m Ex Libris C. K. OGDEN ^ " OEYLORTSSOGIATION IN LONDON C€YLON ASSOCIATION II LONDOM, t, UUIEMOE POUNTHEY HILL, GANNON STREET, L6MON, E.C, 4, CEYLON, VOL. I. irEW-STREET SQUARE CEYLON AN ACCOUNT OF THE ISLAND PHYSICAL, HISTOKICAL, AND TOPOGKAPHICAL NOTICES OF ITS NATURAL HISTORY, ANTIQUITIES AND PRODUCTIONS SIR JAMES EMERSON TENNENT, K.C.S, LLD, &c. ILLUSTBATED BY MAPS, PLANS AND DBA WINGS FIFTH EDITION, THOBOUGHLY BEVISED VOLUME I. LONDON LONGMAN, GREEN, LONGMAN, AND ROBERTS 1860 The right of translation is reterved Stack Annex CONTENTS THE FIRST VOLUME. V.I PART I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTER I. GEOLOGY.— MINERALOGY. — OEMS. Page . 3 I. General Aspect. Singular beauty of the island Its ancient renown in conse- quence ..... 4 Fable of its " perfumed winds " (note) 4 Character of the scenery . . 5 II. Geographical Position ... 6 Ancient views regarding it a- mongst the Hindus, — " the Me- ridian of Lanka " . . .6 Buddhist traditions of former submersions . . . (note) 7 Errors as to the dimensions of Ceylon ..... 8 Opinions of Onesicritus, Erato- sthenes, Strabo, Pliny.Ptolemy, Agathemerus . . . . 8, 9 The Arabian geographers . . 9 Sumatra supposed to be Ceylon (note) 10 True latitude and longitude . 11 General Eraser's map of Ceylon (note) 1 1 Geological formation . . .12 Adam's Bridge .... 13 Error of supposing Ceylon to be a detached fragment of India . 14 III. The Mountain System . . 14 Remarkable hills, Mihintala and Sigiri ..... 15 Little evidence of volcanic action 16 Rocks, gneiss . . . .16 Rock temples . . . .17 Laterite or " Cabook " . .17 Ancient name Tamba-panni (note) 17 Coral formation . . .19 Extraordinary wells . . .21 Darwin's theory of coral wells examined . . . (note) 22 The soil of Ceylon generally poor 24 " Patenas," their phenomena ob- scure ..... 24 Rice lands between the hills . 26 Soil of the plains, " Talawas " . 27 IV. Metals.— Tin ... 29 Gold, nickel, cobalt . . .29 Quicksilver . . . (note) 29 Iron 30 V. Minerals. — Anthracite, plumbago, kaolin, nitre caves . . .31 List of Ceylon minerals . (note) 32 VI. Gems, ancient fame of . 32 Rose-coloured quartz . . (note) 33 Mode of searching for gems . 34 Rubies 3'J Sapphire, topaz, garnet, and cinnamon stone, cat's-eye, amethyst, moonstone . " 37, 38 Diamond not found in Ceylon (note) 38 Gem-finders and lapidaries . 39 VII. Rivers. — Their character . . 40 The Mahawelli-ganga . . 41 Table of the rivers ... 41 VIII. Singular coast formation, and its causes . . . .43 The currents and their influence 44 Word "Gobb " explained 44, (note) 46 Vegetation of the sand forma- tions 48 Their suitability for the coco- nut 51 IX. Harbours. — Galle and Trinco- malie 52 Tides 52 Red infusoria . . . .53 Population of Ceylon . . 53 CHAP. II. CLIMATE. — HEALTH AND DISEASE. Uniformity of temperature . . 54 Brilliancy of foliage . . . .56 Colombo. — January— longshore wind 56 February— cold nights . . (note) 57 March, April 58 May— S.W. monsoon ... 58 Aspect of the country before it . 59 Lightning 60 Rain, its violence . . . .61 June 62 3 VI CONTENTS OF Page July and August, September, October, November. N.E. monsoon . . 63 December 64 Annual quantity of rain in Ceylon and Hindustan . . . (note) 65 Opposite climates of the same moun- tain ... . 66 Climate of GaUe . . 67 Kandy and its climate . . . 87 Mists and hail .. • . . 69 Climate of Trincomalie (text and note) 70 Jaffna and its climate . .71 Waterspouts . . 72 Anthelia 73 Buddha rays 73 Ceylon as a sanatarium. — Neuera-ellia 74 Health 75 Malaria . 75 Food and wine . . .76, 77 Effects of the climate of Ceylon on disease 79 Precautions for health . . 80 CHAP. III. VEGETATION. — TEEE3 AND PLANTS. The Flora of Ceylon imperfectly known 83 Vegetation similar to that of India and the Eastern Archipelago . . 84 Trees of the sea-horde. — Mangroves. — Screw-pines, Sonneratia . . 85 The Northern Plains. — Euphorbias Cassia. — Mustard-tree of Scripture 87 Western coast. —Luxurious vegeta- tion 87 Eastern coast 88 Pitcher plant.— Orchids ... 88 Vines 89 Botany of the Mountains. — Iron-wood, Bamboo, European fruit-trees. 90 Tea-plant— Rhododendron— Miche- Ua 90 Rapid disappearance of dead trees in the forests . . . .91 Trees with natural buttresses ! 91 Page Flowering Trees. — Coral tree . . 92 The Murutu — Imbul— Cotton tree — Champac ..... 93 The Upas Tree — Poisons of Ceylon 95 The Banyan 95 The Sacred Bo-tree . . . 97 The India-Rubber tree — The Snake- tree 98 Kumbuk-tree: lime in its bark . 99 Curious Seeds. — The Dorian, Sterculia fcetida .... 99, 100 The Sea Pomegranate . . . 100 Strychnos, curious belief as to its poison . . . 101 Euphorbia — The Cow-tree, error re- garding . . . (note) 101 Climbing plants, epiphytes, and flow- ering creepers .... 102 Orchids.— Brilliant terrestrial orchid, the Wanna -raja. — Square- stemmed Vine 103 Gigantic climbing Plants . . . 104 Enormous bean .... 105 Bontluc seeds. — Eatans — Eatan bridges 106 Thorny Trees. — Raised as a natural fortification by the Kandyans . 107 The buffalo thorn, Acacia tomen- tosa . . . • . . . 108 Palms 109 Coco-nut — Talipat . . . .110 Palmyra Ill Jaggery Palm — Areca Palm . 112 Betel-chewing, its theory and uses . 112 Pingos 114 Timber Trees 115 Jakwood— Del— Teak . . .116 Suria 117 Cabinet Woods.— Satin-wood— Ebony — Cadooberia . . . .117 Calamander, its rarity and beauty 118 Tamarind 119 Fruit-trees 119 Remarkable power of trees to gene- rate cold and keep their fruit chill 121 Aquatic Plants — Lotus, red and blue 123 Desmanthus natans, an aquatic sen- sitive plant 123 PART II. ZOOLOGY. CHAPTER I. MAMMALIA. Neglect of Zoology in Ceylon . Monkeys . Wanderoo . . \ Error regarding the Silenus Ve-' . (note) 129 . 130 127 129 "* • Presbytes Cephalo'pteriis P. Ursinus in the Hills . .131 P. Thersites in the Wanny . .132 P. Priamus, Jaffna and Trincomalie 132 Iso dead monkey ever found . . 133 'oris 133 . 135 . 135 J lying fox Horse-shoe bat Cfirnir.ora. — Bears Their ferocity 137 138 THE FIRST VOLUME. •Vll P-ge Singhalese belief in the efficacy of charms . . . (note) 139 Leopards 139 Curious belief . . . .140 Anecdotes of leopards . . .142. Palm-cat 144 Civet .144 Dogs 144 Jackal 145 The horn of the jackal . . .145 Mungoos 145 Its fights with serpents . . 146 Theory of its antidote . . . 147 Squirrels . .— * 148 Flying squirrel . . . . 148 Tree rat 149 Story of a rat and a snake . . 149 Coffee rat 149 Bandicoot 150 Porcupine 150 Pengolin 151 Ruminantia. — The Gaur . . .151 Oxen . » 152 Humped cattle . . . .152 Encounter of a cow and a leopard 153 Buffaloes 154 Sporting buffaloes . . .155 Peculiar structure of the hoof . 155 Deer ...... 156 Meminna . . . .... 157 Elephants 158 Whales 158 General view of the mammalia of Ceylon 159 List of Ceylon mammalia . . . 159 Curious parasite of the bat (note) 161 CHAP. II. BIRDS. Their numbers .... Songsters 1 lornbills, the " bird with two heads Peafowl Sea birds, their number I. Accipitres. — Eagles Falcons and hawks Owls— the devil bird II. Passeres. — Swallows Kingfishers — sunbirds Bul-bul — tailor bird — and w Crows, anecdotes of III. Scansores. — Parroquets I V. ColuiMdee. — Pigeons V. Gcdlinte. — Jungle-fowl VI. Grallce.— Ibis, stork, &c. VII. Anseres. — Flamingoes Pelicans . Game. — Partridges, &c. List of Ceylon birds . List of birds peculiar to Ceylon CHAP. III. 163 163 164 165 166 1(17 167 L68 I6fl 17(1 172 178 174 175 175 176 17.; 177 180 Lizards.— Iguana . . . .182 Kabragoya, barbarous custom in pre- paring the cobra-tel poison (note) 183 Page The green calotes . . . .184 Chameleon 184 Ceratophora 185 Geckoes, — their power of reproduc- ing limbs .... 185, 186 Crocodiles 186 Their power of burying themselves in the mud 187 Tortoises. — Curious parasite . . 188 Land tortoises .... 189 Edible turtle 190 Huge Indian tortoises . (note) 190 Hawk's-bill turtle, barbarous mode of stripping it of the tortoise-shell 190 Serpents. — Venomous species rare . 191 Cobra de capello . . . .192 Instance of land snakes found at sea 193 Tame snakes . . . (note) 193 Singular tradition regarding the cobra de capello . . .194 Uropeltidaj. — New species discover- ed in Ceylon . . . .195 Buddhist veneration for the co- bra de capello . . .195 Anecdotes of snakes . . .196 The Python 196 Water snakes . . . .197 Snake stones 197 Analysis of one .... 199 Caecilia ... . . .201 Large frogs 202 Tree frogs 202 List of Ceylon reptiles . . .203 CHAP. IV." Ichthyology of Ceylon, little known . 205 Fish for table, seir fish ... 205 Sardines, poisonous ? . . . . 206 Sharks 207 Saw-fish 207 Fish of brilliant colours . . . 207 Curious fish described by^Elian (note) 207 Fresh- water fish, little" known, — not much eaten 208 Fresh-water fish in Colombo Lake . 209 Immense profusion of fish in the rivers and lakes .... 209 Their re -appearance after rain . . 209 Mode of fishing in the ponds . .210 Showers of fish 210 Conjecture that the ova are preserved, not tenable 212 Fish moving on dry land . . . 213 Instances in Guiana . (note) 214 Perca Scandens, ascends trees .215 Doubts as to the story of Daldorf . 217 Fishes burying themselves during the dry season 218 The protopterus of the Gambia . 218 Instances in the fish of the Nile . 218 Instances in the fish of South Ame- rica 219 Living fish dug out of the ground in the dry tanks in Ceylon . 220 Other anim'jils that so bury them- selves, Melanice, Ampullarite, &c. 220 v CONTENTS OF Page The animals that so bury them- selves in India . . (note) 221 Analogous case of . . (note) 221 Theory of aestivation and hyberna- tion . . . . . .221 Fish in hot-water in Ceylon . . 224 List of Ceylon fishes . . . .224 Instances of fishes falling from the clouds . . . . .226 Overland migration of fishes known to the Greeks and Romans . . 227 Note on Ceylon fishes by Professor Huxley 229 Comparative note by Dr. Gray, Brit. Mils. . 231 CHAP. V. MOLLUSCA, RADIATA, AND ACALEPH^. I. Conchology — General character of Ceylon shells .... 233 Confusion regarding them in scientific works and collections 234 List of Ceylon shells . 235 II. Radiata.— Star fish . 244 Sea slugs . . . 245 Parasitic worms . .245 Planaria . . .245 III. Acalepha, abundant . 246 Corals little known . 246 CHAP. VI. Profusion of insects in Ceylon Imperfect knowledge of. I. Coleoptera. — Beetles Scavenger beetles Coco-nut beetles. Tortoise beetles . II. Orthoptera.— Mantis and leaf.in sects Stick-insects III. Neuroptera. — Dragon flies Ant-lion . White ants . 247 247 248 249 249 250 250 252 252 252 253 Page Anecdotes of their instinct ar.d ravages . . (text and note) 254 V. Hymenoptera.— Mason Wasps . 256 Wasps 257 Bees 257 Carpenter Bee . . . .258 Ants 258 Burrowing ants .... 262 VI. Lepidoptera.— Butterflies . . 262 Sylph 263 Lyca?nida3 ..... 264 Moths 265 Silk worms . (text and note) 265 Wood-carrying Moths . . 266 Pterophorus .... 267 VII. Homoptera . . . .267 Cicada 267 VIII. Hemiptera . . . .267 Bugs 267 IX. Aphaniptera . . . .268 X. Diptera,— Mosquitoes . . .268 General character of Ceylon insects . 269 List of insects in Ceylon . . .274 CHAP. VII. ARACHNIDS, MYRIOPODA, CRUSTACEA, ETC. Spiders 294 Strange nests of the wood spiders . 295 Olios Taprobanius . . 295 Mygale fasciata . Ticks , Mites.— Trombidium tinctorum Myriapods. — Centipedes . Cermatia .... Scolopendra crassa S. pollipes .... Millipeds. — lulus Crustacea Calling crabs .... Land crabs . Painted crabs . Paddling crabs Annelida, Leeches.— The land leech Medical leech ... Cattle leech .... List of Articulata, &c. 205 200 207 207 208 209 300 801 Sill Mfi :;»>(•> 907 PART III. THE SINGHALESE CHRONICLES. CHAPTER I. SOURCES OF SINGHALESE HISTORY. — THE MAHAWANSO. Ceylon formerly thought to have no authentic history . . . 311 Researches of Turnonr . . 312 Biographical sketch of Tumour (note) 312 The Mahawanso . . . .314 Recovery of the " tika " on the Ma- hawanso 315 Outline of the Mahawanso . . 315 Tumour's epitome of Singhalese his- tory 316 Historical proofs of the Mahawanso . 317 Identity of Sandracottus and Chan- dragupta 318 Ancient map of Ceylon . (note) 318 List of Ceylon sovereigns . . .320 THE FIRST VOLUME. IX CHAP. II. THE ABORIGINES. Page Singhalese histories all illustrative of Buddhism 325 A Buddha 325 Gotama Buddha, his history , .326 Amazing prevalence of his religion (note) 326 His three visits to Ceylon . . . 327 Inhabitants of the island at that time supposed to be of Malayan type 327 Legend of their Chinese origin . . 328 Probably identical with the abori- gines of the Dekkan . . .328 Common basis of their language . 328 Characteristics of vernacular Singha- lese 329 State of the aborigines before Wi- jayo's invasion .... 330 Story of Wijayo . . . .330 The natives of Ceylon described as Yahhos and Nagas . . .331 Traces of serpent-worship in Ceylon 331 Coincidence of the Mahawanso with the Odyssey . . . (note) 332 CHAP. III. CONQUEST OF WIJAYO, B.C. 543. — ESTA- BLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM, B.C. 307. Early commerce of Coylon described by the Chinese .... 335 Wijayo as a colonizer . . . 336 His treatment of the native popula- tion 336 B.C. 505. His death and successors . 336 A number of petty kingdoms formed 337 Ceylon divided into three districts ; Pihiti, Rohuna, and Maya . . 337 The village system established . . 337 Agriculture introduced . . . 338 Irrigation imported from India . . 338 'Ihe first tank constructed, B.C. 504 (note) 338 Rapid progress of the island . . 339 Toleration of Wijayo and his followers 339 Establishment of Buddhism, 307 B.C. 340 Preaching of Mahindo . . . 340 Planting of the sacred Bo-tree . . 341 CHAP. IV. THE BUDDHIST MONUMENTS. Buddhist architecture introduced in Cevlon 344 The first dagobas built . . .345 Their mode of construction and vast dimensions ..... 346 The earliest Buddhist temples . . 346 Images and statues a later innovation 347 First residences of the priesthood . 347 Page The formation of monasteries and wi- haras 348 The first wihara built . . . 349 Form of the modern wiharas . . 349 Inconvenient numbers of the Bud- dhist priesthood .... 350 Originally fed by the kings and the people 350 Caste annulled in the case of priests . 351 The priestly robe and its peculiarities 351 CHAP. V. SINGHALESE CHIVALRY. — ELALA AND DUTUGAIMUNU. Progress of civilisation . . . 352 The new settlers agriculturists . . 352 Malabars enlisted as soldiers and seamen . . . . . . 353 B.C. 237. The revolt of Sena and Gutika . . . . . .353 B.C. 205. Usurpation of Elala . . 353 His character and renown . x . . 353 The victory of Dutugaimunu . . 354 Progress of the south of the island . 355 Building of the great Ruanwelle' Dagoba 355 Building of the Brazen Palace . . 356 Its vicissitudes and ruins . . . 357 Death and character of Dutugaimunu 358 CHAP. VI. THE INFLUENCES OF BUDDHISM ON CIVI- LISATION. The Mahawanse or Great Dynasty . 360 The Suluwanse or Inferior Dynasty . 360 Services rendered by the Great Dy- nasty 360 Frequent usurpations and the cause . 361 Disputed successions . . . .361 Rising influence of the priesthood . 362 B.C. 104. Their first endowment with land 363 Rapid increase of the temple estates . 364 Their possessions and their vow of poverty reconciled .... 364 Acquire the compulsory labour of temple-tenants .... 365 Impulse thus given to cultivation . 365 And to the construction of enormous tanks' 365 Tanks conferred on the temples . 365 The great tank of Minery formed, A.n.272 365 Subserviency of the kings to the priesthood 366 Large possessions of the temples at the present day • . . . . 366 Cultivation of flowers for the temples 367 Their singular profusion . . . 367 Fruit trees planted by the Buddhist sovereigns 367 Edicts of Asoca. . 368 CONTENTS OF CHAP. VII. FATE OF TUB ABORIGINES. Page Aborigines forced to labour for the new settlers 369 Immensity of the structures erected by them 370 Slow amalgamation of the natives with the strangers .... 370 The worship of snakes and demons continued 370 Treatment of the aborigines by the kings 371 Their formal disqualification for high office 371 Their rebellions 371 They retire into the mountains and forests 372 Their singular habits of seclusion . 372 Traces of their customs at the present day 373 CHAP. VIII. EXTINCTION OF THE GREAT DYNASTY. B.C. 104. Walagam-bahu 1. . . 374 His wars with the Malabars . . 374 The South of Ceylon free from Malabar invasion 374 The Buddhist doctrines first collected into books The formation of rock-temples . Apostaey of Chora Naga . Ceylon governed by queens Schisms in religion .... Buddhism tolerant of heresy but in-- tolerant of schism .... Illustrations of Buddhist toleration . Tolerance enjoined by Asoca . The Wytulian heresy Corruption of Buddhism by the impu- rities of Brahraanism A.D. 275. Recantation and repentance of King Maha Sen . . . ij»0 End of the Solar race . . .381 State of Ceylon at that period . . 381 Prosperity of the North . . . 381 Description of Anarajapoora in the fourth century .... 382 Its municipal organisation . . 382 Its palaces and temples . . . 382 Popular error as to the area of the city Multitudes of the priesthood described by Fa Hian 384 CHAP. IX. KINGS OF THE LOWER DYNASTY. Sovereigns of the Lower Dynasty, a feeble race 335 Kings who were sculptors, physicians' and poets . . . . . 38c Earliest notice of Foreign Embassies to Rome and to China . . .337 Notices of Ceylon by Chinese Histo- rians 387 Fa Hian visits Ceylon A.D. 413 . 387 Anecdote related by Fa Hian (note) 388 History of " the Sacred Tooth " . 388 Murder of the king Dhatu Sena, A D 459 389 Infamous conduct of his son . . 391 The fortified rock Sigiri . . . 392 CHAP. X. DOMINATION OF THE MALABARS. Origin of the Malabar invaders of Ceylon 395 The ancient Indian kingdom of Pan- dja 395 Malabar mercenaries enlisted in Cey- lon 395 B.C. 237. Revolt of Sena and Gutika 395 B.C. 205. Usurpation of Elala . . 396 B.C. 103. Second Malabar invasion . 396 A.D. 110. Third Malabar invasion . 396 Jewish evidence of Malabar con- quest .... (note) 396 A.D 433. Fourth Malabar invasion . 397 The influence of the Malabars firmly established ....". 398 Distress of the Singhalese in the 7th century, as described by Hiouen Thsang ...... 399 A.D. 642. Anarajapoora deserted, and Pollanarrua built .... 400 The Malabars did nothing to improve the island . . . . .401 A.D. 840. A fresh Malabar invasion . 401 The Singhalese seek to conciliate them by alliances .... 402 A.D. 990. Another Malabar invasion . 402 Extreme misery of the island . . 402 A.D. 1023. The Malabars seize Polla- narrua and occupy the entire north of the island ..... 403 CHAP. XI. THE REIGN OF PRAKRAMA BAHU. A.D. 1071. Recovery of the island from the Malabars . . . 404 Wijayo Bahu I. expels the Malabars 405 Birth of the Prince Prakrama . . 405 His character and renown . . . 405 Immense public works constructed by him ...... 406 Restores the order of the Buddhist priesthood ..... 495 Intercourse between Siam and Ceylon 406 lemples and sacred edifices built by Prakrama ..... 407 The Gal-Wihara at Pollanarrua . 407 . 408 Rums of Pollanarrua .. Extraordinary extent of hi for irrigation Foreign wars of Prakrama His conquests in India . The death of Prakrama Bahu 409 . 409 . 410 . 410 THE FIRST VOLUME. XI CHAP. XII. FATE OF THE SINGHALESE MONARCHY. ARRIVAL OF THE PORTUGUESE. A.D. 1505. Page Prakrama Bahu, the last powerful king 411 Anarchy follows on his decease . . 411 A.D. 1197. The Queen Leela-Wattee 412 A.D. 1211. Beturn of the Malabar invaders ..... 412 The Malabars establish themselves at Jaffna . *_ . . . .413 ! Page Early history of Jaffna . . . 413 A.D. 1235. The new capital at Dain- bedenia 413 Extending ruin of Ceylon . .414 Kandy founded as a new capital . 41 4 Successive removals of the seat of Government to Yapahoo, Korne- galle, Gampola, Kandy, and Cotta 415 Ascendancy of the Malabars . .415 A.D. 1410. The King of Ceylon car- ried captive to China . . . 416 Ceylon tributary to China . . .417 Arrival .of the Portuguese in Ceylon . 418 PART IV. SCIENCES AND SOCIAL AKTS. CHAPTER I. POPULATION, CASTE, SLAVERY, AND RAJA -KARIYA. Population encouraged by the fertility of Ceylon 421 Evidence of its former extent in the ruins of the tanks and canals . . 422 Means by which the population was preserved 423 Causes of its dispersion — the ruin of the tanks 424 Domestic life similar to that of the Hindus 425 Eespect shown to females . . . 425 Caste perpetuated in defiance of reli- gious prohibition .... 425 Particulars in which caste in Ceylon differs from caste in India . . 425 Slavery, borrowed from Hindustan . 425 Compulsory labour or " Raja-kariya '' 4*26 Mode of enforcing it . . . .427 CHAP. II. AGRICULTURE, IRRIGATION, CATTLE, AND CROPS. Agriculture unknown before the ar- rival of Wijayo . . . .429 Kice was imported into Ceylon in the second century B.C. . . . 429 The practice of irrigation due to the Hindu kings 430 Who taught the science of irriga- tion to the Singhalese . (note) 430 The first tank constructed B.C. 504 . 431 Gardens and fruit-trees first planted 432 Value of artificial irrigation in the north of Ceylon .... 432 In tl.e south of the island the rains sustain cultivation . . . 432 Two harvests in the year in the south of Ceylon 432 In the north, where rains are uncer- tain, tanks indispensable . . 432 Irrigation the occupation of kings . 434 The municipal village-system of cul- tivation 434 "Assoedamising " of rice lands in the mountains 434 Temple villages and their tenure . 434 Farm-stock buffaloes and cows . . 435 A Singhalese garden described . . 435 Coco-nut palm rarely mentioned in early writings .... 436 Doubt whether it be indigenous to Ceylon 436 The Mango and other fruits . . 437 Rice and curry mentioned in the second century B.C. . . . 437 Animal food used by the early Sin- ghalese 438 Betel, antiquity of the custom of chewing it 438 Intoxicating liquors known at an early period 439 CHAP. III. KARLY COMMERCE, SHIPPING, AND PRO- DUCTIONS. Trade entirely in the hands of stran- gers 440 Native shipping unconnected with commerce 440 Same indifference to trade prevails at this day 441 Singhalese boats all copied from fo- reign models 442 All sewn together and without iron . 442 Romance of the " Loadstone Island ' 443 The legend believed by Greeks and the Chinese . . 443 Xll CONTENTS OF Page Vessels with two prows mentioned by Strabo 444 Foreign trade spoken of B.C. 204 . 444 Internal traffic in the ancient city of Ceylon 445 Merchants traversing the island . 445 Early exports from Ceylon, — gems, pearls, &c 445 The imports, chiefly manufactures . 446 Horses and carriages imported from India 447 Cloth, silk, &c., brought from Persia 447 Kashmir, intercourse with . . . 447 Edrisi's account of Ceylon trade in the twelfth century . . .448 CHAP. IV. MANUFACTURES. Silk not produced in Ceylon . . 450 Coir and cordage .... 450 Dress ; unshaped robes . . . 450 Manual and Mechanical Arts— Weav- ing 451 Priest's robes spun, woven, and dved in a day 452 Peculiar mode of cutting out a priest's robe 452 Bleaching and dyeing . . . 452 Earliest artisans, immigrants . . 452 Handicrafts looked down on . . 453 Pottery 453 Glass 454 Glass mirrors 454 leather 454 Wood carving 454 Chemical Arts — Sugar . . . 455 Mineral paints 455 CHAP. V. WORKING IN METALS. Early knowledge of the use of iron . 457 Steel 457 Copper and its uses .... 457 Bells, bronze, lead . . . .458 Gold and silver 458 Plate and silver ware . . , 458 Red coral found at Galle . (note) 459 Jewelry and mounted gems . . 459 Gilding.— Coin 460 Coins mentioned in the Mahawanso n. 460 Meaning of the term " raassa" (note) 4GO Coins of Lokiswaira . . . .461 General device of Singhalese coins . 461 Indian coinage of Prakrama Bahu . 462 Fish-hook money .... 463 CHAP. VI. ENGINEERING. Engineering taught by the Brah- mans 454 Rude methods of labour . . . 404 Military engineering unknown . .' 465 Early attempts at fortification . . 465 Fortified rock of Sigiri . . .405 Forests, their real security Thorns planted as defences Bridges and ferries Page . 468 . 469 . 466 . 460 Method of tying cut stone in forming tanks 467 Tank sluices 457 Defective construction of these reser- voirs 467 The art of engineering lost . . 468 The " Giants' Tank" a failure An aqueduct formed, A. D. 66 CHAP. VII. THE FINE ARTS. Music, its early cultivation . . 470 Harsh character of Singhalese music 470 Tom-toms, their variety and anti- 0 quity 471 Singhalese gamut .... 472 Painting. — Imagination discouraged . 472 Similarity of Singhalese toEgyptian art 47-2 Rigid rules for religious design . 473 Similar trammels on art in Modern Greece . . . (note) 473 And in Italy in the 15th century (n.) 474 Celebrated Singhalese painters . 475 Sculpture.— Statues of Buddha . . 475 Built statues 477 Painted statues .... 477 Statues formed of gems . . . 477 Ivory and sandal-wood carved . 477 Architecture, its ruins exclusively re- ligious 478 Domestic architecture mean at all times 478 Stone quarried by wedges . . 478 Immense slabs thus prepared . 479 Columns at Anarajapoora . .479 Materials for building . . . 479 Mode of constructing a dagoba . 480 Enormous dimensions of these structures 480 Monasteries and wiharas . . 481 Palaces 482 Carvings in stone .... 483 Ubiquity of the honours shown to goose 484 Delicate outline of Singhalese carv- ings 488 Temples and their decorations . 488 Cave temples of Ceylon . . . 489 The Alu-wihara .... 489 Moulding in plaster . . . 489 Claim of the Singhalese to the in- vention of oil painting . .490 Lacquer ware of the present day . 490 Honey-suckle ornament . . . 491 CHAP. VIII. SOCIAL LIFE. Ancient cities and their organisation 493 ublic buildings, hospitals, shops . 493 Anarajapoora, as it appeared in 7th century . . .493 THE FIRST VOLUME. xiii /85 The description of it by Fa Hian Carriages and Horses . . . 495 Horses imported from Persia . . 495 Furniture of the houses . . . 496 Form of Government. — Kevenue . 497 The Army and Navv . . . 498 Mode of recruiting " . . . . 499 Arms. — Bows 499 Singular mode of drawing the bow with the foot . . . (note) 499 Civil Justice 500 CHAP. IX. SCIENCES. Education and schools . 501 502 503 504 504 505 Logic Astronomy and astrology . Medicine and surgery . King Buddha-dasa a physician Botany . . . " . (Geometry ...... 505 Lightning conductors . . . 506 Notice of a remarkable passage in the Mahawanso ..... 507 CHAP. X. SINGHALESE LITERATURE. The Pali language . . . .512 The temples the depositaries of learning ..... 512 Historiographers employed by the kings ..."... 512 Ola books, how prepared . .513 A stile, and the mode of writing with it ..... 513 Books on plates of metal (note) 513 Differences between Elu and Sing- halese ...... 513 Pali works : Grammar ..... 514 Hardy's list of Singhalese books (note) 515 Pali books all written in verse . 615 The Pittakas ..... 515 The Jatahas— resemble the Talmud 516 Pali literature generally . .516 The Milinda-prasna . . . 516 Pali historical books and their cha- racter ..... 517 The Mahawanso .... 517 Scriptural coincidences in Pali books .... (note) 518 Page Sanskrit works : Principally on science and medi- cine 520 Elu and Singhalese works : Low tone of the popular literature 520 Chiefly ballads and metrical essays 521 Exempt from licentiousness . . 521 Sacred poems in honour of Hindu gods 521 General literature of the people . 522 CHAP. XI. BUDDHISM AND DEMON -WORSHIP. Buddhism as it exists in Ceylon . 523 Which was the more ancient, Brah- manism or Buddhism . . . 523 Various authorities . . (note) 523 Buddhism, its extreme antiquit}' . 524 Its prodigious influence . . . 524 Sought to be identified with the Druids .... (note) 524 Buddhism an agent of civilisation . 525 Its features in Ceylon . . . 526 The various forms elsewhere . . 527 Points that distinguish it from Brah- manism ...... 528 Buddhist theory of human perfection 528 Its treatment of caste . . .530 Its respect for other religions . . 530 Anecdote, illustrative of . (note) 530 Its cosmogony 531 Its doctrine of " necessity " . . . 532 Transmigration ..... 533 Illustration from Lucan . (note) 533 The priesthood and its attributes . 534 Buddhist morals .... 534 Prohibition to take life . . . 53 1 Form of worship .... 535 Brahmanical corruptions . . . 536 Failure of Buddhism as a sustaining faith 537 Its moral influence over the people . 538 Demon-worship 539 Trees dedicated to demons (note) 540 Devil priests and their orgies . . 541 Ascendency of these superstitions . 542 Buddhism as an obstacle to Chris- tianity 543 Difficulties presented by the morals of Buddhism 544 Prohibition against taking away life (note) 544 PART V. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. CHAPTER I. CEYLON AS KNOWN TO THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. First heard of by the companions of Alexander the Great . . .549 Various ancient names of Ceylon (note) 549 Early doubts whether it was an island or a continent .... 550 Mentioned by Aristotle . . . 550 XIV CONTENTS OF Page Alleged mention of Ceylon in the Sa- maritan Pentateuch . (.note") 551 Onesicritus's account . . • 5o2 Megasthenes' description . . . 5o2 ^Elian's account borrowed from Me- gasthenes . . . («»/«<* 318 Map of Ancient India LASSEN .... 330 Position of Colombo, according to Ptolemy . SIR J. EMKRSON TENNENT 559 Ceylon, according to Ptolemy and Pliny . . SIR J. EMERSON TENNENT to face 560 PLANS AND CHARTS. Page Geological System By 12 Currents in the N. E. Monsoon 43 Currents in the N. W. Monsoon ' ! .' • 4 Diagram of Rain in India and in Ceylon . . DR. TEMPLETON . . .66 Diagram of the Anthelia DR. TEMPLETON . . .73 Plan of a Fish -corral 211 Summit of a Dagoba, with Lightning apparatus 509 WOOD ENGRAVINGS. Marriage of the Fig-tree and the Palm . . By MR. A. NICHOLL . . .96 Fig-tree on the Ruins of Pollanarrua . , MR. A. NICHOLL . . .97 The "Snake-tree" MR. A. NICHOLL . . .98 The Loris M. H. SYLVAT . . . .134 The Uropeltis grandis M. H. SYLVAT .... 195 A Chironectes ... M. H. SYLVAT . . . 207 Method of Fishing in Pools .... From KNOX 210 The Anabas of the dry Tanks . . . . By DR. TKMPLETON . . .220 Eggs of the Leaf Insect M. H. SYLVAT .... 251 Cermatia DR. TEMPLETON . . .298 The Calling Crab 300 Eyes and Teeth of the Land Leech ... DR. TEMPLETON . . .302 Land Leeches DR. TEMPLETON . . 304 Upper and under Surfaces of the Hirudo sangui • sorba DR. TEMPLETON . . . 305 The Bo-tree at Anarajapoora . . MR. A. NICHOLL . . . 343 A Dagoba at Kandy . . . From a Photograph . . . 345 Ruins of the Brazen Palace . . . .By MR. A. NICHOLL . . .357 The Alu Wihara MR. A. NICHOLL . . .375 The fortified Rock of Sigiri .... MR. A. NICHOLL . . .392 Coin of Queen Leela-Wattee 412 Coin showing the Trisula 461 Hook-money 463 Ancient and Modern Tom-tom Beaters . . From the JOINVILLE MSS. . . 471 A Column from Anarajapoora 479 Sacred Goose from the Burmese Standard ! 485 Hansa, from the old Palace at Kandy 487 Honeysuckle Ornament From FERGUSSON'S Handbook of Architecture . . . .491 P'gyptian Yoke and Singhalese Pingo 497 Veddah drawing the Bow with his Foot . . By MR. R. MAC-DOWALL 490 Method of Writing with a Stile . . . MR. R. MACDOWALL 513 The "Comboy," as worn by both Sexes . . MR. A. FAIRFIELD . . 612 NOTICE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. THE improvements in the present impression consist in the intro- duction of new matter in numerous places, the careful revision and correction of the old, the re-engraving of some of the illus- trations, and the insertion of several hundreds of additional references in the Index. Since the first volume of the present Edition was printed, my attention has been called by Lieut-Colonel H. Aime Ouvry, who is about to proceed to Ceylon as Assistant Quartermaster-General, to a remarkable peculiarity in the Singhalese coins, one of which is engraved at p. 461, Vol. I. This is accompanied by an explanation by Mr. Vaux of the British Museum to the effect that the obverse represents "a rude standing figure of the JRaja holding the trisula in the left hand, and a flower in the right," and on the reverse " the same figure seated, the name in Nagari characters being placed beside the face." But Colonel Ouvry is of opinion that by inverting the coin some of the lines, which otherwise (perhaps intentionally) represent the rude outline of a human figure, resolve themselves into Arabic characters; which he considers give the date and place where the piece was struck, whilst the Deva-Nagari letters supply the name of the king. In Colonel Ouvry's opinion the legend on the reverse exhibits the Arabic sentence Jiil X-j *~» sunna sikha Lunkeh, " struck at Lanka in the year ; " while on the obverse, the word -b! " Lunkeh" is repeated, followed by what appears to be an Arabic numeral. VOL. I. * a xviii NOTICE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. Thus on each face of these coins there would seem to be two inscriptions, one in Nagari and a second in Arabic ; but each so placed as to become reversed, when the one above it is held upright. This fact, if established, acquires much significance in connexion with the great resort of Arabian merchants at that time to Ceylon, and it serves to explain the circumstance of one of these coins being engraved in Davy's Account of the Interior of Ceylon, on which the Nagari characters are turned upside down, but when reversed they form the name of Sm PRAKRAMA BAKU. J. EMERSON TENNENT. LONDON, March 1st, 1860. NOTICE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. THE gratifying reception with which the following pages have been honoured by the public and the press, has in no degree lessened my consciousness, that in a work so extended in its scope, and comprehending such a multiplicity of facts, errors are nearly unavoidable both as to conclusions and detail. These, so far as I became aware of them, I have endeavoured to correct in the present, as well as in previous impressions. But my principal reliance for the suggestion and supply both of amendments and omissions has been on the press and the public of Ce}^lon ; whose familiarity with the topics discussed naturally renders them the most competent* judges as to the mode in which I have treated them. My hope when the book was published in October last was, that before going again to press I should be in possession of such friendly communi- cations and criticisms from the island, as would have enabled me to render the second edition much more valuable than the pre- vious one. In this expectation I have been agreeably disappointed, the sale having been so rapid, as to require a fourth impression before it was possible to obtain from Ceylon judicious criticisms on the first. These in due time will doubtless arrive ; and mean- while, I have endeavoured, by careful revision, to render the whole as far as possible correct. J. EMERSON TENNENT. NOTICE THE THIRD EDITION. THE call for a third edition on the same day that the second was announced for publication, and within less than two months from the appearance of the first, has furnished a gratifying assurance of the interest which the public are disposed to take in the subject of the present work. Thus encouraged, I have felt it my duty to make several alterations in the present impression, amongst the most im- portant of which is the insertion of a Chapter on the doctrines of Buddhism as it developes itself in Ceylon.1 In the historical sections I had already given an account of its introduction by Mahindo, and of the establishments founded by successive sovereigns for its preservation and diffusion. To render the narrative complete, it was felt desirable to insert an abstract of the peculiar tenets of the Buddhists ; and this want it has been my object to supply. The sketch, it will be borne in mind, is confined to the principal features of what has been denominated Southern Buddhism " amongst the Singhalese ; as distin- guished from "Northern Buddhism" in Nepal, Thibet, and China.2 The latter has been largely illustrated by the labours 1 See Part IV., c. xi. 2 MAX MILLER, History of Sanskrit Literature, p. 262. a2 NOTICE TO THE THIRD EDITION. of Mr. B. H. HODGSON and the toilsome researches of the Transyl- vanian traveller M. CSOMA of Korros; and the minutest details of the doctrines and ceremonies of the former have been unfolded in the elaborate and comprehensive collections of Mr. SPENCE HARDY.1 From materials discovered by these and other earnest inquirers, Buddhism in its general aspect has been ably delineated in the dissertations of BuRNOUF2 and SAINT HILAIRES, and in the com- mentaries of REMUSAT4, STANISLAS JULIENS, FoucAux6, LASSEN7, and WEBER.S The portion thus added to the present edition has been to a great extent taken from a former work of mine on the local superstitions of Ceylon, and the " Introduction and Progress of Christianity" there; and as the section relating to Buddhism had the advantage, previous to publication, of being submitted to the Rev. Mr. GOGERLY, the most accom- plished Pali scholar in the island, as well as the most eru- dite student of Buddhistical literature, I submit it with confi- dence as an accurate summary of the distinctive views of the Singhalese on the leading doctrines of their national faith. A writer in the Saturday Review9, in alluding to the passage in which I have sought to establish the identity of the ancient Tarshish with the modern Point de Galle10, admits the force of the coincidence adduced, that the Hebrew terms for "ivory, apes, and peacocks"11 (the articles imported in the ships of Solomon) are identical with the Tamil names, by which 1 Eastern Monacltism, an account of the origin, laws, discipline, sacred •writings, mysterious rites, religious ceremonies, and present circum- stances of the Order of Mendicants, founded by Gotoma Budha. 8vo. Lond. 1850 ; and A Manual ofjiud- hism in its Modern Development. 8vo. Lond. 1853. * BuBtfoUF, Introduction a THis- toire du Bouddhisme Indian. 4to. Paris. 1845; and translation of the Lotus de la bonne Loi. 8 J.BAHXHELEMYSAINT-HILAIEE, Le Bouddha et sa Religion. 8vo. Paris. 1860. 4 Introduction and Notes to the Foe Koue Ki of FA HIAN. 5 Life and travels of HIOUEN THSANG. 6 Translation of Lalitavistdra by M. PH. ED. FOTJCATTX. 7 Author of the Indische Alter- thumskunde; &c. 8 Author of the Indische Studien; &c. 9 Novemb. 19, 1859, p. G12. 10 See Vol. II. Pt. vii.; c. i. p. 102. » 1 Kings, x. 22. NOTICE TO THE THIRD EDITION. XXI these objects are known in Ceylon to the present day ; and, to strengthen my argument on this point, he adds that, "these terms were so entirely foreign and alien from the common Hebrew language as to have driven the Ptolemaist authors of the Septuagint version into a blunder, by which the ivory, apes, and peacocks come out as * hewn and carven stones.'' " The circumstance adverted to had not escaped my notice; but I forebore to avail myself of it; for, although the fact is accurately stated by the reviewer, so far as regards the Vatican MS., in which the translators have slurred over the passage and converted " D^n^ D'$>p and D'?3Fi " into " \tdwv TO- psvrwv KOL TrsXsKrjrfov " (literally, " stones hammered and carved in relief"); still, in the other great MS. of the Septuagint, the Codex Alexandrinus, which is of equal antiquity, the pas- sage is correctly rendered by OAONTW €A€ANTINU)N KAI niGHKWN KAI TAWNWN. The editor of the Aldine edition1 compromised the matter by inserting "the ivory and apes," and excluding the " peacocks," in order to introduce the Vatican reading of "stones."2 I have not com- pared the Complutensian and other later versions. The Kev. Dr. CUBETON, of the British Museum, who, at my request, collated the passage in the Chaldee and Syriac versions, assures me that in both, the terms in question bear the closest resemblance to the Tamil words found in the Hebrew ; and that in each and all of them these are of foreign importation. J. EMERSON TENNENT. LONDON .- November 28th, 1859. 1 Venice, 1518. 2 Kai oSovruJv iKftpavTivuiv ical irtOii- KUV *ai \iOwv. BASIA. TPI'I H. X. 22. It is to be observed, that Joseplius appears to have been equally embarrassed by the unfamiliar term D\'?ri for peacocks. He alludes to the voyages of Solomon's merchant- men to Tarshish, and says that they brought back from thence gold and silver, much ivory, apes, and ^Ethio- pians— thus substituting " slaves" VOL. i. *a 3 for pea-fowl — "icai iroXve i\'t