row culture of corn in southern Illinois. Potential benefits, to the farmer, of wide- row culture and interplanting with cover crops included conservation of soil, in- crease of fertility, elimination of the low- paying oat crop in rotations, saving of labor, and yields of corn comparable to those from conventional cultural methods (Vohs 1957). The extent of use of wide-row corn- fields by wildlife varied with the at- tractiveness of the interseeding. How- ever, comparable observations on the numbers of wildlife in wnde-row fields and standard interval fields revealed ra- tios of 5 to 1 for bobwhite quail, 12 to 1 for mourning doves, and 6 to 1 for cot- tontail rabbits. Wide-row corn is con- sidered to have great potential for wild- life management especially, because it provides for an increase in wildlife values in thousands of acres of corn. Evaluations of wildlife populations and possibilities for their management were made on marginal lands. Analyses were made of possibilities for management of coal-stripped land for the benefit of up- land game and furbearers (Yeager 1941/*, 1942), management of agricultural drain- age systems for production of furbearers (Yeager 1943), and yields of fur from animals produced on different types of land (Yeager 1945). Another project concerned the use of hunting dogs in sport and conservation (Yeatter 1948). Levee and drainage districts have re- duced the flood plain along the Illinois River by almost half, about 200,000 acres. In view of the resulting loss of recreational opportunities and the in- creased danger from floods, Bellrose (1945) made a survey of the relative values of drained and undrained bottom- lands. Later, Bellrose 6c Rollings (1949) calculated the annual per-acre value, to the public and to owners, of bottomland lakes of the Illinois River valley. They concluded that bottomland lakes in the Illinois River valley had an annual per- acre value to the public, 1944-1947, of $26.35, made up as follows: duck hunting $12.18, angling $2.40, commercial fishing $9.65, and fur trapping $2.12; they esti- mated that privately owned lakes were capable of producing an average yearly gross return to owners of $18.57 per acre (Bellrose c^ Rollings 1949:23). Following an investigation of the ef- fects of flooding on mammals in and around a bottomland lake in the Illinois River valley, Yeager & Anderson (1944: 178) concluded that "The effect of flood- ing on mammals ranged from heavy mortality in the case of woodchucks to apparently little basic change in the be- havior of minks." For various kinds of fur-bearing and game mammals, Yeager (1949) recorded the changes in abun- dance caused by permanent flooding of wooded bottomland over an 8-year pe- riod, 1939-1946. The site was a tract of 600 acres in the junction of the Mis- sissippi and Illinois rivers; the area was flooded in 1938 by closing of the gates of the then new Alton dam. THE FUTURE Because the wildlife resource and the environment essential to its existence have economic and recreational values beyond general public appreciation and because knowledge on which to base in- telligent management of this resource is in the best interest of the people of Illi- nois, I believe that we must plan for the future of wildlife research in Illinois as a part of our evaluation of the past. Forbes (1907<-:892) expressed this view when he wrote that we are . . . practically interested in what has come and gone only as it may help us to bring a new thing into being in a way to se- cure its permanent continuance and its normal growth. In the past the wildlife research pro- gram of the Illinois Natural History Survey has been heavily weighted toward investigations of migratory game birds. These investigations have been extremely valuable and must be continued in the 200 Illinois Natural HisiORV SuRviiy Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 future; however, increasing attention must be given to other wild species, in- cluding nongame species. Nongame spe- cies must be studied not only because they represent economic and esthetic values but also because some of them, such as mice, are especially useful in basic research. Responsibility for research on certain species cannot be side-stepped on the ground that effective study of these species is being carried on in other states, for Illinois has problems characteristic of its own land-use pattern and it bears a responsibility to other states inasmuch as enlightenment on particular problems is often best obtained through comparison of range-wide differences. \Vhile it is true that great progress has been made in wildlife research, and the number of unknowns has been re- duced, this increased knowledge has ex- panded our awareness of unknowns. Many research techniques have been de- veloped, but, in most instances, the de- gree of their reliability has not been adequately determined, and refinement is desirable. Although the research has been increasingly objective, it must be ad- mitted that there is need for improve- ment. The expanding field of wildlife research requires specialization, but it also requires integration and synthesis. This post-mortem of wildlife research impresses me with the fact that the qual- it\- of a contribution is influenced not onl\- by the capabilities of the individual researcher but also by the length of time devoted to concentrated effort on par- ticular problems. If real progress is to be realized in the future, the sustained and concentrated effort of top-flight re- searchers must be insured. Illinois will stand among the leaders in wildlife re- search onl\ so long as the means with which to attract and hold qualified per- sonnel for extended periods is provided. Provisions must be made for long-range research, with monographic-type publica- tion being an objective. And, finally, we must guard against becoming desk- and laboratory-bound theorists and interpret- ers. It is essential that contact be main- tained with living organisms in their nat- ural surroundings. Much of our research effort has moved in the direction of life history, ecology. and populations. And much of it must continue to move in this direction. How- ever, means for improvement must be constantly sought out. In life history studies, we must be increasingly objec- tive. In ecology, we must be mindful of the need for land-use practices which are compatible with the best interests of both landowners and wildlife, especially in view of the increasing use of marginal land and agricultural chemicals. In the area of population mechanics, we must not only measure population trends and population composition ; we must also seek and evaluate with greater refinement those factors which influence population trends and make-up. In the future more attention must be given to fields of study only lightly touched upon in the past. Animal be- havior, a vital and challenging field, must be explored particularly, for what an ani- mal does is more important to the wild- life manager than what it is. Mobility, especially migration, must be examined more critically. Nutrition, qualitative as well as quantitative, must be investigated, and techniques for evaluating "condition" in wildlife must be explored. Anatomy, embryology, genetics, physiology, and biochemistry must, of necessity, play a larger part in the evaluations of the future. We must guard against the neglect or shunning of certain research by avoiding a "that's been done before" philosophy. It may well have been done before, but we must be careful to evaluate the thoroughness with which it was done. We must examine it for weaknesses and for its value as a basis for new working hypotheses. The wildlife research of the Natural History Survey has been instrumental in bringing about desirable changes in estab- lished policies and practices and in the establishment of new policies and prac- tices which affect wildlife. We must pro- vide adequate bases for the policy making of the future. To these ends we must move in the direction of prompt publica- tion, and we must make certain that use- ful publicity is given especially to those findings which indicate that support of, or changes in, practices or administrative policies are desirable. December, 1958 Scott: Wii.oi.ii-ii Research 201 Our thinking must be projected far into the future in an effort to visualize those areas where knowledge will be most needed. Anticipating the future is ad- mittedly fraught with pitfalls. It seems certain, however, that human populations will continue to increase in Illinois. This increase will be attended by more inten- sive use of land and water, more exten- sive transportation and communication systems, more extensive residential and industrial areas, more exhaustive use of fuels and metals, greater use of atomic energy, more automation, and more lei- sure time. From the wildlife manager's point of view, this condition forewarns of an in- creasingly severe competition between wildlife and basic human needs. When it is considered that wildlife must be pro- duced primarily on lands utilized for other purposes, the problems of the fu- ture for wildlife become obvious. The in- creasing demand for human food will make it essential that harvest methods be refined to reduce waste, that more heavily yielding crops be developed, that more marginal land be brought into use, and that more agricultural chemicals be ap- plied. This promises not only to reduce wildlife populations but to force them below minimum survival levels, unless effective provisions, such as wide-row corn may prove to be, are constantly sought out by wildlife managers. The need for refuges to insure the survival of rare species will increase. The relative importance of those wild animals which compete with humans for food by eating or contaminating it will be magnified. Intensive use of water could create a pollution problem such as would virtually deny aquatic life outside protected areas, unless pollution control, including provi- sion for disposal of radioactive waste, keeps pace with increased water utiliza- tion. The provision of a means for satisfy- ing the psychological needs of a human population with more leisure time and relatively less elbow room comprises a formidable challenge. If the human pop- ulation is to maintain some semblance of sanity, services such as those ofifered by wildlife biology must be given equal recognition with those of the physical sciences. Perhaps the average family of the future will tend to satisfy more of its needs for pleasure in the out-of-doors and for escape from the pressures of civi- lization in its own backyard. Hence, the wildlife manager should contrive to know more about the management of the home landscape for wildlife. It seems certain that an increasing amount of hunting will take place on regulated shooting areas, that is, unless hunting proves to be good in outer space. The wildlife manager's problems of the past, considerable as they have been, seem as child's play compared with those looming in the future. The wildlife man- ager is going to need determination, cour- age, ability, compensation, and means such as never before. Perhaps we can ease some of his problems by the effective planning of current research to provide a sound basis for the essential decisions of the future. Indeed, wildlife manage- ment as a profession may well depend on the soundness of today's plans for the future. Publicaiion.N and Public Rekuions TAMES S. A Y A R S M ' AN^" of ^bc BDcm irbose naumes ■wrtirc nrrittai laiige im tibe eairbr ainmffl11:> of cbe Illirwo'Cv Natnuural Hnstoiy SMrrer ksd &€m educatnl in the dbssicaJ ttradittMrn. \I«ost of filer plnrsicmKx educaitorSv and odteis wlmee fomnal scfiiooling; included coU^c had andarpMiie tlic discipline of Latin and Gieefe; strudies. JoBiattlian Baldwin XuLjner^ elected first president of die I]Iin(w> Natmal Histrorv SodetT in 1S5S ((Bafeman 185S&:25S), was a gjadnate of Yale College and for nian]r Tears Professor of Belles Lettres. Latin, and Gree&: at Illinois Colle^. JacfesonriHff (Carriel 1911 :1Z 46). Cinarles E. Horer, first secreirary of she SodetT ((Batnnan 1S58*:25S) and first head of the Dlimm State Xormal Uni- Tei^tT. was a graduate of Dartmouth CoO^ ( Mardball 1956:28). Jo^nph Ad- dssQflE SewslL earhr curator, had studied at both Yale and Harrard and Tras a graduate of Harrard ]IIedical College ^:Mar5han 1956 :JS). Benjamnn Dann WaEsiiy first State Entoonologbt^ ttss a graduate of Trini^ College of Camferid^ XJnirersittT in Ens- lansd (Wei5s 1936:21^). Wffliam Le Baron, second State Lntnmolog^t, Tras, li&£ Sewall^ a graduate of Harvard Med- ical College (Coding 18815:122). Alfihough Stc|rfien Alfred Forties, fourth State Entoflnolog^st^ first and onlir Director of the State LaSioratorT of Nat- ural Hstorr, and first Chief of the Kat- ural Hisannr Surver, had comparatiTelT little formal education) as a Toudi, he had subjected himself to the discipline of lan- gua^ stndr. At home he had studied French and Sponi^ and in CcHsfederate pmsons during the Civil War he had spent sflose of hx> '"abundant leisure"' in studyiog Gre^ frooB bools' he managed t© bmy at ]^Ioibilc (Howard 1932:6). The earlr leaders in Illinob science, moet of them clas&DOSts before ther were scientisits, had dereloped respect for the nBcanmg and sound of words, and had ac- quired a skill in word usage diat carried into their scientific wmtnngs. Xrained in the classics though most of these leaders were, many were neverthe- lesv aware that classical education had limitations. Th(n~ saw that in Illinois, in the middle of the nineteenth century, edu- cation must be brou^t out of ivied halL- to the furrow and the wt>rk bench. In the Illinois College classroom Tur- ner was a teacher of Latin and Gre^. Out of the dassroom, he was a leader in the movement for industrial education, the educatiiHi of the farmer and the me- cJianic. Turner asked CCarricl 1911:76) : But nAere are tke uraiveinshies, the appara- tiosv Ae professocs. and tlie Iheratare spe- oficallir adapted to annr (me of die indostiial classes? ... socieinr has become, hH^ siiioe, iM-ise enoo^^ to knolic that its temciers need tti be edmcated; bait it has not vet become 'wise esBOogh to know that its ^xmrkers need ednca- tBOSB jnst as much. Socrates, Cindinnatus, Washington, Franklm, and other worthies. Turner ar- gued, derired their education "from their ctmrsection with the practkal pursuits of life" CCarrid 1911:117): What we want ftam siAools is to teadii mem ... to derive dieir mental and moral strengtfe from their own pursoits, whatever tdicv are. and to g:ather frooi other sonrces as much more as Aej find time to achieve. W^e wi^ to teaidii them to read boiAs, onlj that thev may isie better read and imderstand the great voEumae of natnire ever open before "l**'*" Can, then, no schools and no fiteratare. smited iBo the pecmfiar wants of the indnsttial dlasse^ be created hf the application of saence to idieir porsmts? Waldli (18686:9) emphasized that his annual report as Acting State Entomolo- gist was ""intended chieflv for dbe use of comuBCMii folks. Writing as Editor of the only volume of Tramsactmms published by the Natural History Sodety itself, C. D. Wflber (1861^:3-4) epitmnized the educational movensent of the time, a movement that naight be termed a revolt of the cla^cists against the clas^cal traditicm: It has been Ae aim t>& the Editor, to presemi': €MiJhr siach articles and papers as are immedi- ztelr nsefal and interesting to the citizens and J 4 202 December, 1958 Avars: Publications and Public Relations 203 schools of Illinois, with a hope that a zeal for the pursuits and studies of Natural History may spring up among our people, like the seeds of the sower, in the parable, falling upon good soil, and yielding, "some sixty and some an hundred fold." In order to render the greatest good to all, the subjects have generally been treated in a popular rather than a technical style. It has been said, that he who places a valuable truth or fact within the reach of the million, is doing more for humanitv' than he who discovers it. And, indeed, if scientific men, or libraries and museums, cannot contribute to the elevation of the masses who are less privileged, their use- fulness is questionable. The ideas reflected in Turner's ques- tions and answers and in Wilber's com- ments culminated in the Morrill Act of 1862, in land grant colleges, and, spe- cifically, in the Illinois Industrial Uni- versity at Urbana. Both cause and effect of the movement for general education was the increasing thirst that Illinois people in the middle of the nineteenth century had for knowledge, the growing conviction that information should be widely disseminated. The movement led to the formation of, and was abetted by, the Illinois State Horticultural Society, the Illinois State Agricultural Society, and the Illinois Natural Histon.' Society. The Natural History Society was not an accident nor an isolated segment of history. It was part of a contagious movement sweeping the prairies. As seen by Wilber (1S6W:7): The demand for this movement seemed to proceed from a want of accurate knowledge in nearly all departments of Natural History in the State; and also, from a desire that all facts and discoveries in a field so vast as Illinois, should be made immediately subservient to the great ends of popular education. EARLY PUBLICATIONS The Illinois scientist in mid-nineteenth century looking for means of disseminat- ing knowledge had few publication out- lets. Among the small number of scien- tific journals published before 1860 were The American Journal of Science, found- ed in 1818, the Entomologist of London. in 1840. and the Boston Journal of Nat- ural History, in 1834. The first Trans- actions of the Illinois State Agricultural Society were published in 1855; the first Transactions published by the Illinois State Horticultural Society itself were dated 1863. The first Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia were published in 1861. The American Naturalist was not founded until 1867, the Botanical Gazette not until 1875. The Prairie Farmer had been estab- lished at Chicago in 1841, and to this pe- riodical, frankly slanted toward the in- terests of practical farmers, Illinois sci- entists of mid-century turned for publica- tion of their technical papers. The pub- lication by Prairie Farmer of many of these papers, some significant enough to attract the attention of eminent scientists in other parts of the country, is indication of the extent to which the classicists and the industrialists had become wedded. That publication of scientific papers was an important aim of the founders of the Illinois Natural History Society is evident from written records of the or- ganization. The object of the Society, as outlined by Cyrus Thomas in his letter read before Illinois teachers meeting in Decatur. December 29. 1857 (Bateman 1858«:12), shall be the investigation and study of the Flora, Fauna, Geology, and Mineralogy- of Illinois, and the illustration of the same by gathering specimens, exchanging the same, and by publishing such meritorious works thereon as the authors may present, . . . At the last session of its second meet- ing, held on June 20 and 21, 1859, at Bloomington, the Society (Francis 1859^:664) resolved that "the Execu- tive Committee be required to procure the publication of the papers and proceed- ings of the Society in some paper gener- ally circulated through the State." The Executive Committee in turn resolved that, "in accordance with the resolution of the Society, we select The Pr^airie Farmer as its medium for publishing the papers and proceedings of the Society. " Another outlet for papers written by members of the Natural History Society was provided by the Illinois State Agri- cultural Society. In its own published Transactions the Agricultural Society in- cluded the Transactions of the first three meetings of the Natural History Society and several papers contributed bv mem- bers (Francis 185^^/. 185^/^ Wilber 1861rt). 204 Illinois Natural History Survey Hui.i.etix Vol. 27, Art. 2 In 1861 the Natural History Society itself published what it termed the "Sec- ond Edition" of V^olume I, Series I, of its Transactions (Wilber 1861^). Most of the material in this volume had been printed previously by the Ai^ricultural Societv in its Transactions for 1857-1858 (Wilber 1861^/). Wilber's Preface to the voluni:' published by the Natural History Societv was dated October 30, 1861 (Wilber 1861r/:4). The Civil War had beison, a-^ follows : (1) The University is to catalog all books, journals, etc., including arrears and recata- ioging. (2) The I'niversity is to provide in the regular library budget a fund for the pur- chase of books for the Natural History Sur- vey (at present $400). (3) The University is to manage the Nat- ural History Survey Library the same as other departmental libraries, including provi- sion of service to the Natural History Survey from other libraries on the campus. The pro- fessional stall of the Survey is to receive service from the various libraries on the campus on the same basis as the faculty of the University. (4) The University is to allow the Natural History Survey "preferred use" of the ma- terial in the Natural History Survey Library as "preferred use" is defined in your letter to me of December 16. (5) The University is to provide, besides general supervision, the sum of $700 in 1940- 41 for staff in the Natural History Survey Library. It is to provide $1500 for each year of the biennium 1941-43. (6) The Natural History Survey is to pro- vide housing for such books as need to be housed in the Natural Resources Building. (7) The Survey is to relieve the University September 1, 1943, of the responsibility for providing staff for library service. The Natural History Survey Library, opened as a separate unit in September, 1940 (Lill 1942:1), was located on the fourth floor of the Natural Resources Building, and remained in that location until the west wing of the Natural Re- sources Building was completed. In Feb- ruary, 1952 (Simmons 1952:1), the li- brary was moved to its permanent loca- tion on the first floor at the south end of the west wing. LIBRARY COLLECTIONS In a paper, "Natural History in Schools," which was read before the Illi- nois State Teachers' Association in 1860, A. M. Gow of Dixon gave a brief his- tory of the Illinois Natural History So- ciety and stated that its library at that time contained 300 volumes (Gow 1861 : 96). Professor Forbes in his 1881-1882 re- port stated that additions to the library since his last report had been 360 vol- umes and 200 pamphlets, many of them "rare and costly works — the foundaticm stones of zoological and botanical litera- ture" (Forbes 1882^/: 7). He wrote that 212 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin V^ol. 27, Art. 2 "particular attention has been paid to cataloguing, and this has been kept fully abreast of the additions. A card catalogue of authors is now absolutely complete to date, and a subject catalogue is well under way." In 1885, wlien the State Laboratory of Natural History was transferred from Illinois State Normal University to the University of Illinois at Urbana, the li- brary had a collection of 1,207 bounti volumes and 3,856 pamphlets and period- icals (Hurrill 1S87./:1()1). The library additions in 18^9-1900 were 648 volumes and 764 pamphlets (Forbes 1901:11). Professor Forbes in 1909 stated that the library then had nearly 7,000 books and something over 17,000 pamphlets (Forbes 1909:55-6). The library at present contains over 19,000 volumes and approximately 5,000 pamphlets, the greater part being period- icals and other serials. The field of en- tomology is represented most strongly in the collection, but other subjects, such as zoology, botany, wildlife, and conserva- tion, are emphasized. For many years, the library has added to its collection by exchanging the publi- cations of the State Laboratory of Nat- ural History and the Natural History Survey with other institutions. The jxilicy toward exchanges was expressed by Mr. Gow (1861:96) nearly 100 years ago: "The librar\- of the Society will embrace everything that can be procured by gift, purchase or exchange, upon Natural His- tor\' in particular, and Science in general." As the number of publications of the State Laboratory increased, the library was able to establish a larger number of exchanges, especially with European so- cieties and institutions (Forbes 1901 :10). We are now receiving in exchange for our State Laboratory Bulletin one hundred and eighty-one periodical scientific publications, of which fifty-nine are American, twenty- eight are British or British-colonial, twenty- six are German, sixteen French, twelve Ital- ian, and the remaining forty are Russian, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Dutch, Hun- Fart of the Illinois Natural History Survey librar\ in tht- Natural Resources Building. This library is noted especially for its large collection of bound vohnnes of periodicals in the bio- logical sciences. D cccnincr, 1958 Warrick: Lihrary 213 garian, Portugese, Egyptian, South American, anJ Japanese. At the present time the library has an exchange arrangement with approximately 500 scientific institutions and societies, a large number of which are foreign. LIBRARY PERSONNEL Provision for the care of the library has been made from the beginning of the Natural History Society to the present time. The person in charge of the library has always had the title librarian and has been a member of the stafif, first of the Natural History Society (Wilber 186h/:10) and later a member of the staff of each of the state agencies that fol- lowed, except for a period from 1928 (Cunningham 1928:275) to 1943 when the University of Illinois assumed full responsibility for the book collection. The first librarian was Ira Moore, instructor in mathematics at Illinois State Normal University (Wilber 186h/:10; Hovey 1859:401). His duties were def- initely stated in the Report of Committee on Library (Wilber 186h/:12): It shall be the duty of the Librarian to arrange the books of the Society, to make and keep a catalogue of the same, to keep a rec- ord of the books drawn from the library as directed by the Society, and report to the Society at its annual meeting. In a report to the Regent of the Uni- versity of Illinois in 1886, Professor Forbes mentioned a librarian among the personnel of the State Laboratory (Bur- rill 1 887^:101). Henry Clinton Forbes served as Librarian and Business Agent of the Laboratory from 1892 to 1902 (PiUsburv 1892:284; 1894:135; 1896: [14]; 1898:[15]; 1901:xvii; 1902:xx). The policy of appointing professional librarians was started in 1906 with the appointment of Miss Edna Lucv Goss, B.L.S. (Pillsbury 1906:xxii) and has continued to the present. FINANCIAL SUPPORT Financial support for the library has always been considered of great import- ance. It was considered important even before the Illinois Natural History So- ciety became a chartered organization. In the Report of Committee on Library, the following provision for a library was made (Wilber 1861^/: 12) : "That the So- ciety devote all moneys obtained by d(j- nations and memberships to this import- ant object [library], except so much as are necessary for expenses." In an early report of the Director of the State Laboratory of Natural History, a plea was made for a public scientific library (Forbes 1878/;: 5-6) : A most indispensable requisite for thorough work in any direction is an increase of the Library. Much of the time and money al- ready invested in the Laboratory collections and belongings must lie idle until this im- provement is made. There is not anywhere within reach of our naturalists a scientific library sufficient to assist them to reliable original work in any department of natural history. Nothing which the State could do for science would so stimulate a productive ac- tivity among them as a moderate appropria- tion for a public scientific library; and there is evidently no place where this library may be so properly built up as in connection with the State Laboratory of Natural His- tory. I have therefore included the sum of $2,000 for this purpose in my estimates, and the further sum of $200 for the services of a Librarian, to catalogue and thoroughly or- ganize the accessions on the plan already in use. This plan of organization place[s] the re- sources of the library at the ready command of the investigator, without requiring that com- plete previous acquaintance with the litera- ture of his subject which he can gain only by long use of a large library. It is proposed to use the money which may be voted for library purposes, first of all to procure those books now actually needed by our Illinois naturalists for the successful prosecution of the original investigations upon which they are at present engaged, and to provide for the future only when these present pressing needs have been supplied. The state legislature granted part of the appropriation requested by Professor Forbes. In a subsequent report he made a statement concerning the value of the library (Forbes 1880/:9) : No expenditure made by the Laboratory during the last two years has been so im- mediately profitable, both to the work of the establishment and to the studies of other naturalists, as that made for new books. While the additions are very few compared with the literature needed, they have cleared the field of difficulties which have blocked the progress of our work for years, and have first made possible to the students of our local natural history, original work of a satisfac- tory character, in a few departments of zoology and botany. 214 Illinois Natural IIistukv Survuv liuLLiiTiN Vol. 27, Art. 2 TIic libran received its support from iippropriations made by the state legisla- ture to the State Laboratory or Natural History Survey until the books were transferred to the University of Illinois, at which time the University assumed tlie responsibilit\' for the book collection (Cunningham 1928 :275-6) . After 100 years of library service to the staff and to the naturalists of the state, we hope that a statement made by Professor Forbes a half century ago is still true and that the library will always maintain the high standard set for it by its founders. "Apart from its collections. . . . the most useful possession of the Laboratory is its library, which is the product of many years of careful selection and purchase of the literature of the world . . ." (Forbes 1909:55). I Former Technical Employees Illinois Natural History Society, Illinois State Entomologist's Office, Illinois State Museum of Natural History, Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, Illinois Natural History Survey BESSIE H . E A S '1' POLLOWING is a partial list of for- -'- mer ei"nplo\ees of the Illinois Natural History Society (1858-1871), Illinois State Entomologist's Office (1867-1917), Illinois State Museum of Natural His- tory (1871-1877), Illinois State Labora- tory of Natural History (1877-1917), and Illinois Natural History Survey (since 1917). The list is not complete be- cause early records are fragmentary or do not exist, and because, for the sake of brev- ity, it seemed desirable to omit the names of many short-term or part-time em- ployees. A number of collaborators who worked closely with regular staff members are not listed, although they made contri- butions to the official publications. Because Adams, Charles Christopher Entomologist, 1896-1898 Adams, Leverett Allen Zoologist, 1929 Alexander, Charles Paul Entomologist, 1919-1922 Alexopoulos, Coxstaxtixe T- Botanist, 1930-1931 Ames, Ralph Wolfley Plant Pathologist, 1951-1952 AxDERsox, Harry Warrex Botanist, 1922 Andersox, John M. Biologist, 1939-1941 Apple, James Wilbur Entomologist, 1943-1949 Audex\ Kexxeth Francis Entomologist, 1925-1927 Baker, Frank Collixs Zoologist, 1931-1932 Balduf, Walter Valentine Entomologist, 1923 Barnickol, Paul George Aquatic Biologist, 1945-1948 Barrett, E. G. Botanist, 1931-1932 Beach, Alice Marie Entomologist, 1899-1900 of their important contributions to the work of the Natural History Societ\' and the maintenance of its collections, the names of two early curators, C. D. Wilber (1858-1864) and Joseph A. Sewall (1864-1867), and of the first librarian, Ira Moore (1858-1863), have been in- cluded ; all three were members of the staff of Illinois State Normal University. Ihe first official employee whose sal- ary was paid from funds appropriated by the state legislature for that purpose was John Wesley Powell, appointed Curator in 1867. From this beginning, the stafif has increased to its present total of 101. No present employees are included in the following list. Berger, Bernard George Entomologist, 1941-1945 Bettex, Cornelius Entomologist, 1931 Brown, Frank Arthur Zoologist, 1935 Burks, Barnard De Witt Entomologist, 1937-1949 BuRRiLL, Thomas Joxathax Botanist, 1885-1892 Butler, Cyrus W. Biologist, 1880-1882 Campana, Richard John Plant Pathologist, 1952-1958 Campbell, Leo Botanist, 1930-1931 Chandler, Stewart Curtis Entomologist, 1917-1957 Chapman, Herman Haupt Forester, 1922-F)23 Chase, Elizabeth Brown Biologist, 1945-1948 Chouinard, Carroll Benedict Editor, 1931-1937 Compton, Charles Chalmer Entomologist, 1921-1944 Coquillett, Daniel William Entomologist, 1881 [215] 216 Illinois Natural History Survi-y Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 Craig, Wallace Aquatic Biologist, 1898-1899 Crawley, Henri Douglas Forester, 1950-1951 Creager, Don Baxter Plant Pathologist, 1939-1943 Culver, Lawson Blaine Forester, 1947-1954 Daniels, Eve Botanist, 1924-1926 Davis. James Elwood Forester, 1935-1947 Davis, John [une Entomologist, 1907-1911 DeCoursev, John D. Entomologist, 1929-1932 DeLong, Dwight Moore Entomologist, 1934-1936, 1938, 1941, 1945 DoziER, Herbert Lawrence Entomologist, 1932 Driver, Ernest Charles Zoologist, 1930 Duggar, Benjamin Minge Botanist, 1895-1896 Durham, Leonard Aquatic Biologist, 1947-1950 Earle, Franklin Sumner Mycologist, 1886 Eddy, Samuel Botanist, 1925-1929 Elder, William Hanna Game Specialist, 1941-1943 Engelhard, Arthur William Plant Pathologist, 1955-1956 Farrar, Milton Dyer Entomologist, 1931-1946 Fell, Rachel M. Botanist, 1881-1882 Ferris, John Mason Plant "Pathologist, 1957-1958 FisK, Vernon C. Forester, 1921-1923 Flint, Wesley Pillsbury Entomologist, 1907-1943 Forbes, Ernest Browning Zoologist, 1894-1896, 1899-1901 Forbes, Hi:xry Clinton Librarian, 1894-1902 Forbes, Stephen Aleri.d Curator, State Museum of Natural History, 1872-1877; Director, State Laboratory of Natural History, 1877-1917; State Entomologist, 1882-1917; Chief, Natural History Survey, 1917-1930 Foster, T. Dale Zoologist, 1931-1932 French, George Ha/.en Entomologist, 1877-1878 Frison, Theodore Henry Entomologist, 1923-1930; Chief, Natural History Survey, 1930-1945 Garman, Philip Entomologist, 1914 GAR^L'\N, W. Harrison Zoologist, 1877-1889 Girault, Alecandre Arsene Entomologist, 1908-1911 Glasgow, Robert Douglass Entomologist, 1905-1909, 1912-1915, 1927 Glenn, Press ley Adams Entomologist, 1911-1917 Goding, Frederick Webster Entomologist, 1885 GoFF, Carlos Cl\t)e Entomologist, 1927-1930 Goss, Edna Lucy Librarian, 1906-1908 Gross, Alfred Otto Ornithologist, 1906-1907, 1909, 1912 Hankinson, Thomas Leroy Zoologist, 1911 Harris, Hubert Andrew Botanist, 1930-1933 Hart, Charles Arthur Entomologist, 1880-1918 Hart, Lydia Moore Artist, 1891-1898 Hawkins, Arthur Stuart Game Specialist, 1938-1945 Hayes, William Patrick Entomologist, 1926, 1928-1934 Hempel, Adolph Zoologist, 1894-1896 Hesselschwerdt, Robert Edward Zoologist, 1936-1942; Photographer, 1946-1948 Hoffman, Paul Fredrick, Jr. Plant Pathologist, 1951-1954 Hood, Joseph Douglas Entomologist, 1910-1912 HoTTEs, Frederick Charles Entomologist, 1928-1930 Hunt, Francis D. Aquatic Assistant, 1925-H)37 Hunt, Thomas Forsyth Entomologist, 1885-1886 Hutch ENS, Lynn Henry Aquatic Biologist, 1936-1938, 1946-1947 J December, 1958 East: Former Technical Employees 217 [axvrix, Charles Edwix Librarian, 1912-1929 [oHxsox, Willis Graxt Entomologist, 1894-1896 foRDAX, James Schuyler Game Specialist, 1048-1455 Kahl, Hugo Entomologist, 1802-1804, 1901-1902 Kelley, Grace Osgood Librarian, 1908-1912 Kxab, Frederick Artist, 1903-1905 Kxight, Harry Hazeltox Entomologist, 1930, 1932-1933, 1937 Kxight, Kexxeth Lee Entomologist, 1938-1939 KoFOiD, Charles Atwood Aquatic Biologist, 1895-1900 Krumholz, Louis A. Zoologist, 1938-1941 Kudo, Richard R. Zoologist, 1930 Large, Thomas Aquatic Biologist, 1899-1902 Le Barox, William Entomologist, 1870-1875 Leigh, Walter Hexry Game Specialist, 1935-1938 Low. Jessop Budge Game Specialist, 1941-1943 Luce, Wilbur ^Larshall Zoologist, 1929-1930, 1932 Lueth, Fraxcis X. Zoologist, 1939-1940 McCauley, William Edward Entomologist, 1934-1941 McClure, Howe Elliott Entomologist, 1930-1933 McCORMICK, A. K. Aquatic Biologist, 1881-1882 McDoucall, Walter Byrox Botanist, 1928 ALalloch, Johx Russell Entomologist, 1913-1921 ALally, Frederick William Entomologist, 1889-1890 ALaltby, Cora AL Librarian, 1885-1886 IVLartex, Johx Entomologist, 1888-1894 Middletox, Nettie Entomologist, 1878-1880 Miller, August Edward Entomologist, 1926-1928 Miller, Ross Jewell Forester, 1947-1956 MiLXER, AxGE V. Librarian, 1880-1882 Moore, Ira Librarian, 1858-1863 Moore, Thomas Edwix Entomologist, 1948-1956 Nyberg, Florence Anna Assistant to the Chief, 1922-1945 O'DOXXELL, DOXALD JOHN Zoologist, 1931-1937 Oesterlixg, H. Carl Editor, 1926-1931 Peake, Charles O. Botanist, 1921-1923 Peirce, Alax Staxley Botanist, 1933-1934 Pepoox, Hermax S. Botanist, 1931-1933 Plunkett, Orda Allen Botanist, 1922 Porter, Charles Lyman Botanist, 1921-1922 Powell, Johx Wesley Curator, 1867-1872 Powers, Edwix Booth Entomologist, 1917 Rasmussex, Daxiel Irvtx Biologist, 1931-1932 Richards, William Robix Entomologist, 1950-1953 Richardsox, Robert Earl Aquatic Biologist, 1903-1904, 1909-1933 RiEGEL, GaRLAXD TaVXER Entomologist, 1938-1942 RiES, DoXALD TiMMERMAX Naturalist, 1938 Robertson", William Beckwith, Jr. Game Specialist, 1952-1956 Sawyer, Leslie Edwin Forester, 1929-1935 Schneider, Irving Robert Plant Pathologist, 1954-1956 Schopf, James Botanist, 1931 Schreeder. W. F. Forester, 1921-1925 Scott, Charles L. Photographer, 1948-1951 Selander, Richard B. Entomologist, 1955-1958 Sewall, Joseph A. Curator, 1864-1867 Seymour, Arthur I^liss Botanist, 1881-1883, 1884, 1886 218 Illinois Natural History Survi:y Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 Shei.ford, Victor Ernhst Ecologist, IQl 4-1927 Shoemaker, Hurst Zoologist, 1942, 1944 Shropshire, Leslie Harold Entomologist, 1931-1942 Simmons, Lillian ALxrcueriii: Librarian. 1943-1952 Smith, Dora Biologist, 1894 Snhth, Emma A. Entomologist, 1877 Smith, Frank Zoologist, 1894-1897, 1907-1910 S%nTH, LiNDLEY MaLCOLM Entomologist, 1907-1917 Snow, Francis Huntington Entomologist, 1892 Snyder, Mary Jane Amanuensis and Editor, 1883-1925 SOMMERMAN, KaTHRYN MaRTHA Entomologist, 1939-1946 SowLS, Lyle K. Game Specialist, 1940-1941 Spooner, Charles S. Entomologist, 1917-1920 Spooner, Charles S., ]r. Biologist, 1939-1942 Stanley, Wfllard Francis Zoologist, 1935 Stout, Gilbert Leonidas Botanist, 1926-1930 Summers, Henry Elija Entomologist, 1892-1893 Surany, Paul Entomologist, 1950-1955 Surface, Harvey Adam Zoologist, 1899 Tanquary, Maurice Cole Entomologist, 1910-1912 Taylor, Estes Park Entomologist, 1903-1905 Ti'iioN, Li;() Roy Botanist, 1921-1954; Acting Chief, Natural History Survey. 1945-1946 TliLFORD, C. f. Forester, 1921-1929 Thonlas, Cyrus Entomologist, 1875-1882 Thompson, David Hiram Zoologist, 1923-1944 Titus, Edward Sharp Gaige Entomologist, 1902-1903 Townsend, Lee Hill Entomologist, 1932-1936 Trum BOWER, John Abbott Botanist, 1932-1933 Van Cleave, Harley Jones Parasitologist, 1911-1912 Vasey, George W. Acting Curator, 1871-1872 V^ESTAL, Arthur Gibson Botanist, 1909 V^ON Limbach, Bruno Zoologist, 1940-1945 Wadley, Francis Marion Entomologist, 1920 Walsh, Benjamin D. Entomologist, 1867-1869 Wandell, VVillet Norbert Forester, 1945-1954 Webster, Francis Marion Entomologist, 1881-1884, 1902-1904 Weed, Clarence Moores Entomologist, 1885-1888 Weinman, Carl John Entomologist, 1937-1952 West, James Alexander Entoniologist, 1905-1908 WlLBER, C. D. Curator, 1858-1864 Wolf, John Botanist, 1880 WocD, Frank Elmer Aquatic Biologist, 1905-1909 Woodvvorth, C. W. Entomologist, 1884-1886 Wright, John McM aster Entomologist, 1943-1957 Y EAGER, Lee Emmett Forester, 1938-1945 Young, Paul Allen Botanist, 1922-1925 YUASA, Hach'ro Entomologist, 1921-1922 Zetek, James Entoniologist, 1Q09-1911 Zuckerman, Bert Merton Plant Pathologist, 1951-1954 LITERATURE CITED A^assiz, Louis 1863. Methods of study in natural history. Ticknor & Fields, Boston, viii + 319 pp. Alexander, Charles P. 1925. An entomological survey of the Salt Fork of the Vermilion River in 1921, with a bibliography of aquatic in- sects. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 15(8) :439-535. Anonymous 1860. The anniversary week at Blooming- ton. The agricultural convention ; annual meeting of the Illinois Nat- ural History Society, and commence- ment exercises of the State Normal University. Chiefly compiled from the reports of the Chicago Press and Tribune and Chicago Times, Chi- cago. 67 pp. 1930. Professor S. A. Forbes, dies after more than 60 years of service to the University and State. 111. Alumni News 8(7) :278-82. 1936. Fieldbook of Illinois wild flowers. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Man. 1. x + 406 pp. Ayars, James S. 1956. Leo Roy Tehon, 1895-1954. 111. Acad. Sci. Trans, for 1955, 48:224-5. Babcock, H. H. 1872. The flora of Chicago and vicinity. The Lens l(l):20-6; 1(2): 65-71; l(3):144-50; l(4):218-22. Baker, Frank Collins 1906. A catalogue of the Mollusca of Illi- nois. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 7(6): 53-136. 1939. Fieldbook of Illinois land snails. HI. Nat. Hist. Surv. Man. 2. 166 pp. Balham, Ronald W., and Wm. H. Elder 1953. Colored leg bands for waterfowl. Jour. 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Proceedings of the Board of Educa- tion of the State of Illinois (Decem- ber 19, 1866; March 26, 1867). Pe- oria. 12 pp. 1871. Proceedings of the Board of Educa- tion of the State of Illinois (June 28, 29, 1871). Peoria. 20 pp. 1872. Proceedings of the Board of Educa- tion of the State of Illinois (June 26, 1872). Peoria. 12 pp. Bayless, Mrs. Anne Douglas 1957. The annual meeting — 1957. III. Au- dubon Soc. Bui. 1957(102) : 1-4. Bebb, M. S. 1859. List of plants occurring in the north- ern counties of the state of Illinois, in addition to the catalogue given by Dr. J. [sic'] A. Lapham. 111. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1857-1858, 3:586-7. Beck, Lewis C. 1826rt. Contributions towards the botany of the states of Illinois and Missouri. Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts 10(2) :257- 64. 1826^. Contributions towards the botany of the states of Illinois and Missouri. Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts 11(1) :167- 82. 1828. Contributions towards the botany of the states of Illinois and Missouri. Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts 14(1): 112- 21. Bellrose, Frank C. 1940. Quail and pheasant studies in an orchard county. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 13. 11 pp. 1941. Duck food plants of the Illinois River valley. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 21(8) :237-80. 1944. Duck populations and kill: an evalu- ation of some waterfowl regulations in Illinois. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 23(2): 327-72. 1945. Relative values of drained and un- drained bottomland in Illinois. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. 9(3) : 161-82. 1950. The relationship of muskrat popula- tions to various marsh and a(}uatic plants. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. 14(3): 299-315. 1953rt. Housing for wood ducks. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Circ. 45. 47 pp. 1953Z'. A preliminary evaluation of cripple losses in waterfowl. N. Am. Wild- life Conf. Trans. 18:337-60. [219] 220 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 1954. The value of waterfowl refuges in Illinois. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. 18(2): 160-9. 1957. A spectacular waterfowl migration through central North America. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 36. 24 pp. 1958rt. The orientation of displaced water- fowl in migration. Wilson Bui. 70(1) : 20-40. 195S/'. Celestial orientation by wild mal- lards. Bird-Banding 29(2):75-90. 1959. Lead poisoning as a mortality factor in waterfowl populations. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 27(3). In press. Bellrose, Frank C, and Harry G. Anderson 1943. Preferential rating of duck food plants. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 22(5) :417-33. Bellrose, Frank C, and Louis G. Brown 1941. The effect of fluctuating water levels on the muskrat population of the Illinois River valley. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. 5(2):206-12. Bellrose, Frank C., and Elizabeth Brown Chase 1950. Population losses in the mallard, black duck, and blue-winged teal. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 22. 27 pp. Bellrose, Frank C., and Jessop B. Low 1943. The influence of flood and low water levels on the survival of muskrats. Jour. 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A sec- ond year of fisheries investigations at Fork Lake, 1939. Hi. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 14. 24 pp. Birge, E. A. 1929. Fish and their food. Am. Fish. Soc. Trans, for 1929, 59:188-94. Boewe, G. H. 1939. Diseases of small grain crops in Illi- nois. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Circ. 35. 130 pp. Borodin, N. 1924. Age of shad (Alosa sapid'issima Wil- son) as determined by the scales. Am. Fish. Soc. Trans, for 1924, 54:178-84. Brendel, Frederick 1857. Historical researches upon the culti- vated grain fruits in the state of Illi- nois. 111. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1856- 1857, 2:471-83. 1859rt. Additions and annotations to Mr. Lapham's catalogue of Illinois plants. 111. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1857-1858, 3:583-5. 1859/y. The trees and shrubs in Illinois. 111. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1857-1858, 3:588- 604. 1859r. The oaks of Illinois. 111. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1857-1858, 3:605-31. 1859J. Forests and forest trees. 111. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1857-1858, 3:651-61. 1860. Botanical notes. Notices and addi- tions to Illinois flora. Prairie Farmer, n.s., 6(19):294-5. [Author's name given as Fred. Brendell.] 1861. The water lily. On the peculiar growth of the water lily {N elumbium luteum Willd.). 111. Nat. Hist. Soc. Trans. 2nd ed. Ser. 1, 1:65-7. 1870. Occurrence of rare plants in Illinois. Am. Nat. 4(6) :374. [Brendel, Frederick] 1876. The tree in winter. 111. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bui. 1(1) :26-32. Brendel, Frederick 1887. Flora Peoriana. The vegetation in the climate of middle Illinois. J. W. Franks and Sons, Peoria. 89 pp. Brown, Louis G., and Lee E. Yeager 1943. Survey of the Illinois fur resource. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 22(6) :435- 504. 1945. Fox squirrels and gray squirrels in Illinois. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 23(5) :449-536. Bruce, Willis N. 1952. Automatic sprayer for control of bit- ing flies on cattle. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 27. 11 pp. 1953. A new technique in control of the house fly. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 33. 8 pp. Bruce, W. N., and George C. Decker 1951. Tabanid control on dairy and beef cattle with synergized pyrethrins. Jour. Econ. Ent. 44(2) : 154-9. 1957. Experiments with several repellent formulations applied to cattle for control of stable flies. Jour. Econ. Ent. 50(6) :709-13. 1958. The relationship of stable fly abun- dance to milk production in dairy cattle, [our. Econ. Ent. 51 ( 3) :269-74. i December, 1958 Literature Cithd 221 Brush, H. L. 1857. On the culture of the vine in Illi- nois. 111. Ag. See. Trans, for 1856- 1857, 2:407-12. Burks, B. D. 1953. The mayflies, or Ephemeroptera, of Illinois. " 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 26(1) : 1-216. Burr, J. G. 1931. Electricity as a means of garfish and carp control. Am. Fish. Soc. Trans, for 1931, 61:174-81. Burrill, Thomas J. 1874. Aggressive parasitism of fungi. 111. Hort. Soc. Trans, for 1873, n.s., 7:217-21. 1876. Lettuce mould and leaf blights. 111. Hort. Soc. Trans, for 1875, n.s., 9:139-44. 1877. Injurious fungi. 111. Hort. Soc. 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Bui. 12:379-87. 1903. Experiments in spraving for bitter rot. 111. Hort. Soc. Trans, for 1902, n.s., 36:54-66. Campbell, F. L. 1946. Valediction: Theodore Henrv Prison. Sci. Monthly 62:91-3. Carbine, W. F. 1939. Observations on the spawning habits of centrarchid fishes in Deep Lake, Oakland Countv, Michigan. N. Am. Wildlife Conf. Trans. 4:275-87. Carriel, Mary Turner 1911. The life of Jonathan Baldwin Tur- ner. [Published by the author, Jack- sonville, Illinois.] 298 pp. Carter, J. Cedric 1939. Progress in the control of elm dis- eases in nurseries. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 10. 19 pp. 1941. Preliminary investigation of oak dis- eases in Illinois. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 21(6) :195-230. 1945. Wetwood of elms. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 23(4) :407^8. 1952. Distribution and spread of oak wilt in Illinois. U. S. Dept. Ag. Plant Dis. Reptr. 36(1) :26-7. 1955. Leo Rov Tehon, 1895-1954. Phyto- pathology 45(3) : 115. Carter, J. C, and Noel B. Wysong 1951. Isolation of the oak wilt fungus from swamp white oak. U. S. Dept. Ag. Plant Dis. Reptr. 35(3):173-4. Carver, Jonathan 1778. Travels through the interior parts of North-America, in the years 1766, 1767, and 1768. Printed for the au- thor, London. 543 pp. Chapman, Herman H., and Robert B. Miller 1924. Second report on a forest survey of Illinois. The economics of forestry in the state. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 15(3) :46-172. Coquillett, D. W. 1881. Larvae of Lepidoptera. III. Ent. Rep. 10:142-86. [Coues, Elliott] 1 S'. Birds and insects. Nuttall Ornith. Club Bui. 8(2) :105-7. CreajJer, Donald B. 1941rt. Ring spot of popular peperomias caused bv virus. Florists' Rev. 87(2256) :i5-6. 1941/'. Control black mold of rose grafts by chemical treatments. Florists' Rev. 89(2290) :21-2. 1941r. Control program for peony measles. Florists' Rev. 89(2296) :22-3. 1942. Thielavia root rot of sweet peas and its control. III. Florists' Assn. Bui. 62-28-1-5. 1943rt. Spraying ground with Elgetol con- trols peonv disease. III. Florists' Assn. Bui. '68:311-3. 1943//. Prevention of disease losses in callas. III. Florists' Assn. Bui. 73:340-3. 1943r. Carnation mosaic. Phvtopathologv 33(9): 823-7. 1944. How to recognize and control mosaic on carnation plants. Florists' Rev. 93(2409) :27-9. 1945. Mosaic of the common coleus. Phyto- pathology 35(4) :223-9. Cre son. E. T.. Aul. R. Crete, J. W. McAllister, Benj. D. Walsh, Editors 1865. Answers to correspondents. Pract. Ent. 1(3) :18-9. Cunningham, Harrison E., Secretary 1928. Thirty-fourth report ... of the Board of Trustees of the University 979 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 of Illinois for the two years ending June 30, 1928. lxi + 840 pp. Curl, E. A. 1953. Studies on the availability of oak wilt inoculum in Illinois. Phytopa- thology 43(9) :469. 1955fl. Natural availability of oak wilt in- ocula. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 26(3):277-323. 1955/a Removal of spores from mycelial mats and transmission of Endoconidi- ophora fagaceariim by air currents. U. S. Dept. Ag. Plant Dis. Reptr. 39(12) : 977-82. Curl. E. A., G. J. Stessel, and Bert M. Zuckerman 1952. Macroscopic growth of the oak wilt fungus in nature. Phytopathology 42(1): 6. 1953. Subcortical mycelial mats and peri- thecia of the oak wilt fungus in na- ture. Phytopathology 43(2) :61-4. Davis, John J. 1913. The Cyrus Thomas collection of Aphididae, and a tabulation of spe- cies mentioned and described in his publications. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 10(2) :97-121 + 2 pis. 1919. Contributions to a knowledge of the natural enemies of Phyllophaga. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 13(5):53-138 + 13 pis. 1920. New species and varieties of Phyl- lophaga. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 13(12) :329-38 + 6 pis. Davis, N. S., Jr., and Frank L. Rice 1883. Descriptive catalogue of North Amer- ican Batrachia and Reptilia, found east of Mississippi River. 111. Lab. Nat. 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